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Central Institute of Fisheries Education(University under Sec. 3 of UGC Act)Panch Marg, Off Yari Road, Mumbai - 400061Tel: 022 2636 1446/7/8www.cife.edu.in

Compendium of Lectures

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1

Farmers as Stakeholders

in Commercial Aquaculture

1961-2011

Edited by

M.KrishnanP.S.Ananthan

R.S.Biradar W.S.Lakra

CIFE Golden Jubilee Mini Symposium Series No. 1

Compendium of Lectures

Farmers as Stakeholders in

Commercial Aquaculture

June 2011

Fisheries Economics, Extension and Statistics Division

Central Institute of Fisheries Education (University under Sec 3 UGC Act - ICAR)

Panch Marg, Off Yaari Road, Versova, Andheri, Mumbai - 61 http://www.cife.edu.in

Farmers as Stakeholders in Commercial Aquaculture, A Compendium of Lectures of CIFE Golden Jubilee Mini Symposium held on 30 April 2011, CIFE, Mumbai. Edited by Dr. M. Krishnan Dr. Ananthan, P.S. Dr. R. S. Biradar Dr. W. S. Lakra Published by Dr. W. S. Lakra, Director, CIFE, Mumbai Citation Krishnan, M. et al, 2011. Farmers as Stakeholders in Commercial Aquaculture, A Compendium of Lectures of CIFE Golden Jubilee Mini Symposium held on 30 April 2011, CIFE, Mumbai. Copyright: Central Institute of Fisheries Education, Mumbai, 2011

Foreword

In our journey to deliver record production and productivity in shrimp farming, the commercial aquaculture sector must always realize its responsibility to the 90 percent small and marginal farmers who make the single largest contribution en bloc. Beneficiaries of welfare schemes of the state DoFs must become an integral part of this “new business”. The sector should take lessons from initiatives like Agrocel of Kutch. Inclusive growth as a business model in shrimp farming is being popularized by the NaCSA model in Andhra Pradesh. Cluster farming and satellite farming are production strategies that can help the nation attain consistent and sustainable production. With other species offering scope for diversification like seabass, ornamentals and seaweed, the sector seems to be limited only by extent of institutional and organizational networking

Shrimp farming is the most dynamic sector in Indian agriculture. Ceteris paribus, it offers the highest returns per rupee of investment compared to any other investment opportunity in agriculture. Indian shrimp farming sector had been the sunrise sector in the early nineties. It literally underwent trial by fire in the late half of the nineties and had achieved unsteady stability in terms of productivity in the first decade of this century.

With an eye to the future and also to be in sync with the neighboring shrimp farming countries, India had developed a pragmatic recovery plan to help shrimp farming find its feet again. Led by the National Fisheries Development Board (NFDB) and Coastal Aquaculture Authority (CAA) of Ministry of Agriculture, the Marine Products Exports Development Authority (MPEDA) of the Ministry of Commerce and the ICAR fisheries research institutes, shrimp farming has been given a fresh lease of life with the introduction of Litopenaeus vannamei. Specially equipped hatcheries that will specialize in SPF L.vannamei broodstock and seed production have been identified, the rules for regulating the second coming of the shrimp farming in its new avtar has been drawn meticulously by the CAA with the state DoF in tandem. The nation is waiting for the business end of the sector to record consistent and restrained performance that will help the country to achieve sustained growth in shrimp production and exports.

Once bitten twice shy, Indian shrimp farming, processing and trade, I am sure, will play a responsible role in contributing significantly to the growth rate of agriculture and also enable enhancement of economic and social quality of life among the small and marginal shrimp farmers. The Central Institute of Fisheries Education, Mumbai in its Golden Jubilee year has taken the right step in organizing this very important and significant symposium on Farmers as Stakeholders in Commercial Aquaculture.

S. Ayyappan Director General, ICAR & Secretary, DARE Govt. of India, Krishi Bhavan, New Delhi

PREFACE

The Central Institute of Fisheries Education (CIFE) Mumbai is celebrating the Golden Jubilee of its journey that began in 1961 in a befitting manner in June 2011. The CIFE continues to deliver quality education in fish and fisheries science and has attained creditable heights in research and extension as per the mandate of the institute and the ICAR.

As a prelude to the rapidly approaching Golden Jubilee, the CIFE has decided to organize a series of symposiums that will home in on the issues that will help this university-institute to organize its teaching and research programs better in the years to come.

There is no doubt that private sector has to play a major role in fisheries and aquaculture development. But private investments must necessarily include the interest of the small and marginal farmers of the country in their business models. This is truer in commercial aquaculture of high value shrimp and prawn species. Data shows more than 90 percent of the country’s shrimp farms are less than 1 ha in area and are farmed by small and marginal farmers. Nevertheless, the sector is again poised for a high growth phase, the second coming, after its dizzy performance in the early nineties. High value aquaculture includes L. vannamei which is management intensive. Local communities are knowledge intensive. They have innate local understanding of the water, soil and farming practices which can play a major role in scientific management of commercial farms. Their ITK can help sustain the environment and help realize the industry to reap successive successful crops.

Similarly species like L. calcarifer or seabass has great potential. Despite the fact the seed production technology is in place, the farming of seabass is still in its infancy. A long duration crop, the species as a culturable one, is again management intensive. Can we develop a vertically integrated farming-processing -marketing business model that can lead to involvement of local communities and generate employment and income in rural areas? Can the model help mitigate urban migration and provide opportunities for growth of employment for educated fishers and stakeholders in the coastal areas?

We have recorded significant success in seaweed farming in Tamil Nadu which is a people’s movement. The success of the initiative lies in the private initiative backed by central research and development organizations, state government, NABARD and commercial banks. The model looks replicable in other states also. Orissa has taken the initiative in this direction.

Aquaculture itself is a rural initiative. The time is ripe for us to discuss and arrive at some form of consensus to integrate rural population in commercial aquaculture. The ways and means to look at the issue lies in the necessity to integrate human and local social capital in commercial ventures to avoid the pitfalls of commercial aquaculture as practiced in the early nineties.

This symposium and the contributions of leading entrepreneurs whose contributions are in the following pages, will we are sure, help us to throw some light on the ways and means of inclusive growth of farmers as stakeholders in commercial aquaculture. We sincerely appreciate the efforts of the faculty and students of the Division of Fisheries Economics, Extension and Statistics in particular and the institute at large, who have helped to organize this symposium and compile the contributions of the invited speakers and the faculty.

M.Krishnan, Ananthan, P.S., R.S.Biradar and W.S.Lakra

ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. Farmers as Stakeholders in Commercial Aquaculture – a Synthesis M.Krishnan, P.S.Ananthan, R.S.Biradar, W.S.Lakra

1-5

2. Inclusive Shrimp Farming: Development Model For Marginal Stakeholders In India (With Special Reference to Gujarat). Manoj M. Sharma

6-14

3. Fishers First: Participatory Model in Seaweed Farming in India. Abhiram Seth and Tanmaye Seth

15-32

4. High value aquaculture and marginal stake holders in India with special reference to L. Vannamei Saji Chacko

33-37

5. The impact of commercial shrimp farming in Andhra Pradesh on Marginal farmers. P. Elan Cheran

38-45

6. Integrating farmers as stakeholders in coastal commercial aquaculture. M. Krishnan, R. S. Biradar, Swadesh Prakash, P. S. Ananthan, Vinod Kumar Yadav and B. Nightingale Devi

46-57

7. Ensuring community participation for sustainable public-private-partnership in aquaculture. Ojha S.N., Sheela Immanuel, Ananthan P.S., Mishra, S.K and Nisha Elezabeth Joshwa

58-77

8. Farmers focus strategies to enhance local availability of quality fish seed for commercial Aquaculture. Nalini Ranjan Kumar and M. Krishnan

78-88

9. Indigenous Technical Knowledge (ITK) as local resource for sustainable development: Study of cases in fisheries and aquaculture. Arpita Sharma, Banti Debnath and S.K. Mishra

89-94

10. A study on the performance appraisal of Non-Governmental Organizations in fisheries development in India. S.K.Mishra, S.N.Ojha, Sheela Immanuel, Arpita Sharma, Swadesh Prakash, Archana Sinha and Lipi Das

95-104

11. Proceedings of the Symposium on Farmers as Stakeholders in Commercial Aquaculture

105-108

12. Programme Schedule of Symposium on Farmers as Stakeholders in Commercial Aquaculture held on 30 April, 2011

109

iii

LIST OF TABLES

State wise details of shrimp farming in India 2

Overview of brackish water shrimp farming resources of India and their utilization during 2005-2006.

