historia de la musica en los videojuegos.pdf

8/11/2019 historia de la musica en los videojuegos.pdf

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FromBitstoHits:VideoGamesMusicChangesitsTune KarenCollins

citeas:

Collins,Karen2005.FromBitstoHits:VideoGamesMusicChangesitsTune

Film

International#12,

January

2005.

pp.

419.

WhenIwasakid,mybrotherandIwouldplayNintendountilwewerebothdoubledoverwithwhatwedcalled

Nintendothumb.Ilaterlearnedthetechnicaltermforthisproblemwascarpaltunnelsyndrome,butitdidnt

matterIwashooked.Hookedonthelittlecartoonishcharactersthatfeltsolifeliketomeatthetime,hookedon

gamesthatledmethroughtime,throughhistory,throughworldsknownandunknown,andmostimportantly,

hookedonlaughingatmybrotherasIjoinedinwiththequickdescendingglissandobleepingofthemachine,

signifyingthecharactersdeath,andmyturntoplay.

Thoseof

us

who

grew

up

in

front

of

several

generations

of

games

consoles

take

for

granted

that

games

music

has

comealongwayfromtheblipsandbleepsoftheearlymachines.Afterall,eventheconservativeNational

AcademyofRecordingArtsandScienceshasnowallowedforGrammyawardsforinteractivegamesmusic.iThere

arealsoBAFTAandMTVawardsnowforgamessoundtracks.Infact,manyfilmcomposersandpopularmusic

groupsarebecomingincreasinglyinvolvedintheproductionofgamesmusic,andsoundtrackstovideogamesare

findingaconsiderableaudienceamongstmusicfans,asmoreandmoregamessoundtracksbecomereleasedas

musicCDs. HowardShore,composerofthefilmsTheLordoftheRingsandTheSilenceoftheLambshasrecently

completedthescoreforWebzensSUN,andMichaelNyman,famousforhisPeterGreenawayfilmscores,hasalso

producedmusicforgames,suchasSegasEnemyZero.Despitetheadvancesingamestechnology,manyacademics

havebeenslowtorecognizethegrowingimportanceofgamesmusic.

Assoundtechnologyimprovedthroughthelastthreedecades,sodiditsroleingames.Musicquicklywentfrom

beingacatchy

gimmick

designed

to

sucker

quarters

from

unsuspecting

passers

by

in

arcades,

to

being

an

integral

partofthegamingexperience.Gamesmusicsharesmostofthefunctionsoffilmmusicithelpsestablishsettings,

emphasizesmovement,andservesnarrativefunctions(continuity,unity,cuing,foreshadowing,etc.).iiInaddition

tothesefunctions,gamesaudio,duetoitsinteractiveelements,hasadditionalfunctions,suchashelpingtolocate

theplayerinthegame,drawingtheplayerinemotionally,symbolizingspecificeventsoritemstolettheplayer

knowwhentheyvedonesomethinggoodorbad,andmostimportantly,cueingplayerstotakeanaction,suchas

warningtheplayerthatabadguyisjustaroundthecorner.Therehaveevenbeengamesinwhichmusicplaysa

pivotalroleintheplotandplayersmustpayattentiontomusicalcuesinordertoprogress.Anygamertodaycan

tellyouthatmostgamesaredifficulttoplaywithoutsoundon.

Anewfunctiontodayofgamesmusicismarketingeithertosellthesoundtrackstothegames,ortoattractmusic

fanstoaparticulargame.Popularmusicisoftenincludedingamestoday,asisevidencedbyIsland/DefJams

recentpartnership

with

Electronic

Arts,

the

largest

game

manufacturer.iii

The

recent

game

Tony

Hawk's

Underground:T.H.U.G2,forinstance,hasaneclecticrangeoftracks,fromoldschoolpunkliketheRamonesand

theSexPistols,tojustplainoldschoollikeFrankSinatraandJohnnyCash,aswellascontemporaryhiphopartists

likeAesopRock.Themusicindustryisevendiscoveringvideogamesasanewchannelformarketingbands,as

artistslikeAndrewWK,GoodCharlotte,andTrustCompanyhavesuccessfullygainedexposurethroughthe

medium.iv Onesurveysuggests55percentofteenagegamerslearnofnewmusicthroughgamesnow,andasong

inapopulargameislikelytobeheard600milliontimes.v Gamessoundtracksareevenmakingtheirwayintothe

charts,asElectronicArtsNBALive2003recentlybecamethefirsttoachieveplatinumsales(onemillionunits).


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TheaimsofthispaperaretooutlineandexplainwhatIwillrefertoasthethreemainstagesofgamesaudio

development.Thefirstisthemusicofthe8bitmachines,thatpivotaltimeofblipsandbleepsthatmanystillcallto

mindwhendiscussinggamesmusic.Thesecondstageisthemusicoftheinbetweenyears,whendevelopments

intechnologyexpandedintoMIDIandwavetablesynthesis,andsubsequentlymoresophisticatedmusicingames

begantodevelop.ThefinalstagebeginswiththeinclusionofRedbook(CD)audioandtakesustotodaywhen

therearefewlimitationsintechnologyandgamesscoringhasbecomealucrativebusiness.

Part

One:

The

8

Bit

Revolution

Theearliestvideogamesthosegoingbacktowhatisallegedlythefirst,WilliamHigginbothamsTennisforTwo

gameof1958,andSteveRussellsSpacewarof1962hadnosound. Likewise,theearliesthomeconsolessuchas

theMagnavoxOdysseywerealsosilent.ItwasntuntilAtarisPong(1972),anearlyelectronictabletennisgame,

thatavideogameincludedsound,makingthebeepingpongsoundwhentheballhitthepaddle.AsStephenKent

reports,thepongsoundwasreportedbydesignerAlAlcornasanaccident:

Thetruthis,Iwasrunningoutofpartsontheboard.Nolan[Bushnell]wantedtheroarofacrowdofthousandsthe

approvingroarofcheeringpeoplewhenyoumadeapoint.TedDabneytoldmetomakeabooandahisswhenyou

lostapoint,becauseforeverywinnertheresaloser.IsaidScrewit,Idontknowhowtomakeanyoneofthose

sounds.

I

dont

have

enough

parts

anyhow.

