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HISTORY OF ENGLISH LITERATURE: AN OVERVIEW

Dear Students,

The purpose of this course is to encourage you to gain an insight into, and broad

awareness of, the development of English literature from its perceived origins in the

ninth century until the end of the nineteenth century. Attention will be paid not only to

influential writers and movements, but to themes such as the influence of Greek

mythology, religion, politics, and the rle of !reland. Some writers, poets and

playwrights considered are "angland, #haucer, $alory, $arlowe, Shakespeare, %ope,Swift, &ordsworth, 'eats, (yron and Dickens. ! apologise to the many superb but

deceased writers whom ! cannot include in this all too brief summary, and even to

those whom ! have included, for treating them somewhat summarily.

The course takes the form of a series of lectures, which form but the tip of the iceberg,

providing you with a door to your own research and study. )ou are encouraged to

share the results of your studies, helping not only your fellow students, but the

lecturer. &e are, after all, in the same boat, even if ! am at the helm. Evaluation will

be by unseen short written essays. ! shall provide some e*amples of e*amination

+uestions at the end of this hopefully helpful guide.

The course kicks off by considering English literatures fairly late entry into the world

of writing, a fact e*plained by the destruction of -oman (ritain by barbaric German

tribes, and a series of subse+uent invasions that made it difficult to standardise the

language and create highlevel writing until the late /ourteenth #entury. 0aturally,

once the area later to be known as England began to settle down during the reign of

Alfred, priests began to translate "atin te*ts into AngloSa*on12ld English.

#hurchmen had an advantage, since they were literate. Gildas, born around 344, wrote

The Destruction and Conquest of Britain in "atin, while (ede 5who died in 6738

wrote the Eclesiastical History of the English People, also in "atin. They cannot

therefore be included as writers using 2ld English e*clusively, although their works

were later translated into 2ld English. Although the story of (eowolf is the longest

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known epic poem in 2ld English, it is a Scandinavian tale dating from the Eighth

#entury.

English literature begins to define itself more clearly following the 0orman invasion,

which resulted in a minor transmogrification, with the importation of thousands of

/rench words. (y 9934, we can therefore identify the result, known as :$iddle

English. ;ere we have two superb works, one by the poorish priest, &illiam

"angland 5977<9=448, Vision of William concerning Piers the Ploughman, which is a

religious >ourney through morality, mentioning the seven Deadly Sins of sloth,

avarice, anger, gluttony, lust, envy and pride, concluding that it is better to be good

than rich. !n contrast, his counterpart, Geoffrey #haucer 597=79=448, was well off,

working in senior government and as a diplomat, going on various European trips. ;e

is said to have met %etrarch or (occaccio. #ertainly, his renowned Canterbury Tales

seems to betray elements of (occaccio in its earthiness and methodology. ;e wrote

several works, including Troilus and Cressida, and The Legend of ood Women.

The ne*t wellknown piece of work with which we deal is $allory?s 5c. 9=439=698

!orte d"#rthur , e*trapolated from old /rench and some English tales, and written in

early modern English. 2ne can truly say that it has been impregnated in the (ritish

national consciousness. $any scholars think that Arthur was a -omanised (riton who

fought against the German invaders. ;e probably was, but in the centuries of literary

#hinese &hispers since then, the tale has probably been considerably embellished.

(efore now moving into the Si*teenth #entury, let us mention that the invention of

printing, which was taken up by &illiam #a*ton in 9=6@, had a big impact on

literature, in that it became more widespread among the ordinary population. Edmund

Spensers 5933<938 $aerie %ueen is an e*ample. 0otwithstanding criticism that he

wrote it to gain favour with Bueen Elisabeth 5he was awarded some good positions8,

it is a thrilling piece of work, as the following showsC

:The steely head stucke fast till in his flesh,

Till with his cruell clawes he snatcht the wood,

And +uite asunder broke. /orth flowed fresh

A gushing river of blacke goarie blood,

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That drowned all the land, whereon he stood

The streame thereof would drive a watermill.

Spenser was educated at the $erchant Taylors School 5which my school, St. %auls,

founded in 934, used to beat at rugger8 and #ambridge, living most of his

professional life in !reland, where he was Secretary to the "ord Deputy. ;is home was

burnt down in the 93 rebellion, so at least some of his life was e*citing. 2ne is

inclined to wonder whether the #eltic throb of !reland influenced, and stimulated, his

writing.

And then of course we come to &illiam Shakespeare 593@=9@9@8, prolific writer of

plays and sonnets, son of a dealer in gloves and wool, who had his own theatre

company. ;e was well versed in the classics, having attended Stratford Grammar

School. !t was indeed the introduction of Grammar Schools during the reign of ;enry

F!!! that had stimulated literature and learning, as well as the influence of the

-enaissance, already visible in #haucer. #onsider this, from the !erchant of VeniceC

:All that glisters is not gold

2ften have you heard that toldC

$any a man his life hath sold

(ut my outside to beholdC

Gilded tombs do worms unfold.

Shakespeare, so very influenced by classical Greece and -ome 5as were many before

and after8 invented thousands of new words and phrases such as :tower of strength

and :assassination. !t was not until the German -omantics elevated him to an almost

godlike literary status that he was to become known worldwide. ;e has generated

controversy as well as fame. Samuel ohnson wroteC :Shakespeare is so much more

careful to please than to instruct that he seems to write without any moral purpose,

while the great Tolstoy wrote of :repulsion, weariness and bewilderment. Strangely,

no original work by Shakespeare is known to have survived. Some even think that he

may not have e*isted.

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#hristopher $arlowe 593@=9378 is hewn from the same literary stone as

Shakespeare, even having contributed to some of the latters plays. A sort of literary

version of #aravaggio, he was stabbed to death at the age of twenty nine, not long

after the issuing of an arrest warrant, possibly for blasphemy. !t is possible that, had

he lived longer, he would have been at least as well known as his homologue

Shakespeare. #onsider this, from his Dr& $austusC

:&as this the face that launched a thousand ships,

And burnt the topless towers of !liumH

Sweet ;elen, make me immortal with a kiss.

;er lips suck forth my soulC see where it fliesI

!t is not difficult to see why, with writers such as $arlowe and Shakespeare, the

Si*teenth #entury was that of the dramatists.

As we move on to the end of the Si*teenth #entury and into the Seventeenth, we

come to (en onson 5936<9@76 5not to be confused with Samuel ohnson8.Although

he was a pupil at &estminster School, he managed to be a bricklayer for a time, like

his father, as well as a soldier. ;e is best known for his masques, which induced a gay

atmosphere of humour, costume, dancing and music. Drama then went into decline,

owing to the rise of #romwellian %uritanism. !n the meantime, the essay had begun to

flourish as a literary form, in the guise of, inter alia, /rancis (acon 593@99@<@8, also

considered to be an early empiricist philosopher. Although this senior government

figure, awarded a lordship, was considered by some to be a bit of a toady, like

Spenser, he really was rather good. ;is most famous essay is The #d'ancement of

Learning . ;e seems to have believed that knowledge is power.

0ow we bring in Thomas ;obbes 5939@68, who studied at 2*ford. ;is most

wellknown epithet is that $ans life is solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short, and his

:"eviathan is a good treatise on political philosophy. ;e has been claimed,

unfortunately in my view, by many international relations theorists to have been a

promoter of political realism1power politics, when in fact his main interest was in how

to best run a country at national level. ;e was a true intellectual, translating

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Thucydides Peloponnesian Wars, and the (liad and )dyssey. "ike so many English

literary people, he was almost helplessly influenced by Greece.

&e now come to a spot of poetry 5although Shakespeares sonnets surely also +ualify

as such8. "et us sum up ohn Donne, an e*-oman #atholic, #ambridge man and

lawyer, 5936<9@798 with the followingC

:Tis time, :tis day what though it beH

2 wilt thou therefore rise from meH

&hy should we rise because :tis lightH

Did we lie down because :twas nightH

"ove, which in spite of darkness brought us hither,

Should despite of light keep us together.

Then along came the :#avalier poets, one of whom, -obert ;errick, wrote Counsel

to irlsC

:Gather ye rosebuds while ye may,

2ld time is still aflying.

And this same flower that smiles today

Tomorrow will be dying.

These gay and carefree chaps had a hard time during the #romwellian dictatorship.

2ld %auline poet ohn $ilton 59@49@6=8, a #ambridge man, thrice married, torn

between freedom and convention, is perhaps best known for Paradise Lost . "ike

many a wellheeled Englishman, he went on the :Grand Tour of Europe, even

meeting Galileo. ;is works are clearly influenced by Greece. "ike #haucer and

Spenser, he held senior positions, but was caught in the crossfire of %uritanism 5he

worked for 2liver #romwell8 and the -estoration. "et us sum up this sensitive and

perhaps tortured man with the closing words of one of his sonnets, in which he

describes a dream about one of his dead wivesC

:;er face was veild yet to my fancied sight

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"ove, sweetness, goodness, in her person shined

So clear, as in no face with more delight,

(ut ohI As to embrace me she inclined,

! waked J she fled J and day brought back my night.

;e clearly loved her and missed her.

)ou will probably have begun to see that there is often a relationship between

politicoreligious developments and literature. $ilton, for e*ample, was imprisoned

for a while at the -estoration, for having been close to the despised #romwell, while

the poet ohn Dryden 5&estminster and #ambridge8 also lost his stipend under

&illiam of 2range, for having converted to -oman #atholicism.

0ow we move to prose and the diary writers, the most famous of whom is Samuel

%epys 59@7796478, whose description of the /ire of "ondon in 9@@@, as well as life in

the Seventeenth #entury is realistic. (ut let us not forget ohn Evelyn, who wrote a

much longer diary.

0ow we come to a +uintessential English book, by !saac &alton 59379@78, The

Compleat #ngler , one of the best books about angling ever written. !t is somehow

about much more than angling, about the pleasures of leading a contemplative life, as

can be seen from its alternative title.

ohn (unyan 59@<9@8 was a very different kettleC the son of a tinker, he had a

meagre schooling, and learnt to write thanks mainly to the (ible. (ecause he was a bit

of a #hristian fundamentalist 5a (aptist8 and preacher, he was imprisoned for twelve

years at the -estoration. ;is most wellknown work is The Pilgrim"s Progress, full of

morality, but also humour.

So we now leave the Seventeenth #entury, and come to another of the giants of

English literature, onathan Swift 59@@696=38, born in Dublin of English parents, a

man influenced by religion, politics and !reland, and even women. ;e was a trained

priest, spending much of his life in !reland, ending up as a champion of freedom for

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!reland. ;e was a superb political satirist, making the political pamphlet almost an art

form. ;e is best known for ulli'er"s Tra'els, a scathing attack on political hypocrisy.

Edmund (urke 596<9668 is our ne*t choice. ;e was an important political

philosopher, and is considered to be the founder of English #onservatism. Although a

supporter of !rish and American independence, he turned against the /rench

-evolution, because of its e*cesses. ;is contemporary, Samuel ohnson 596496=8

was a professional writer 5he also married a rich widow8 and a witty man, writing for

e*ample, that he who made a beast of himself got rid of the pain of being a man.

Another very witty literary chap was Ale*ander %ope 59@96==8 who, as a -oman

#atholic, was not allowed to vote or hold public office. ;is best known work is the

poetic Essay on !an* a sensitively written moral tract on how $an should accept

Gods mysterious ways. As regards %opes pithiness, consider thisC

:A little learning is a dangrous thing

Drink deep, or taste not the %ierian Spring.

&e can see from this, that like so many writers, he was influenced by ancient Greece.

;e also translated the )dyssey.

"et us mention 5! wish that we had more space8 the group of poets known as the

:Transition %oets, such as ames Thompson, Thomas Grey, &illiam #ollins and

&illiam (lake. They tended to concentrate on 0ature and the metaphysical. As for the

amaKing Scotsman, -obert (urns, he is not easy to categorise, but certainly he was of

a -omantic bent, and usually wrote his poetry with Scottish pronunciation. Several of

his poems were used as lyrics for songs.

Drama was popularC the !rishman -ichard Sheridan 5963999@8, for e*ample, wrote

The +i'als, which includes a character by the name of $rs.$alaprop, who had

problems with finding the correct word. Thus today, :saying :alligator instead of

:allegory 5because one does not really knowI8 is a :malapropism.