7

District wise land allotment in Gujarat 7

Role of Stakeholders in the project 20

Project cost for 5 members in a group 21

Economics of Seaweed cultivation – Operation & Economics 21

Yield data of crops sprayed with seaweed sap (data generated by CSMRI and our licensee shared over the years)

32

Crop comparision between P. Monodon and L. Vannamei 35

Distribution of farmers in district wise detail 39

Unit cost of Contract Farming Oceanaa model scheme for shrimp culture 48

Supplementary features of the Oceanna model 52

Input-Output Relationships in Organic and Conventional Shrimp Farming Systems 54

Vicious Cycle of Exclusive Growth- Actors, Actions and Beneficiaries 59

State-wise Fish Seed Production in India 80

State-wise Production and requirement of carp seed in India during 2008-09 81

State wise production & requirement cold water Fish seed in India during 2008-09 82

State wise production & requirement brackish water fish seed in India during 2008-09 82

Movement of fish seed across different states of India 84

Fish Seed Production Infrastructure in India 86

Socio-Economic Profile of the Respondent Field Functionaries 97

Communication Profile of the Respondent Field Functionaries 97

Suggestions by the Respondent Field Functionaries for enhancing the Performance of their NGOs

98

Socio-Economic Profile of the Respondent NGO Beneficiaries 99

Expectations and Needs met by beneficiaries from the NGOs 100

Assessment of Performance of the selected NGOs by non-beneficiary Stakeholders 101

iv

GJMS: F armers as Stakeholders in Commercial Aquaculture 1

Farmers as Stakeholders In Commercial Aquaculture - A Synthesis

M. Krishnan, Anathan, P.S., R. S. Biradar and W. S. Lakra

Shrimp farming in India is coming of age. India has established the institutional framework and organisational support for the development of the sector. The Department of Animal Husbandry, Dairying and Fisheries (DAHD&F), The Marine Products Exports Development Authority (MPEDA), the Coastal Aquaculture Authority (CAA), the State Departments of Fisheries, ICAR fisheries institutes supported by institutional finance and insurance have enabled the formulation and implementation of various policy and development strategies.

Yet many gaps are still discernable in the geographical spread, direction and intensity of growth of commercial aquaculture. It does appear that commercial aquaculture is developing on a bits and pieces model. 70 percent of the cultured shrimp produced in the country comes from Andhra Pradesh and just 5 percent from Gujarat (Manoj Sharma). The interesting feature of this significantly skewed development is that shrimp farming in Andhra Pradesh is complete ly a private investment initiative on privately owned lands and in Gujarat, it is on public lands earmarked for shrimp farming.

Gujarat

Taking the numbers for 2009-10 into consideration, significantly an area of 33,754 ha produced 39,537 tonnes of shrimp @ 1.17 tonnes per hectare in Andhra Pradesh. While in Gujarat, 1,916 hectares produced 3,606 tonnes @ 1.88 tonnes per hectare (Table 1). Sharma puts the figure at 6800 tonnes of shrimp from 2248 ha @ 3.02 tonnes per ha in 2010 The rapid metamorphosis and diversity in terms of species and policy in commercial aquaculture does not empower us to ascribe any particular reason for significant strides being made by this sector in a particular state and less so in others.

Onaway Industries, Surat has made significant strides in the farming of L. vannamei. Currently only about 4000 hectares is developed and utilized for shrimp farming in Gujarat. The production of shrimp during 2010 was about 6000 tonnes of black tiger shrimp and about 1000 tonnes of L. vannamei shrimp. It may be noted that it was the first year of production of L. vannamei and it has already formed close to 15 % of the total shrimp production in the state (Saji Chacko).

Black tiger is still beautiful for Manoj Sharma. The niche international market for large sized jumbo shrimps of 50 gm is being successfully farmed by M/s. Mayank Aquaculture, Surat. The underlining message that comes through from the discussion on the success that the respective aquapreneurs have been able achieve in each of the species is the importance of the adoption of scientific shrimp farming and rigorous best management practices. Significantly Gujarat appears to have adopted the inclusive growth model of group farming.


Table 1: State Wise Details of Shrimp Farming In India

Sr.

No State

Estimated potential brackish water area

2002

-03

2003

-04

2004

-05

2005

-06

2006

-07

2007

-08

2008

-09

2009

-10

1 W. Bengal 4,05,000 AUC 49,050 49,925 50,215 50,474 50,915 48,236 47,488 47,488

EP 28,270 29,714 35,432 42,336 42,006 28,000 27,418 33,685

2 Orissa 31,600 AUC 9,000 12,116 7,030 8,172 11,453 6,286 5,362 4,769

EP 10,280 12,390 9,896 9,739 9,726 5,410 3,544 6,149

3 Andhra Pradesh

1,50,000 AUC 71,420 69,638 61,429 57,712 65,234 50,396 36,395 33,754

EP 59,190 53,124 61,609 70,669 75,414 56,557 29,706 39,537

4 Tamil Nadu & Pondicherry 56,800

AUC 3,620 3,133 3,684 4,916 3,712 2,730 4,673 2,381

EP 4,990 6,070 6,674 7,036 5,307 3,438 4,133 2,702

5 Kerala 65,000 AUC 13,680 14,029 10,797 13,871 11,691 7,598 8,290 9,545

EP 7,570 6,461 7,573 6,883 5,151 5,903 4,309 7,096

6 Karnataka 8,000 AUC 3,040 3,085 1,528 3,262 3,329 3,577 3,361 1,484

EP 2,620 1,828 1,328 1,843 1,883 2,119 2,138 1,581

7 Goa 18,500 AUC 930 963 295 331 828 840 803 272

EP 910 700 534 659 654 643 511 319

8 Maharashtra 80,000 AUC 460 615 524 647 848 756 882 651

EP 640 981 1,068 683 979 946 1,130 1,244

9 Gujarat 3,76,000 AUC 880 1,013 891 1,297 1,622 1,660 1,535 1,916

EP 1,050 1,510 1,500 3,322 3,227 3,149 3,107 3,606

Total 11,90,900 AUC 152,080 154,517 136,393 140,682 149,630 122,078 108,789 102,260

EP 115,520 112,778 125,668 143,170 144,347 106,165 75,997 95,919

AUC: Area under culture (Ha) EP: Estimated production (MT) Source: MPEDA

The Surat Aquaculture Farmers Association (SAFA), has taken the lead in organised shrimp farming among 200 shrimp farmers in Gujarat. A turnover of Rs. 200 crore is be ing generated from 1500 ha. Only about 5% of the potential area has been released for shrimp farming. Hence there is an urgent need for allocation of classified land suitable for brackishwater aquaculture to the shrimp farmers based on the principle of equity and social justice, governed and managed by group farming approach. 700 man days of employment is generated from a single shrimp crop (Sharma). Therefore the area under culture in Gujarat has generated more than 21 lakhs m an days of employment.

The Gujarat state government has initiated the action plan to develop 50 000 ha area of 38 talukas of coastal districts of the state. i.e. 15% of the potential land of state into shrimp


ponds, this plan can bring manifold increase in shrimp production from Gujarat. With 15% of the potential identified area in under culture, Gujarat will be able to produce close to 70,000 tons of shrimp and can generate 2000 crores fore ign exchange for the state and country (Sharma).

Gujarat appears to be well oriented towards development of aquaculture in the state. Its policy of growth with equity as described by Sharma could bring in the right balance of commercial aquaculture with the involvement of primary stakeholders. The scope of farming of L. Vannamei is also being well exploited, but by exercising great caution.

The statistics used in the two papers from Gujarat vary slightly with one another. Though this maybe understandable in the initial phases of development, it is of utmost importance for the government of Gujarat to maintain proper statistics in respect of area, production and productivity of aquaculture in the state. It needs to be emphasised that the Department of Fisheries must train in tandem with the Directorate of Economics and Statistics, the Department of Revenue and Land records in the development and maintenance of such a statistical database. Moreover topo sheets and remote sensing data also need to be maintained meticulously in order to sustain the activity over a long period of time.

Andhra Pradesh

Fisheries sector in Andhra Pradesh is contributing 2.39 % to the gross state domestic product (2008-09). The quantity of fish and prawn produced is 12.52 lakh tons (102%) against the target of 12.20 lakh tons for 2008-09. AP’s export earnings are at 2500 crores and that represents 40 % of total marine export of India. In Andhra Pradesh, a total area of 79,660 ha is distributed among 12,288 farmers in 73,343 farms. Out of all these only 18000 ha is under active shrimp culture (Cheran). For L.vannamei, 192 farms have been licensed by Coastal Aquaculture Authority with the farming area of 2425.59 ha (1645.31 ha WSA). 18 hatcheries have been permitted by CAA to import brood stock and produce vannamei seeds for commercial shrimp farming. The targeted production of L.vannamei in Andhra Pradesh by the end of 2010 was around 35000 tonnes. Scampi farming had a significant production share till recently and F.indicus is produced for to cater to minor domestic market.