Since

I

had

the

wire

wrapped

on

the

scope,

I

poked

around

the

sync

generatortofindanappropriatefrequencyoratone.Sothosesoundsweredoneinhalfaday.Theywerethesounds

thatwerealreadyinthemachine(Kent,2001:4142).

Taito/MidwaysSpaceInvadersof1978wasthefirstmajorarcadegamesuccess,andalsothefirstgametoinclude

acontinuousbackgroundsoundtrack:foursimplechromaticdescendingbassnoteswhichrepeatedinaloop.Along

withthemusic,thegameincludedsixsoundeffects:amissileshot,explosions,astrikeonasaucer,aflyingsaucer

sound,invaderhits,andthebonusmissilebase.MostremarkableaboutSpaceInvadersisthefactthat,despite

beingthefirsttoincludeabackgroundtrack,italsorecognizedtheneedforthesoundtracktobeinteractivethat

is,themusicstempowasaffectedbytheplayersprogressinthegame.Inthiscase,thefourtonesbecamethe

marchingofalienfeetthatspedupasthegameprogressed.

Mostvideogamesmusicatthetimeoftheearlyarcadehitsincludedoneortwochanneltuneseitherasquicktitle

themesortwotothreesecondingameloops,althoughanotherimportantinventioningamesaudiocame

quicklythecutscene,anintermission,orbreakinagameduringwhichplayerssitbackandwatch,usedasa

rewardforattainingaparticularlevel.TohruIwatanisPacman,thefirstgametoincorporateacutscene(1980),

enjoyeditsmostmusicaltimesduringthesescenes,sincerunningaudioandplayerinteractionatthesametime

wastypicallytootaxingontheoldprocessors,butwithouttheplayerinteraction,soundcouldbeboosted.Pacman

alsobroughtaboutamassrealizationofthecatchinessofsoundingamesitsinfamouswacawacaingame

soundandopening2channeltitlethemebecamethesourceofseveralgimmicksongsinthe80s,suchasWeirdAl

YankovicsPacman,andBucknerandGarciasPacmanFeverthelatterofwhichquicklyledtoanalbumof

othergamestunes,including"GoinBerserk","DoTheDonkeyKong","OdetoaCentipede","Froggy'sLament"and

"Defender". Videogamesmusicmayhavebeenviewedasagimmick,butitwasheretostay.

Thebeginningsofinteractiveaudioonlyprovidethevaguestofcluesastowhatwastocome.Soundwasslowto

develop,andifonerecognizesthepoorgraphicsqualityofthoseearlygamescomparedwiththoseoftoday,its

notamajorleapoftheimaginationtorealizethesoundoftheoldgameswasequallypoor,ifnotworse.PCsin

particularwereconsideredbusinessmachines,andaudiowasnotseentohavemanybusinessapplications,and

wasthereforenotapriorityforcomputerdevelopers.Nevertheless,thereweremanyprogressiveideasintroduced

totheaudioof8bitmachinegames,and8bitgamesdevelopedauniqueaestheticthatisstillenjoyedbygamers

andmusicfanstoday.Infact,awholegenreofelectronicmusicknownasbitcore,bithop,bliphopor

micromusichasbeenspawnedbycomposerswhostilluse8bitmachinestoday.vi


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Themajorityof8bitmachines(andearlyarcadeandpinballmachines)usedwhatisknownasProgrammable

SoundGenerators,orPSGsound.EarlyPSGsusedanaloguesynthesis,orsubtractivesynthesis,whichstartswitha

waveformcreatedbyanoscillator,andusesafiltertoattenuateorsubtractspecificfrequenciesandthenpasses

thisthroughanamplifiertocontroltheenvelopeandamplitudeofthefinalresultingsound.Thesespecifications

wereusuallycodedinassemblylanguage,andearlysoundprogrammersneededtounderstandtheprogramming

languagetoengagethechip.Thismeantthatmostearlycomposerswereinfactprogrammersworkingonother

aspectsof

agame,

or

at

best,

in

house

programmer

musicians

who

had

to

work

closely

with

programmers

working

onotheraspectsofthegame.PSGsofferedlittlecontroloverthetimbreofasound,usuallylimitingsoundsto

singlewaveformswithoutmuchabilitytomanipulatethatwaveform.ManyofthesePSGsweregenericchips

createdbyTexasInstrumentsorGeneralInstruments,butsomeearlyhomecomputercompanies,suchasAtariand

Commodore,designedtheirownsoundchipstoimprovesoundquality.

InternationalBusinessMachines(IBM)introducedtheirPersonalComputer(PC)in1981.ThefirstIBMPCsand

clonescontainedonlyatinyspeakerthatcouldproducesimpletones(typicallysquarewaves)ofvaryingfrequency

butofafixedvolume,designedtoindicateerrorsorothermessages,sometimesreferredtoasabipperora

beepertheywere,asthenamesuggested,businessmachines,andgameswereviewedfairlyirrelevanttothe

market. By1983,seeingthesuccessofcompaniessuchasCommodoreandApple,IBMrealizedthattheirbusiness

couldbeexpandedintoawidermarketbymakingthePCmoreaccessibletotheneedsofthehomeuser.Withthis

inmind,

the

IBM

PCjr

was

launched

in

1984.

To

better

compete

with

the

other

home

PCs

being

marketed

at

the

time,severalchangesweremadetotheoriginalPC.Enhancedgraphicsandsoundillustratedtheimportanceof

videogamesinthehomecomputermarket. AlthoughthePCjrhadseveralfailingswhichhelditbackfromgreat

success,vii

theseproblemswereimproveduponbyitspopularclone,RadioShacksTandy1000.TheTandy1000

retainedtheenhanced3voicesoundofthePCjr,makingitpopularwithgamersandgamedevelopersintheearly

1980s.

IBM,inanefforttomarketthePCjr,hiredtheUScompanySierratoproduceaPCjrgamethatwouldshowoffthese

newlyenhancedcoloursandsoundcapabilities.Sierrahadpreviouslycreatedgraphicandtextadventuresforthe

PC,suchasUlyssesandtheGoldenFleece,MysteryHouse,andTheDarkCrystal.SierrasanswertoIBMs

assignmentwasKingsQuest,thefirst3Dgraphicadventuregame.ButSierrawentonestepfurther,creatingan

AdventureGameInterpreter,orAGI,whichwouldbecomethestandardforprogrammingSierraspopulargraphic

adventureseries

such

as

Space

Quest,

Police

Quest,and

the

Leisure

Suit

Larryseries.