The novel was now coming into being, the seeds having been sown by the likes of

(unyan and Swift. Daniel Defoes 59@@496798 +obinson Crusoe 5based on a true

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story, as are many novels8, about a castaway, is still very popular. ;e wrote various

other, more fictional, novels, as well as various pamphlets. ;e was also a >ournalist.

Another good novelist of the time was ;enry /ielding 5969496@8, with his

somewhat naughty and bawdy Tom ones, about a young servant being wooed by his

lady employer. !t is nevertheless a good reflection of life at the time.

The !ndustrial -evolution then began to make its social impact on the country.

/actories were being built, coal mine mines dug, and people dragooned into working

mechanically for hours on end, with a good deal of e*ploitation of women and

children. The socalled :%rotestant work ethic ran rampant. The Seven )ears &ar had

resulted in an enormous and e*panding (ritish Empire. /or many, greed became the

order of the day. !t is now that the -omantics came to the fore. -omanticism probably

has its origins in the ,turm und Drang movement, which was a reaction to the

e*cesses of the Enlightenment, with its overinterpreted #lassical forms, and the Age

of -eason, which lacked wild and free spirituality in its scientific, rational pedantry.

Some of the ideas behind the /rench -evolution helped. $ost of the (ritish

-omantics traveled in Europe, and were clearly heavily influenced by Greek

mythology. !n (ritain, it also manifested itself as a reaction to the greed of the

!ndustrial -evolution. &illiam &ordsworth 596649348 was surely one, but more

conservative and controlled in nature than some of his homologues, such as (yron.

;e was a #umbrian who loved nature, and a #ambridge man attracted by the ideas of

the /rench -evolution, who was good enough in his day to become %oet "aureate.

#onsider this 5if you feel like it8C

:She dwelt among the untrodden ways

(eside the springs of Dove

A maid who there were none to praise

And very few to love.

A violet by a mossy stone

;alf hidden from the eyeI

/air as a star, when only one

is shining in the sky.



She lived unknown, and few could know

&hen "ucy ceased to be

(ut she is in her grave, and, oh,

The difference to meI

&illiams friend, Samuel #oleridge 5966<97=8 was also rather good, and is best

known for The #ncient !ariner . ;ere is an e*tractC

:Day after day, day after day,

&e stuck, no breath nor motion

As idle as a painted ship

Lpon a painted ocean.

&ater, water everwhere,

And all the boards did shrink

&ater, water everywhere,

0or any drop to drink.

2ur ne*t three -omantics all died young, and not e*actly naturally, in their good time,

the fate of many a fast liver. ohn 'eats 59639<98 had women problems,

nevertheless +ualifying as what one would think would be a downtoearth 8

apothecarysurgeon. ;ere are two lines from )de to a -ightingaleC

:$y heart aches, and a drowsy numbness pains

$y sense, as though of hemlock ! had drunk.

The poem is laden with references to Greek things. ;e is also wellknown for )de to

a recian .rn. ;is father died when falling off a horse when 'eats was eight, and his

mother when he was fourteen.

%ercy Shelley 596<9<<8, who supported freedom for the !rish, managed to struggle

on until he was thirty, then drowning in a sailing accident in !taly. "ike several

-omantics, he left the J for them J intellectually stifling shores of England for !taly.



;e had various colourful relationships with women 5one of whom drowned herself8.

;ere are two of his linesC

: Drive my dead thoughts over the universe

"ike withered leaves to +uicken a new birthI

And so we come to "ord (yron 5969<=8, educated at ;arrow and #ambridge. ;e

was the epitomy of freedom, a scourge of the hypocritical part of the English

Establishment, and was loved more in Europe than England. ;e found England too

insular and was an embarrassment to bigots and the smallminded. "eading a very

colourful life with women, he divorced, but managed to sire a daughter. 'nown for,

inter alia, Childe Harold"s Pilgrimage, and Don /uan, some of his scintillating lines

areC

:! stood in Fenice, on the (ridge of Sighs,

A palace and a prison on each handC

! saw from out the wave her structures rise

As from the stroke of the enchanters wandC

A thousand years their cloudy wings e*pand

Around me, and a dying glory smiles.

Apart from infuriating the English Establishment with an attack on the barbaric

removal of the :Elgin $arbles from the %arthenon 5see The Curse of !iner'a8, he

died of a violent fever fighting for Greek independence. !t was not until 9@ that his

remains were buried in %oets #orner of &estminster, an e*ample of considerable

pettiness on the part of the tawdry part of the Establishment.

)ou may by now have noticed that no females have been mentioned. This is because

women do not appear to have been that hot at writing, for many socioeconomic

reasons. $ind you, let us not forget the inimitable SapphoI ane Austin 596639968

is surely one of the greatest English writers, with her Pride and Pre0udice, ,ense and

,ensibility* Emma* !ansfield Par1* and Persuasion& ;er e*pertise was in handling

rough and passionate topics, usually about relationships between men and women in

94



the higher classes, with tact and delicacy. ! think that she managed to combine

precision with lightness, a rare gift. Pride and Pre0udice beginsC

:!t is a truth universally acknowledged that a single man in possession of a good

fortune must be in want of a wife.

;owever little known the feelings or views of such a man may be on his first

entering a neighbourhood, the truth is so well fi*ed in the minds of the surrounding

families, that he is considered as the rightful property of some or other of their

daughters.

The (ronte sisters, #harlotte 599@9338, Emily 5999= and Anne 59<49=8

were influenced by (yron, and managed to slightly shock the Establishment, with

their passionate descriptive writing about, inter alia, love affairs. #harlotte is best

known for /ane Eyre, Emily for Wuthering Heights, and Anne for #gnes rey. They

were veritable pacesetters, since there are today a number of female writers who

concentrate on stories of romances, albeit not at the same high literary level as the

three sisters.

$oving well into the Fictorian Age, we come to 5"ord8 Alfred Tennyson, famous for

his epic The Charge of the Light Brigade, a depiction of a bad military decision in the

#rimean war. ;ere is an e*tractC

:#annon to right of them,

#annon to left of them,

#annon in front of them

Folleyed and thundered

Stormed at with shot and shell,

!nto the >aws of death,

!nto the mouth of hell

-ode the si* hundred.

&e begin to end this overview with a monument, #harles Dickens 599<9648, an

amaKing fellow, who even spent some time when a boy in the workhouse, while his

father was in debtors gaol. The e*perience left a lasting impression, and he was most

99



critical of the affects of the !ndustrial -evolution. "ike many writers of the day, his

novels were often serialiKed in cheap magaKines, which meant a wide readership. ;e

was an e*pert in description, especially of people. George 2rwell was to write that he

seemed to have succeeded in attacking everybody and antagoniKing nobody. !t could

be that his sometimes humorous approach helped. ;e did however irritate the

Americans with his American 0otes and $artin #huKKlewit, by mentioning their

lawlessness and rapacity. ;e was a prolific writerC who has not heard of )li'er T2ist*

reat E3pectations* Da'id Copperfield and # Tale of T2o CitiesH #onsider this

e*tract, from Hard TimesC

:!t was a town of red brick, or of brick that would have been red if the smoke and

ashes had allowed it but as matters stood, it was a town of unnatural red and black

like the painted face of a savage. !t was a town of machinery and tall chimneys, out of

which interminable serpents of smoke trailed themselves for ever and ever, and never

got uncoiled.

%enultimately, we have -udyard 'ipling 59@397@8, of /ungle Boo1 fame. !t is he

who spoke of :the &hite $ans burden 5meaning black and maybe brown people8,

thus attracting accusations of racism many years later. (ut thats the way it was in

those days when (ritain was on top of the world, and when various rational types,

such as (uffon and Darwin, had rather strongly suggested that black chaps were

inferior to white ones. ! am unsure as to their views on whether the same applied to

women.

&e end with the :%re-aphaelites, a group of writers led by the Anglicised !talian

Dante Gabriel -ossetti 59<9<8, influenced by early Si*teenth #entury !talian

painting and literature.

That, students, is the end of our brief glimpse at the history of English "iterature.

#learly, knowing about developments in (ritain throughout the period with which we

have dealt will help you to see the relationship between political, religious, social and

cultural life. $y Britain4 Country and Culture courses should help there. 2ne thing to

remember is that the vast ma>ority of writers read other writers, and that in a sense

they are often influenced, perhaps without realising it.

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(eware of overcategorisationC if we escape from it, we may spot traces of

romanticism far earlier than the main movement beganC :! walked along a stream for

pureness rare, wrote $arlowe, while Donne wroteC :A teardrop that encompasses and

drowns the world.

Typical +uestions from my past e*amination papers have beenC

: MEnglish "iterature of the Si*teenth to 0ineteenth #enturies cannot be understood

e*cept in the light of Greek mythology.N E*plain this contention.

:&hat, in your view, were the chief characteristics of the -omantics, and why did

they have such characteristicsH

:&hat do you think influenced onathan Swifts workH

:&as "ord (yron the same kind of -omantic as &ordsworthH

!t goes without saying, almost, that merely learning the above few pages, parrot

fashion, will not be sufficient to pass the e*aminationC they represent only a skeletal

outline. ! shall immediately see through any e*amination paper that appears to rely

only on this brief guide. $ost marks will be awarded for evidence of originality and

thinking, as well as of knowledge. ;ave funI

)ours faithfully,

&illiam $allinson

< 2ctober <499, in the year of our "ord.

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English literature

The literature of England is one of the highest achievements of a great nation. !t

should not, however, be read simply as a national e*pression. !t is a body of

significant statements about abiding human concerns. The language in which it is

written has evolved over hundreds of years and is still changing. Several nations,

including #anada, the Lnited States, and Australia, are indebted to England for a

literary heritage.

2ld English "iterature

The beginnings of English literature appeared in the 6th or th century AD. After the

-omans withdrew their troops from (ritain in =94, there followed a long period of

social unrest, war, and turbulensce. The (ritons were forced to defend themselves

alone against %icts and Scots from Scotland. Then the Angles, Sa*ons, and utes came

from the European continent. They plundered city after city. !f these invaders left any

literature, none of it has survived. (y the middle of the @th century the (ritons had

been pushed to the western borders of England, where they set up small tribal

governments. &hen this society became established, English literature began.

!n 36 %ope Gregory ! sent Augustine to convert the (ritish to #hristianity. ;e

established a (enedictine abbey at #anterbury as the seat of his diocese. This became

the center of learning and scholarship of all &estern Europe.

Early &orks of Scholarship

(ede the Fenerable, a monk, was the greatest AngloSa*on scholar. ;is beautifully

written ;istoria ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum 5Ecclesiastical ;istory of the English

%eople8 is a monumental account of his times. 5See also (ede the Fenerable.8

Another monk, Alcuin, was probably the most learned man in the Europe of his time.

;e was a liturgical reformer and was largely responsible for the revival of "atin

scripts under #harlemagne. Alfred the Great made contributions to this already rich

literature by writing in the native tongue and encouraging scholarly translations from

"atin into 2ld English 5AngloSa*on8.

Alfred translated some "atin te*ts himself into the tongue of the &est Sa*ons and it

was under him, probably, that the AngloSa*on #hronicle was begun. This history of

9=



the chief events of each year is of prime importance to historians. Lnder Alfred,

(ede?s ;istoria ecclesiastica also was translated from the "atin, so that the people

could study their past. 5See also Alfred the Great.8

2ld English %oetry

(eowulf, the most notable e*ample of the earliest English poetry, is an odd blend of

#hristianity and paganism. 2ld English, the language of (eowulf, is the source of

modern English. Although 2ld English differed greatly from the language of today,

much of the vigor and precision of modern English comes from the many Anglo

Sa*on forms still used. The older language was a highly inflectional one that is, it

had many case endings for the nouns, pronouns, and ad>ectives and a comple* system

of verbs. !t resembled modern German in grammar and in much of its vocabulary as

well.

The story of (eowulf takes place in lands other than England, but the customs and

manners described were those of the AngloSa*on people. This epic poem describes

their heroic past. !t tells of (eowulf?s three fierce fightsOwith the monster Grendel,

the e+ually ferocious mother of Grendel, and the fiery dragon. (y con+uering them,

(eowulf saves his people from destruction. 5See also (eowulf.8

The versification of (eowulf is highly stressed, with the strong beats falling upon

syllables that alliterateO5that is, which repeat the same sound8. These lines illustrate

this forceful techni+ueC

"onely and waste is the land they inhabit,

&olfcliffs wild and windy headlands.