Shrimp aquaculture in Andhra Pradesh is still a private initiative. Market forces drives the direction of investment and farmers in AP have always been high risk takers. The role of feed companies as technical managers and extension agents has been institutionalised in Andhra Pradesh. Syndicate farming where few farmers invest together to reap rich dividends with the support of the feed companies is a new trend in distributing risk.

Corporate style farming had exited in the late nineties. Now since the local farmers do not se ll their lands to outsiders as a matter of policy, shrimp farming will remain with the local people . Switching between agriculture and aquaculture has also become quite popular and has made the farming system more resilient (Cheran).


Labour, farm equipment and post harvest support systems are also privately owned and business is a function of the market. The NaCSA model of aquaculture development is catching on and the schemes of NFDB and MPEDA have provided immense opportunities for growth of commercial shrimp farming in Andhra Pradesh.

Seaweed farmin g

Seaweed farming is a sector that has been more sinned against than sinned in India. With the development of a 10 ha water front area for seaweed farming in Mandapam in Ramanathapuram district of Tamil Nadu, M/s. Aquagri Processing has demonstrated the power of the SHG model of farming than never before. The unique nature of the model is that the industry initiated model was well rece ived by the state government of Tamil Nadu and supported effectively by funding and other institutional agencies, primarily the commercial banks which have ably supported the funding and routing of SHG revenues and receipts.

The scope of seaweed farming in India is woefully underexploited in India. For India with its vast coastline and large coastal community which is re lative ly poor and is in search of a sustainable vocation especially as they faced with diminishing returns from fishing, it can be a major opportunity (Abhiram Seth). Seaweed cultivation project is being promoted with support of local DRDA, State Fisheries and NGOs in view to create an alternative livelihood for the coastal people/SHGs. It is now successfully going on in the Districts of Ramnad, Tuticorin, Pudukkottai and Tanjore and about 1200 fishers in total are earning an attractive income through the project. . The international buyers who visited the cultivation sites have opined said that India will surpass the Kappaphycus cultivation of Philippines once full-fledged cultivation is undertaken in Tamil Nadu. The corporate initiative taken up by PepsiCo and equally well followed by Aquagri needs to be appreciated and is a clear case of how responsible community inclusive corporate interventions in agriculture can bring about a sea change in the lives of local communities. Kappaphycus alvarezii has greatly benefited the coastal communities and given them their livelihood, while also providing them an opportunity to have access to a new live lihood rather than being dependent solely on fishing or agriculture. In the financial year 2011-2012 it is expected the self help groups produce over 3000 MT dry mass up from 1500 MT in 2010-11.

Kappaphycus farming can be promoted in viable locations on the coast as a viable economic self help group avocation that is essentially suited for women involvement as in Tamil Nadu. As stated in the NAAS paper of 2002, it should be promoted on a mission mode programme. Gujarat coast in the Kutch also offers some of the ideal sites that can be exploited fruitfully. Coastal Orissa has also taken to seaweed farming in the SHG mode lately. This low investment – high returns investment opportunity could play a major role in transforming the lives of the rural folk especially in remote locations.


End notes

New Zealand aquaculture is also commercial. The government of New Zealand has restricted aquaculture to salmon, oysters and mussels (New Zealand Coastal Policy Statement, 2010). The law of comparative advantage is practised to perfection. Water front is leased out @ NZD 200,000 per ha. of water space making it a highly competitive market. Only serious and experienced firms that have well defined production and marketing strategies can enter and thrive in New Zealand aquaculture industry. Significantly New Zealand aquaculture industry has remained disease free throughout, which itself is proof of its efficiency.

Resource use efficiency of private enterprise backed by resource conservation measures of the government can ensure long run sustainability of aquaculture in India. Identification of contiguous stretches of brackishwater area ( brackishwater aquaculture estates), developing industry interest for local and foreign direct investment, development of long term leasing policy incorporating local stakeholders interests and their direct and indirect involvement, ensuring sustainability and conservation, working in partnership with government, councils and the public will ensure long term sustainable growth of the sector.


Inclusive Shrimp Farming: Development Model for Marginal Stakeholders in India (with special reference to Gujarat)

Manoj M. Sh arma

Aquaculture is the fastest growing food producing sector not only in India, but also in the world. India has long tradition of aquaculture from time immemorial as a sustenance activity and presently a leader in the world after China, contributing to about 6.62% of the total global production in 2008 (FAO, 2010). Aquaculture technology has undergone considerable advancement in the last three decades mainly because of the stagnation of fish supply from the capture fisheries sector. Shrimps form a valuable component of capture fisheries. The processing industry largely relies on shrimp landings since they constitute a major and most valued export-worthy seafood commodity. As a result of indiscriminate exploitation of the shrimp resources of the country, their catches appear to be declining in the recent years. At the same time there is an ever-increasing demand for shrimp in international as well as domestic markets. This situation has necessitated an immediate search for new resources from unexploited areas and the generation of new (additional) biomass through shrimp aquaculture.

The present level production of shrimp from India is close to 1 35 000 tones/year (Year 2010) and mostly 70% of it comes from Andhra Pradesh. Gujarat contribution to the national production is only 5%, though Gujarat has got 2nd largest land area, suitable for shrimp farming in India. Presently, the total seafood export from India is more than Rs. 10, 000 crores and shrimps contribute to 65%.

Gujarat scenario

In India, Gujarat state is blessed with second largest brackish water potential area (3 76 000 ha) next to West Bengal (4, 05,500 ha) in 14 coastal districts that contains 1 600 Km of coast line. As per the preliminary survey conducted, 89 341 ha have been found to be suitable for brackish water aquaculture. The district wise availability is given in Table 2 (Commissioner of Fisheries, Gujarat, 2007). Out of these potential areas, only 4249.95 hectares have been allotted to 801 numbers of farmers for culture and presently, 3116 hectares (0.83%) from these potential areas has been developed and utilized for shrimp farming with water spread area of 2 248 hectors. In year 2010, the cultured shrimp production of Gujarat has touched to a level of 6 800 tones from these 2 248 ha of water spread area with average production of 3.02 tones/ha/annum and a turnover of more than Rs.200 crores.

Brackish water aquaculture (shrimp farming) in Gujarat started with 4.5 ha in 1991 – 92 with an average production of 377.80 kg / ha and the present production (in year 2010) has touched to a level of 6 800 tons from 2 248 ha of water spread area with average production of 3.02 tones/ha/annum and a turnover of Rs.200 crores plus.


Table 1: Overview of brackishwater sh rimp farmin g resources & utilization (2005-2006)

State Potential Area(ha) Area under use (ha) Percentage use (%)

West Bengal 405500 42067 10.39

Orissa 31600 8000 25.32

Andhra Pradesh 150000 71000 47.33

Tamil Nadu 56000 1087 01.94

Pondicherry 800 …. 00.00

Kerela 65000 1426 22.62

Karnataka 8000 3564 44.55

Goa 18500 650 03.51

Maharashtra 80000 1426 01.78

Gujarat 3 76 000 3 116 00.83

Andaman & Nicobar 120000 ---- 00.00

Total 13 10 900 1 45 615 11.10

Table 2: District wise land allotment in Gujarat

Sr. No District Brackish water

Land (ha)

Suitable brackish water land after

micro survey (h a)

Land allotted by the District Collectors

No. of Farmers

Area (ha)

1 Valsad 9 088 5 138.73 127 590.31 2 Navsari 23 152 12 037.18 185 1429.00 3 Surat 24 300 19 200.00 315 1145.50 4 Bharuch 57 500 33 208.00 134 806.00 5 Kheda 20 735 NA 00 00 6 Anand 26 000 NA 00 00 7 Ahmadabad 49 750 NA 00 00 8 Surendranagar 16 190 NA 00 00 9 Bhavnagar 15 200 1 125.00 11 51.14

10 Amreli 8 095 2 001.00 28 226.00 11 Junagadh 19 020 1 493.00 01 2.00 12 Rajkot 6 270 3 200.00 00 00 13 Jamnagar 22 300 4 104.00 00 00 14 Kutch 78 400 7 834.00 00 00

Total 3 76 000 89 340.91 801 4249.95

Source: DoF, Gujarat, 2010, NA: Not available


Blue revolution in Surat, Gujarat:

Surat is the economic capital of Gujarat state, which is famous for its diamond and textile industry in India. This is one of the famous coastal districts that identified approximately to 24 300 hectares of potential brackish water area. Shrimp farming in Surat started with 6 ponds at village Dandi (Olpad) under the technical guidance of Dr. Manoj M. Sharma in year 1995-96. Initially the production was not successful by virtue of viral outbreak of W.S.S.V. in the country followed by the Supreme Court stay-order. However, the culture practice was reattempted in year 2000 and production was very successful. The total production was 8 tons from these 6 ponds. This enlightened result has attracted the local community and entrepreneurs to push this industry towards massive scale . Presently, Surat is having 1 500 culture ponds producing 3 500 tons of shrimp with international repute annually. Some developed sites of shrimp farming in Surat, Gujarat are given in the following figures.