The

AGI

format

was

designed

forandmodeledaroundthePCjrssoundchip,usingallavailablesoundchannels.ThePCjr,TandyandMacintosh

versionsofthegamessongswerecomposedoffourparts;themelody,twoaccompanimentparts,andonenoise

(generallyforsoundeffects).ThegamescouldalsobeplayedontheIBMPC,althoughthePCssinglechannelcould

onlyplaythemelodyportion(firstchannel)ofthesongs.

MostearlygamesforthePCwerecodedinBASICA,otherwiseknownasAdvancedBASIC(BeginnersAllPurpose

SymbolicInstructionCode),theofficialBASICofIBM.BASICasalanguageforgameprogrammingwassomewhat

limitedontheoldmachines,whichhadtroublemanagingsoundatthesametimeasexecutingothertasks.The

processorscouldonlymaintainstaticsound,or,insomecases,apatchydynamicsound,andtheseparate

channelsforthosefewPCsthathadthem,wouldoccasionallyexperiencedelayduetotheslowexecutionofthe

commands.viii

Atbest,then,gameshadatitletheme,athemeatkeyevents(suchasdeathofamajorcharacter),

sometimestied

in

with

cut

scenes,

and

agame

over

sequence.

Background

music

for

the

early

home

PCs

was

rare.

AswiththePC,thirdpartysoundexpansionboardswerebuiltfortheMacintoshAppleIImodels,themostpopular

ofwhichusedGeneralInstrumentsAY38192PSGchip,whichprovidedthreetonechannelsandonenoise

generator.SweetMicroSystemsMockingboardwasthebestsellingofthesesoundboardstousetheAY38912,

andwasavailableinfourdifferentpackages,addingspeechsynthesisandupto6channelsofsound.Withoutmany

gamessupportingthemusic,however,mostoftheaddonboardswereusedbyhomemusiciansratherthan

gamers.


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ItwasCommodorewhichfullyrecognizedtheimportanceofgamingtothehomecomputermarket. In1982,after

thesuccessofitsVIC20model,Commodorereleasedits64Kmodel,whichwouldgoontobecomethebestselling

computerofalltime,havingsoldanestimated22millionunits.TheC64wasoriginallyconceivedofasagame

computer,andthegraphicsandsoundremainevidenceofthis.Thesoundchip(calledSID,orSoundInterface

Device)wasathreevoiceplusnoisegeneratorchip,createdbyRobertYannes,whohadhelpedengineertheVIC

20,andwouldlatergoontocreatetheDigitalOscillatorChipfortheAppleIIGS,andthentofoundEnsoniq

keyboards.Unlike

other

PC

chips

at

the

time,

each

tone

on

the

chip

could

be

selected

from

arange

of

waveforms

sawtooth,triangle,pulse,andnoise. Eachtonecouldalsobesubjectedtoavarietyofeffectsandprogrammable

filtersincludingringmodulation.AnindependentADSRamplitudeenvelopemodulatorenabledtheSIDtomore

accuratelyimitateotherinstrumentsthanpreviouschips. Thenoisechannelcouldalsooperateasasimplepulse

wavemodulation4bitsampler.

Frogger,releasedin1981inthearcadesand1983fortheIBMPCandC64,revealsthegreatdifferencesbetween

themachinesofthetimes.ThePC(andtheAtariVCS1982version)couldonlyhandleashorttwochanneltitletune

andlevelintrosong,therestofthegameremaininglimitedtosoundeffects.TheCommodore64ontheother

handcouldadaptthesongfromthearcadeversion,whichhadacontinuousbackgroundmedley,includingYankee

DoodleandCamptownRaces. Infact,CommodoresadvancedSIDchipallowedformuchgreaterreplicationof

recognizablesongs,andtheadaptationofsongsfromthebetterequippedarcadeversionsapracticeknownas

portingwascommon

on

the

C64.

Other

tracks

were

adapted

from

popular

songs:

1986s

International

Karate,forinstance,wasinspiredbyRyuichiSakamotosscoreforthe1983warfilmMerryChristmasMr.Lawrence,and

MontyontheRun,usinganewpitchbendcodeinventedbycomposerRobHubbard,wasinspiredbyTheDevil's

Gallop(CharlesWilliams),thetitlethemeforthe1940sAmericandetectiveradioshow"DickBarton". Aswellas

theseimitationsofknowntunes,andtheuseofthecopyrightfreemedleysseeninFrogger,songswerealsoinrare

caseslicensedspecificallyforgames.Forinstance,GriggandJansencoveredtheKingsmens LouieLouiefor

CaliforniaGames.

Likehomecomputers,theearly8bitconsoleshadsinglePSGs,mostlywiththreeplusonechannelsofaudio,and,

likePCs,theaudiochannelshadtobedownmixedtoonemonooutput.Programmersfor8bitconsolesraninto

manyofthesamedifficultiesasPCgameprogrammers.Therewaslittleroomingamesformusic,soagain,atbest,

atitlesongorshortvictorysongmayhavebeenused.TheIntellivisionforinstancehadacartridgespaceof4K,and

audiowas

given

perhaps

ten

percent

of

this

space.

ix

Atari

VCS

games

were

lucky

to

have

any

music

at

all.

TheAtariVCS(VideoComputerSystem,alsoknownasthe2600)sawlimitedsuccesswhenitwasfirstreleasedin

1976.In1980,however,AtarilicensedthearcadehitSpaceInvaders,whichbecameabestsellerandhelpedto

spuronthesalesoftheVCS. Eventually,over25millionVCSsystemsweresold,andover120millioncartridges.x

ThesoundchipintheVCSwasknownastheTIA(TelevisionInterfaceAdapter),andalsohandledgraphics.The

audioportionhadtwochannels,eachwitha4bitvolumecontrol,a4bitwaveformcontrolselectoranda5bit

frequencydivider(capableofdividingafrequencyof30KHzby32values).This5bitfrequencycontrollerwas

incrediblylimited,andusedapolynomialcounter,atypeofbinarycounterthatusesapseudorandomwayof

counting,ratherthanthenormalbinaryincremental/decremental.Achosenfrequencywasdivideddownfromthe

systemclock,meaningmanypitcheswerenotintunewithothers,makingitdifficulttoprogrammelodies.Even

titlethemeswereuncommon,andifanythingafewnoteswhichsoundedcompletelyrandommightbethrownin

asatitle

song.