$uch of 2ld English poetry, such as The (attle of (runanburg and The (attle of

$aldon, is heroic and martial. The &anderer and The Sea/arer have a sad and

pleasing lyric +uality.

2nly two 2ld English poets are known by name. #aedmon was an unlearned cowherd

5see #aedmon8. According to legend, he was inspired by a vision and miraculously

ac+uired the gift of poetic song. Lnfortunately, only nine lines by this first known

poet survive. The second known poet was #ynewulf. "ittle is known of him e*cept

that he signed his poems in a kind of cypher, or anagram, made up of ancient figures

called runes 5an alphabet used by early Germanic tribes preceding the use of the

-oman alphabet in England8. ;is poems, such as #hrist, deal with religious sub>ects.

93



$iddle English "iterature

!n the battle of ;astings, fought on 2ct. 9=, 94@@, ;arold !!, last of the AngloSa*on

kings, was killed 5see ;astings, battle of8. &illiam the #on+ueror then assumed the

kingship. After subduing vicious resistance, he established a rule that was almost

entirely 0orman/rench. The 0orman con+uest greatly changed English life. All

positions of power were filled by /renchmen. 2ver all the old English vigor was

imposed this foreign culture.

The 2ld English language went untaught and was spoken only by MunletteredN people.

The language of the nobility and of the lawcourts was 0orman/rench the language

of the scholars was "atin. This situation lasted for nearly 744 years. During this

period the 2ld English language changed. !ts old case endings broke down, and the

grammar became +uite simple. AngloSa*on words were lost, and /rench words were

added. The strong, crude iron of the 2ld English language was being slowly shaped

into the fle*ible steel of presentday English.

The cult of chivalry came into being, fed by the great #rusades. The tales of 'ing

Arthur and his -ound Table were a result of this movement. Education flourished, and

the first universities, 2*ford and #ambridge, were founded in the 9<th century.

During these 744 years there was little literature in the changing English language.

The few lyrics 5Sumer is icumen in, Alysoun, 9744H8 and other works 52rmulum,

9<44H "ayamon?s (rut, 9<43H8 have a small interest.

The $iddle English period also marked the beginning of a native English drama,

which was at first closely associated with the church. About 44 the antiphonal chant

MBuem +uaeritis in sepulchre, o #hristocolaeHN was first used preceding the !ntroit of

the $ass. 2ther dramatic additions were made to the sacred offices, and soon

dialogue between individual members of the choir was added in celebrations of

certain feast days. /inally, miniature dramas developed. !n time these little plays 5or

tropes8, becoming more secular, were moved outdoors. 5See also drama.8

The early cycles of miracle and mystery plays possibly began as celebrations of

traditional religious feasts and fasts. !n any case, by the end of the 9=th century the

observances of certain festivalsOfor e*ample, #orpus #hristiOregularly involved

pageants. These plays were staged in larger towns, such as )ork, &akefield, and

9@



#hester, on wagons that were moved from place to place in a procession, perhaps

chronological, of events. 5See also miracle play.8

!n addition to mystery and miracle plays, morality plays were also popular at the end

of the $iddle English period. They usually personified such abstractions as ;ealth,

Death, or the Seven Deadly Sins and offered practical instruction in morality.

#haucer ;eralds a 0ew "iterature

(y the end of the 9=th century the language 5in its altered form called $iddle

English8 was being used by nobles as well as commoners. !n 97@< it became the

language of lawcourt pleadings, and by 973 it was widely taught in place of /rench.

$ost of the great literature of the time was written from 97@4 to 9=44, a good part of

it by one man, Geoffrey #haucer. #haucer was one of the world?s greatest storytellers.

;is #anterbury Tales is a masterpiece, with characters who remain eternally aliveO

the &ife of (ath, with her memories of five husbands the noble 'night, returned

from heroic deeds his gay young son, the S+uire 5M;e was as fressh as is the month

of $ayN8 the delightful %rioress 5MAt mete PmeatQ wel ytaught was she with alle1 She

leet PletQ no morsel from hir lippes falle.N8 and entertaining scoundrels, such as the

/riar, Summoner, and %ardoner. 5See also #haucer.8

At the same time as #haucer, another man was writing in the northern part of

England. ;e is known as the %earl %oet, from the name of one of his four poems in an

old manuscript. Generally he is remembered for his narrative poem Sir Gawain and

the Green 'night.

There are a number of poems about Sir Gawain 5>ust as there are about Sir "ancelot,

Sir %erceval, and 'ing Arthur8, but this is the best. Lnfortunately, it is written in the

"ancashire dialect and is almost as difficult to read as 2ld English. #haucer may be

read with a little study because the $idland dialect in which he wrote became the

standard one for English writing. Even in translation, however, Sir Gawain and the

Green 'night is fascinating.

Another poet contemporary with #haucer was &illiam "angland, a figure almost as

shadowy as the %earl %oet. ;is masterpiece, also in a somewhat difficult dialect, is

The Fision of %iers %lowman. !t consists of a series of dreamvisions in which human

life passes in review. "angland wrote with power and sincerity. ;e attacked the social

ills of his time, rebuked evildoers, and urged men to Mlearn to love.N

96



"egends and (allads

/or nearly <44 years after the death of #haucer there were almost no great literary

works produced in England. 2ne noteworthy e*ception is "e $orte d?Arthur, by Sir

Thomas $alory. $alory made up this great collection of stories about 'ing Arthur

and his knights of the -ound Table from the Arthurian legends circulating in /rench

plus the English romances about the knights. "e $orte d?Arthur was the main source

for later retellings of the stories. 5See also $alory, Thomas.8

Another outstanding literary achievement of the times was the creation of the great

English and Scottish ballads. These were probably sung by people at social

gatherings. The ballads preserved the local events and beliefs and characters in an

easily remembered form. !t was not until several hundred years later that people began

to write down these ballads. They are immensely vivid stories that modern readers

find especially attractive. Three familiar ballads are The &ife of Lsher?s &ell, about

her three ghost sons Sir %atrick Spens, concerning his death by drowning and

Edward, about his murderous revenge.

The -enaissance in English "iterature

During the 93th century an intellectual movement called the -enaissance swept

&estern Europe. The word means MrebirthN and refers especially to the revival of

ancient Greek learning. /or centuries scholars in !taly, Spain, and elsewhere had been

translating the ancient works into "atin. %rinting from movable type, invented about

9=34, provided the means for circulating the books widely. This spread of ancient

learning kindled a new spirit of in+uiry and hastened the overthrow of feudal

institutions. 5See also -enaissance.8

Some modern scholars have +uestioned whether a total rebirth of learning actually

took place. There had been, for e*ample, "atin scholars in the earlier medieval period.

!t is certain, however, that something did happen in the course of the 93th century that

changed the history of &estern civiliKation and the set of people?s minds.

/or England, the year 9=3 is a convenient date for marking this change from

medievalism. !n that year two significant events took placeC the &ars of the -oses

ended on (osworth /ield and &illiam #a*ton printed $alory?s "e $orte d?Arthur.

9



The printing of "e $orte d?Arthur was a radical departure from the past. (efore

#a*ton established his first press in England, ohann Gutenberg and his partners had

printed the (ible, in about 9=33, in Germany, and printers were at work in several

other European countries before the end of the 93th century. #a*ton, however, turned

to his native language rather than to "atin for his te*t. ;is first printed book was The

-ecuyell of the ;istoryes of Troye 59=638, which he translated.

(efore the end of the century he printed several more books in English, including

#haucer?s #anterbury Tales 59=68. The number of presses +uickly increased in

England, and with them, of course, the number of printed books.

!n England the -enaissance coincided roughly with the reigns of the Tudor rulers

;enry F!!!, Edward F!, $ary !, and EliKabeth !. Lnder EliKabeth?s brilliant rule

England became a world power.

English -enaissance %oets

The three great poetic geniuses of EliKabethan times were #hristopher $arlowe,

Edmund Spenser, and &illiam Shakespeare. All were typical -enaissance men,

trained in the classics, fond of fine living, full of restless energy and a Kest for ideas.

&riting was a social fashion of this time, a pastime en>oyed by the nobles as well as

by men of lower stations. ;enry ;oward, earl of Surrey, and Sir Thomas &yatt are

two striking instances of a talent for poetry e*isting in men of affairs. Although active

in England?s service, in their short lives the two became familiar with /rench and

!talian verse forms. They adapted the !talian sonnet for English use, and Surrey

introduced blank verse in his translation of the Aeneid.

A third nobleman with a talent for writing was Sir %hilip Sidney. ;e wrote a beautiful

sonnet series, Astrophel and Stella 59398, and produced a tremendously long and

somewhat tedious novel called Arcadia 59348. These men wrote only for amusement,

but they also gave money and encouragement to poor, struggling writers. 5See also

Sidney, %hilip.8

Spenser and $arlowe

Edmund Spenser, also active in public service, was much more the professional man

of letters than &yatt or Sidney. ;is Shepheardes #alender 59368 is made up of 9<

9



poems, one for each month of the year. These poems were more charming than any

England had seen for <44 years. Spenser wrote many other poems, including a sonnet

series called Amoretti 59338.

The /aerie Bueene 593J@8, Spenser?s masterpiece, was left unfinished, but the @

books written, out of 9< planned, are of great length. The /aerie Bueene is an

elaborate allegory built on the story of a 9<day feast honoring the Bueen of /airyland

5EliKabeth !8. Spenser worked out a poetic stanKa well adapted to telling a story, a

special form that is now known as the Spenserian stanKa. 5See also Spenser, Edmund.8

#hristopher $arlowe promised more greatness than he achieved. ;e died at <,

stabbed in a tavern brawl. A line from his own Doctor /austus is his best epitaphC

M#ut is the branch that might have grown full straight.N ;is plays, such as

Tamburlaine 5936H8 and Doctor /austus 593H8, bring passion and tragedy onto the

stage in lines of great force. 5See also $arlowe, #hristopher.8

Thomas 'yd is known for his very successful play The Spanish Tragedy 5936H8. To a

modern audience it is an overwhelming story of carnage. !t is e*citing drama,

however. Some critics believe that 'yd also wrote a tragedy of ;amlet which became

the source for Shakespeare?s great play. 5See also 'yd, Thomas.8

ShakespeareOGenius of Drama

The great genius of the EliKabethan Age was &illiam Shakespeare. ;e wrote more

than 73 plays as well as 93= sonnets and < narrative poems 5Fenus and Adonis, 937

The -ape of "ucrece, 93=8.

"ike #haucer, Shakespeare had a genius for telling a story. Although he generally

took over stories already told by others, his adaptations of these narratives made them

into something new and wonderful. Shakespeare surpassed even #haucer in creating

character. 0oble and disturbed ;amlet, pathetic 2phelia, wise %ortia, ambitious

$acbeth, witty -osalind, villainous !ago, dainty ArielOthese are a few of the

characters Shakespeare made immortal.

!n addition to his ability to tell a story and to create character, Shakespeare was able to

use words brilliantly. %hrases and whole lines from his works have become part of

daily speechOfor e*ample, Mthe milk of human kindnessN or Mthe play?s the thing.N

Entire speeches are universally familiarOMTo be or not to be,N from ;amlet MAll the

<4



world?s a stage,N from As )ou "ike !t MThe +uality of mercy is not strained,N from

The $erchant of Fenice.

0o one in all history has had a greater command of the right word, the unforgettable

phrase, or the sentence that strikes straight to the heart of the truth. 5See also

Shakespeare, &illiam.8

onson and ;is Folpone

#ontemporary with Shakespeare was (en onson. $any people once thought him to

be a greater playwright than Shakespeare because his plays 5Every $an in ;is

;umor, 93 The Alchemist, 9@948 are more McorrectNOthat is, they are more

carefully patterned after the drama scheme of the ancient Greek and -oman writers.