In comparison with the national shrimp production from aquaculture, the state of Gujarat (India) is contributing only near to 5% of the country’s production but with more standard and biosecured culture practice with average count grade of 26/30 against the national average count grade of 35 and average production per unit area of this state is more than double than the national production with international repute adhering to better management practices (BMP) with all food safety protocols. However, some se lected photos of these successful shrimp farming in Surat, Gujarat are given in the following figures.

Fig 1: A well developed si te at Olpad, Surat, Gujarat Fig 2: Most successful cooperative shrimp farm at Dandi , Surat,

Fig 12.S trong biosecurity of shrimp farm maintained in Surat


Recently the author with his team has proved that the black tiger is still beautiful compared to all other commercial shrimp species from his recent studies that done in his farm in Surat (Info fish International-March 2011) after producing 16/20 counts of black tiger shrimp (figure 18 & 19) by this strong BMP protocol and from his case study the result may be a role model for the world shrimp farmers for future practice and to restore back their faith in black tiger shrimp farming specially in India. To make this industry more sustainable , the major shrimp farmers and entrepreneurs joined hand to hand under one roof named Surat Aquaculture Farmers Association (SAFA). SAFA took birth in year 2005 with primary motive to carry out sustainable shrimp farming with eco-friendly approach. Presently, SAFA is having 200 member farmers under this united roof. SAFA- The most successful BMP model in India:

• All Surat based aqua farmers united to form a group named Surat Aquaculture Framers Association shortly called SAFA in year 2005.

• Primary motive to carry out sustainable shrimp farming with eco-friendly approach under BMP protocol.

• Presently, more than 200 member farmers & still increasing. • One of the most practical and successful group/club/cluster farming in India with more

than 95% successful crops. SAFA- A collaborative effort in Surat:

• SAFA-Primary objective is to carry out sustainable shrimp farming activity in Surat area for “food and profit”.

• To provide all members best available seed, feed & other inputs and its information with all necessary guidelines for successful shrimp farming.

• To make group marketing for better farm gate shrimp price . • Developed more then 1 500 ha of shrimp farms and producing 3 500 tones of high quality

shrimp per annum with international repute from last decade. • Providing direct employment to 500 families, indirect employment to thousand others

with an annual shrimp production worth of Rs.200 Crores+. Benefits of shrimp farming development 1. Shrimp farming development is a coastal activity which can convert the non fertile waste

kharland into productive use by producing shrimp. (Pink Gold from Wastelands). 2. Shrimp farming is a land based activity requiring huge manpower, opening lot of

employment and se lf employment opportunities to lakhs of rural people. 3. Presently the shrimp farming is export oriented activity and the shrimps being a delicacy

with good demand in the international market fetching high price . This activity can bring the fore ign currency to state in tune of Indian Rs. 2 000 crores at only 15% development of the potential land.


4. Large scale shrimp farming development can open domestic market, providing good quality prote in food to the common men. The domestic market can also create lots of job opportunities and self employment to people.

5. This will increase the state fisheries production and ultimately will increase the national aquaculture production in the country.

6. This will help in improving livelihood opportunities and reduction in poverty among fishers and farmers especially in coastal areas.

7. This high value aqua industry will increase the other ancillary infrastru ctures in the country like hatcheries, feed mills, processing plants, aqua-laboratories, pharmaceuticals.

Highlights of Shrimp Farming Development in Surat, Gujarat: Wasteland converted to Best land- Gujarat is having large section of salt affected Khar

land, which is not suitable for anything except salt manufacture. Shrimp farming has given a life to such non-fertile land and immense opportunity to coastal fishers to make the best out of waste land.

Self-employment opportunity- Land lease policy of the Gujarat govt. has changed the face of coastal community by providing self-employment opportunity at their door step. This has transformed the living standard of coastal fishers. Shrimp farming development has brought tremendous socio-economic benefits to coastal parts of the state changing lives of millions. For example, an average earning of a common fisherman was not even Rs. 100 per day has changed to a sizable income from 5 ha shrimp farming development. Today a common shrimp farmer can sufficiently provide a se lf-reliant life to his family members. The shrimp farming has emerged out as the only attraction to the coastal migrants to come back to their roots and start a healthy business among their door steps.

Infrastructure development- Shrimp farming requires good capital investment and in terms it has brought considerable amount of infrastructure developments of coastal villages. Group/club of farmers with their basic requirement of farming like approach road, electricity, potable water, residence and other has benefited many ways to the coastal community by commonly sharing the infrastructures.

Labor intensive employment- Shrimp farming requires good amount of labors for intensive livestock rearing. 1 ha of shrimp farm can generate 700 man days work/crop giving immense opportunity of job for coastal dwellers. Presently, the development of 3000 ha has opened the gate for 21 lakhs man days per crop. With this anybody can judge and understand the power of aquaculture development and how it can transform the coastal lives.

Food and Safety- The shrimp is one of the most prominent protein producing animal of livestock component. The aquaculture can lead the chart as quality animal prote in producing system and can support a great way to combat malnutrition among the world.

By virtue of this reason the quality shrimp produced in Gujarat is at great demand in European nation and other parts of the world.

Foreign revenue earner- The aquaculture products specially shrimp has great demand in the international market and 95% of country’s shrimp farming is exported to the whole world generating export worth Rs. 6 500 crores. The present level of Gujarat production is bringing in worth Rs. 250 crores to the state.

Conclusion: Looking into the success story of shrimp farming and inclination of coastal people towards this business as the only way out for their live lihood, the state govt. has initiated action plan to develop 50 000 ha area of 38 Talukas from coastal part of the state. The vision 2010 plan of Gujarat govt. can change the entire scenario of shrimp farming development in Gujarat. The govt. has decided to develop more than 50,000 ha i.e. 15% of the potential land of state into shrimp ponds, this plan can bring manifold increase in shrimp production from Gujarat. After 15% development of the total potential land, Gujarat will be able to produce close to 70,000 tons of shrimp and can generate 2000 crores foreign exchange for the state and country. In addition the vision 2010 plan can bring considerable opportunities for the coastal people in the field of self employment. The development plan can bring in employment opportunity to more than 2 lakhs people and can benefit lakhs of people in indirect effect.

Name : Dr. Manoj Sharma

Educational background with institutional affiliation :

M.F.Sc. (Fisheries Management), CIFE, Mumbai Ph.D Fisheries Science (shrimp farming), Swami Ramanand Teerth University, Nanded, Maharashtra

Position : DIRECTOR

Name of the company : M/S Mayank Aquaculture Pvt. Ltd, 204/205, Suryadarshan Complex, Beside CNG Gas Station, Jahingirpura, Rander Road, Surat, Gujarat, Pin 395 009

Product profile of the company : shrimp farming, training and development

Mobile(s) : +91 9824112856/9825412857

Email id : [email protected]


Fishers First: Participatory Model in Seaweed Farming in India

Abhiram Seth and Tanmaye Seth

Background

Seaweeds: Until recently seaweeds were described as simple plants that grew in the sea, but scientists now consider that the structure and chemistry of seaweeds is so distinctive that they warrant their own classification. They are simple in structure, usually consisting of a holdfast that anchors them to a surface, and a blade which may be divided into fronds. Some of the larger seaweeds have a flexible stalk or stripe connecting the blade to the holdfast. Unlike plants, seaweeds do not have roots or internal tissues to conduct water. They absorb minerals and gases directly from sea water through the surface of their blades.

Seaweeds can be grouped into three types, based on colour – green, red or brown. They all contain the light-absorbing pigment chlorophyll, which is necessary for photosynthesis. Brown and red seaweeds have additional pigments that enable them to photosynthesise at depths where little light penetrates. These extra pigments mask the green colour of chlorophyll. Brown seaweeds can be yellow-brown to dark olive . Red seaweeds have the greatest range of tone – pink to purple , red, and brown to nearly black.

Beneficial properties of sea weed have been known and have historically been harvested from their natural habitat. However harvesting from nature is neither scalable nor sustainable . The real revolution in seaweed cultivation and processing now generally referred to as The ‘Blue Revolution’ was ushered by two pioneering scientists; Tseng Cheng Kui (C.K. Tseng) and Maxwell S. Doty, who are amongst the most important contributors to algal mariculture in the twentieth century. Tseng, a professor of marine botany at the Institute of Oceanology in Qingdao, pioneered the cultivation of brown marine alga Laminaria japonica in China. Doty, a professor of marine botany at the University of Hawaii, started large scale cultivation of the red marine algae Eucheuma and Kappaphycus in the Philippines.