ThelackofprogrammabilitymeantthattheAtariVCS,whenitdidhavemusic,hadmoreoriginalsongs,asporting

songsfromwellknownmusicwasdifficult,althoughattemptsweremade.ThegameUpndowninparticular

showsthedistincteffecttheAtaristuningshadonthecompositionofsongs,asitturnsabluesyF#minorgroovein

thearcadeversiontoanalmostdementedsoundingversioninCminor.


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Figure1.UpNDown ArcadeVersion(Sega1983)

Figure2.UpNDownAtariVCSVersion(Sega1983)

MattelsanswertotheAtariVCSwastheIntellivision,moreadvancedinsoundandgraphics. Alsoimportantwas

itsmodulardesign,allowingforextensionssuchastheEntertainmentComputerSystem,amusickeyboardand

secondsoundchip,allowingforsixsimultaneouschannels.TheoriginalIntellivisionusedaGeneralInstruments

PSGsoundchip,theAY38914.PartofaseriesofGIchipspopularwithgamemakers(thechipswereusedinthe

ZXSpectrum,AmstradCPC,BBCMicro,AtariST,SegaMasterSystemandmanyarcademachines),the8914had

threetonegeneratorchannelsandonenoise.Eachchannelallowedforindividualcontroloffrequency,volumeand

envelope.PitchwasstillcontrolledbythefrequencydivisionmethodlikeontheVCS,buttheGIchipusedatwelve

bitregistertosetthedivisor,allowingfor4096possibilitiesinsteadofonly32intheVCS.Thismeantthe

Intellivisioncouldmorecreatemorerecognisablerenditionsofknownsongs,suchasBillGoodrichsuseofFlight

oftheBumblebee(RimskyKorsakov)onthegameBuzzBombers.xi

Undoubtedlythemostpopularofall8bitmachineswastheNintendoEntertainmentSystem,orNES.TheNES,

releasedinNorthAmericain1985,usedabuiltinfivechannelPSGwithonewaveformforeachchanneltwo

pulsewaves,atrianglewave,anoise,andasamplechannel. Thepulseandtrianglechannelshadan11bit

frequencycontrol,capableofabouteightoctaves.Thepulsechannelshadfourdutycycleoptionsanda4bit

amplitudeenvelopefunction,andoneofthechannelshadafrequencysweepfunctionthatcouldcreate

portamentolikeeffects,andwasoftenusedforUFOorlasergunsoundeffects. Thepulsewavescouldalsobe

detuned,andvibratoeffectscouldbesimulated.Thetrianglewavechannelwassetoneoctavelowerthanthatof

thepulsewaves,hadafourbitfrequencycontrol,buthadnovolumeorenvelopecontrol.Thefifthchannelwasa

PCMchannelsampler,alsoknownastheDeltaModulationchannel(DMC).


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TheNESwasshippedwiththegameSuperMarioBrothers,agamewhichwouldspurcomposerKojiKondointothe

spotlightinJapan.AlthoughmanyNorthAmericansprobablycouldntrecognizeKondosname,mostofthem

wouldprobablyrecognizethetune.xii

KondoquicklymasteredthelimitationsoftheNESsoundchip,managingto

filloutitsthreetonechannelswithacleveruseofpercussion,catchymelodies,andsmoothloopingcapabilities

thatusedslightvariationstokeepthesongfromgettingasmonotonousasearliergames. MostNESsongs

consistedofamelody,thickenedoutwithasecondchannel,abassline,andpercussion,andthelimitationsmeant

mostsongsweremelodybased,butsomecomposersexploredotherpossibilities,includingHirokazu"Hip"

Tanakas

now

well

known

score

for

the

Metroid

game,

which

intentionally

avoided

melody

based

songs,

instead

optingforascoreperhapsclosertothatofsciencefictionfilmmusic,wheresoundeffectsandsongblurtogether

tocreateanatmosphere,andthemusicdisappearsintothebackground.

Figure

3

Metroid

title

theme

(Hirokazu

Tanaka)

(Nintendo

1986)

NESsoundandmusicwasgenerallyallottedabouttenpercent(440Kb)ofthetotalgamesize,xiii

althoughsome

gamesusedincartridgesoundchipstoaddextrachannels.Forinstance,theKonamiVRC6andVRC7chip,usedin

CastlevaniaandLagrangePoint,generatedsoundusingFMsynthesis.FrequencyModulation(FM)synthesishad

beendevelopedbyJohnChowningatStanfordUniversityintheearly1970s,andeventuallylicensedandimproved

uponbyYamaha,whowouldusethemethodfortheircomputersoundchips,aswellastheDXseriesofkeyboards.

FMusesamodulatingwavesignaltochangethepitchofanotherwave(knownasthecarrier). EachFMsound

needsatleasttwosignalgenerators(oscillators),oneofwhichisthecarrierwaveandoneofwhichisthe

modulatingwave. FMsoundchipsfoundtheirwayintomanyoftheearlyarcadegamesofthelate1970sandearly

1980s,andintomostmid80ssoundcards.ComparedwiththePSGchips,theywerefarmoreflexible,offeringa

muchwiderrangeoftimbresandsounds,withalimitedamountofmemoryrequired.Theywere,however,too

expensive

for

the

earliest

home

consoles,

although

they

found

their

way

into

many

early

arcade

games.

