fpso trends

Copyright 1999, Society of Petroleum Engineers Inc.

This paper was prepared for presentation at the 1999 SPE Annual Technical Conference andExhibition held in Houston, Texas, 3–6 October 1999.

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AbstractA review of trends in floating production, storage andoffloading (FPSO) technology is presented, using an extensivedatabase of past, current and planned developments around theworld. The review commences with the first FPSOs in themid-1970s, explores the stimuli for FPSO development inAsia, in particular, over the next two decades and theirwidespread acceptance in the North Sea in the late-1990s.Current and future FPSO innovations in both hardware andapplications are discussed against this background.

IntroductionFloating production, storage and offloading (FPSO) facilitiesgenerally comprise a ship-shaped vessel, held on location by amooring system. Well fluid is passed from the seabed to thevessel through a fluid transfer system and is processed byequipment mounted on the deck. Produced oil is then storedin tanks in the hull, awaiting periodic transfer to a shuttletanker to take it to shore.

Two key components of the FPSO system are single-pointmoorings (SPMs) and subsea trees. Both technologies werepioneered by Shell in the early 1960s, and they came togetherin 1977 in the prototype FPSO (Castellon), installed offshoreSpain. Shell chose the scheme as the most cost-effectivesystem to develop a single well in moderately deep water(117m), remote from pipeline infrastructure for oil export.Economics were improved by converting a second-handtanker, which enabled the scheme to come on stream just 11months after the start of engineering2.

FPSOs have evolved continuously since the 1970s and arenow a favoured solution in many petroleum provinces.However, they still constitute only 1% of the world’s offshorefacilities and are yet to find acceptance in the Gulf of Mexico.

Details of FPSO applications to date are listed in theAppendix. The sections below summarise the state-of-the-artin relation to mechanical and fluid swivels, factors affectingvessel selection, and the increasing applicability of FPSOs to awide range of field developments.

Mooring SystemFPSOs are generally, but not always, held on station by aSPM. This configuration enables the vessel to rotate about avertical axis such that it always faces into the weather.Without this weathervaning capability the ship-shaped hullwould experience severe motions under beam seas.

Components of the mooring system may include:• structure linking the hull to the SPM• rotating connector to allow weathervaning• SPM body• one or more anchor-legs linking the SPM body to the

seabed• foundation system

SPMs were first developed as an anchor point for tankers,generally to transfer oil, and have been the subject ofextensive research effort over the years. Early SPMs werecategorised according to their mooring system as eithercatenary anchored or a single anchor point.

SALM. In a single anchor-leg mooring (SALM), the SPM isattached to the seabed at a single point. This mooringarrangement was first adopted in 1963 in Italy, by using asmall jacket structure mounted with a rotating head, andsimilar schemes have also been utilised for several FPSOs (eg.Adanga/Akam/Ebughu in Nigeria4, Fig. 1).

A very simple form of SALM comprises a single verticalchain connected to a base. The chain remains tensioned andessentially vertical due to buoyancy forces generated by a tankeither atop the chain or attached under the mooring yoke (seebelow). Such a system was adopted for Castellon and theproduct riser was clamped to the chain. In a furtheralternative, the anchor-leg may comprise a rigid riser tube,connected to the base by a universal joint (eg. Tazerka, Fig. 2).The tube may provide buoyancy to assist in keeping theSALM upright and also gives protection to the product riserswithin.

The most recent SALM installation on a FPSO is Suizhongin 1993. Hondo, in 150m, was the deepest water FPSO

SPE 56708

FPSO TrendsB.F. Ronalds, SPE, and E.F.H. Lim, U. of Western Australia

2 B.F. RONALDS, E.F.H. LIM SPE 56708

moored by a SALM.

Fig.1: Adanga/Akam/Ebughu SALM

CALM. Early catenary anchor-leg mooring (CALM) systemswere developed by Imodco in 1959 and Single Buoy Moorings(SBM) in 1960. These comprise a shallow-draft buoy that isheld in position by restoring forces generated by the weight ofa number of catenary chains. Cadlao (Fig. 3) is an earlyexample of a FPSO CALM system; a recent example is thereuse of the FPSO II vessel in 1997 at South Marlim in 1420mwater depth.

Turret. A later innovation was to adopt a long spar-shapedbuoy, called a riser turret. The Jabiru SPM installed in 1986 isthe first such turret mooring5, although a somewhat similarshape had earlier been adopted for offloading systems (eg.Brent Spar, 1976). Riser turrets have since been adopted forthree other FPSOs offshore Australia (Fig. 4).

Fig. 2: Tazerka SALM

Fig. 3: Cadlao CALMFrom [8]

Fig. 4: Griffin FPSO with riser turretCourtesy BHPP

SPE 56708 FPSO TRENDS 3

Further variations arise when the SPM is not a floatingbuoy but is mounted directly on the vessel, either within orexternal to the hull. Recent examples include Maui B13 in1996 (Fig. 5) and Escravos in 1997. These turrets are locatedwell above waterline and so care must be taken to guardagainst contact between the mooring lines and the hull. Otherexternal turrets extend down into the water – Nilde (1987)offshore Italy was the first example, and this facility iscurrently being reused at the Aquila field in 850m water.

Fig. 5: Maui B external turretCourtesy Shell Todd Oil Services

Petrojarl 1, commissioned in 1986, utilised the firstinternal turret mooring. To date, all moored FPSOs in UK andNorwegian waters have internal or submerged (see below)turrets. Through this, internal turrets have become the mostpopular mooring type (Table 1).

Table 1FPSO Moorings

Mooring Number

SALM 11CALM 12Riser turret 4External turret 7Internal turret 22Submerged turret 2Spread 9DP 2

Total 69

There are many internal turret arrangements (eg. Fig. 6).The anchor chain table is typically at the bottom. The risersare pulled through guide tubes and hung off at a risertermination deck, and fluid lines are combined at a manifolddeck. Above this are the swivel stack and gantry structure.The bearing system may be located at deck level and/or withinthe hull. Other equipment housed in the turret may includechain and riser winches, production and test manifolds, ESD

valves and a pig receiver.A new innovation is the submerged turret, comprising a

conical-shaped buoy that locks into a recess in the undersideof the hull. Like other SPMs, it was first used for shuttletankers and floating storage units (FSUs). Its first applicationon a FPSO is Lufeng (1997).

Fig. 6: Bottom mounted internal turretCourtesy SBM

Mechanical connection between hull and SPM body. In itssimplest form, the mechanical link between the vessel and anexternal SPM might be just a hawser. In this case the vesselmay also require an independent station-keeping method,using its thrusters and/or a tug boat where necessary to ensureit does not collide with the SPM. This system is generallyrestricted to loading/offloading purposes, but has also beenadopted for extended well tests (EWT), eg. Liuhua (1988)7.