2nly later did critics begin to prefer the deeper genius of Shakespeare and to realiKe

that mechanical McorrectnessN is not the highest aim of a play or poem. onson?s

comedy Folpone 59@4@H8 is a comical and sarcastic portrait of a wealthy but selfish

old man who keeps his greedy wouldbe heirs hanging on his wishes, each thinking

that he will inherit Folpone?s wealth. 5See also onson, (en.8

After the greatest days of Shakespeare and onson, the English drama declined in

e*cellence. A taste for melodrama and sensationalism hurt much of the e*cellent

writing done by such dramatists as ohn &ebster, Thomas $iddleton, and ohn /ord.

These playwrights took such liberties with their sub>ects and with the language that in

9@=< the %uritan reformers controlling "ondon ordered that the theaters be closed.

They did not reopen officially until the -estoration of 9@@4. Then a new sort of drama

arose, one much influenced by /rench dramatic styles and methods.

The 'ing ames (ible

2ne of the supreme achievements of the English -enaissance came at its close, in the

'ing ames (ible. This translation was ordered by ames ! and made by =6 scholars

working in cooperation. !t was published in 9@99 and is known as the AuthoriKed

Fersion. !t is rightly regarded as the most influential book in the history of English

civiliKation.

There had been translations of the (ible before 9@99. &illiam Tyndale first translated

the 0ew Testament from the Greek into English 593<38. $iles #overdale made the

<9



first complete translation of the (ible into English using Tyndale?s version 593738.

There had also been other translations, but the 'ing ames Fersion combined homely,

dignified phrases into a style of great richness and loveliness. !t has been a model of

writing for generations of Englishspeaking people.

#hanging $ood in the 96th #entury

The 96th century has sometimes been called an age of transition, sometimes an age of

revolution. !t was both, though much of the revolution of thought had actually been

accomplished by the end of the 9@th century.

The difficulties that brought about such fierce political and social struggles as resulted

in the civil war and the government under 2liver #romwell are mirrored in the

writings of the 96th century 5see England, M;istoryN8. The old unity of EliKabethan

life was gone. The national pride of Englishmen lessened as the #rown lost dignity

through the behavior of ames !, #harles !, and #harles !!. A new middle class began

to show its power.

The glowing enthusiasm of such men as $arlowe and Spenser gave way to a cool,

scientific attitude, to a spirit that studied small details rather than large generaliKations

and looked to the world of fact more than to that of the imagination. "ate in the 9@th

century Sir /rancis (acon had taken Mall knowledge for his provinceNOa typical

-enaissance ambition. "ater, scientists would stake out much smaller and more

workable claims. E*ploration on the grand scale gave way to e*ploitation of the

discoveries and to coloniKation and trade, activities that helped the mercantile class to

wealth and power late in the century.

96th#entury %rose

The 96th century was an age of prose. !nterest in scientific detail and leisurely

observation marked the prose of the time. This new writing style emphasiKed clarity,

directness, and economy of e*pression. !t first appeared >ust before 9@44 in the Essays

of (acon. The physician Sir Thomas (rowne wrote with dry precision in %seudodo*ia

Epidemica 59@=@8, as he amusingly and gravely discussed such beliefs as Man elephant

hath no >ointsN or Mhares are both male and female.N 5See also (acon, /rancis

(rowne, Thomas.8

<<



-obert (urton was one of the MoriginalsN of his age. ;is Anatomy of $elancholy

59@<98 is important not only as a document of 96thcentury thought but also as one of

the first attempts to e*plain human behavior in materialistic terms. This rambling and

muchrevised book is a storehouse of medical lore and fact, moral observation, and

anecdote. !n recent times scholars have recogniKed that (urton?s observations were

deeply perceptive. 5See also (urton, -obert.8

eremy Taylor, a brilliant student and preacher, wrote ;oly "iving 59@348 and ;oly

Dying 59@398. ;e was one of the great prose writers of the period. !Kaak &alton is

famous for his biographies and The #ompleat Angler 59@378. The former began when

he was asked to write a brief life of ohn Donne. The #ompleat Angler delights

readers whether they are fishermen themselves or are only slightly interested in what

&alton called the Mcontemplative man?s recreation.N 5See also &alton, !Kaak.8

(unyan and %epys

The prose masterpiece of the century was The %ilgrim?s %rogress 59@68. ohn (unyan

had studied the 'ing ames Fersion of the (ible with it as a style model, he wrote a

study of a #hristian?s >ourney through life and the difficulties that beset him as he tries

to reach the #elestial #ity. The %ilgrim?s %rogress was, for more than <44 years,

second only to the (ible in popularity. Even today it is much read for its vigorous

scenes of English country life. 5See also (unyan, ohn.8

The religious Keal of (unyan contrasts with the cavalier spirit of Samuel %epys. As

secretary to the Admiralty, %epys was a career man. ;e loved "ondon and its life, and

he recorded his daily e*periences in shorthand and cipher in a diary 5published in

9<38. !t is a splendid book of gossip, a record both of trivial matters, such as the

behavior at court, and of ma>or events, such as the Great %lague 59@@=J@38 and the

Great /ire 59@@@8. %epys?s Diary is a window on the last part of the 96th century in

England. 5See also %epys, Samuel.8

$iltonO%uritan %oet

The sober, scientific spirit of the 96th century did not destroy poetry. The great poet of

the first half of the century was ohn $ilton, a %uritan who served #romwell as "atin

secretary. ;e first wrote some short poems, the best known being "?Allegro 59@=38

<7



and !l %enseroso 59@=38. The first tells of the day?s activities of a cheerful man, and

the second, of the night?s activities of a thoughtful scholar. A musicplay 5or mas+ue8

known as #omus was produced in 9@7=, with music composed by ;enry "awes.

$ilton?s greatest early poem is "ycidas 59@78, a lament on the death of a college

friend.

$ilton?s service under #romwell brought on blindness, but this did not stop his

writing poetry. ;e dictated his masterpiece, %aradise "ost 59@@68, to his daughters.

This is an epic poem telling of the fall of the angels and of the creation of Adam and

Eve and their temptation by Satan in the Garden of Eden 5M2f $an?s first

disobedience, and the fruit1 2f that forbidden tree . . . N8. !t is written in blank verse of

great solemnity.

%aradise -egained 59@698 is $ilton?s se+uel to %aradise "ost. ;e considered the later

work his masterpiece, but most readers have not agreed with him. $ilton?s last work

is a blankverse tragedy in the ancient Greek manner. !t deals with the story of

Samson and Delilah. Samson Agonistes 59@698 is in many ways $ilton?s allegorical

description of himself as a Samson bound in chains by his enemies, the followers of

'ing #harles !!. 5See also $ilton, ohn.8

The $etaphysical and the #avalier %oets

An important group of 96thcentury writers were the metaphysical poets.

$etaphysical poetry makes use of conceitsOthat is, of farfetched similes and

metaphors intended to startle the reader into an awareness of the relationships among

things ordinarily not associated.

ohn Donne was the greatest of the metaphysical poets. ;is chief sub>ect was love as

it perfects humankind. ;e never treated the sub>ect profanely. ;e was occasionally

earthy, but only because he recogniKed that humans are creatures who must love in a

natural way. ;is poem The E*tasy is a celebration of sacramental love. ;is prose is as

rich as his poetry, but nothing can match the mastery of such poetry as his ;ymne to

God $y God, in $y Sicknesse. 5See also Donne, ohn.8

George ;erbert, like Donne, was both a metaphysical poet and an Anglican priest.

Some of ;erbert?s most effective poetry deals with humankind?s thirst for God and

with God?s abounding love. ;erbert?s collection, The Temple 59@778, was published

posthumously 5he probably did not intend his poetry to be published8. Andrew

<=



$arvell, -ichard #rashaw, and ;enry Faughan were other metaphysical poets of

merit. $ost easily understood, perhaps, is $arvell, at least in the wellloved lyric To

;is #oy $istress. 5See also #rashaw, -ichard ;erbert, George $arvell, Andrew.8

The #avalier poets were followers and supporters of #harles !. They wrote with a

sense of elegance and in a style that emphasiKed wit and charm and the delicate play

of words and ideas. #hief among the #avalier group were Thomas #arew, -ichard

"ovelace, Sir ohn Suckling, and -obert ;errick. ;errick was a clergyman in the

#hurch of England, but his ministerial duties did not prevent him from admiring a

pretty face or the loveliness of the English landscape. ;is poems deal with familiar

sub>ects. 5See also #arew, Thomas ;errick, -obert "ovelace, -ichard Suckling,

ohn.8

DrydenOGiant of the "ate 9@44s

The ma>or literary figure of the last +uarter of the century was ohn Dryden. Such

poems as Absalom and Achitophel 59@9J<8 and Ale*ander?s /east 59@68 establish

his superiority in both satire and lyric. ;e was also the leading dramatist, writing both

comedy 5$arriageRla$ode, 9@67 The 'ind 'eeper, 9@48 and tragedy 5Aureng

ebe, 9@6@8 of great popularity. ;is translation of Firgil?s Aeneid is still widely read

for its poetry alone. !n addition, he was the leading critic of his time. $uch of what

Dryden wrote, however, is so closely connected with political and social events of his

day that to read it re+uires a scholar?s knowledge of the period. The virtues of his best

writingOclarity, good sense, and intellectual vigorObecame the dominant virtues of

the writing of the 9th century. 5See also Dryden, ohn.8

The 9th #enturyOAge of -eason

The most striking +uality of the 9th century was its optimism. !t was a time that

celebrated the e*cellence of the human mind. All creation was believed open to

scrutiny. Even the descriptive historical titles of the period e*press the spirit of

improvement and progress. $any people of the time thought they were passing

through a golden period similar to that of the -oman emperor Augustus. /or this

reason the name MAugustanN was given to the early 9th century. The century has also

been called the Age of Enlightenment. $any writers of the era used ancient Greek and

<3



-oman authors as models of style. ;ence the period in literature is often described as

neoclassic.

$erchants and tradesmen achieved tremendous economic power at this time.

Scientific discoveries were encouraged. $any important inventionsOfor e*ample, the

spinning >enny, the power loom, and the steam engineObrought about an industrial

society. #ities grew in siKe, and "ondon began to assume its present position as a

great industrial and commercial center. !n addition to a comfortable life, the members

of the middle class demanded a respectable, moralistic art that was controlled by

common sense. They reacted in protest to the aristocratic immoralities in much of the

-estoration literature.

Addison, Steele, and Defoe

The modern essay began in two periodicals, The Tatler 5964J998, founded by Sir

-ichard Steele, and The Spectator 59699J9<8, founded by Steele and oseph Addison.

The kindly and witty essays by these men appealed to the middle class in the

coffeehouses rather than to the nobility in their palaces. The aim of The Spectator,

Addison said, was M . . . to enliven morality with wit, and to temper wit with morality.N

Steele and Addison?s essays are still models of clear, informal writing. 5See also

Addison, oseph Steele, -ichard.8

$ost people think of Daniel Defoe only as the author of -obinson #rusoe 59698. (y

the time Defoe wrote that novel, however, he had already lived a life full enough for

three ordinary mortals. Defoe was first of all a >ournalist, with an eye for a news story.

Singlehandedly he produced a newspaper, The -eview 5964=J978, which was an

important ancestor of modern newspapers. The list of Defoe?s writings runs to more

than =44 titles. !n all of them, articles and books, is the kind of writing that Defoe

recommended to othersOa Mplain and homely style.N Even the great novels of his last

years, $oll /landers 596<<8 and -obinson #rusoe, read like a modern reporter?s

account of events. 5See also Defoe, Daniel.8

SwiftOScornful %rose Genius

onathan Swift is one of the great prose writers of all time. Although born in !reland,

Swift always said that he was an Englishman. ;is defense of the !rish people against

<@



the tyranny of the English government, however, was wholehearted. As much as he

may have disliked !reland, he disliked in>ustice and tyranny more. !n a bitter

pamphlet, A $odest %roposal 596<8, he ironically suggested that the !rish babies be

specially fattened for profitable sale as meat, since the English were eating the !rish

people anyhow, by heavy ta*ation.