RecognizingthatgamersandmusicianswanteddecentqualitysoundfromtheirPCswithouthavingtogooutand

buynewcomputers,addonthirdpartyFMsoundcardsbegantodevelopinthemid1980s.Itsworthnotingthat

soundcardsweredesignedwiththegamerinmind:theygenerallyhadajoystickgameportwhichcoulddoubleas

aMIDIportwithanadapter.Aswell,linesin/outforspeakers,headphones,homestereosandmicrophoneswere

oftenincluded.ThefirstpopularPCsoundcardwasproducedbythesmallCanadiancompanyAdLibMultimediain

1986.AdLibbasedtheircardonaYamahaFMchip,YM3812,whichwasalaterversionofthepopularYM3526

usedinmanyarcadegames.IthadnineFMchannels,orsixtonechannelsandfiveforpercussion.TheuseofFM


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synthesistechniquesmeantthatgamedeveloperscouldnowuseawiderrangeofinstrumentsandsounds. To

boostsales,theAdLibcardwaspackagedwithsoftwarecapableofplayingbackMIDIfiles(JukeBox),aMIDI

sequencerprogramequippedwith145presetvoices(VisualComposer),andanFMsynthesisprogramtodesign

soundsorinstruments(InstrumentMaker).xiv

KeyboardmanufacturerRolandhadalsobegunmakingsoundcardsforPCsbythelate1980s.Remarkableforits

time,theMT32had32voices,with256presetyetprogrammableinstrumentsreadyforMIDIuse. Whatreally

madeit

unique,

however,

was

that

it

used

wavetable

synthesis.

Wavetable

synthesis

uses

pre

set

digital

samples

of

instruments,usuallycombinedwithbasicwaveformsofanaloguesynths.Rolandwasgivenaseriousboostwhen

theSierrasoftwarecompanysignedadealwiththecompanyalongwithAdLib.Aswellasbecomingaresellerof

theproducts,SierrawouldadoptbothRolandsMT32soundcardandtheAdLibasstandardsfortheir

compositions,beginningwithKingsQuestIV.xv

Sierrawouldonceagainshowoffthecapabilitiesofthehardware

components,bybringingonboardGrammyandEmmynominatedcomposerWilliamGoldstein,and,laterJan

Hammer,amongothers,tocomposeforthegames.

ItwasaroundthistimethatMIDI,aprotocoldefinedin1982toallowmusicaldevices(synthesizers,keyboards,

sequencers,mixingdesks,computers)tobecompatibleinastandardizedformat,revolutionizedthepossibilitiesfor

gamescomposing.Onlycommands,ratherthanactualsounds,aretransmitted,meaningfilesizewasverysmall

absolutelycrucialforgames.AMIDIcommandmight,forinstance,tellasynthesizerwhentostartandstopplaying

anote,

at

what

volume

and

what

pitch,

and

what

voice,

or

sound,

to

use.

Initially,

some

of

this

information

would

varygreatlydependingonthedevicesused,butin1991aGeneralMIDIstandardwasagreedupon.Thisstandard

laidoutatemplatefor128instrumentsandsoundeffects,sothatthesamenumbersetting wouldbethesameon

anyMIDIdevice:soacommandsayingplaynumber39wouldalwaysplayaslapbass.

Mostimportantlytogamesmusic,MIDIallowedfornewinnovationsininteractivity.Onesuchdevelopmentwas

LucasArtssiMUSE(InteractiveMusicandSoundEffects),in1991.iMUSEwasoriginallydevelopedforLucasArts

StarWarsgameforNintendo,butfounduseinpopularLucasArtsgameslikeMonkeyIsland2,andIndianaJones

andtheFateofAtlantis. TheiMusesystemsequencedMIDIinawaythatallowedcomposerstoorganizemusical

cuesinsuchawaythatitcouldjumpaboutwithinagiventrack,tointeractwithwhatwashappeninginthegame.

Itcould,forinstance,changevolume,tempo,oraddorremoveinstrumentsorsoundeffectsinresponsetoagiven

actioninagameinotherwords,itcouldcreatetrueinteractivegamesmusic.

CompetingwithMIDIintheearlystagewasthetrackerformat,alsoknownasmoduleformat,orMOD.Tracker

programsworkedmuchlikemodernMIDIsequencers.Atrackerprogramwouldstoredataonthenotes,volume

setting,effectsandinstrument(likeMIDI),howevertheywouldalsorecorddigitalsamplesoftheinstrumentsin

theactualfile,limitedonlybythesizeoffile(the880Kbfloppydisk).MODfileshadtheadvantageoverMIDI,then,

inthatmusicorothersoundeventswouldsoundasthecomposerintended,andawealthofpossiblesoundswas

suddenlyopenedupforthecomposertouse. MODfileswerealsoeasiertoprogramfornonmusicianslike many

gamecomposersandmadeiteasytosequencerepetitiveloopsalsoimportantforgamecomposers.xvi

The

MODformatneverreallycaughtonbecauseofitssizerequirementsandthelimitationsofgamescartridges,and

thefactthatthesoundqualityofthehardwarewasgenerallynotasgoodasMIDIcomponents.Althoughthere

wereafewgamecompaniesthatusedtrackerformat(EpicMegagames,forinstance),themajorityusedthe

bettersupportedMIDI.

PartTwo:The16BitEvolution

Thefirst16bitconsolewasreleasedbythemultinationalcommunicationscorporationNECinJapanin1987as

thePCEngine.ThePCEngine,orTurboGrafx16asitbecameknownintheWest,wasnottrue16bit,butratherhad

two8bitprocessors.Nevertheless,itdidhavea16bitgraphicschip,and6channelstereosoundwith5bit

sampling,andwaspopularinJapanwhenitwasreleased.WhenitcametimeforaNorthAmericanrelease,


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8

however,theTurboGrafx16didnotfaresowell.PartofthereasonforthiswasthefactthatNintendohadmany

gamedevelopingcompaniesunderstrictexclusivecontracts,restrictingthemfromdevelopingforothersystems.

TheTurboGrafxCDmodelprovidedgamersattimeswithoptionsoflisteningtothesystems6channelsound

generatororprerecordedCDaudioatselecttimesinthegames.

Thefirstreal16bitconsolewasthe1989releasebySega,theMegadrive(theNorthAmericannamewasthe

Genesis).TheMegadriveproducedmanygamesportedfromsuccessfulSegaarcadegameslikeSpaceHarrier,After

Burnerand

Ghouls

N

Ghosts.The

system

originally

came

packaged

with

the

arcade

hit

Altered

Beast,but

soon

took

onNintendosMariowiththeirSonictheHedgehogcharacter.TheMegadrivealsohadsuperiorsoundoverthe

NES:ithadonePSG3+1chiptohandleeffectsandtheoccasionalmusicpart(aTexasInstrumentschip,thesame

usedintheColecovision),aswellasaYamahaFMsynthesizerchip,whichhadsixchannelsofdigitisedstereo

sound,andonePCM8bitsamplechannelwhichwascapableofasamplerateof22KHz(thesamechipusedinthe

YamahaDX27andDX100keyboards).Castlevaniashowsofftherapidimprovementinsoundqualityonthe

Megadrive.