Commercial Cultivation of Kappaphycus Alvarezii

The fact that Kappaphycus alvarezii are propagated from the selected cuttings and not through spores lent themselves well for adaption by the poor coastal communities in search of viable live lihood options. The development of commerce based on seaplants is an outstanding instance of how widespread farming of a group of useful plants has evolved from very simple methods that have been refined mainly by farmers in the fie ld. Farming of the Kappaphycus seaplants is a continuous process of screening and se lection for fast-growing propagules. The farmers tend to plant and harvest crops on a short cycle of 4-6 weeks. They replant cuttings from the most vigorously growing plants. Any reproductive plants are probably culled out because they would tend to be slow-growing and mottled in appearance.


The commercial significance of Kappaphycus seaplants is largely based on their role as raw material for production of the marine biopolymer known as carrageenan. Betaphycus spp., Eucheuma spp. and Kappaphycus spp. produce carrageenan commercially known, respectively, as “beta”, “iota” and “kappa”. The development of commercial cultivation for Kappaphycus and Eucheuma since the mid 1970’s has been the major source of expansion for the carrageenan industry and current combined production for these seaplants probably exceeds 150,000 dry tons per annum at commercial moisture standards of 30-40%. This translates to about 100 M USD worth of dried sea plants and over 30,000 tons of carrageenan with a value on the order of 250 M USD per annum.

The annual world production of this alga is 1,50,000 MT and its value added product i.e. carrageenan (ge l) is 50,000 MT. The gel is used as a thickening agent in more than 250 applications including food, medicine, cosmetics etc. Every year there is 10% increase in demand for this ge l worldwide.

Commercial production of “cottonii of the trade” is currently on the order of 1,20,000 – perhaps more than 1,50,000 – dry tons per year at a commercial standard of 38% moisture content. The available figures indicate that about 99% of cottonii is commercially cultivated in four countries, with the Philippines, Indonesia, Malaysia and Tanzania. Rest of the countries like India, Fiji, Kirabati etc. contribute less than 1%. For India with its vast coastline and large coastal community which is relative ly poor and is in search of a sustainable vocation especially as they faced with diminishing returns from fishing, it can be a major opportunity.

This fact was duly recognised by the National Academy of Agricultural Sciences and they produced a policy paper No. 22 in which it was recommended that Sea weed cultivation should be taken up on a mission mode.

The Beginning of Seaweed Cultivation in India

Pepsi’s Involvement

Pepsi Co through their Export business had a strong re lationship with Mars as they were regularly supplying a range of products to them. Mars are one of the world’s largest users of Carrageenan in their pet food business. Recognising Pepsi Co’s strength and involvement with contract farming, Mars suggested they explore possibility of promoting sea weed cultivation. To support this effort which had the possibility of creating livelihood options for the coastal communities they made available the services of a global expert.

The search for technology and the planting material led to Central Salt and Marine Chemicals Institute (Bhavnagar) an affiliate of CSIR. This was the beginning of a long, enduring and fruitful relationship.


The first steps of initiation?

Partnering the Central Salt & Marine Chemicals Research Institute (CSMCRI) in Bhavnagar, PepsiCo conducted extensive cultivation trials in coastal Tamil Nadu, with a view to determining prime cultivation locations. Such criteria are based both on seawater conditions required for the cultivation & the socio economic environment, where communities of people willing and able to work on seaweed cultivation are essential, to succeed. Tamil Nadu with its fishing & seafaring traditions was found to be an eminently suitable as a location for the project.

Test plots at select locations with the permission of the state govt. were put in place over 10 hectares in district Ramanathapuram in Tamil Nadu. Clearance from the Dept of Environment was taken, in order to proceed with project commercialisation. Cultivation of Kappaphycus alvarezii is environmentally friendly and involves no use of chemicals pesticides or any inorganic inputs.

Kappaphycus alvarezii cultivation can be taken up by the coastal communities irrespective of their income status and land holding, as it requires very limited capital outlay and is large ly dependent upon human effort. Whatever infrastructure is required can be funded by the bank and the seed capital needs are available from various Central and State Government schemes. In Tamil Nadu the endeavour has been strongly supported by the fisheries department, DRDA and their efforts have been supplemented by DBT from the centre. The market for the output is huge and given our factor price advantage, India can become a significant participant in the international seaweed trade in the years to come. Given our huge propensity for cultivation, it is tragic that the entire hydrocolloid need which is derived from this seaweed-carrageenan is entirely met thru imports. Going forward India will earn significant foreign exchange from this sector rather than being dependent upon imports.

Kappaphycus Cultivation: Current Status

Seaweed cultivation project is being promoted with support of local DRDA, State Fisheries and NGOs in view to create an alternative livelihood for the coastal people/SHGs. It is now successfully going on in the Districts of Ramnad, Tuticorin, Pudukkottai and Tanjore and about 1200 fishers in total are earning an attractive income through the project. At this juncture when fishing is becoming uneconomic with unpredictable income, seaweed farming provides an assured income, which will no doubt revolutionize (can be called “Blue-green revolution”) the rural economy of the coastal districts of Tamil Nadu and other maritime states. The initiative in India was pioneered by PepsiCo but in 2008 after having proven the business model for the farmer they decided to withdraw and transferred the project to Aquagri Processing Private Ltd. Since then Aquagri has been the only sponsor of this project in India.

Fig 3. Different stages for the cultivation of seaweed

Fig 2. Women SHG engaged in seaweed farming Fig 1. Kappaphycus alvarezii

Fig 4. Cultivation of seaweed


Economic Model for Cultivation:

In order to succeed the model requires the support and participation of various stake holders. The role of converging the actions of the various stake holders is provided by the private sector. Still their role is critical in ensuring the success of the venture.

Table 1. Role of Stakeholders in the project

S. No.

Name of stakeholders Role

1 NGO (Aquaculture Foundation of India, Chennai, TRRM Ramnad)

Survey and selection of suitable sites for seaweed cultivation

Coordinating Se lf Help Groups (SHG’s) to procure the infrastructure

Mobilizing subsidy & facilitating bank loan Providing on-the-job training on seaweed

cultivation Ensuring marketing tie-up with buyers Monitoring the project activity

2 Bankers

Financial assistance to SHGs in terms of loan Coordinating with NGOs & buyers in procuring in

infrastru ctures Clearing payments on the time after deducting

loan amount

3 DRDA (district Rural Development Agency) Subsidy for the seaweed farmers

4

Private Sector (AquaAgri Processing Private Ltd.)

Selection of the site Farmers Training & Education Supporting the sourcing of the infrastructure by

bringing the economies of scale. Constant technical inputs to SHGs Buy back guarantee. Dry weed price is Rs. 21/kg

and fresh weed is Rs. 2.50/kg Making payments to the farmers on time


Table 2. P roject cost for 5 members in a group

S. no. Descriptions Individual cultivator

1 Total person in a group (No.) 5 2 Total no. of rafts per cultivator (No.) 45 3 Total rafts per group of 5 member (No.) 225 4 Total cost of one raft (33 x 3m) (Rs) 800 5 Total cost for 225 rafts of 5 members (Rs.) 1,80,000 6 Subsidy from Govt. agencies (50% of total project cost) (Rs.) 90,000 7 Bank loan (50% of total project cost) (Rs.) 90,000

Table 3. Economics of Seaweed cultivation – Operation & Economics

(a) Cultivation Operation

S. no. Descriptions Individual cultivator

1 Total no. of rafts per cultivator(No.) 45 2 Harvest cycle (Days) 45 3 No. of rafts handling per day (harvest & replantation) 1 4 Total seaweed after 45 days harvest/raft – fresh wt. (Kg) 270 5 Total seed required for re-plantation – fresh wt. (Kg) 60 6 Net produce available / day – fresh weight (Kg) 210

7 Net produce available in a month (24x25 days operation – fresh weight) (Kg) 5250

8 Dry weed available from 240kg fresh weed (10:1 dry ratio) (Kg/day)

21

9 Dry produce available in a month (24 X 25 days operation) (Kg) 525

(b) Economics

S. No. Descriptions Individual Cultivator

1 Cost of one kg dry weed (Rs.) 21.0 2 Cost of one kg fresh weed (Rs.) 2.50

3 Monthly income of a person through fresh weed sales (5250kg x 2.50) (Rs.)

13,125

4 Monthly income of a person through dry weed sales (525kg x 21) (Rs.) 11,025


Impact of Seaweed Cultivation

Socio-Economic Impact

Seaweed farming is a supplementary activity to existing fishing and its ancillary activities. It can provide regular and sustainable income source by leveraging local entrepreneurial talent and it could translate into an additional annual income of about Rs. 50,000 per person.

One of the major socio-economic benefits of seaweed cultivation apart from the continued generation of employment opportunities is that, it provides employment opportunities for women. Much of the cultivation work like seedlings preparation, harvest, drying, cleaning, packing etc. are done by women thereby providing them a source of income. Unlike industrial projects, workers do not need to migrate or re-locate leading to issues of urbanization. Seaweed farms can be located in clusters close to villages thereby ensuring ease of access and safety of farm and produce. It is an incremental employment opportunity to fishing and other related activities. In fact, raft cultivation does not hamper the fishing lane access and on the contrary can aid in instilling a controlled fishing discipline in the coastal communities.