Where a more permanent mooring system is required, anA-framed yoke may be used to make the mechanicalconnection, and the SPM provides positive anchorage for thevessel. This system was first used for an oil terminal in 19732.Early yokes were often either “soft” (eg. Adanga/Akam/Ebughu, Fig. 1) or incorporated hinges at their connections to


the vessel to accommodate relative heave and pitch motionsbetween the SPM and the ship (eg. Tazerka, Fig. 2).

Riser turrets and external turrets are connected to the hullthrough a rigid arm; the turret then heaves with the vessel.Riser turrets are generally suspended below the rigid arm viaan articulated joint to allow angle changes in the vertical planein addition to weathervaning. External and internal turrets arefounded directly on the arm or hull structure through a systemof bearings.

Mooring lines. Turrets are generally held on station through aseries of mooring lines which hang off the chain table and areanchored at their base by either drag embedment anchors,piles, suction anchors or gravity bases. In moderate to deepwater the lines typically comprise both chain and wiresegments. Wire rope is cheaper and lighter than chain.However, the robustness of chain is advantageous at rubbingpoints at the top and bottom terminations of the mooring andin the touchdown region. The chain and wire lengths may betuned to optimise the restoring response.

The Fife field development in 1995 pioneered a newmooring arrangement where the lines are concentrated in threegroups at 120 degrees spacing17. The wide arcs betweenmooring groups may enable a greater number of risers to beinstalled and are of assistance when performing additionalriser tie-ins at a later date.

Spread Mooring. FPSOs may be held in position by a spreadmooring system rather than a SPM in locations where theenvironmental conditions are benign and highly directional,such as Africa and parts of Asia. A spread mooring systemgenerally comprises a number of mooring lines arrangedaround both the bow and stern of the FPSO. It was firstadopted for Geisum in the Red Sea in 1985 and has since beenchosen for water depths as shallow as 15m (Gombe Beta,19919) and as deep as 1360m (Girassol, 2001).

Dynamic Positioning. Small FPSOs used for EWT or fordraining small fields have relied on dynamic positioning (DP)rather than a mooring system to remain on station. Examplesinclude Crystal Sea, commissioned in 1994 for well testing,and Seillean, developed by BP in 1990 and reused in 1999 in1853m water offshore Brazil19.

Many larger FPSOs, including those designed by MaritimeTentech, use DP to assist station-keeping. Active DP reducesvessel excursions, facilitating the design of risers and allowinglighter mooring lines. An additional advantage of thrusters isthat they provide self-propelling capability. Fife (1995) is thefirst FPSO in the North Sea to be passively moored withoutDP assistance.

Disconnectable Moorings. In some circumstances it isadvantageous to design the mooring and fluid transfer systemsto be readily disconnectable. Disconnectability enables themooring system to be much lighter in regions that experienceharsh environmental conditions only occasionally. Discon-

nectable mooring systems have been adopted to date to enableFPSOs to avoid cyclonic conditions off North West Australia,typhoons in the South China Sea, and ice off Canada and inBohai Bay. A disconnectable FPSO may readily return to portfor class reinspection (which allows a lower design servicelife) or for upgrades.

In environments like the North Sea where hostile weatheris more prevalent, permanent connections are designed towithstand extreme storms, because disconnection would giveexcessive down-time. The cost advantage of a disconnectablemooring also tends to diminish in deeper water and with morerisers.

The first use of a disconnectable turret mooring systemwas on Jabiru (1986)5. Disconnection occurs immediatelybelow the universal joint and the riser turret then drops downto its position of neutral buoyancy, avoiding the possibility ofrecontact with the vessel.

Huizhou, offshore China, adopted the first disconnectableinternal turret mooring in 19906. In this system the mooringlines and risers are hung off a buoyant tank which clamps intothe base of the internal turret. The submerged turret conceptadopted for Lufeng also has rapid disconnection capability.

Rapid disconnect systems have additionally beendeveloped for several SALMs, beginning with Weizhou(1986). The extremely shallow water at Gombe Beta dictateda disconnectable spread mooring which is activated when themooring line loads become excessive.

Fluid Transfer SystemThe fluid transfer system generally includes flowlines andrisers linking the wells to the SPM body, and a swivel toenable the fluid transfer to the vessel. With spread mooringsystems a swivel is unnecessary and the risers simply hangover the side amidships.

Depending on the field requirements, the system may needto transfer the following to or from the vessel:• well fluid (test and production)• injection fluids including gas, water and chemicals• export gas (and possibly export oil)• utility and control fluids including hydraulics, air and

heating media• electric power, communication and control signals

Risers. The vast majority of FPSOs have flexible risers inorder to withstand vessel motions. The flexibility is providedby both material and configuration. Flexibles typicallycomprise interlocking steel and plastic layers with steelarmouring to provide strength, and are arranged in catenarypatterns.

However, a number of alternatives exist. With SALMs,the product risers may be of hard piping with jumper hosesacross the bottom and/or top articulations (eg. Tazerka).Seillean is equiped with a rigid product riser that disconnectswhen its maximum operating conditions are approached.

In very deep water, further alternatives become technicallyand economically feasible18. In 2001, Girassol will produce


through three self-standing buoyant riser towers, with flexiblesonly over the final 50m to the water surface. There are alsoproposals to trial steel catenary risers (SCRs) on futuredeepwater FPSOs offshore Brazil.

Fluid Swivel. Often fluid is passed across the weathervaningbearing though swivels. Each swivel comprises an annulusaround which the fluid flows. The inner wall of the annulus isconnected to the SPM body and remains stationary while theouter wall connects to piping on the vessel and thus rotateswith the ship around the inner wall. Fig. 7 shows the CossackPioneer product swivel stack with five separate toroidal fluidpaths.

Many swivel systems can freely weathervane. However,stern thrusters are commonly incorporated to allow headingcontrol; for example, when an adjusted heading gives greatercomfort than that taken up naturally by the vessel in aparticular wind, wave and current condition. The turret mayalso be locked down to maintain a particular heading, forexample, during offloading.

Drag Chain Transfer System. An alternative transfer systemuses drag chain technology. Here the individual flexible risersare arranged within the drag chain, which winds or unwinds toallow a maximum rotation of approximately ±270 degreesfrom neutral position11. A large diameter turret is required toaccommodate the high riser rotations. Early drag chainsystems were installed on Petrojarl 1, Gryphon A, Captain andBalder, and Norne has both drag chain and swivel technology.

Drag chain systems require active rotational control,provided by thrusters fore and aft. The turret drive systemmay include a turning and locking mechanism to overcome thefriction which also tends to rotate the turret as the vessel’sheading is altered.