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9

Figure4CastlevaniaBloodines(MichiruYamane),Konami1994.SegaMegadrive

WiththeMegadriveleaguesaheadoftheNESincapabilities,Nintendorealizedthattheywouldhavetobuilda16

bitsystemtocompete.By1991,theyhaddevelopedtheirSuperFamicom,orSuperNintendoEntertainment

System(SNES).TheSNESsoundmoduleconsistedofseveralcomponents,themostimportantofwhichwasthe

SonySPC700,whichactedasacoprocessorwithitsownmemory.TheSPC700wasan8bitCPUrunningat2

MHz,with

an

attached

16

bit

Sony

digital

signal

processor,

essentially

awavetable

synthesizer

which

supported

eightstereochannelsatprogrammablefrequencyandvolume,andeffectssuchasreverb,filters,panning,and

envelopegenerators,andwithapresetstockofMIDIinstruments.Inaddition,therewastypicallyasignificant

amount(24Mbit)cartridgememorythatcouldbeusedforsound. Foreaseofprogramming,softwarewas

developedtoconvertPC/MacMIDIfilesintofilesexecutablebytheSPC700,andthereforemusicianscouldspend

moretimecomposingthesongs.

TheThirdStageandtheStartofCDAudio

Althoughbytheearly1990smostcomputershadFMsoundcardssupportingMIDI,manyofthesesoundcards

werecheap,andtheFMsynthesismadetheMIDImusicsounddisappointing.WhenCDROMScameout,MIDIin

gamingwasprettymuchabandoned,andwithitthenotionofinteractivemusic.PopularearlyCDROMtitleslike

7th

Guest

cameout

with

high

resolution

graphics

and

higher

quality

music.

The

CD

ROM

technology

ensured

that

therewasmoreroomformusicingamespreviouslymostgameshadshippedon3.5floppydisks,and,perhaps

moreimportantlytothegamecomposers,sincetheaudiowasnotreliantonasoundcardssynthesis,composers

couldknowhowthemusicwouldsoundonmostsystems.

SegareleasedtheirCDROMbased32bitSaturnin1994.Theaudioalonehadtwoaudioprocessors,runningon

theMotorola68000thesameprocessorthathadbeenusedastheMegadrivesCPUknownastheSaturnCustom

SoundProcessor(SCSP),manufacturedbyYamaha.TheSCSPconsistedofa32channelPCMsoundgenerator,

capableof44.1KHzsampleratesanda16bitdigitaltoanalogueconverter. Thesoundboardalsohada32voice

MIDIYamahaFMsynthesizer,whoseoutputcouldbemixedinstereousinga16channeldigitalmixerandtimer.

TheonlydrawbacktoSaturnssoundsystemwasthelimitedamountofRAMaccordedtosound.Becauseaudio

sampleshadtobedownloadedraw(decompressed)intotheaudiomemorybufferof512K,thismeanttherewasa

limitedamount

of

space

for

simultaneous

sounds,

and

so

the

sample

rate

was

often

reduced

to

conserve

memory.

TheSaturnsawmostpopularityinJapan,asdidthePanasonicFZ13DOandtheAtariJaguar,bothsystemswhich

havepassedintoobscurity.TheonlyrealrelevancetothispaperistheJaguarsreleaseofTempest2000,oneofthe

firstgamestohaveaseparatesoundtrackforsale,andtheinclusionofknownpopularartistssuchasWhite

ZombiessoundtrackforWayoftheWarrioronthe3DO.OneofthereasonsfortheultimatefailureoftheSaturn

andotherstocatchonwasthecompetitionwiththeSonyPlaystation,asystemwhichwascheaperandeasierto

programfor,andthereforesawthesupportofmoregamesdesigners.

TheSonyPlaystationbeganitslifeasaCDROMaddoncomponentforNintendosSNESsystem.Nintendohad

joinedforceswithSonytobettercompeteinthevideogamesmarket,butthetwocompaniescouldnotagreeon

thesystem.Sonydecidedtopushaheadwithitsown32bitsystem,thePlaystation.ThePlayStationwas

enormouslysuccessful,sellingover85millionunits,mostlikelyduetoitsaffordabilityandmassivelibraryof

availablegames.

The

Playstations

motherboard

featured

several

graphics

chips

to

handle

3D

graphics

and

texture

mapping,anddedicatedaudiomemoryandsoundchip.The2xspeedCDROMdrivecouldalsoplayaudioCDs,in

fact,thereweresomegameswhereitwaspossibletopausethegame,andstickinanychosenaudioCDtolisten

toTwistedMetal4,forinstance,afightingactiongame. Thesoundchipwascapableof24channelsof16bit

digitizedsoundatCDqualitysamplingrate,andallowedforrealtimeeffectslikeADSRchanges,looping,reverb

andpitchmodulation.LiketheSegaSaturn,thePlaystationofferedMIDIsupportforeaseofprogrammingthe

audio,butunliketheSaturn,samplesdidnothavetobecompressed,andthetypical4:1compressionratethatwas

usedmeantthatsoundqualitycouldbegreatlyimprovedontheSaturn.


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AftersplittingofffromSony,Nintendobypassedthe32bitmachinesaltogether,goingstraighttoa64bitreleasein

1996,theNintendo64(N64).TheN64wellsurpassedthePlaystationincapabilities.Themainprocessorcontrolled

theaudio,producing16bitstereosoundataslightlyhighersampleratethanCDquality48MHz.Somegames

supportedsurroundsound,andthiswasenhancedwiththethirdpartyaddonreleaseofRumbleFx3DSound

Amplifier.ItusedADPCMcompression,withthepossibilityofusing13simultaneouswaveformsinrealtimeonthe

hardware,andevenmoreusingthecartridge.Filtersandeffectslikechorus,panningandreverbcouldalsobe

implementedin

the

internal

CPU,

or

in

the

software.