Tamil Nadu has a long coastal area and covers 13 districts. The fisher folks and other community people living on the shore earn their livelihood mainly through fishing activities and by doing wild collection of naturally grown seaweeds. This wild collection often damages the substratum of the seabed and other organisms. The international buyers who visited the cultivation sites have opined said that India will surpass the Kappaphycus cultivation of Philippines once full-fledged cultivation is undertaken in Tamil Nadu.

Alternative livelihood:

While fish catch is going down every day, seaweed cultivation would be alternative livelihood to the coastal poor.

Social status

Seaweed cultivation has demonstrated a monthly income of Rs 6000-7500 per person; therefore their social status has improved. Some cultivators have also constructed good houses; some have got TV and other important house hold items. 75% of seaweed cultivators now own mobile phones.

Women Empowerment

It provides continued generation of employment opportunities mainly to women. The income earned by women will reach the family directly unlike in the case of men.


Education to the children

Seaweed farmers now feed good food to their children and give good education. While fishers were doing fishing, they also used to engage their children for fishing, but after they chose seaweed cultivation as alternative income, they put their children back to the school

Health & welfare of seaweed farmers

Seaweed farmers are taking better nutritious food now-a-days. They have also developed the habit of saving their income tomorrow’s betterment.

Socio-Economic impact of sea weeds cultivation- Who is the beneficiary?

The claim that the benefits of cultivation are accruing to multinationals and middlemen is being advanced to leverage the fact that the sea weed cultivation initiative was originally pioneered by PepsiCo in India as a part of their social outreach initiative for creating livelihood options. The fact that PepsiCo withdrew cultivation support in March 2008 is not recognised. The role played by PepsiCo and later by Aquagri to bring the technology developed by CSMCRI, Bhavnagar and the impact it has had on the beneficiaries is documented in depth by a study released by CMFRI Cochin.

The socio-economic impact of sea weed cultivation was investigated in depth as a part of the study sponsored by FAO; they evaluated inter-country models of engagement and have clearly established the impact on the beneficiaries. The report finds that the lifestyle of the cultivators has undergone a substantial change for the better.

“The socio-economic impact of seaweed farming was examined by means of a series of questions asked to participants in the study. Evaluation revealed that 68 and 48 pe r cent of the respondents in Mandapam and Rameshwaram were able to purchase or renovate their existing house using the income earned from seaweed cultivation. In Rameshwaram, about four percent of the respondents were able to purchase agricultural land with their earned income.

Seaweed farming has also had a large positive impact on the ability of the respondents to purchase livestock, quality clothing and consumer durables. Respondents in Rameshwaram also reported a large positive impact of seaweed farming on their ability to celebrate marriages in the family. Seaweed culture has also allowed respondents to engage more frequently in social and re ligious travelling.”

The foreword written by the DG ICAR Dr. S Ayyappan sums this up brilliantly and is the real testimony of the impact “A live lihood becomes business enterprise with the right mix of financial, institutional and policy support. The seaweed sector has emerged as the trail blazer for other sectors. A typical example of demand driven development, the right mix of financial and institutional support in tandem with private investments have made the prospects of the development of the sea weed sector bright.”


The CMFRI study in the section ‘Conclusions, insights and development strategies states : “ The corporate initiative taken up by PepsiCo and equally well followed by Aquagri needs to be appreciated and is a clear case of how responsible community inclusive corporate interventions in agriculture can bring about a sea change in the lives of local communities.”

Environmental Concerns: Myth Vs Reality

Fundamental reason for the success achieved by seaweed cultivation is that, it had clear institutional and financial support of the Government of India and the Tamil Nadu Government through the development agencies and research establishments. It also was backed by private partnership which imparted market focus. Attempts are now being made by the detractors to derail this initiative.

The groups opposed to sea weed cultivation and other alarmists have used the following three arguments in support of their contention. These are being used to run a tirade against the cultivation.

1) It is alleged that Kappaphycus, the sea-weed being cultivated has invaded Gulf of Mannar and is stifling the corals. It is being termed Bio-Invasion.

2) The weed has travelled to the Gulf of Mannar from Palk Bay where it is being cultivated.

And more recently a new absurd allegation has been added to this list, by planting an article in a lesser known Tamil publication- that this weed gives rise to poisonous substances and is life threatening.

Bio-Invasion fact or fiction

The first and most potent allegation is a bit like the blind men and the e lephant story. The first man touches the tail and concludes that elephant is like a snake. Only factual element in the published reports which are being used to substantiate the allegations is the fact that Kappaphycus is found growing at two spots near Krusedai Island in Gulf of Mannar and the area of coverage is a mere 76.7 square meters. The adverse reports point to this area and also state that other areas need to be surveyed but yet concludes, Kappaphycus must have spread to other areas also which have not been surveyed.

However now the findings of the latest study carried out in the region are available and the report is published in reputed international journal ‘Algae’. This report is based on a comprehensive survey carried out in both the areas- Palk Bay (where the cultivation is being done by the self help groups) and the Gulf of Mannar (where the cultivation is not permitted as it is a protected area). As the GIS data failed to reveal the presence of Kappaphycus alvarezii, the whole area was divided into 27 blocks and each block has been surveyed and studied in detail.


It is reported “No K. alvarezii was found at any of the 27 randomly sampled locations surveyed (Table 1). In contrast, the grid sampling at Kurusadai Island revealed the presence of this alga. However, of 275 sub-sampling grids surveyed at Kurusadai Island, only three grids showed small patches of K. alvarezzi on corals in the south-eastern part of the island (Galaxuria point) where the corals were most abundant. The total coral area asso ciated with K. alvarezzi was estimated to be 105m x 55m area in this location. Additionally, another patch (8m x 9m) of K. alvarezii was found on Acropora corals, in the 2008 survey near the location where CSMCRI had maintained the germ plasm of this alga until 2003 (Fig 2). The actual extent of the K. alvarezii coverage amounts to only 0.0035% of the total coral reef area of the island (Table 2&3).”

The block in which it has been reported, is the same block which has been used in the other studies. However the articles alleging bio-invasion and the objectors have used data from this less than 100Square metre plot and extrapolated it to the rest of the Gulf of Mannar area without carrying out even a random survey of the other areas. This coverage when looked at in the context of the entire Gulf of Mannar area; would be considered to be ZERO, as Kurusadai island is only a small part of the area. The report concludes K. alvarezii was not observed in the coral reef area of the adjoining Pullivasal and Poomarichan Islands or the Palk Bay area cultivation sites. The lack of functional reproductive cycle, low spore viability, and the absence of microscopic phases in the life cycle of this alga coupled with the abundance presence of herbivores may restrict the further spread of this alga, so its invasive potential at Kurusadai Island is considered remote.

The disaster theory is being built up by repeatedly taking all the visitors to this small area of less than 100 square metres to provide credibility to these malicious allegations. One of the leading figures of this tirade leads all the visitors to show them this ‘e lephant’s tail’ and takes photographs from the same spot and releases various stories in the news papers. Detractors gives scant regard to reputed institutes like Central Salt and Marine Chemical Research Institute (CSMCRI) and Central Marine Fisheries Research institute (CMFRI), scientific institutions of CSIR and ICAR systems and believes only the stories of such vested interests.

Some objectors also allege that Kappaphycus is invasive as fishes don’t feed on it. They should ask the cultivators who lose their crop due to fish grazing and also look at their own photographs which they use to see signs of grazing which complete ly makes their claim redundant.

“Flower Testure” Kappaphycus inside the raft with net cover under the raft is intact with fine branches

Fig 3. Ungrazed healthy Kappaphycus

Fig 4.Graze d Kappaphycus sp

Fig 5.Major grazers

Tip-nipping by fishes Growing tips out-side the raft are bitten off. Tip nipping is commonly seen and often attributed to fish such as rabbit and juvenile surgeon fish or


Where has the weed come from? Can it be removed?

The second allegation is based on the belief that Kappaphycus has travelled from Palk Bay where it is cultivated and settled on the corals in the Gulf of Mannar. If this were to be a fact then it should be present at the single island which is closest to the connecting point of Palk Bay and the Gulf of Mannar and also in many other locations in the Gulf of Mannar. Why does it not cover the coral beds on Palk Bay side where it is be ing cultivated and abundant bio-mass is available?

Why is the weed only close to Kurusadai Island? The fact is that this was the R&D site of CSMCRI trials for many years; till they were asked to stop one day, this fact is often forgotten. They always make reference to Kappaphycus presence in Hawaii, which also is another abandoned site of cultivation but do not want to acknowledge that its presence has only been reported from the abandoned sites. It persists due to left over debris which was not cleared at the time of stopping cultivation.