Number of Wells, Risers and Articulated Flow Paths. Assubsea and floating production technologies have gainedmaturity, FPSOs have been adopted to produce larger andmore complex reservoirs with more wells. The number ofrisers and articulated flowpaths has been managed in variousways by manifolding at the seabed and/or the SPM, and bybundling risers.

In 1977, Castellon produced from one subsea well througha flexible riser to a single-bore swivel. Four years later,Cadlao was producing from two wells. The system includedfour flexible risers and a 4-flowpath swivel stack to giveindependent production and test lines for each well2.

This approach becomes less feasible, however, with greaternumbers of wells. The next year (1982) Tazerko came onstream, with the capability to produce from up to eight wellsand the possibility of gas lift or water reinjection. Thesolution in this case comprised 24 hard pipe risers inside aSALM, manifolded at the top (well above waterline) prior topassing through a 6-path swivel3. Barracuda’s P34 (1997) has Fig. 7: Wanaea/Cossack swivel stack

Courtesy SBM


23 product risers together with 11 umbilicals to serve 11individual wells scattered around the field. A manifold deckin the turret reduces the fluid paths to single production, testand gas lift lines to enable a 6-path multi-product swivel,including two spares13. Marlim’s P35 accommodates thelargest number (47) of flexible risers and umbilicals to date.

In various other recent developments, the trees have beengrouped in drilling centres, facilitating manifolding at theseabed to reduce the number of flexible risers (Table 2).Foinaven, for example, includes 14 production and 8 injectionwells, reducing to 10 risers and then a 6-path swivel. Swivelvolumes and pressure ratings have increased markedly inrecent years to accommodate these requirements, althoughriser diameters are still limited in very deep water. Griffin(Fig. 4) represents an intermediate layout with some seabedmanifolding. In its namesake, Gryphon, 23 flowlines and 14umbilicals are bundled together to form 6 large risers.

VesselStorage Capacity. Important determinants of a FPSO’srequired storage capacity are the production rate, and the sizeand availability of offtake tankers. In the North Sea, FPSOsmay have dedicated shuttle tankers regularly performing theround trip to a relatively nearby oil terminal. The FPSOtherefore only needs storage capacity for a few days,depending on the frequency of tanker visits and including abuffer so that production may continue with late arrival or inbad weather when offloading is not possible. Schiehallion,currently the largest FPSO in the North Sea, has a storagecapacity of 0.95 million barrels.

In more remote areas like Africa, the sailing time to an oilterminal may be much greater. Tankers are likely to bechartered as required, and a much larger ratio of storage toproduction rate is therefore desirable. Production rates aretypically smaller in these regions than for the major fields

developed recently in the North Sea using FPSOs, but largervessels have been adopted to maximise the offloading intervaland also because some offtake tankers may be bigger thanthose in the North Sea. These FPSOs are generallyconversions rather than new-buildings and so the cost penaltyof a larger vessel may not be high. Table 3 illustrates therelationship between production rate and vessel size for typicallarge FPSOs in various regions.

Other factors that may influence the chosen vessel sizeinclude the volumes of off-specification product requiringtemporary storage, and sea-keeping requirements.

Deck Layout. Two FPSO layouts have evolved fromdifferent sources: tankers and drillships.

Many FPSO conversions are from tankers (one notableexception is Foinaven). For tankers, the living quarters are atthe stern of the vessel, where there is little spray or greenwater and reduced heave. A natural location for the SPM in aconverted FPSO is the bow as it enables the vessel to continueto head into the weather. As long as the wind is nearly co-directional with the effective environmental force, helicoptorsare able to approach upwind, but this also puts theaccommodation and temporary refuge downwind of the SPMand process deck. For the early facilities FPSO II and FPSOVI, SBM therefore adopted a stern external mooring after itsfeasibility was proved in model testing1.

Amidships has optimum pitch response and is therefore theideal location for motion-sensitive process equipment. It mayalso be a good place for an internal SPM, to minimise firstorder excitation of the mooring system and risers, and withsufficient beam to accommodate a large turret. In MaritimeTentech designs, beginning with Petrojarl 1, the internal turretis placed just forward of amidships (Fig. 8), following thetradition of drillships15. However an amidships turret locationmay have a number of potential disadvantages, including:

Table 2Relationships between Number of Wells, Risers and Articulated Flowpaths

Field Water First Recoverable Peak Wells Risers Umbilicals Product SwivelDepth

(m)

Oil OilReserves(MMbbl)

OilProduction(k.bbl/d)

Production Injection FluidPaths

MaxDiameter(in)

Castellon 114 1977 40 20 1 0 1 1 4Cadlao 96 1981 30 2 Possible 4 4 6Tazerka 140 1982 10 20 8 Possible 24 6 4Gryphon 120 1993 96 55 8 6 6 2Griffin 130 1994 117 80 9 1 14 5Fife 70 1995 30 50 4 3 9 4 4Wanaea/Cossack 80 1995 239 115 9 0 7 2 5 12Liuhua 11-1 310 1996 200 65 20 0 3 3 12Lufeng 22-1 330 1997 33 40 5 0 2 2 2 7Norne 380 1997 470 173 7 7 9 3 5 12Barracuda P34 835 1997 30 11 0 23 11 6Foinaven 460 1997 233 100 14 8 10 2 6 16Schiehallion 400 1998 450 142 16 13 14 5Asgard 280 1999 830 200 40 19 16 5 12


Table 3Relationships between Peak Production and Vessel Size

Region Field VesselSize

(k.dwt)

Storage

S(MMbbl)

Peak OilProductionP(k.bbl/d)

Ratio

S/P(days)

New-build

North Sea Schiehallion 154 0.95 142 7 YesAustralia Wanaea/Cossack 152 1.10 115 10 NoAsia Huizhou 255 1.45 80 18 NoBrazil Albacora (P31) 282 2.00 100 20 NoAfrica Ukpokiti 275 1.70 20 85 No

• little propensity to weathervane, commonly requiringthrusters

• significant hull strengthening to support the turret andcompensate for loss of hull continuity in a region of highbending moment

• significant hull deformations under overall hogging andsagging which may affect the operation of the turretbearings

• significant loss of oil storage capacity• splitting of the process plant

These effects are mitigated by placing the internal turret atthe bow; Anasuria (1996) is the first new-building in whichthis location was adopted. With an internal bow turret thequarters are at the stern; however, for all other new-buildingsthey are located at the bow. In several very recent designs, eg.Varg and Jotun (both 1999), the turret is located well forwardof amidships and immediately behind the accommodation(separated only by a fire and blast wall), as a compromisebetween the various conflicting layout criteria.