Swift?s masterpiece is Gulliver?s Travels 596<@8. !t is a satire on human folly and

stupidity. Swift said that he wrote it to ve* the world rather than to divert it. $ost

people, however, are so delightfully entertained by the tiny "illiputians and by the

huge (robdingnagians that they do not bother much with Swift?s bitter satire on

human pettiness or crudity. 0o one has ever written English prose with greater

sharpness and economy than Swift. ;is literary style has all the 9thcentury virtues

at their best. 5See also Swift, onathan.8

Satire in %ope?s %oetry

The genius of Ale*ander %ope lay in satirical poetry. ;e said that he wanted to Mshoot

folly as it flies,1 And catch the manners living as they rise.N The Dunciad 596<8 lists

the stupid writers and men of England by name as dunces. These MduncesN proceeded

to attack %ope in kind.

%ope e*celled in his ability to coin unforgettable phrases. Such lines as Mfools rush in

where angels fear to treadN and Mdamn with faint praiseN illustrate why %ope is the

most +uoted poet in English literature e*cept for Shakespeare.

2ne of his lighter, though still satirical, poems is The -ape of the "ock 5969<8. !t

mockingly describes a furious fight between two families when a young man snips off

a lock of the beautiful (elinda?s hair. %ope wrote in heroic couplets, a techni+ue in

which he has been unsurpassed. !n thought and form he carried 9thcentury reason

and order to its highest peak. 5See also %ope, Ale*ander.8

0ew Foices in %oetry

ames Thomson was another ma>or poet of the period. !n his simplicity and love of

nature he foreshadowed -omanticism. Edward )oung wrote The #omplaintC or, 0ight

Thoughts on "ife, Death, and !mmortality 596=<J=38, which put in practice his ideas

about the personal +uality of poetry. -obert (lair wrote one important poem, The

<6



Grave 596=78, which advanced the Mgraveyard schoolN of poetry. &illiam #ollins was

not a popular success in his lifetime, but his 2de on the %opular Superstitions of the

;ighlands of Scotland 5published posthumously, in 968 clearly marked a turn to the

wild and irregular as proper sub>ects for poetry. 5See also #ollins, &illiam.8

Thomas Gray was probably the most typical man of letters of the period. ;e was a

scholar of ancient languages, a letter writer, and a critic as well as a poet. ;is Elegy

&ritten in a #ountry #hurchyard 596398 is a collection of 9thcentury

commonplaces e*pressing concern for lowly folk. 5See also Gray, Thomas.8

George #rabbe was the last poet of the century who used the couplet in didactic

poetry. ;is political and social satire The Fillage 59678 is a realistic appraisal of

country life in his times. &illiam #owper e*emplifies the strange decay of the spirit

in the 9th century. ;e was given to e*treme, morbid sensibilities. The Task 59638 is

a falsely cheerful poem of a man who feels himself to be condemned. 5See also

#owper, &illiam #rabbe, George.8

Start of the $odern 0ovel

The <4th century can be grateful to the 9th for developing the novel 5see novel8.

Samuel -ichardson wrote the first modern novelOthat is, one with a fairly well

planned plot, with suspense and clima*, and with some attempt to understand the

minds and hearts of the characters. This important novel, %amela 596=48, is made up

of letters from %amela Andrews. She tells of her unhappy attempts to get a husband,

but the book ends happily. 5See also -ichardson, Samuel.8

;enry /ielding was amused by %amela and parodied it in oseph Andrews 596=<8,

which purports to be the story of %amela?s brother. Seven years later he wrote Tom

ones 596=8, one of the greatest novels in English literature. !t tells the story of a

young foundling who is driven from his adopted home, wanders to "ondon, and

eventually, for all his suffering, wins his lady. The picture of English life, both in the

country and in the city, is brilliantly drawn. The humor of the book is delightful. 5See

also /ielding, ;enry.8

The first novel by Tobias Smollett was -oderick -andom 596=8. Although it is a

striking collection of adventures, it lacks the good plot of Tom ones. Smollett?s best

work is ;umphry #linker 596698. !t tells, by means of letters, the story of a trip by the

<



(ramble family across England, from (ath to "ondon, and up into Scotland. The

eccentric characters have many comic e*periences. 5See also Smollett, Tobias.8

"aurence Sterne wrote A Sentimental ourney 596@8 partly in answer to a travel book

written in ill temper by Smollett. Sterne?s greatest book is Tristram Shandy 596@4J@68,

a topsyturvy collection of episodes with little organiKation but a wealth of 9th

century humor. 5See also Sterne, "aurence.8

ohnson and ;is #ircle

!f the 9th century made much of elegance and good manners, it also made much of

honesty and common sense. These useful virtues were personified by Dr. Samuel

ohnson, the leading literary figure of the century.

;e wrote some sensible but uninspired poetry 5The Fanity of ;uman &ishes, 96=8.

;is novel, -asselas 59638, is e+ually sensible and e+ually dull. ;is masterpiece is A

Dictionary of the English "anguage 596338. ohnson?s common sense is shown in the

clear definitions of words. ;e made some mistakes, however. A woman asked him

why he defined MpasternN as Mthe knee of a horse.N ohnson answered, M!gnorance,

$adam, pure ignorance.N

ohnson is immortal not only for what he wrote but also for his forceful personality

and his wonderful conversation. This has been recorded by ames (oswell in The "ife

of Samuel ohnson, "".D. 59698, the greatest of English biographies. (oswell had a

keen eye for significant detail and a proper reverence for his sub>ect. ;e noted all of

ohnson?s peculiaritiesOhis rolling walk, his twitching face, his horrible table

manners, his rudeness to stupid peopleObut he also saw his sub>ect?s sturdy common

sense and his honesty. 5See also (oswell, ames ohnson, Samuel.8

ohnson and others organiKed the "iterary #lub in 96@=. The club gathered together

the most celebrated artists of the time. The great orator Edmund (urke and the great

historian Edward Gibbon were members. Another member was 2liver Goldsmith. ;e

wrote one of the best plays 5She Stoops to #on+uer, 96678, one of the best poems

5The Deserted Fillage, 96648, and one of the best novels 5The Ficar of &akefield,

96@@8 of the latter half of the 9th century. ohnson said of his versatile friendC MP;eQ

touched nothing that he did not adorn.N 5See also Goldsmith, 2liver.8

-ichard (rinsley Sheridan, orator and political figure, was also a writer of comedies

of manners that lampooned social affectations and pretentiousness. ;is masterpiece,

<



The School for Scandal 596668, features malicious gossips with such revealing names

as Sir (en>amin (ackbite, "ady Sneerwell, and $rs. #andour.

/or another of his clever plays, The -ivals 596638, Sheridan invented the

unforgettable $rs. $alaprop, whose name remains to this day the designation for a

person who misuses words. !n one memorable speech she says, Mif ! reprehend

anything in this world, it is the use of my oracular tongue and a nice derangement of

epitaphs.N 5See also Sheridan, -ichard (rinsley.8

The -omantic $ovement in England

At the end of the 9th century a new literature arose in England. !t was called

-omanticism, and it opposed most of the ideas held earlier in the century.

-omanticism had its roots in a changed attitude toward humankind. The forerunners

of the -omanticists argued that humans are naturally good society makes them bad.

!f the social world could be changed, all men might be happier. $any reforms were

suggestedC better treatment of people in prisons and almshouses, fewer death penalties

for minor crimes, and an increase in charitable institutions.

The -omanticists believed that all people are kin and deserve the treatment to which

human beings are by nature entitled. Every person has a right to life, liberty, and e+ual

opportunity. These ideas had been well stated in the American Declaration of

!ndependence. !n /rance a revolution of the common people began in 96. $any

Englishmen hoped that the new democraciesO/rance and the Lnited StatesOwould

show the way for the rest of the world to follow. Along with democracy and

individualism came other ideas. 2ne of these ideas was that the simple, humble life is

best. Another was that people should live close to nature. Thus the -omantic

movement was inherently antiprogress, if progress meant industrialiKation.

(ecause of this concern for nature and simple folk, authors began to take an interest in

old legends, folk ballads, anti+uities, ruins, Mnoble savages,N and rustic characters.

$any writers started to give more play to their senses and to their imaginations. Their

pictures of nature became livelier and more realistic. They loved to describe rural

scenes, graveyards, ma>estic mountains, and roaring waterfalls. They also liked to

write poems and stories of such eerie or supernatural things as ghosts, haunted castles,

fairies, and mad folk.

74



Thus -omanticism grew. The movement cannot be precisely defined. !t was a group

of ideas, a web of beliefs. 0o one -omantic writer e*pressed all these ideas, but each

believed enough of them to set him apart from earlier writers. The -omanticists were

emotional and imaginative. They acted through inspiration and intuition. They

believed in democracy, humanity, and the possibility of achieving a better world.

%re-omantic &riters

(efore the -omantic movement burst into full e*pression there were beginners, or

e*perimenters. Some of them are great names in English literature. -obert (urns, a

Scot whose love of nature and of freedom has seldom been surpassed, scorned the

false pretensions of wealth and birth 5MA man?s a man for a? that.N8. ;is nature lyrics

are tenderly beautiful 5To a $ountain Daisy8 his sentimental songs are sung wherever

young or old folks gather 5Auld "ang Syne, /low Gently Sweet Afton8. ;is rich

humor can still be felt in Tam o? Shanter, To a "ouse, and The #otter?s Saturday 0ight.

5See also (urns, -obert.8

#owper had cried out against the inhumanity of slavery and political oppression.

&illiam Godwin and his wife, $ary &ollstonecraft Godwin, were also intense social

critics. $ary Godwin?s A Findication of the -ights of &oman 596<8 was one of the

first feminist books in all literature. Godwin?s An En+uiry #oncerning %olitical ustice

59678 had a great influence on the -omantic poets &ordsworth, #oleridge, and

Shelley.

ames $acpherson, a Scotsman, composed an elaborate epic poem which, he claimed,

he had translated from the work of the ancient Gaelic bard called 2ssian. Thomas

%ercy collected old English songs and ballads. ;is -eli+ues of Ancient English %oetry

596@38 is the best source for the ballads of medieval England.

Another group of forerunners of -omanticism included the writers of stories of terror

and imaginationOthe Gothic school of Mspine chillers.N -epresentative novels are The

#astle of 2tranto 596@=8, by ;orace &alpole The $ysteries of Ldolpho 596=8, by

Ann -adcliffe and The $onk 596@8, by $atthew Gregory "ewis. All these novels

are filled with the machinery of sensationalismOunreal characters, supernatural

events, and overripe imagination. These +ualities reached a fever pitch in

/rankenstein 5998, by $ary &ollstonecraft Shelley. 5See also "ewis, $atthew

Gregory -adcliffe, Ann Shelley, $ary &ollstonecraft &alpole family.8

79



The /irst Great -omanticists

&illiam (lake was both poet and artist 5see (lake, &illiam8. ;e not only wrote

books, but he also illustrated and printed them. $any of his conservative

contemporaries thought him insane because his ideas were so unusual. #hief among

these MinsaneN ideas was his devotion to freedom and universal love. ;e was

interested in children and animalsOthe most innocent of God?s creatures. As he wrote

in Songs of !nnocence 5968C

&hen the voices of children are heard on the green,

And laughing is heard on the hill,

$y heart is at rest within my breast,

And everything else is still.

#ertainly no one has put more wonder and mystery into beautiful melodic verse than

did Samuel Taylor #oleridge. The strange, haunting supernaturalism of The -ime of

the Ancient $ariner 5968 and #hristabel 599@8 have universal and irresistible

appeal. 5See also #oleridge, Samuel Taylor.8

A close friend of #oleridge?s for many years was &illiam &ordsworth. Together they

brought out a volume of verse, "yrical (allads 5968, which sounded the new note in

poetry. This book really signalled the beginning of English -omanticism. #oleridge

found beauty in the unreal, &ordsworth found it in the realities of nature.