In fact in Hawaii where a site used for trials was abandoned it has been reported that a proper clean up requires systematic removal on a repeated basis and it is the only way to ensure its complete elimination. The advantage in India is, that given our wage costs and the price the weed commands; it is an economically viable option to clear abandoned sites. Unlike in Hawaii where external funding is necessary for removal and poses a challenge, given wage expectation of over US$ 200 per day.

For the last three years Aquaculture Foundation of India has requested, that they be allowed to remove the weed from the Gulf of Mannar, but has evoked no response from the officials. CSMCRI and Aquagri have also offered to remove Kappaphycus from the small area in the Gulf of Mannar under the supervision of the concerned officials; even the se lf help groups many of them are divers, have offered their services for the removal and yet no response has been received.

May be this site is being preserved to give credence to the anti sea weed cultivation campaign. The successful cultivation on the Palk Bay side is inconvenient for the detractors as the objective of promoting algal cultivation in the Gulf of Mannar, a stated objective of the GOM trust to date has yie lded no results. A successful venture on the other side raises questions on the lack of any success of GOM trust, in spite of huge spending.

Is Kappaphycus poisonous?

The latest allegation is so absurd that it really merits no refutation. Kappaphycus is an edible sea weed and the raw material for producing Carrageenan, which for years both globally and in India has been used as a gelling, emulsifying, binding agent in foods, pet foods, tooth paste, toiletries and cosmetics. It is often used in ice creams, puddings and processed meat products. Close to 30% of the Kappaphycus produced in Philippines is consumed by the coastal communities as a protein supplement. It plays a significant role in home remedies,


used in Indonesia. Trials done in India with poultry feed as a nutritional supplement, has demonstrated numerical weight gain and has led to improved immuno modulation response in chickens.

Apart from this the liquid extract of seaweed (Sap) derived from Kappaphycus increases crop productivity across all crops ranging from 15 to 40%.

The recently planted article in ‘Dinamalar’ a Tamil publication is a clear case of slander and part of the misinformation being spread.

The cultivation was also reviewed by the National Academy of Agricultural Sciences (NAAAS) and after deliberation by all the major subject matter experts a policy paper no. 22 was issued in which it is recommended that that, “Sea weed cultivation should be taken up on a mission mode.” Also Kappaphycus cultivation is the corner stone of global strategy being pursued by UNDP, IFC and FAO in Indonesia for preserving the coral habitat as it takes the local community away from destructive fishing and other environmentally damaging activities.

Kappaphycus alvarezii has greatly benefited the coastal communities and alleviated their livelihood, while providing them an opportunity to have access to a new livelihood vertical rather than being dependent solely on fishing or agriculture.

Role of AquAgri:

AQUAGRI PROCESSING PVT LTD is engaged in promoting sea plant or Algal cultivation through self he lp groups currently in coastal Tamil Nadu. We took over this project from PepsiCo who originally initiated it by sourcing the technology and the planting material from CSMCRI Bhavnagar, as a livelihood and export initiative. Our company Aquagri took over this business from PepsiCo, in July 2008.

The sea algae is cultivated by se lf help groups and Aquagri provides extension services to them and provides assured buy back. Today close to thousand landless coastal people who hitherto had limited or no livelihood opportunity are earning over Rs.5,000 per month. Of these more than 50% are women, who before this had no steady vocation. It has taken close to ten years to reach this point as there was no clarity on regulations governing Algal cultivation. Only in end of 2005 Government of Tamil Nadu issued a G.O. permitting cultivation outside the Gulf of Mannar. In the financial year 2011-2012 we expect the se lf help groups produce over 3000 MT dry mass up from 1500 MT this year.

Now it is globally recognised that algal cultivation helps in sequestering carbon and can help reduce the green house gases load on the environment, as 25 to 30% of dry weight ofalgae is carbon. Algae is also seen as a promising renewable source of energy, which doesn’t compete with food crops as it uses no land and water for cultivation. All global efforts on energy from algae have focussed on micro algae cultivation which is both capital and energy intensive and have not explored Macro algae as an option, which apart from being source of carbon


sequestration and energy, can also provide a sustainable livelihood option to the coastal communities and fishermen.

We are the first company in the country and still the only one which is promoting cultivation of sea algae and are now setting up manufacturing facilities to manufacture natural nutrient for crop application and animal nutrition along with hydrocolloid Carrageenan. The technology for this coproduction has been licensed by Central Salt and Marine Chemicals Research Institute a constituent of CSIR who have obtained a global patent for the same.

Processing of Kappaphycus alvarezii – A New Approach

The practice worldwide has been to use dry weed (Kappaphycus alvarezii) for manufacture and extraction of carrageenan, which is both water and energy intensive. Given the concerns that exist in regards to water availability in coastal areas, PepsiCo partnered with CSMCRI in developing a completely new approach of processing fresh weed.

During the journey of developing this process to reduce water and energy consumption by processing fresh weed, and accidental discovery of Aquasap was made. Aquasap (Liquid seaweed extract) is an organic fertilizer rich in micro nutrients, vitamins, amino acids and plant growth hormones. Since then over the past 10 years this has been applied and tested on a range of crops (sugarcane, paddy, wheat, onion, corn, potato etc. and has consistently given yield increase in the range of 15-40%. This technological innovation-for which CSMCRI obtained a global patent – was licensed to PepsiCo and now Aquagri. The development was singled out by former President Dr. Abdul Kalam in his National Technology Day broadcast to the nation in 2006.

Seaweed for Animals

Seaweed contains all major and minor nutrients, trace minerals, alginic acid, vitamins, naturally occurring plant growth hormones and antibiotics all chelated making them 100% absorbable. The rich mineral content of seaweed makes the material very palatable to stock. Assists nutrient absorption, healthy growth and animal performance

Seaweed is a natural source of Iodine; Iodine also acts as an antibiotic to kill germs, increasing growth rate, feed efficiency and helps regulate the metabolic function

It can also be used at times of animal stress, low quality pasture feed or poor animal health..

Seaweed’s nutritional constituents cannot be easily oxidised is hard to be oxidated, can be easily absorbed and replaces partial nutrients ingredients of the diet.

Seaweed supplements acts as a receptor blocker for many pathogens including salmonella.


Builds resistance to disease by ensuring a complete balance of micronutrients. Reduced blood spots.

Seaweed is known as a great promoter of glandular health, especially for the pituitary, adrenal and thyroid glands.

Advantages of Seaweed as Poultry Feed

Seaweed has been used as poultry feed supplements since 1960s. Egg producers benefit from improved yolk colour, eggshell strength and lay, with no adverse effect on the storability, flavour or odour of eggs.

Seaweed provides essential iodine (most animals require 0.2-0.6 mg/kg feed dried weight) and in so far as it assists the absorption of nutrients it can improve feed conversion and live weight gain in broilers.

Seaweed supplement can also increase hatchability of eggs with more uniform shell texture and less breakage. It also increases laying period in older hens

Fucoxanthin A, producing a xanthophyll in the gut (90-250 mg/kg) improves egg yolk colour.

Carotenoids (30-60 mg/kg) and rich trace elements improve egg shell strength. Low energy-high fibre improves intestinal function; combats feather picking and

cannibalism. Farmer trials have shown a decrease in mortality rate by approximately 5% and an

increase in weight of 10% as compared to control when 5% granules were added to the feed.

Advantages of Seaweed for Cattle

Builds resistance to disease (immunobooster) by ensuring a complete balance omicronutrients. Also helps reduce the incidence of Mastitis and cow fever (due to its biological active ingredients)

Improves feed utilization

Organic trace elements more readily assimilated than in synthetic form

Increases the availability of nutrients; improves milk yield, fertility and health

Improves fat level and iodine content in milk

Improves the rate of conception in dairy and helps to prevent goiter & worm load.

Provides essential roughage maintaining healthy intestinal function

Need to research and do trials on seaweed supplements for mariculture.

Name : ABHIRAM SETH

Educational background : MBA, Jamnalal Institute of Management Studies, Mumbai

Posit ion : Managing Director Name of the company : AquaAgri Processing (P) Ltd, 18, Anand Lok, New Delhi-49

Product profile of company : Seaweed farming processing & exports Phone : 011-46061541

Mobile : 91-9810182441 Email id. : [email protected]


High Value Aquaculture and Marginal Stake Holders in India with Special Reference to L. vannamei

Saji Chacko

Introduction

Seafood trade is one of the world’s largest and fastest growing commodity industries, worth more than 100 billion US $. Most of the developed countries import vast majority of their seafood. In the US, seafood trade deficit is second largest, after petroleum, for any natural product. The past decade has shown a consistent growth in worldwide marine catches, representing an increase over 30% in the supply of food from the sea for the world’s people. The global demand for food fish has also continued to rise, but despite improved landings in some regions, supply could not keep up with the demand.