New-buildings and Conversions. With FPSOs traditionallybeing converted from oil tankers, they have ship-shaped steelhulls. A notable exception is Ardjuna (1976), commonlyconsidered to be the world’s first FPSO, which was a purpose-built concrete barge. The first new-build steel FPSOs came on

stream in 1986 and, since then, have become an importantfeature of the industry. Conversions have also remainedpopular, however (Fig. 9). Around 60% of the FPSOs comingon stream in 1997-99 are converted either from tankers orfrom other field locations; the only region where conversionsand reuse do not dominate the market is the North Sea. TheUK has now seen four conversions, all in the period 1995-97,but there is yet to be one in Norway.

Conversions often have an external SPM, with the yokeconfigured to facilitate attachment to an existing vessel. New-build FPSOs, in contrast, commonly have internal turrets.However, there are numerous exceptions to these trends. Forexample, the new-build Australian FPSOs Challis (1989) andGriffin (1994) have a SALM and riser turret, respectively.The first conversion to have an internal turret fitted wasHuizhou in 1990.

Major field developments in harsh environments are likelyto be new-buildings. Purpose-built vessels may be designedwith the strength, fatigue and operating performance requiredat the location. Although immobilised vessels are currentlyexempt from MARPOL requirements for a double hull,double-sided FPSOs are now expected in a number ofcountries. Double sides safeguard against oil spillage in theevent of a collision or other damage. The wing tanks cancarry segregated ballast and, with the hull stiffening on the

Fig. 8: Gryphon vessel


Table 4FPSO Reuse

Vessel Owner EnteredService

Fields

P34 (PP de Moraes) Petrobras 1979 4FPSO II SBM 1981 3Acqua Blu Bluewater 1985 2Petrojarl 1 Golar-Nor 1986 7San Jacinto Oceaneering 1986 3FPSO Firenze (Agip Firenze) SBM 1987 2Lan Shui Bluewater 1988 2Modec Venture 1 (Skua Venture) Modec 1991 2Ocean Producer Oceaneering 1991 2Seillean Reading & Bates 1990 3Armada Perkasa (Red Teal) Bumi Armada 1995 2Berge Hugin Navion 1997 2

ballast side of the shell, cleaning and inspection of the oilstorage cargo tanks is facilitated. When there is a requirementfor double sides, many older tankers are eliminated fromconsideration for conversion.

Conversions are often suited to developments with shortfield life. They are generally quicker than a new-building andthe reduced lead-time to first oil improves the rate of returnsubstantially. A short field life is also likely have lessstringent fatigue and corrosion requirements.

The trend for ship owners or builders to commence FPSOfabrication on speculation, eg. Bleo Holm (1998), mayaccelerate the delivery of a new-building. In other cases anew-build tanker has been used for immediate conversion, eg.Durward/Dauntless and Lufeng (both 1997).

As described in Ref. 12, the balance between conversionsand new-buildings will continue to be influenced over time bythe cost, age and suitability of available second-hand tankersand demand on the ship-building yards.

Reuse. A further alternative to tanker conversion or apurpose-built FPSO is reuse of an existing FPSO. This wasfirst done at Badejo in 1981 using Petrobras’ PP de MoraesFPSO from the Garoupa field. The vessel, which is currentlyperforming an early production role at Barracuda16, has beenmoored using four different SPMs in its life: a SALM, twoCALMs and now an internal turret (Table 4). FPSO II,another early FPSO, has moored at three locations in 96m,

Table 5Breakdown of FPSO Applications

Category Number

Currently Operating 55Retired 10Reused 22

Total 87

360m and 1420m water depth with a CALM system10.Petrojarl 1 has seen extensive reuse, having produced at 7locations in the North Sea. These cases demonstrate thefeasibility of FPSO reuse, and have led to the concept of an“FPSO fleet” (Table 5). With abandonment issues gainingincreasing profile, they also emphasise the relatively smalldecommissioning costs for FPSOs relative to fixed platforms.

Ownership and Operatorship. Production platforms aregenerally owned by an oil company whereas mobile offshoreunits are commonly owned by a contractor and leased by oilcompanies as required. FPSOs fall somewhere in between.Currently around 40% of operating FPSOs are contractor-owned, with Cadlao (1981) being an early example. It istypical in these cases for the contractor to operate the vesselwhile the oil company operates the field. However, there is atrend for increasing responsibility to be taken by thecontractor, eg. Fife (1995), where the FPSO owner is thesafety case duty holder.

Leasing may be economic for an oil company for fieldswith short life or high reservoir uncertainty, or for earlyproduction systems (EPS) and EWT. The contractor is thenable to spread the facility capital costs over several fielddevelopments. Large oil companies may achieve the sameeffect internally (eg. Petrobras). Leasing may also bebeneficial when the oil company has little experience in FPSOoperations or is producing in a new region. In Norway, the taxsystem discourages the use of leased facilities.

Field ParametersLocation and Size. The first decade of floating productionsaw 12 FPSO developments, in Asia, Africa, Southern Europeand North and South America (Fig. 10). These were generallysmall-to-medium oil fields in mild environments and whereinfrastructure for pipeline export is limited. 1986 saw a stepchange in FPSO development with the entry of Golar-Nor’sPetrojarl 1 vessel to give first production in the North Sea.FPSO applications then continued relatively steadily over the


Fig. 9: Distribution of new-buildings, conversions and reuse

Fig. 10: FPSO developments by year and location

next decade, with the majority being in Asia. Over half of theNorth Sea applications in this period utilised Petrojarl 1, oftenfor EWT or EPS.

The first major field development by FPSO in the UK wasGryphon A in 199311. In Norway, Norne (1997) was the first.These developments signalled a third era for FPSOs with theiradoption for large fields in harsh environments. Theproduction capacity record has been broken regularly since1995 (Wanaea/Cossack, Norne, Asgard). The rapid growth ofFPSOs in 1997-99 is due largely to their extensive use in theNorth Sea, along with increasing applications in Brazil.

Gas Production. The simplest application for a FPSO is toproduce, store and offload oil. In early FPSOs, any associatedgas surplus to power requirements was vented, flared orincinerated. More recently such gas has been disposed of byreinjection. Gas may be beneficial in enhancing oil production

Fig. 11: FPSO water depths for various mooring types

through gas lift or reinjection, and similarly with waterinjection. In each of these cases the gas and water (unlike theproduced oil) must pass back through the fluid transfer systemto the wells.

With increasing pressure to monetize associated gas, majorgas export from a FPSO became a reality in Australia in 1994(Griffin) and 1995 (Wanaea/Cossack). In 1997-99 nearly 40%of the FPSOs to come on stream have gas export capability.These include Tantawan (1997), which has been billed as thefirst gas FPSO. Again, export occurs via the fluid transfersystem to an export pipeline. In some instances, eg.MacCulloch (1997), the oil is also exported by pipelinewithout utilising the storage capability of the vessel.