/rom nature &ordsworth learned that life may be a continuous development toward

goodness. ;e believed that if people heed the lessons of nature they will grow in

character and moral worth. 5See also &ordsworth, &illiam.8

#harles "amb, a schoolmate of #oleridge?s, for the most part had little of the serious

+uality that one sees in the authors of "yrical (allads nor was he an ardent lover of

nature. A city man, he showed how a person could live happily among his books by

his own fireside. ;is bestknown essay is the playful Dissertation on -oast %ig

59<<8. !n Tales from Shakespear 59468, he and his sister $ary rewrote many of

Shakespeare?s plays into stories for children. 5See also "amb, #harles.8

!nterest in the past and in people and a love of rugged scenery are found in the works

of Sir &alter Scott. The "ay of the "ast $instrel 59438 and The "ady of the "ake

59948 are representative of Scott?s poems. (etween 99= and 97< Scott wrote 7<

7<



novels. They include Guy $annering 59938 and !vanhoe 5998. 5See also Scott,

&alter.8

ane Austen, a gifted writer of realistic novels, had difficulty finding a publisher for

her skillfully drawn portraits of English middleclass people. %ride and %re>udice

59978 is her bestknown work. 5See also Austen, ane.8

Among the lesser -omantic figures was -obert Southey, who was poet laureate of

England and author of The Story of the Three (ears and The (attle of (lenheim. An

industrious writer, he earned his living solely by his pen. &illiam ;aKlitt, on the other

hand, earned his way by lecturing and by writing for critical magaKines, such as The

Edinburgh -eview. 5See also ;aKlitt, &illiam Southey, -obert.8

The )ounger -omanticists

(y 99< the older generation of -omanticists had grown conservative. They no

longer supported radical causes or championed the oppressed. The younger -omantic

writers, however, +uickly and noisily took up the cry for liberty and >ustice.

George Gordon (yron was an outspoken critic of the evils of his time. ;e hoped for

human perfection, but his recognition of man?s faults led him fre+uently to despair

and disillusionment 5$anfred, 996 #ain, 9<98. $uch of his work is satire, bitterly

contemptuous of human foibles 5Don uan, 99J<=8. ;is narrative poems 5The

#orsair, 99= $aKeppa, 998, about wild and impetuous persons, brought him

success. ;e was a skilled versifier with a remarkable ear for rhythms. (yron

influenced the youth of his day more than any other -omanticist. M(yronismN was a

mood adopted by thousands of young men. 5See also (yron, "ord.8

%ercy (ysshe Shelley was the black sheep of a welltodo, conservative family.

Sonnets, songs, and poetic dramas flowed from his pen in the last four years of his

life. $any of these works are profound and meditative 5%rometheus Lnbound, 9<48.

2thers are e*+uisitely lyrical and beautiful 5The #loud, To a Skylark, 2de to the &est

&ind8. Adonais 59<98, his tribute to 'eats, ranks among the greatest elegies. 5See

also Shelley, %ercy (ysshe.8

ohn 'eats was a greater poet than either (yron or Shelley 5see 'eats, ohn8. ;e

believed that true happiness was to be found in art and natural beauty 52de on a

Grecian Lrn, 99 2de to a 0ightingale, 998. ;is verses are lively testimony to the

truth of his words in Endymion 5998C

77



A thing of beauty is a >oy foreverC

!ts loveliness increases it will never

%ass into nothingness

2ther -omanticists who deserve mention are "eigh ;unt, whose Abou (en Adhem

continues to be a favorite Thomas $oore, whose (elieve $e, !f All Those Endearing

)oung #harms is still a favorite of vocal groups and Thomas De Buincey, known

best for his #onfessions of an English 2pium Eater 59<<8. De Buincey, however,

ought to be better known for his useful distinction between the Mliterature of

knowledgeN and the Mliterature of power.N 5See also De Buincey, Thomas ;unt,

"eigh $oore, Thomas.8

English "iterature of the Fictorian Age

The literature written during Bueen Fictoria?s reign 5976J9498 has been given the

name Fictorian. The basic characteristics of the period, however, would have been the

same with or without Bueen Fictoria. $any great changes took place in the first half

of the 9th century. !ntellectual rebellions, such as those of (yron and Shelley, gave

place to balance and ad>ustment. !ndividualism began to be replaced by social and

governmental restraints. $ore and more people were gaining comfort and prosperity.

Great (ritain changed from a provincial nation to a worldwide empire. This progress

brought its problems. 2ften individuals had to choose between ideals and material

gain.

Science made rapid strides in the 9th century. The theory of evolution gave new

insight into the biological sciences. Technical progress transformed (ritain into a land

of mechanical and industrial activity, but science also created doubts. 2ld ideas of

faith and religion were put to serious tests by the new attitudes brought about by

scientific progress. There was a reemphasisOoftentimes stuffy and pompousOof

moral and religious beliefs. "iterature, said some, should show people how to be

good.

0evertheless, many people in England were still poorObadly housed,

undernourished, and sick. %rogress, obviously, would not come by itselfOit had to be

earned. /reedom had to be guarded Kealously. &ould the spirit of man be destroyed by

the machineH &ould people become slaves to industry and the pursuit of wealthH

7=



&ould art be replaced by skills and craftsH These were the +uestions that troubled

England in the age of Bueen Fictoria.

The transition from the late -omantic to the Fictorian period is best understood in the

figure of Thomas #arlyle. ;is life spanned the years of -omantic e*citement and

Fictorian achievement. #arlyle thoroughly repudiated the -omanticists. To him the

universe seemed the Mliving garment of God.N !n Sartor -esartus 5977J7=8 he

counseled that the way out of the MEverlasting 0ay,N or negative denial, was first to

find what one could do, then to give all one?s energies to it. The effort of the moral

will, he said, would bring freedom from despair. 5See also #arlyle, Thomas.8

$a>or Fictorian %oets

%oets shifted from the e*tremely personal e*pression 5or sub>ectivism8 of the

-omantic writers to an ob>ective surveying of the problems of human life. The poems

of Tennyson, (rowning, and Arnold especially reflect this change. $uch Fictorian

poetry was put to the service of society.

Alfred Tennyson attempted to give direction to his readers. !dylls of the 'ing 5938

is a disguised study of current ethical and social conditions. "ocksley ;all 59=<8, !n

$emoriam 59348, and $aud 59338 deal with conflicting scientific and social ideas.

$uch of Tennyson?s poetry, however, can be read without worrying about such

problems. ;is narrative skill makes many of his poems interesting >ust as stories. /or

e*ample, each of the Arthurian tales in !dylls of the 'ing brings the reader a wealth of

beauty and e*perience. The "ady of Shalott and The Death of 2enone are pleasing

tales to young readers. 5See also Tennyson, Alfred, "ord.8

/or those who have seen -udolph (esier?s modern play The (arretts of &impole

Street, EliKabeth and -obert (rowning need no introduction. EliKabeth (arrett

(rowning wrote the most e*+uisite love poems of her time in Sonnets from the

%ortuguese 59348. These lyrics were written secretly while she was being courted by

-obert (rowning. 5See also (rowning, EliKabeth (arrett.8

-obert (rowning is best remembered for his dramatic monologues. $y "ast Duchess

59=<8, /ra "ippo "ippi 59338, and Andrea del Sarto 59338 are e*cellent e*amples.

The stirring rhythm of ;ow They (rought the Good 0ews from Ghent to Ai* 59=38

and the simple wonder of The %ied %iper of ;amelin 59=<8 endear (rowning to

readers. ;is e*pressions of personal faith have inspired thousands of readers

73



5Epilogue to Asolando, 9 -abbi (en EKra, 9@= %rospice, 9@=8. The poetic

drama %ippa %asses 59=98 is one of his finest efforts. 5See also (rowning, -obert.8

The poetry of $atthew Arnold is marked by an intense seriousness and classic

restraint. Sohrab and -ustum 59378 is a fine blankverse narrative. ;is elegiac poems

on the death of his father, Dr. Thomas Arnold 5-ugby #hapel, 9@68, and of his friend

Arthur ;ugh #lough 5Thyrsis, 9@68 are profound and moving. ;is interest in the

problem of making people aware of higher values of life caused him to +uit writing

poetry and turn to critical prose. As a critic, he drove his ideas home with clarity and

force. 5See also Arnold, $atthew.8

Arnold?s somber and disillusioned poem Empedocles on Etna 593<8 was

characteristic of the poetry dealing with the conflict between religion and science. A

much more popular poem on the same theme was the free translation of the -ubiyt

of 2mar 'hayym 5938, by Edward /itKGerald. The poem was originally written by

2mar, a %ersian astronomer. /itKGerald claimed that the only course of action left to

the man whose religious ideals had been destroyed by science was selfindulgence.

5See also /itKGerald, Edward.8

The %re-aphaelite (rotherhood

The %re-aphaelites, a group of painters and poets, rebelled against the sentimental

and the commonplace. They wished to revive the artistic standards of the time before

the !talian ;igh -enaissance painter -aphael. Their poems are full of mystery and

pictorial language. 2ne member was Dante Gabriel -ossetti. ;is (lessed DamoKel

59348 and Sister ;elen 59648 are typical of this highly sensuous verse. Goblin

$arket 59@<8, by his sister #hristina Georgina -ossetti, is one of the most fanciful

poems in the language. 5See also -ossetti family.8

&illiam $orris also was interested in both painting and poetry. ;is interest in

handicrafts grew into a philosophy of art, and he dedicated the rest of his life to the

attempt to bring a love of workmanship back into the English workingman?s life. This

activity took two formsC the promotion of the crafts through such organiKations as the

'elmscott %ress and the promotion of the worker?s happiness through guild socialism.

The Earthly %aradise 59@J648 is a series of tales linked by the same device used in

The #anterbury Tales. !n The Dream of ohn (all 598, a prose romance, $orris

7@



dealt with one of the leaders of the 9=thcentury revolt of &at Tyler. 5See also $orris,

&illiam.8

Another poet closely associated with the %re-aphaelites was Algernon #harles

Swinburne. Swinburne wrote many verse dramas on classical and historical sub>ects

5$ary Stuart, 998. $any of his lyrics were criticiKed for their eroticism. All his

poetry is filled with rich, melodic effects. Some critics have said that his verse is all

Msound and fury signifying nothing.N 5See also Swinburne, Algernon #harles.8

The direct opposite of Swinburne was Gerard $anley ;opkins, a esuit priest. ;is

imagery and metrical techni+ue are +uite modern, and his sub>ect matter is intensely

religious. ;is poems, written between 96@ and 9, were appreciated by his close

friends but were not published until 99 because their unusual rhythm and metaphors

were considered too strange to be accepted earlier. 5See also ;opkins, Gerard

$anley.8

There were other notable poets writing at the end of the century. They included

/rancis Thompson, author of The ;ound of ;eaven 5978 Ernest Dowson, who

wrote #ynara 59@8 and the pessimist ohn Davidson, author of /leet Street

Eclogues 5978. 5See also Davidson, ohn Dowson, Ernest Thompson, /rancis.8

Fictorian 0ovelists

The English novel came of age in the Fictorian period. There had been a decline in

novel writing at the beginning of the century, partly because fiction had turned to

horror and crude emotionalism and partly because of religious and moral ob>ections to

the reading of novels.

Even Sir &alter Scott, at first, considered the craft of the novelist degrading and kept

his authorship a secret. !n the Fictorian period, however, these attitudes toward the

novel were to change.

&ith the rise of the popular magaKine, authors began to e*periment with serialiKed

fiction. Soon they were writing novels. Such was the beginning of Dickens? Sketches

by (oK 597@8 and of Thackeray?s The )ellowplush #orrespondence 5976J78.

#harles Dickens became a master of local color, as in The %ickwick %apers 597@J

768. /ew of his novels have convincing plots, but in characteriKation and in the

creation of moods he was outstanding. (y 934 Dickens had become England?s best

loved novelist. 5See also Dickens, #harles.8

76



The talents of &illiam $akepeace Thackeray produced a different type of novel. ;e

was not a reformer, as Dickens was, and he was not moved to tearful sentiments by

the world?s unfortunates. !nstead, he attempted to see the whole of life, detached and

critically. ;e disliked sham, hypocrisy, stupidity, false optimism, and selfseeking.

The result was satire on manners. "iterature would be the poorer without Fanity /air

59=6J=8 and its heroine, (ecky Sharp. 5See also Thackeray, &illiam $akepeace.8

The novels of the (rontU sistersO#harlotte, Emily, and AnneOhave very little to do

with the condition of society or the world in general. #harlotte?s ane Eyre and

Emily?s &uthering ;eights 5both 9=68, especially, are powerful and intensely

personal stories of the private lives of characters isolated from the rest of the world.

5See also (rontU family.8

"ater English novelists turned to the logical plot and the concept of a central theme.