ChangeshavecomerapidlysincetheN64time.TheSegaDreamcastwasthefirst128bitconsole,andusedspecial

GDROMs(GigaByteDiscROMs)capableofholding1.28GB.UnliketheNintendo64,samplesdidnothavetobe

decompressed,improvingaudiocapabilities.Thededicatedaudioprocessorshadtheirownmemory,meaning

soundqualitywasnotcompromisedbyotheraspectsofthegame.True3Daudiowassupported,inCDquality64

channelsound,witheffectssuchasdelay,reverbandsurroundsound. TheDreamcastreportedlysoldoversix

millionunitsuntilitwasdiscontinuedin2002. Similarlyrapidtocomeandgoonthemarket,theNintendoGame

CubeMiniDVDdiscsheldabout1.3Gigabytes,aboutthesameasaDreamcastdisc,andhadanaudiocapability

comparabletothatofthePlaystation2.

ThefollowuptotheimmenselypopularPlaystationensuredthatfansoftheoriginalwouldbesuitablyimpressed

withthe

new

machine.

With

the

ability

to

play

DVD

movies,

and

the

option

of

add

ons

for

modem

and

hard

drive,

thePlaystation2wasleaguesaheadofcompetitionwhenitcameout.ItsgameswerestoredonDVDscapableof

holding5.7Gigabytes,andfullysupportedthemultichannelDVDsoundstandardsAC3,DTSandDolbyDigital,

offeringuptoeightseparatespeakerchannels.ThesoundProcessingUnitiscapableof16bitaudiowitha

maximumsamplerateof48KHzbetterthanCDaudio,andhas48channels.Ofcourse,theothermajorcontender

nowintheconsoleindustryisMicrosoftsXBOX,builtaroundaPentiumIIIprocessorwithan8GBharddrivefor

music,graphics,andsavedgameinformation.TheXBoxfeaturesitsownaudioprocessor,supportingDirectX8.0,

2562Dvoicesand64voicesusing3Dpositionalaudio.

ThedownsideoftheCDROMtechnologyingameshasbeenthatmostCDscouldholdamaximumof72minutesof

music,andwithagameincludedthismeantmuchlessrealtimeformusic.Assuch,variouscompression

technologiesweredeveloped,themostimportantofwhichwasMPEGlevel3,knownmorecommonlyasMP3.

MP3meant

that

much

less

data

would

be

required

to

store

audio,

and

game

companies

quickly

began

incorporatingMPEGcompressionintotheirgamesmusic.WithlargeDVDRomgames,themusiccannowfill

severalaudioCDs,suchasFinalFantasyIX,whichwasreleasedasafourCDset.

RisetoHonor,therecentPlaystation2kungfugamestarringJetLi,offersusagoodexampleofthecurrentstateof

interactiveaudio.Thegameevenoffersusersachoiceofwhetherornottheywanttohearthedialoguein

CantonesewhensituatedinHongKong,thoughothersequencesareinEnglish.SoundismixedinDolbyDigital

Surround,andthegamemakesuseof3Daudiopositioningbestduringfightsequences,wheretheplayercanhear

theopponentsapproach,shout,kick,shoot,andthrowfromalldifferentangles.Themusicinteractswiththegame,

suchaswhentheplayerentersstealthmode,anditbecomesmoreambientandsubdued,allowingtheplayerto

focusonthemoredifficultmovesinthisstage.Percussionistheprimaryfocusinthemusic,speedingupand

slowingdownastheplayerrunsandfightsopponents,andintegratingwiththesoundeffectssopunchesandbeats

synchronizeand

work

with

the

players

movements.

TheCurrentStateofDigitalInteractiveGamesAudio

Asmentionedatthebeginningofthispaper,gamesmusicisfinallygainingrespect.Severalorchestralgames

concertshavebeenperformedrecently,suchastheEuropeanSymphonicGameMusicConcertperformedbythe

CzechNationalOrchestra,andasoldoutperformanceofthemusicfromNobuoUematsusscoretotheFinal


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11

FantasyseriesbytheLosAngelesPhilharmonic.AlthoughsuchconcertshavebeenpopularinJapanformanyyears,

ithasonlybeeninthelastcoupleofyearsthatsucheventshavetakenplaceintheWest,andithasalsobecome

quitecommonforgamessoundtrackstonowbereleasedascommercialmusicCDs.But,ascomposerswarnus,we

scholarsmustrecognizethedifferencesbetweengamesaudioandfilmorconcertmusic.AndrewBoyd,composer

forTheTwoTowersgame,remindsus:

Inagame,acomposer(ormusiceditor,forthatmatter)usuallyhasnocontroloverhowasceneunfolds;

theplayer

controls

that.

There

is

avery

basic

disconnect

between

music

and

the

game,

each

of

which

happenovertimebutaccordingtoverydifferentinternallogic.Sincethegoalmostofthetimeistogive

theappearancethatnomatterwhattheplayerdoes,themusicisappropriatelysupportingtheactionto

makeitsoundasifthemusicwascomposedexactlyforthesituationathand,nomatterwhatthe

situationisgameshavebegunadopting"adaptive"musicsystems.Thiskindofsystemallowsthegame's

musictobemanipulatedbythegameitselfatruntime,accordingtoasetofrulesestablishedbythe

composer/editor.Thebigissueismanagingthetradeoffbetweenmomenttomomentrelevanceinthe

soundtrackandsomesenseofmusicalintegrity.Itispossibletoconstantlyswitchpiecesofmusicbased

ontheaction,butthenthemusicwillloseanysenseofcoherence,flow,andintegrity.Ontheotherhand,

justlettingapieceofmusicplaywithoutregardtotheactionmightendupwithveryinappropriatemusic

atsomepoints.xvii

Alongwiththeadvancesinhardware,severalPCsoftwaresolutionshavebeenproducedwhichhaveenhanced

gamesound.BeginningwithWindows95,theMicrosoftWindowsplatformcamewithDirectX,aseriesof

multimediaapplicationprogramminginterfaces,thatimprovedthespeedwithwhichsoundandgraphicscards

couldcommunicate. DirectXallowsgameprogrammerstoaccessspecializedhardwarefeatureswithouthavingto

writehardwarespecificcode.xviii

Inotherwords,theDirectXinterfacebridgessoftwareandhardware,allowingfor

higherquality3Dgraphics,andbettercontrolofsoundmixingandoutput. OnepartofDirectX,DirectMusic,wasa

particularadvanceforgamesmusic.DirectMusicoverhaulstheoldMIDIprotocolsbyofferingtheindustryratified