Natural gas liquids may be stored and offloaded from aFPSO in the same way as oil; Skua (1991) was the first FPSOwith plant on board to recover NGLs. At Ardjuna3, and morerecently Escravos13, gas is refrigerated on board to produceLPG. (These vessels are sometimes referred to as floatingstorage units (FSUs) rather than FPSOs because fluidprocessing occurs on a nearby platform.) Several companiesare currently developing schemes by which gas may be chilledto form LNG on a FPSO, or converted to methanol or otherforms, allowing gas export without a pipeline.

Water Depth. To date, FPSOs have produced in water depthsranging between 15m and 1853m (Fig. 11). Mooring and risersystem design presents challenges in both very deep and veryshallow water. In shallow water it is difficult to build insufficient flexibility to withstand the motions generated inextreme sea states. The current shallow water limit for aFPSO moored permanently in a harsh environment is Fife inthe North Sea (70m)17, having a ratio of design maximumwave height to water depth approaching 40%.

The trend to produce major fields from FPSOs in ultra-deep water and/or harsh environments generates large loads onthe SPM. Internal turrets are more suitable for theseapplications than external turrets (with their less direct load

0

5

10

15

1975 1980 1985 1990 1995

Year

Num

ber

New-buildReuseConversion

0

5

10

15

1975 1980 1985 1990 1995

Year

Num

ber

North Sea

America

Australasia

South Europe

Africa

Asia

0

500

1000

1500

2000

1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000

Year

Wat

er D

epth

(m

)

SALMCALMSpread MooringRiser TurretExternal TurretInternal TurrretSubmerged TurretDP


path through the rigid arm), although the loads may stillpresent challenges for the design of the turret bearing system.The effective weight of the risers may be reduced by attachingbuoyancy. Suitable configurations may include distributedbuoyancy, subsea arches, or buoyant riser towers (eg.Girassol). Buoyancy may also be adopted for mooring lines.A further option is to use polyester, which is neutrally buoyantand thus much lighter than chain and wire. The first uses ofsynthetic mooring lines for a FPSO are Barracuda P34 (835mwater) and South Marlim (1420m water), both in 1997. Infuture the polyester lines may be arranged at a steeper angle tothe seabed with anchors that can resist vertical uplift. Addedadvantages of the resulting taut-leg configuration are that itgives a tighter watch circle for the vessel, which aids riserdesign, and a smaller anchor pattern.

Drilling and Workover. Current FPSOs have thedisadvantage of lacking drilling capability. FPSOs with largeturrets may have a workover derrick, eg. Petrojarl 1, and it isexpected that future FPSOs may enable drilling through theturret for wells directly beneath the vessel. A furtherpossibility is a double bow, where both bow and stern of theFPSO are shaped to face into the weather. Such anarrangement avoids the need for full 360 degreesweathervaning. This may allow the mooring and fluid transfersystems to be separated, which would facilitate drilling.

The distinction between FPSOs and drillships is becomingincreasingly blurred: most of the new-generation drillshipscurrently under construction have oil storage and offloadingcapability, making them suitable for EWT, and may readily beconverted to FPSOs with the addition of full processingfacilities.

There are numerous examples where FPSOs have beenutilised for field development in combination with otherfacilities to help overcome their deficiencies. In someinstances the development also includes one or more wellheadjackets; this allows surface trees, which can be cost-effectivewhen the wells are numerous and/or require frequentintervention, and reduces the number of risers entering theSPM. Recent examples include Captain (1997) and Jotun(1999). In deeper water, the FPSO may be teamed with asemi-submersible (eg. Liuhua, 1996).

ConclusionsFPSOs were developed the late 1970s to produce from small-to-medium oil fields in remote locations and/or moderatelydeep water where pipeline and fixed platform infrastructurewould be uneconomic. The mild weather conditions allowedtanker conversions to be used, generally moored through anexternal SPM.

1986 was a pivotal year in the evolution of FPSOs,generating the first:• turret mooring (independent development of internal and

disconnectable external turrets)• North Sea production• new-build ship-shaped hull

These three factors have had a major influence on subsequentFPSO development.

During 1997-99, the number of FPSOs to come on streamhas surged. The increased popularity is due to their adoptionin the North Sea and Brazil. Many of these recent applicationsare characterised by relatively large field reserves and theexport of gas as well as oil. The need for a pipeline hasnegated one of the major drivers for FPSO selection anddemonstrates that other advantages of FPSOs must now beimportant. Indeed, in some fields even the oil is exported bypipeline.

The North Sea now dominates the FPSO market. Themajority of FPSOs have internal turrets; these have benefitsfor harsh weather conditions, large numbers of risers, gasexport and very deep water. Around 40% of recent FPSOs arenew-buildings. It should be remembered, however, thatalternatives are still adequate for many developments.Examples include the recent reuse of FPSOs with a CALM, anexternal turret mooring and DP in three of the deepest waterapplications to date.

FPSOs have proven over the past two decades to havenumerous benefits over alternative field development options.In addition to oil storage capability, these may be grouped asfollows:

Construction. Ship construction is standardised andautomated, making it relatively fast and inexpensive incomparison with jacket fabrication15. The process modules,being small and low-rise, may also be built quickly and havereduced structural steel requirements. Modules can beinstalled at the fabrication yard, avoiding the need for a heavylift vessel at the field site, and allowing inshore hook-up andcommissioning. These features can significantly reduce thelead-time to first oil (although the extent of schedulecompression has been less than expected in a number of morecomplex recent developments).

Versatility. The large deck area allows safe andconvenient layout of process and other equipment. Combinedwith the large vessel displacement, it gives versatility to copewith changes to production equipment, for example, whentying in a new field. It also enables vessel construction tocommence on speculation. FPSOs are relatively insensitive towater depth and geotechnical conditions. The flexibility ofFPSOs is demonstrated by their significant reuse, whichfurther suggests that field abandonment is relatively simple,with the facility retaining significant residual value. This isparticularly helpful in making high-risk or small fieldseconomically feasible.

Deep water. FPSOs may have advantages in deep waterapplications, where their considerable buoyancy assists insupporting heavy riser and mooring line loads.

All field development options have disadvantages as wellas advantages. Constraints induced by the necessity for allfluids to pass though a SPM have been diminished withadvances in turret and swivel technology, combined withmanifolding and bundling of flowlines. Drilling capability ona FPSO is likely to improve in the near future.