Anthony Trollope dealt with middle and upperclass people interestingly, naturally,

and wittily 52rley /arm, 9@<8. George Eliot was one of England?s greatest women

novelists. !n Silas $arner 59@98 and $iddlemarch 5969J6<8 she used the novel to

interpret life. 5See also Eliot, George Trollope, Anthony.8

&ilkie #ollins was one of the earliest writers to build a novel wholly around an

ingenious plotOthe formula that is used in the modern mystery story. The $oonstone

59@8 is his best. 5See also #ollins, &ilkie.8

(irth of the %sychological 0ovel

As biology and psychology advanced, it became clear that human beings could no

longer be shown simply as heroes and villains. The study of human character

demanded the e*amination of motives and causes rather than the making of moral

>udgments. To find the cause of action meant probing into the secrets of individual

psychology.

George $eredith was one of the first to apply psychological methods to the analysis

of his characters. /or the average reader the brilliance of such novels as The 2rdeal of

-ichard /everel 5938 and The Egoist 5968 is obscured by the absence of plot and

the subtleties of the language. $eredith was also a poet of merit, and his essay on

comedy and the comic spirit is a masterly interpretation of the function of comedy in

literature.

7



Thomas ;ardy brought to fiction a philosophical attitude that resulted from the new

science. ;e believed that the more science studies the universe the less evidence is

found for an intelligent guiding force behind it. !f there is >ust chanceOmeaningless

blind forceOin the universe, what hope is there for humankindH !n a series of great

novels, from The -eturn of the 0ative 5968 to ude the 2bscure 5938, ;ardy

sought to show how futile and senseless is humankind?s struggle against the forces of

natural environment, social convention, and biological heritage. 5See also ;ardy,

Thomas.8

Samuel (utler entered into the scientific controversies of his day. ;olding that

evolution is the result of the creative will rather than of chance selection, (utler wrote

a novel about the relations of parents to childrenOThe &ay of All /lesh 59478. The

point of the story, made with irony, is that the family restrains the free development of

the child. 5See also (utler, Samuel.8

#harles -eade was, like Dickens, an ardent critic of the social abuses of his day. ;is

most famous novel, The #loister and the ;earth 59@98, however, is a historical

romance with a 93thcentury setting. /illed with e*citing incidents, intrigue, and

witchcraft, it is based on the birth and boyhood of the Dutch scholar Erasmus. 5See

also -eade, #harles.8

George Gissing was greatly influenced by Dickens. ;is hatred of the degrading

effects of poverty is reflected in many of his novels. Gissing?s most successful book

was The %rivate %apers of ;enry -yecroft 59478, the imaginary >ournal of a retired

writer who lives in happy solitude in the country amid his beloved books 5as Gissing

always wished that he could do8. 5See also Gissing, George.8

-omance and Adventure

0ot all fiction of the late 9th century falls into the intellectual or scientific

classification. -obert "ouis Stevenson wrote stories in a light mood. ;is novels of

adventure are e*citing and delightfulC Treasure !sland 5978, 'idnapped 59@8, The

$aster of (allantrae 598. Stevenson also wrote for adults. David (alfour 5978

and The Strange #ase of Dr. ekyll and $r. ;yde 59@8 are +uite suited to adult

tastes. As a shortstory writer Stevenson ranks high. !n light verse and in the informal

essay Stevenson was unusually successful. 5See also Stevenson, -obert "ouis.8

7



2ne of England?s most popular writers was -udyard 'ipling. ;e glamoriKed the

foreign service and satiriKed the English military and administrative classes in !ndia.

;e stirred the emotions of the empire lovers. 'ipling also wrote delightful children?s

tales. ;e was, however, neither a cheap versifier nor a vulgar imperialist. &hoever

has not read (arrack -oom (allads 59<8, Soldiers Three 598, The ungle (ooks

59=, 938, and #aptains #ourageous 5968 has a treat in store. 5See also 'ipling,

-udyard.8

"ewis #arroll 5#harles "utwidge Dodgson8 belongs in a category by himself. Alice?s

Adventures in &onderland 59@38 combines fantasy and satire in an inimitable way to

the immense satisfaction of old and young. 5See also #arroll, "ewis.8

9th#entury Drama

Drama did not flourish early in the 9th century. -omantic poetry had its dramatic

phases, and Shelley and (yron both wrote verse dramas. These were closet dramas,

intended for reading rather than for staging. Several of Tennyson?s plays were

produced. The stage, however, was primarily interested in low melodrama and

sentimental farcecomedy. $usical comedy achieved respectability when librettist

&illiam Gilbert teamed up with composer Arthur Sullivan in Trial by ury 59638.

$any successful collaborations by these two followed. 5See also Gilbert and

Sullivan.8

As was the case among readers of fiction, some theatergoers matured. They were

ready for satire, for serious treatment of social problems, and for drama that was well

constructed. /rom the #ontinent came realistic, intellectual, and socially significant

works.

The first English dramatists to attempt the Mnew dramaN were ;enry Arthur ones and

Sir Arthur &ing %inero. 0either, however, could compare in wit and brilliance with

two young contemporariesO&ilde and Shaw. 2scar &ilde, also a poet and novelist,

wrote several fine plays. ;is !mportance of (eing Earnest 5938 is brittle in its

humor and clever in its dialogue and is probably the best of his dramas. 5See also

ones, ;enry Arthur %inero, Arthur &ing &ilde, 2scar.8

The plays of George (ernard Shaw read even better than they act. They are important

for their prefaces, siKKling attacks on Fictorian pre>udices and attitudes. Shaw began

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to write drama as a protest against e*isting conditionsOslums, se* hypocrisy,

censorship, war.

(ecause his plays were not well received 5often they were not even allowed to be

presented8, Shaw wrote their nowfamous prefaces. 0ot until after 944 did the

Shavian wit achieve acceptance on the stage. #ontroversial ideas and Shaw

productions came to be synonymous. Shaw had the longest career of any writer who

ever lived. ;e began in the Fictorian Age and wrote until 934. 5See also Shaw,

George (ernard.8

Essayists and ;istorians

There are other great names in Fictorian literature, chiefly in criticism and history.

Thomas (abington $acaulay is known for his ;istory of England 59=J@98.

Although it is often inaccurate, it represented a new concept of historical writingC

history must be detailed, vivid, and pictorial. 5See also $acaulay, Thomas.8

Social, religious, and educational criticism was the field of ohn ;enry #ardinal

0ewman. ;is essays on liberal education are especially important, and his Apologia

pro Fita Sua 59@=8 is a fine autobiography. 5See also 0ewman, ohn ;enry.8

ohn Stuart $ill dealt with political and economic problems. ;is essay 2n "iberty

5938 was the most important discussion of that sub>ect since $ilton?s time. 5See

also $ill, ohn Stuart.8

2f those who wrote about aesthetic matters, -uskin and %ater are best remembered.

ohn -uskin made his first bid for fame in $odern %ainters 59=7J@48. ;e studied

architecture and wrote The Seven "amps of Architecture 59=8. -uskin?s ideas on art

were at odds with social conditions. ;e became a reformer, devoting his writing to

social and economic problems. 5See also -uskin, ohn.8

&alter %ater, in $arius the Epicurean 5938, developed a theory of beauty that

ignored the social situation. !t held that art could have no ethical content, that it must

be a matter of personal ecstasy. 5See also %ater, &alter.8

$odern English "iterature

The growth of science and technology in the 9th century had held forth the promise

of a new and richer life. !t became clear, however, that what people did with their

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discoveries and their newly found mechanical power would depend upon their ability

to master themselves. &ith new inventions upsetting old ways, it became increasingly

difficult to find order or pattern in life. %eople began to talk of the Mmachine ageN and

to ask whether it was wholly good. #ould humankind trust science to bring about a

better lifeH

2ther developments began to influence thought. %sychologists e*plored the mind and

advanced varied and conflicting theories about it. ;uman behavior was no longer

easily e*plainable. The new sciences of anthropology and sociology contributed to the

upheaval of ideas. -eligious controls and social conventions again were challenged.

0aturally, there were changes in literary taste and forms. 2ld values were replaced by

new values or were lost. "iterature became pessimistic and e*perimental.

Early <4th#entury %rose

(efore 99= the postFictorian writers were in the unhappy position of looking back

at a wellmarked literary road and looking ahead at a pathless >ungle. They had to

grapple with new forcesOsociological, psychological, and scientificObecause these

forces were a part of their lives. They were writers in transition.

ohn Galsworthy turned to the social life of an upperclass English family in The

/orsyte Saga 59<<8, a series of novels that records the changing values of such a

family. Galsworthy also wrote serious social plays, including Strife 5948 and ustice

59948. 5See also Galsworthy, ohn.8

The first works of ;.G. &ells were science fictionOThe Time $achine 5938, The

!sland of Dr. $oreau 59@8, The &ar of the &orlds 598. Then he turned to social

and political sub>ects. 2f his many books criticiKing the middleclass life of England,

Tono(ungay 5948, a satire on commercial advertising, is probably the most

entertaining. 5See also &ells, ;.G.8

Arnold (ennett was a literary e*perimenter who was drawn chiefly to realism, the

sliceoflife approach to fiction. The 2ld &ives? Tale 5948 and #layhanger 59948

are novels of people in drab surroundings. 5See also (ennett, Arnold.8

2ut of his years as a merchantmarine officer oseph #onrad wrote such remarkable

novels as The 0igger of the 0arcissus 598 and "ord im 59448. The scenes,

chiefly of a wild and turbulent sea, are e*otic and e*citing. The characters are strange

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people beset by obsessions of cowardice, egoism, or vanity. 5See also #onrad,

oseph.8

A master of the traditional plot was E.$. /orster. ;is characters are ordinary persons

out of middleclass life. They are moved by accident because they do not know how

to choose a course of action. A %assage to !ndia 59<=8 is a splendid novel of

Englishmen in !ndia. 5See also /orster, E.$.8

The naturalist &.;. ;udson will long be remembered for Green $ansions 594=8, a

fanciful romance of the South American >ungles. ;udson?s skill as a nature writer,

however, surpassed his skill as a novelist. 5See also ;udson, &illiam ;enry.8

ohn (uchan, who served as governorgeneral of #anada, wrote e*citing novels of

adventure and mystery. The Thirty0ine Steps 59938 is perhaps his bestknown work.

5See also (uchan, ohn.8

Early <4th#entury %oetry

The poetry of the Edwardian and Georgian periods 5Edward F!!, 949J94 George F,

994J7@8 showed many new and unusual characteristics. -obert (ridges

e*perimented in verse forms. ;e employed the usual sub>ects of the poet but brought

strange rhythms and unusual music to his verse. The poet A.E. ;ousman was an anti

Fictorian who echoed the pessimism found in ;ardy. !n his Shropshire "ad 59@8

nature is unkind people struggle without hope or purpose boys and girls laugh, love,

and are untrue. 5See also (ridges, -obert ;ousman, A.E.8

ohn $asefield stressed the bold and the violent in his poetry. The Everlasting $ercy

59998, containing a ;omeric priKefight, and Dauber 599<8, the story of a painter

among unsympathetic seamen, will please the most masculine mind. ;is descriptions

of sea and land and of brutal people are powerfully realistic. 5See also $asefield,

ohn.8

A different sort of poet from his contemporaries was &alter de la $are. The wonder

and fancy of the child?s world and the fantasy of the world of the supernatural were

his to command. %eacock %ie 59978 is representative of his verse. As a novelist and

teller of tales, De la $are was a supernaturalist who believed in the reality of evil as

well as of good. 5See also De la $are, &alter.8

Sir ames $. (arrie was probably the greatest master of the romanticfantasy drama

of the period. (eginning with The Admirable #richton 59478, in which a butler

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becomes a Swiss /amily -obinson character, and continuing through %eter %an

594=8 and Dear (rutus 59968, (arrie wrote of life as seen by children, for an

audience that was tired of adult viewpoints. 5See also (arrie, ames $.8

!ntensely nationalistic, the !rish writers were looking to their own country for literary

inspiration. &illiam (utler )eats, ohn $illington Synge, and "ord Dunsany worked

vigorously for the !rish cause. All were dramatists and all helped found the famous

Abbey Theatre. 5See also )eats, &illiam (utler !rish "iterature.8

!mpact of &orld &ar !

&orld &ar ! cut forever the ties with the past. !t brought discontent and

disillusionment. ;umankind was plunged into gloom at the knowledge that

MprogressN had not saved the world from war.