DLS(DownloadableSoundLevels1)specificationssupportforhardwareaccelerationandMIDI:overonethousand

channels,withbettertimingmechanisms,realtimecontrol.xix

Putsimply,DirectMusicoffersanupgradetothe

interactivepossibilities,andopensupMIDItothepossibilityofwavetablelikesynthesisandsampling,while

allowingMIDItobeatriggeringmechanismfortiming.xx

Wavefiles(samples),orsoundfonts,couldbeimported

intoacollectionandmanipulatedinthesamewaythatMIDIcontrollersmanipulatesynthesizedsources,allowing

formuch

improved

interactive

music.xxi

Theinteractivepotentialofgamesmusichasreallyonlyjustbeguntobeexplored.Earliergamessuchasthe

MegaDrivesToejamandEarlwhichbegananexplorationofthepossibilitiesofhavingmusicplayanimportantrole

inthegamehavebeenbuiltuponoverthelastdecade.Inthiscase,atvariousstagesinthegameplayersareasked

tolearnhowtogetfunkybymimickingvariouspercussivegrooves,inaSimonSaysstylechallenge.Itwasnt

longbeforeothergamespoppedupwhichaskeduserstobecomeinvolvedinproducing,mimicking,ordancingto

musicaspartofthegamePlaystationsPaRappatheRapper,Nintendo64sLegendofZelda:OcarinaofTime,

morerecentlytheGamecubesDonkeyKonga,Playstation2sBustaGroove,andofcourse,thewholeDanceDance

Revolutionseriesofdancinggames. AnevenmoreintriguingideawasthebizarregameVibRibbon,releasedin

Japanin2000forthePlaystation,whichallowedtheusertoputinhisorherownmusicCDs,whichwouldthen

influencethegamesgenerationofmapsinvariouslevels.ThegamescanstheusersCDandmakestwoobstacle

coursesfor

each

song

(one

easy

and

one

difficult),

so

the

game

is

as

varied

as

the

music

the

player

chooses.

So

now,evennonmusicalgamesarenowbeginningtoexplorethepotentialsofincludinginteractivemusical

elements.Theimplicationsofthisinteractiveaspectarevastintermsofhowwescholarsmayapproachgames

audiointhefuture,butundoubtedlynewmethodologiesforstudyingtheinteractionbetweenalisteneranda

pieceofmusicwillneedtobeformed.


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Bibliography

Gorbman,Claudia.1987.UnheardMelodies:NarrativeFilmMusic.Indiana:BFIPublishing.

Lissa,Zofia,1965.sthetikderFilmmusik.Berlin:Henschelverlag.

Kent,StevenL.2001. TheUltimateHistoryofVideoGames:Thestorybehindthecrazethattouchedourlivesand

changedtheworld.California:RandomHouse.

Sheff,David.1993.GameOver:HowNintendoZappedanAmericanIndustry,CapturedyourDollars,andEnslaved

your

Children.

New

York:

Random

House

iGame soundtracks may be submitted for best song, best instrumental composition for a motionpicture, television or other media, or best soundtrack album.iiSee for instance, Lissa, 1965: 115-256, or Gorbman, 1987.iiiThe first game to be released under the partnership was Vendetta, which included hip-hop music byDMX, Scarface, Method Man, etc. Sony Musics Epic Records has previously provided back cataloguemusic for Grand Theft Auto, but in this case the music had previously been released, rather than usingthe game as a marketing method.ivVideo Games Sell Music: Electric Artists exposes the power of music in games as a sales channelElectric Artists press release,http://www.digitalgamedeveloper.com/2003/02_feb/news/dleas2403.htm. (Accessed 10/10/2004)

vKids prefer video games over TV, toys

http://www.cnn.com/2004/TECH/fun.games/10/27/media.videogames.reut/index.html. (Accessed28/10/2004).viIn 2000, the band Golden Shower even won Best Electronic Music Video at the MTV Brazil Video MusicAwards, for their video for a song called Video Computer System, written entirely using Atari VCSgame sounds.viiThe wireless keyboard, and expansion capability of various modules were problematic, and thecartridges held less memory than a floppy disk. See History and Memories of the IBM PCjr and Tandy

1000 http://www.oldskool.org/shrines/pcjr_tandy/ (Accessed 10/10/2004).viiiSee also Weske, Jrg, 2002, Digital Sound and Music in Computer Games http://www.tu-chemnitz.de/phil/hypertexte/gamesound/pcsound-main.html (Accessed 10/10/2004).ixIntellivision in HiFi http://www.intellivisionlives.com/retrotopia/hifi.shtml (Accessed 10/10/2004).xSee Hunter, William, 2000. The Dot Eaters Videogame Historyhttp://www.emuunlim.com/doteaters/play3sta1.htm (Accessed 10/10/2004).xiWeske, Jrg, 2002. Digital Sound and Music in Computer Games http://www.tu-chemnitz.de/phil/hypertexte/gamesound/history-main.html (Accessed 10/10/2004).xiiThe jacket cover to Sheffs book indicates that more US American children could, at that time,recognize Mario than could recognize Mickey Mouse.xiiiLeonard, Sean, 2001. Scores of Glory, Fantasy, and Plumbing: The Concise History and Principal

Genres of Video Game Music http://www.seanspace.com/iSphere/scores.htm (Accessed 10/10/2004).xivGamespy Hall of Fame: Adlib Soundcardhttp://www.gamespy.com/legacy/halloffame/adlib_b.shtm (Accessed 10/10/2004).xvMuch of the information in this paragraph comes from Wing, Eric. 1999. The History of PC GameMIDI http://www.queststudios.com/quest/midi.html (Accessed 10/10/2004).xviIbid.xviiLord of the Rings: The Two Towershttp://www.music4games.net/f_twotowers_stormfrontstudios.html


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xviiiFrequently Asked Questions about Direct X 9.0http://www.microsoft.com/windows/directx/productinfo/overview/faq.asp (Accessed 10/10/2004).xixHays, Tom, 1998. DirectMusic for the Masses Game DeveloperMagazine, September 1998.xxIbid.

xxiYackley, David, 1999. Microsoft DirectMusic: Creating New Musical Possibilities

http://msdn.microsoft.com/library/default.asp?url=/library/en-us/dnmusic/html/dm_nmp.asp(Accessed 10/10/2004).

historia de la musica en los videojuegos.pdf

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