References1. Williams LM, Pierce DM and Van Berkel PB (1982), FPSO II – a

second generation floating production system for offshorePhilippines. Proc. 14th OTC, OTC 4274

2. Carter JHT and Foolen J (1982), Evolutionary developmentsadvancing the floating production, storage, and offloadingconcept. Proc. 14th OTC, OTC 4273

3. Remery GF (1985), Tanker-based marginal field production:eight years’ operational experience. Proc. 17th OTC, OTC 5036

4. Eppley DR and Van Berkel PB (1987), 12 months’ operationalexperience with a FPSO handling the production from three fieldsoffshore Nigeria. Proc. 19th OTC, OTC 5491

5. de Boom WC (1989), The development of turret mooring systemsfor floating production units. Proc. 21st OTC, OTC 5978

6. O’Nion G, Calo D, Seguin R and Huang SP (1990), Innovativedisconnectable mooring system for floating production system ofHZ-21-1 oil field at Huizhou, South China Sea. Proc. 22nd OTC,OTC 6251

7. Paces RS and DeFu L (1990), South China Sea extended welltesting program: implementation and results. Proc. 22nd OTC,OTC 6200

8. Clauss G, Lehmann E and Ostergaard C (1992), OffshoreStructures, Vol 1 – Conceptual Design and Hydromechanics,Springer-Verlag, London

9. Liles EG (1992), Spread moored FPSO for very shallow waterdepth, Proc. 24th OTC, OTC 6964

10. Vincent-Genod F and Jeannin O (1993), Cadlao’s successfulFPSO II redeployed at the deepwater West Linapacan field. Proc.25th OTC, OTC 7179

11. Addy PD, Dickerson J, Doble PA, Smith G and Young RJ(1994), Gryphon A: the first purpose-built permanently mooredFPSO in the North Sea. Proc. 26th OTC, OTC 7424

12. D’Souza RB, Delepine YM and Cordy AR (1994), An approachto the design and selection of a cost-effective floating productionstorage and offloading system. Proc. 26th OTC, OTC 7443

13. Mack RC, Gruy RH and Hall RA (1995), Turret moorings forextreme design conditions. Proc. 27th OTC, OTC 7596

14. Henery D and Inglis RB (1995), Prospects and challenges for theFPSO. Proc. 27th OTC, OTC 7695

15. Jeannin O (1995), FPSOs today: what is the optimum concept?Proc. 27th OTC, OTC 7697

16. Carneiro PRB (1995), Barracuda field: new records for turretmoored FPSOs. Proc. 27th OTC. OTC 7700

17. Lowie PM (1997), Today’s world of FPSOs changes quickly.World Oil, Part 1: 79-91, April, Part 2: 95-104, May

18. Carter BA and Ronalds BF (1998), Deepwater riser technology.APOGCE ’98, SPE 50140, Perth, October

19. Garcia AL, Pinto FJCP, Dias MAG and Mattos AMCGF (1998),Roncador field – a rapid development challenge in ultra-deepwater. OMAE ’98 – Petrobras Workshop, 56-61, Lisbon, July


Appendix – FPSO Applications

Left sideNo Field Vessel Owner Oil Location Water First Last Recoverable Field EPS/

Company Depth Oil Oil Oil Life EWTReserves

(m) (MMbbl) (yr)1 Ardjuna B Ardjuna Saki Arco Indonesia 43 19762 Castellon Shell Shell Spain 114 1977 Yes 40 93 Garoupa PP de Moraes Petrobras Petrobras Brazil 118 1979 19854 Cadlao FPSO II SBM Alcorn (Amoco) Philippines 96 1981 1991 105 Hondo Santa Ynez Exxon Exxon USA 150 1981 Yes6 Badejo PP de Moraes Petrobras Petrobras Brazil 117 1981 Yes7 Nilde Agip Milano Agip Agip Italy 90 1982 19868 Tazerka Tazerka FPSO Samedan Shell Tunisia 140 1982 Yes 109 Lucina Banio Shell Gabon 34 1984 6

10 Mila Acqua Blu Bluewater Selm Italy 27 1985 198711 Geisum Al Kahera 1 Conoco Egypt 50 1985 Yes12 Bach Ho Chi Linh Vietsovpetro Vietnam 50 1985 Yes 20013 Kepiting San Jacinto Sarida Conoco Indonesia 90 1986 198914 Oseberg Petrojarl 1 Golar-Nor Norsk Hydro Norway 125 1986 1988 EWT15 Jabiru Jabiru Venture Gulf (BHPP) Gulf (BHPP) Australia 120 1986 1316 Weizhou 10-3 Nan Hai Xi Wang NHWOC NHWOC China 38 1986 917 Adanga/Akam/Ebughu FPSO VI SBM Ashland Nigeria 38 1986 5018 Kakap KH Kakap Natuna Modec Clyde Indonesia 87 1986 3019 Albacora PP de Moraes Petrobras Petrobras Brazil 238 1987 1993 EPS20 Nilde Agip Firenze Agip Italy 98 1987 198921 Lyell Petrojarl 1 Golar-Nor UK 146 1988 1988 EWT22 Liuhua 11-1 Lan Shui Bluewater Amoco China 305 1988 1989 EWT23 Troll West Petrojarl 1 Golar-Nor Norway 330 1989 1991 EWT24 Talisman Acqua Blu Bluewater Marathon Australia 78 1989 1992 8 325 Ikan Pari San Jacinto Sarida Conoco Indonesia 100 1989 1994 10 526 Intan Lan Shui Bluewater Maxus Indonesia 30 1989 Yes 90 EPS27 Bozhong 28-1 Bo Hai You Yi Hao JCODC JCODC China 23 1989 3028 Challis Challis Venture Gulf (BHPP) Gulf (BHPP) Australia 110 1989 50 829 Lufeng 22-1 Ayer Biru Bluewater Occidental China 335 1990 1991 EWT30 Cyrus Seillean (Swops) BP BP UK 108 1990 1992 5 231 Huizhou 21-1 Nan Hai Fa Xian ACT ACT China 116 1990 80 1032 Bozhong 34-2 Chang Qing Hao JCODC JCODC China 20 1990 3433 Anoa Anoa Natuna Modec Premier Indonesia 77 1990 2534 Balder Petrojarl 1 Golar-Nor Norway 125 1991 1991 EWT35 Gombe Beta Ocean Producer Oceaneering Kelt (Amoco) Gabon 15 1991 1993 236 Angus Petrojarl 1 Golar-Nor Amerada UK 80 1991 1993 11 137 Skua Skua Venture BHPP BHPP Australia 82 1991 1997 20 638 Yombo Conkouati Walter Walter Congo 113 1991 34 839 West Linapacan FPSO II SBM Alcorn Philippines 360 1992 1996 440 Belida Intan Conoco Indonesia 100 1992 1992 190 EPS41 Donan Seillean Reading & Bates BP UK 140 1992 1997 26 542 Hudson Petrojarl 1 Golar-Nor Amerada UK 158 1993 1995 17 2 EPS43 Suizhong 36-1 Bo Hai Ming Zhu Bohai Bohai China 30 1993 10044 South Tano Discoverer 511 Ghana Petroleum Ghana 93 1993 135 15 EWT45 Lufeng 13-1 Nan Hai Sheng Kai JHN JHN China 330 199346 Gryphon Gryphon A Kerr McGee Kerr McGee UK 120 1993 96 1547 Griffin Griffin Venture BHPP BHPP Australia 130 1994 11748 Sembilang San Jacinto Oceaneering Conoco Indonesia 90 199449 Xijiang 24-3 Nan Hai Kai Tuo Phillips Phillips China 100 1994 100 1250 Kiabo Ocean Producer Oceaneering Sonangol Angola 56 1994 2051 Rong Bavi Vietsovpetro Vietsovpetro Vietnam 48 1994 3052 Zaafarana Al Zaafarana Zaafarana Zaafarana Egypt 60 1994 40 1553 Crystal Sea Halliburton Conoco North Sea 120 1994 WT