&orld &ar ! left its record in literature. -upert (rooke, who died during the war, has

been idealiKed for what is actually a rather thin performance in poetry. &ilfred 2wen,

also a war casualty, was far more realistic about the heroism and idealism of the

soldier. Siegfried Sassoon and Edmund (lunden, both survivors of the carnage, left

violent accounts of the horrors and terror of war. 5See also (rooke, -upert Sassoon,

Siegfried.8

!n fiction there was a shift from novels of the human comedy to novels of characters.

/iction ceased to be concerned with a plot or a forwardmoving narrative. !nstead it

followed the twisted, contorted development of a single character or a group of related

characters.

2f these writers &illiam Somerset $augham achieved the greatest popular success.

2f ;uman (ondage 59938 portrays a character who drifts. The $oon and Si*pence

5998, based on the life of the artist %aul Gauguin, continues the e*amination of the

character without roots. #akes and Ale 59748 shows how the real self is lost between

the two masksOpublic and privateOthat every person wears. 5See also $augham, &.

Somerset.8

The writer D.;. "awrence was a man trying to find himself, trying to be reborn. This

tragic, heroic search is reflected in his curious novels about the secret sources of

human life. The records of his search and torment are his great novels Sons and

"overs 59978 and &omen in "ove 59<48. 5See also "awrence, D.;.8

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ames oyce was searching for the secret places in which the real self is hidden. ;e

believed he had found the way to it through human vocal language. To him language

was the means by which the inner, or subconscious, feelings gained e*pression.

&hereas MciviliKedN people try to control their spoken language, he believed,

MnaturalN people let their language flow freely. !f one could capture this free flow of

language in writing, he would have the secret of humankind?s nature. Thus was born

stream of consciousness, a techni+ue that has been employed in much contemporary

literature. Llysses 59<<8, a vast, rambling account of <= hours in the lives of "eopold

(loom and Stephen Dedalus, was banned in some countries but has nevertheless

greatly influenced modern fiction. 5See also oyce, ames.8

oyce?s streamofconsciousness techni+ue was refined by Firginia &oolf. /or her,

reality, or consciousness, is a stream. "ife, for both reader and characters, is

immersion in the flow of that stream. $rs. Dalloway 59<38 and To the "ighthouse

59<68 are among her best works. 'atherine $ansfield, Dorothy $. -ichardson, and

EliKabeth (owen also wrote fiction of this type. 5See also (owen, EliKabeth

$ansfield, 'atherine -ichardson, Dorothy $. &oolf, Firginia.8

&hile these writers were concerned with the realities of the mind, Aldous ;u*ley

worked with the e*ternal world. ;e found it false, brutal, and inhuman. !n %oint

#ounter %oint 59<8, (rave 0ew &orld 597<8, and After $any a Summer Dies the

Swan 5978, his cynicism reached its peak. 5See also ;u*ley, Aldous.8

(ritish %oetry After &orld &ar !

%oetry, like fiction, shifted from traditional forms and moral pronouncements to

e*perimental verse and new techni+ues. The leader of the new school was T.S. Eliot,

an American who became a (ritish citiKen 5see Eliot, T.S. American "iterature8.

!n the 974s one group of young poets arose who viewed the world with clearer eyes.

They were, in #arlyle?s phrase, MyeasayersN rather than cursers and complainers of

life. They had hope but little optimism. 2f this group Stephen Spender, #. Day"ewis,

"ouis $ac0eice, and &.;. Auden were the most effective. Each of them

e*perimented with rhyme, rhythm, imagery, language, symbolism, and allusion. The

result was an uneven poetry that more nearly represented the unevenness of life.

Although Eliot was an American who became a (ritish citiKen and Auden an

Englishman who became an American, their earliest literary influences came to them

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in the countries of their birth. ;ence Auden is usually considered an English poet and

Eliot an American. 5See also Auden, &.;.8

Another group of poets, like the streamofconsciousness novelists, sought to escape

from the world of ideas and problems. &illiam Empson and Dylan Thomas, for

e*ample, found their inner chaos best e*pressed in ambiguity. To them, precision

represented a departed world and today?s chaos is better portrayed through the

confused, the irrelevant, and the ine*act. Theirs was a literature filled with vivid

imagery. 5See also Empson, &illiam Thomas, Dylan.8

As poet and critic, -obert Graves advocated MpureN impersonal poetry. ;e is perhaps

better known for his novels and studies of myths. 5See also Graves, -obert.8

"iterature After &orld &ar !!

&orld &ar !! had an even more profound impact than &orld &ar ! on people?s ideas

about themselves and their place in the universe. The terrible fact of the atom bomb?s

e*istence shook their sense of stability. The postwar threat of the spread of

#ommunism brought to attention the dangers to individual freedoms in a totalitarian

state.

&illiam Golding was one of the most significant postwar novelists. ;is first novel,

and the one for which he will probably be best remembered, was "ord of the /lies

593=8. This story tells of a group of schoolboys isolated on an island who revert to

savagery. !t is an imaginative interpretation of the religious theme of original sin.

Among Golding?s later books are %incher $artin 593@8, -ites of %assage 5948, and

The %aper $en 5978. Golding was awarded the 0obel priKe for literature in 97.

5See also Golding, &illiam.8

George 2rwell published several books before the war, including The -oad to &igan

%ier 59768 and ;omage to #atalonia 5978. ;is greatest renown, however, came

after the war, with the powerful anti#ommunist satire Animal /arm 59=38. This was

followed in 9= with his attack on totalitarianism entitled 0ineteen Eighty/our.

5See also 2rwell, George.8

#.%. Snow was both a scientist and a novelist. ;is bestknown nonfiction work is The

Two #ultures and the Scientific -evolution 5938 in which he argues that people

working in the arts and the sciences know very little of each other?s work therefore,

communication between them is almost impossible. As a novelist he will be best

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remembered for his series entitled collectively Strangers and (rothers. %ublished from

9=4 to 964, the novels are about the public and private life of a man named "ewis

Eliot. The books are noted for their careful analysis of bureaucracy and the corrupting

influences of power. 5See also Snow, #.%.8

The turbulent 974s, ending in &orld &ar !!, turned many of the already established

writers toward traditional values. T.S. Eliot, Edith Sitwell, Evelyn &augh, and

Graham Greene turned increasingly to #hristianity. 2f these, only Greene lived to

have a career that endured into the 94s. Among his betterknown later novels are

The Buiet American 59338, 2ur $an in ;avana 5938, A (urnt2ut #ase 59@98,

The ;uman /actor 5968, and $onsignor Bui*ote 59<8. 5See also Eliot, T.S.

Greene, Graham Sitwell, Edith &augh, Evelyn.8

$alcolm "owry, another of the older generation of writers, published his finest work,

Lnder the Folcano, in 9=6. 0ow considered one of the ma>or modern English novels,

the story depicts the nightmarish world of an alcoholic Englishman living in $e*ico.

5See also "owry, $alcolm.8

Anthony %owell published five novels prior to the war, but none was as interesting or

well done as his 9<novel series, A Dance to the $usic of Time 5939J638. These

novels are a satiric survey of (ritish society from the 9<4s through the 9@4s as

portrayed in the lives of a group of young men. 5See also %owell, Anthony.8

The literature of the 934s was as varied as at any time, but much of it was made

notable by the appearance of a new breed of writers called the Angry )oung $en.

$ost of these were of lower middleclass or workingclass backgrounds. Although not

all personally known to one another, they had in common an outspoken irreverence

for the (ritish class system and the pretensions of the aristocracy. They strongly

disapproved of the elitist universities, the #hurch of England, and the drabness of

workingclass life.

The trend of the period was crystalliKed in ohn 2sborne?s play "ook (ack in Anger

593@8, but it had been evident earlier in the writings of ohn &ain, author of ;urry

on Down 59378, and in "ucky im 59378 by 'ingsley Amis. 2ther writers of the

generation included ohn (raine, author of -oom at the Top 59368 Alan Sillitoe,

author of Saturday 0ight and Sunday $orning 5938 and the playwrights (ernard

'ops and Arnold &esker. 5See also (raine, ohn 2sborne, ohn Sillitoe, Alan.8

Amis is considered by many to be the best of the writers to emerge from the 934s.

The social discontent he e*pressed made "ucky im a household name in England. !t

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is the story of im Di*on, who rises from a lowerclass background only to find all the

positions at the top of the social ladder filled. "ater novels include That Lncertain

/eeling 59338, Take a Girl "ike )ou 59@48, and Girl, <4 59698. ;is 9= novel

Stanley and the &omen was virulently antifeminist. ;is The 2ld Devils 59@8 won

the (ooker %riKe. 5See also Amis, 'ingsley.8

&hile Amis was a realist, he was also a humanist, attempting to put the writer?s talent

in the service of society. 2ther novelists in this tradition are !ris $urdoch, Angus

&ilson, Anthony (urgess, Doris "essing, and $uriel Spark.

(y the late 934s $urdoch had gained recognition as one of the foremost novelists of

the generation. ;er books include Lnder the 0et 593=8, The -ed and the Green

59@38, The Sea, the Sea 5968, and 0uns and Soldiers 5948.

&ilson took as his sub>ect the crisis of the educated (ritish middle class after &orld

&ar !. ;is collection of short stories The &rong Set 59=8 portrays the emotional

crisis of &orld &ar !!. ;is first novel, ;emlock and After 593<8, is considered

among his best.

(urgess was a novelist whose fictional e*ploration of modern dilemmas combines

wit, moral earnestness, and touches of the biKarre. A #lockwork 2range 59@<8 was

both comic and violent. ;is other novels include Enderby 2utside 59@8, Earthly

%owers 5948, The End of the &orld 0ews 5978, and The 'ingdom of the &icked

5938. 5See also (urgess, Anthony.8

Doris "essing wrote novels dealing with people caught up in social and political

turmoil. ;er #hildren of Fiolence, a series of five novels, begins with $artha Buest

593<8 and ends with a vision of the world after nuclear disaster in The /ourGated

#ity 59@8. She was also acclaimed for her mastery of the short story. 5See also

"essing, Doris.8

$uriel Spark?s early novels, including The (allad of %eckham -ye 59@48 and The

Girls of Slender $eans 59@78, were characteriKed by a humorous fantasy. ;er later

books were of a sinister nature, including The $andelbaum Gate 59@38, The Driver?s

Seat 59648, and 0ot to Disturb 59698. ;er bestknown works are $emento $ori

5938 and The %rime of $iss ean (rodie 59@98. She blended religious thought and

se*ual comedy in The 2nly %roblem 59=8. 5See also Spark, $uriel.8

After 963 there were several intentionally e*perimental novels such as The &hite

;otel 5998 by D.$. Thomas and $idnight?s #hildren 5998 by Salman -ushdie.

-ushdie?s later novel The Satanic Ferses 598 prompted !ran?s Ayatollah'homeini

=



to issue a death threat against the author, because the book was considered

blasphemous by $uslims. (ut the more traditional literature persisted in popularity.

Anita (rookner wrote carefully crafted and unpretentious fiction in A Start in "ife

5998 and ;otel du "ac 59=8.

A later generation of satirical writers included $artin Amis, the son of 'ingsley

Amis. ;is novels included The -achel %apers 59678, $oney 59=8, "ondon /ields

598, and The !nformation 5938. ulian (arnes wrote /laubert?s %arrot 59=8, A

;istory of the &orld in 94 91< #hapters 598, and The %orcupine 59<8.

(ritish poetry was as diverse as the rest of the literature in the postwar era. The poets

who made the greatest impression were those firmly rooted in &estern values who

preferred clarity to clever obscurity. The outstanding ones were Thom Gunn, Ted

;ughes, Donald Davie, and %hilip "arkin. 5See also ;ughes, Ted "arkin, %hilip.8

The 0obelpriKewinning !rish poet Seamus ;eaney, who spent his formative years

amid the murderous divisiveness of 0orthern !reland, wrote poetry particularly

distinguished by its bringing together of opposites 5see ;eaney, Seamus8. 2ther

significant poets to emerge after &orld &ar !! included on Silkin, Elaine /einstein,

#harles Tomlinson, EliKabeth ennings, Geoffrey ;ill, and -.S. Thomas. The novelist

'ingsley Amis also belongs to the group of better poets

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