Right sideVessel Storage Purpose Double Mooring Wells Risers Peak Gas Gas Lift/ FieldSize Built Sides Type Location Disconnect Oil Export Reinjection

Production(k.dwt) (k.bbl) (k.bbl/d) (MMm3/d)

66 375 Yes CALM 2 LPG Ardjuna B60 350 Conversion SALM 1 1 20 Castellon54 400 Conversion CALM (SALM) 9 35 Garoupa

127 700 Conversion CALM Stern 2 4 30 Lift possible Cadlao50 230 Conversion SALM 37 Hondo54 400 Reuse CALM 35 Badejo84 Conversion SALM 2 1 20 Nilde

210 1020 Conversion SALM 8 24 20 Both possible Tazerka530 CALM Lucina

70 390 Conversion CALM Yes 4 5 Mila228 1000 Conversion Spread 15 1 30 Lift possible Geisum151 975 Conversion CALM 2 70 Bach Ho12 50 Yes Spread 2 1 10 Kepiting31 190 Yes Turret/DP Internal 1 1 26 Oseberg

160 980 Conversion Riser turret External bow Yes 6 6 60 Lift Jabiru152 600 Conversion SALM Yes 6 3 30 Weizhou 10-3285 1300 Conversion Jacket Stern 27 2 40 Adanga/Akam/Ebughu136 760 Conversion CALM Stern 9 2 70 Reinjection Kakap KH54 400 Reuse CALM 14 50 0.4 Albacora

138 550 Conversion Yes Turret External bow 3 2 Nilde31 190 Reuse Turret/DP Internal 1 1 26 Lyell70 420 Conversion CALM Yes 3 1 20 Liuhua 11-131 190 Reuse Turret/DP Internal 1 1 26 Troll West70 320 Reuse CALM 2 30 Talisman12 50 Reuse Spread 5 1 10 Lift Ikan Pari70 420 Reuse CALM 14 65 Intan52 390 Yes Jacket Yes 8 2 12 Bozhong 28-1

132 850 Yes SALM 7 11 60 Lift Challis45 300 Conversion CALM 20 Lufeng 22-176 310 Yes Yes DP 2 1 18 Cyrus

255 1450 Conversion Turret (buoyant) Internal bow Yes 30 4 80 Lift Huizhou 21-168 370 Yes Jacket Yes 9 3 12 Lift Bozhong 34-276 550 Yes Turret External bow 9 2 32 Anoa31 190 Reuse Turret/DP Internal 1 1 26 Balder77 510 Conversion Spread Yes 2 2 15 Lift Gombe Beta31 190 Reuse Turret/DP Internal 2 2 32 Angus

150 990 Conversion Riser turret External bow Yes 6 6 30 Lift Skua235 1420 Conversion Spread 22 6 35 Yombo127 700 Reuse CALM Stern 3 3 30 West Linapacan178 1300 Conversion Turret External bow 20 Belida76 310 Reuse Yes DP 4 1 18 Donan31 190 Reuse Turret/DP Internal 2 2 40 Hudson58 390 Yes Jacket Yes 11 4 45 Both Suizhong 36-115 No Conversion Turret Internal 3 8 South Tano

128 700 Conversion Turret (buoyant) Internal bow Yes 5 4 23 Lufeng 13-194 530 Yes Yes Turret/DP Internal 14 6 55 Both Gryphon

100 750 Yes Yes Riser turret External bow Yes 10 14 80 1.4 Both Griffin12 50 Reuse Spread 5 1 10 Both Sembilang

152 1000 Conversion Turret (buoyant) Internal bow Yes 32 2 66 Xijiang 24-377 510 Reuse Spread Yes 4 2 15 Lift Kiabo

155 1000 Conversion CALM 2 60 Rong111 800 Conversion Turret External bow 2 2 25 Zaafarana

9 45 Yes DP 1 35


FPSO Applications (continued)

Left sideNo Field Vessel Owner Oil Location Water First Last Recoverable Field EPS/

Company Depth Oil Oil Oil Life EWTReserves

(m) (MMbbl) (yr)54 Lion Red Teal Bumi Armada UMC Ivory Coast 70 1995 199755 Blenheim Petrojarl 1 Golar-Nor Arco UK 148 1995 23 356 Nemba Jamestown McDermott Chevron Angola 119 1995 EPS57 Fife Uisge Gorm Bluewater Amerada UK 70 1995 30 758 Wanaea/Cossack Cossack Pioneer Woodside Woodside Australia 80 1995 239 2559 Liuhua 11-1 Nan Hai Sheng Li Amoco Amoco China 310 1996 200 2060 Zafiro Zafiro Producer Mobil Mobil Eq. Guinea 180 1996 10061 Teal/Guillemot Anasuria Shell Shell UK 88 1996 86 1562 Maui B Whakaaropai Shell Todd Shell Todd NZ 114 1996 2563 Connemara Berge Hugin Statoil Statoil Ireland 114 1997 1997 EWT64 Captain Captain FPSO Texaco Texaco UK 104 1997 35065 Durward/Dauntless Glas Dowr Bluewater Amerada Hess UK 90 1997 100 566 Foinaven Petrojarl Foinaven Golar-Nor BP UK 460 1997 233 1067 MacCulloch North Sea Producer Maersk Conoco UK 148 1997 58 568 Ukpokiti Independence Express Conoco Nigeria 27 199769 Bunga Kekwa Armada Perkasa (Red Teal) Bumi Armada IPC Malaysia 55 1997 100 EPS70 Escravos Escravos Modec Chevron Nigeria 29 199771 Okwori Okwori Nigeria 199772 Barracuda P34 (PP de Moraes) Petrobras Petrobras Brazil 835 1997 5 EPS73 South Marlim FPSO II SBM Petrobras Brazil 1420 1997 EPS74 Tantawan Tantawan Explorer SBM Pogo Thailand 73 199775 Curlew Maersk Curlew Maersk Shell UK 92 1997 71 776 Lufeng 22-1 Navion Munin Navion Statoil China 330 1997 33 477 Norne Norne Statoil Statoil Norway 380 1997 470 2078 Albacora P31 Petrobras Petrobras Brazil 330 199879 Aquila FPSO Firenze (Agip Firenze) SBM/Saipem Agip Italy 850 1998 20 680 Elang/Kakatua Modec Venture 1 (Skua) Modec BHPP Aust/Indo 83 1998 29 481 Schiehallion Schiehallion FPSO BP BP UK 400 1998 450 1782 Marlim P33 Petrobras Petrobras Brazil 780 199883 Ruby Ruby Princess Nortrans Petronas Vietnam 50 1998 EPS84 Kiame Petroleo Nautipa Nortrans Ranger Angola 142 1998 985 Rang Dong Rang Dong FPSO Mitsubishi Vietnam 60 199886 Roncador Seillean Reading & Bates Petrobras Brazil 1853 1999 1999 EWT87 Pierce Berge Hugin Navion Enterprise UK 85 1999 104 1088 Banff Ramform Banff PGS Conoco UK 89 1999 70 789 Ross Bleo Holm Bluewater Talisman UK 100 1999 75 990 Bittern/Guillemot Triton Amerada Amerada UK 90 1999 150 1091 Marlim P35 Petrobras Petrobras Brazil 850 199992 Varg Varg B Saga Saga Norway 84 1999 50 593 Jotun Jotun FPSO Esso Esso Norway 126 1999 19594 Balder Balder FPU Esso Esso Norway 125 1999 170 1595 Marlim P37 Petrobras Petrobras Brazil 905 199996 Asgard Asgard A Statoil Statoil Norway 280 1999 830 2097 Kuito Chevron Chevron Angola 400 199998 Laminaria Northern Endeavour Woodside Woodside Australia 383 1999 189 1099 Abana Knock Taggart Moni Pulo Nigeria 6 1999

100 Buffalo Modec BHPP Australia 250 1999 22 3101 Masa Petronas Malaysia 1999102 Salema/Bijupira P45 Petrobras Petrobras Brazil 675 2000103 Espadarte FPSO VI Petrobras Brazil 940 2000104 Terra Nova Terra Nova FPSO PetroCanada PetroCanada Canada 95 2000 370 15105 Girassol Elf Elf Angola 1360 2001 700106 NC137 Elf Libya 2001 150 EPS107 Barracuda P43 Petrobras Petrobras Brazil 785 2001


Right sideVessel Storage Purpose Double Mooring Wells Risers Peak Gas Gas Lift/ FieldSize Built Sides Type Location Disconnect Oil Export Reinjection

Production(k.dwt) (k.bbl) (k.bbl/d) (MMm3/d)

390 Conversion CALM 2 Lion31 190 Reuse Turret/DP Internal 5 6 35 Lift Blenheim35 185 Conversion Spread 3 3 20 Reinjection Nemba99 620 Conversion Yes Turret Internal bow 7 9 50 Both Fife

152 1100 Conversion Riser turret External bow Yes 9 7 115 3.2 Lift Wanaea/Cossack140 720 Conversion Turret Internal bow 20 3 65 Liuhua 11-1268 1600 Conversion Spread 8 8 80 Zafiro130 850 Yes Turret Internal bow 12 7 60 1.0 Teal/Guillemot135 660 Conversion Turret External bow 4 2 32 Yes Maui B103 650 New Yes Turret/DP Submerged 60 Connemara114 550 Yes Turret/DP Internal 22 9 63 Captain105 660 New Yes Turret Internal bow 5 9 55 Both Durward/Dauntless

260 Conversion Yes Turret Internal 22 10 100 Both Foinaven110 No Conversion Turret Internal bow 9 8 72 0.7 Lift MacCulloch275 1700 Conversion Spread 5 4 20 Ukpokiti60 390 Reuse Spread 4 2 15 Bunga Kekwa

340 Yes Turret External bow LPG Escravos440 Conversion Okwori

55 340 Reuse Turret Internal bow 11 23 30 0.6 Lift Barracuda127 830 Reuse CALM Stern 2 3 30 Lift South Marlim137 1020 Conversion Turret Internal 50 4.2 Tantawan100 560 Conversion Yes Turret Internal bow 3 4 45 2.8 Curlew103 650 New Yes Turret/DP Submerged Yes 5 2 40 Lufeng 22-1100 730 Yes Yes Turret/DP Internal 14 9 173 Reinjection Norne282 2000 Conversion Turret Internal bow 35 100 2.6 Albacora138 500 Reuse Yes Turret External bow 2 4 20 Lift Aquila150 990 Reuse Riser turret External bow Yes 4 6 33 Lift Elang/Kakatua154 950 Yes Yes Turret Internal bow 29 14 154 Reinjection Schiehallion279 2000 Conversion Turret Internal 9 50 2.0 Marlim140 1000 Conversion Turret External bow 8 1 30 Ruby140 1000 Conversion Spread 2 30 Kiame

Conversion 45 Rang Dong76 310 Reuse Yes DP 2 1 20 Roncador

103 650 Reuse Yes Turret/DP Submerged 9 45 2.8 Both Pierce31 120 Yes Turret/DP Internal 5 7 95 Yes Banff

105 666 Yes Yes Turret Internal bow 11 18 40 1.4 Both Ross630 Yes Turret Internal bow 100 3.4 Bittern/Guillemot

270 2000 Conversion Turret Internal 22 100 3.0 Marlim100 440 Yes Yes Turret Internal 14 57 Reinjection Varg93 590 Yes Yes Turret Internal 24 80 0.8 Both Jotun87 380 New Yes Turret/DP Internal 25 10 70 Yes Reinjection Balder

280 2000 Conversion Turret Internal bow 35 150 4.6 Marlim175 910 Yes Yes Turret Internal 59 16 200 Yes Reinjection Asgard

100 Reinjection Kuito250 1400 Yes Turret Internal bow 6 6 170 Both Laminaria

50 Abana104 850 Conversion Turret External bow 3 2 40 Buffalo

Conversion 35 Masa850 Conversion 20 55 2.4 Salema/Bijupira

2000 Conversion 9 100 Espadarte960 Yes Turret Yes 24 125 Terra Nova

340 2000 Yes Spread 40 13 200 Yes Reinjection Girassol30 NC137

2000 Spread 24 200 6.0 Barracuda

fpso trends

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