Aquaculture has emerged as a consequence of this increasing gap between supply and demand, taking advantage of technological break-through in hatchery and farming systems, disease control, fish nutrition, genetics and bio-technology. Due to the introduction of scientific prawn farming, the export of frozen value added shrimp is continuing as the major fore ign exchange earner among marine products. During 2010 the volume of marine products exported was about 6 lakh MT valued at US $2.1 billion. Export of shrimp contributed 48.6% in value to the total export revenue; the increase is 12.54 % in quantity, 40.72 % in value.

Marine products have created a sensation in the world market because of their high health attributes. With the high unit value, seafood has been acclaimed as one of the fastest moving commodity in the world market. The world market for seafood has doubled within the last decade reaching US $49.32 billion mark India’s share is 2.4%.

Export of frozen shrimp to the U.S. registered a growth of 88.12 per cent in volume and 149.05 per cent in terms of U.S. dollars. Frozen shrimp export to Japan too showed an increase of 23.55 per cent; 42.74 per cent and 50.74 per cent in volume, rupee value and US dollar value respectively.

India’s aquaculture is dominated by fresh water fish like Indian carps which are essentially consumed within the country. Beginning from the late e ighties, brackish water aquaculture has steadily expanded in the country and this activity is concentrated mainly in the coastal region. Today India produces about 100000 MT of shrimp from a brackish water area of about 140,000 hectares. Although India has over 1.2 million hectares available for shrimp farming the current exploitation is only 16% of this. 90% of the shrimp farms in the country are owned by small and marginal farmers. The major species cultured is the Black Tiger shrimp (Penaeus monodon). Presently the recently permitted species of shrimp, L. vannamei is rapidly making inroads in the Indian aquaculture sector.

It may be noted that the shrimp aquaculture production in India has been stagnating around 100,000 MT during the last decade. Now, with the introduction of L. vannamei, the shrimp


production in the country is likely to boom. This was the scenario world over as evident from the chart below.

The maritime state of Gujarat, with its long coastline of 1600 kms, which is 1/5th of India’s coastline and vast estuarine systems formed by the perennial rivers like Narmada, Tapti, Purna and Ambika and several seasonal rivers has about 3,76,000 ha of potential area suitable for brackish water aquaculture. The Gulf of Kutch and the Gulf of Khambat have river systems, with rivulets, surrounding swamps and marshes, which provide good scope for the large scale development of shrimp culture.

Currently only about 4000 hectares is developed and utilized for shrimp farming. The production of shrimp during 2010 was about 6000 MT of Black Tiger Shrimp and about 1000 MT of L. vannamei shrimp. It may be noted that it was the first year of production of L. vannamei and it has already formed close to 15 % of the total shrimp production in the state.

Asian Shrimp Production (1985-2008)

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8Year

Produc

tion (1,

000 mt

)

ChinaThailandVietnamIndonesia

IndiaBangladeshPhilippines

Malaysia

0.0

0.4

0.8

1.2

1.6

2.0

2.4

2.8

199019911992199319941995 1996 1997 1998199920002001 2002 2003 2004200520062007 2008

L. vannamei P. monodon Other Marine Shrimp M. rosenbergii

Mil lion MT

World Shrimp Aquaculture by Species:1990-2008

Sources: FAO (2006) and GSOL (2006)

1 2%1 9%

30%

Percent ages indic ate the share of L. vannamei

1980-20 02 da ta: F ISHSTAT (2006).2003-20 08 da ta: GSOL es timates .

5

Intro. of vannamei into Asia


The following data is from Onaway Industries Ltd, the first and largest shrimp farming company in Gujarat which started shrimp farming in the state during 1993. During 2010, total production of L. vannamei form the farm of Onaway Industries Ltd was 682 MT, which is close to 10% of the total production of Gujarat.

Table: Crop Comparison between P. monodon and L. vannamei

2009 2009/10 2010

Crop Period Feb - Aug Sept - Feb Feb - Aug

Species P. monodon L. vannamei L. vannamei

Area under Culture (Ha) 31.20 7.65 26.13

No. of Ponds 33 9 30

Qty. Stocked (Lakhs) 29.78 39.24 137.25

Stocking Density (Nos/Sq.M) 9.50 51.30 52.53

Days of Culture 140 - 180 140 - 164 100 - 158

Size at Harvest (gms) 26 14 -21 16 - 28

Qty. Harvested (MT) 62.16 56.57 278.14

Production per Ha (MT) 1.99 7.40 10.65

Survival % 80 82 93.56

FCR 1.56 1.32 1.28

Salinity Range 15 - 46 10 - 38 33 - 52

Temperature Range 29 - 31 19 - 29 29 - 31

Source: Onaway Indistries, bilimora

It may be noted that the crop has gone through extreme climatic conditions and despite that the unit production of L. vannamei was on the higher side. L. vannamei scores over P. monodon on two counts, one, steady growth, high survival rates, shorter crop period and efficient FCR at high saline and low temperature conditions, two, Specific Pathogen Free (SPF) status of the seed.

These attributes translates into the following advantage for many states including Gujarat:

L. vannamei can be successfully cultured in high saline coastal areas. In Gujarat, the lion’s share of the coastal lands suitable for shrimp farming is high saline and is subjected to severe winter conditions. Except for a few pockets in Surat, Bharuch and Navsari where low saline water is available through out, the remaining areas developed fall in high saline areas as that of Onaway Industries Ltd.


Fig 1. Shrimp farm and innovative system for harvesting

The shorter crop duration for L. vannamei also results in two crops per annum. Currently majority of the shrimp farmers in Gujarat take only one crop per annum.

SPF status of L. vannamei results in definite crop success if the biosecurity measures are in place.

Higher unit production of L. vannamei helps the farmers by economies of scale. For example, Onaway industries used to have an annual production of just about 200 MT of P. monodon from 60 ha water spread area, this was scaled up to 700 MT during the first year of L. vannamei farming from the same facility. This quantum increase in production gives scope for the company to take up own processing facilities.

All these translates into direct and indirect employment generation. Our own experience shows an increase in manpower by more than 100 %.

L. vannamei farming taken up with all precautions would be a catalyst to the Indian aquaculture sector in terms of growth, employment generation, rural development and the Blue Revolution growing Pink Gold from wastelands.

Name : Saji Chacko

Educational background with institutional affiliation

: M.Sc (Mariculture)

CMFRI, Cochin

Position : Vice President

Name of the company : Onaway Industries Ltd, Surat

Product profile of the company : Shrimp Farms

Phone/Fax : 02634-290033

Mobile(s) : 9825136102

Email id. [email protected]

The Impact of Commercial Shrimp Farming in Andhra Pradesh on Marginal Farmers

P. Elan Cheran

Introduction

Aquaculture has developed rapidly over the last two decades to become an important activity in India. Especially the development of commercial shrimp farming in Andhra Pradesh has been confronted with many other developmental activities, with over growth, sector competition, concerns over environmental and socio economic impacts. Here, we will discuss the impact of commercial shrimp farming on the small and marginal farmers.

Andhra Pradesh occupies an area of 275,068 Sq Km and has a coast line of 974 km extended in nine coastal districts. A phenomenal growth of commercial shrimp farming occurred during 1990-1996. Initially in 1990 a total of 6000 ha was under shrimp farming, which had grown to 78702 ha in 2001, which represents more than 50 % of available potential brackish water area in Andhra Pradesh. Of this farming area developed, 75 % is owned by small farmers with less than 2.0 ha of farm holding (59175 ha), 8 % of area is in the farm holdings of 2.0 - 5.0 ha (5811 ha) 17 % area is in the farm holdings larger than 5.0 h a (13716 ha) 1

When it comes to number of farmers, 96.19% (69738) farm an area < 2.0 ha, 3.02% (2190) farm an area 2.0 – 5.0 ha, 0.46% (336) farmers farm area that lies between 5.0 – 10.0 Ha and only 0.17% or 13 farmers farm areas that are > 10.0 Ha. In all, there are 72502 farmers who are engaged in commercial shrimp farming 2

Fig 1. Map showing the districts of Andhra Pradesh


Table 1. Distribution of farmers in district wise detail

District No of farmers No of farms Land area in Ha

Srikakulam 168 211 647

Vijayanagaram 2 8 101

Vishakapatnam 40 230 2830

East Godavari 1856 4814 7821

West Godavari 2901 16159 14374

Krishna 3346 37495 32856

Guntur 1430 10669 8821

Ongole 1208 1707 5105

Nellore 1337 2050 7105

Total 12288 73343 79660

Source: AP Assembly notes 9th December, 2009

The total area of 79,660 ha is distributed among 12,288 farmers in 73,343 farms. Out of all these only 18000 ha is under active shrimp culture 3.

Different species farmed in commercial shrimp farming

1. Penaeus monodon

Till now tiger shrimp is the major species, and is the only species which has dominated 2 decades of Indian shrimp culture. Large sized tiger shrimp of 50 gm size enjoys a niche market in the international market and in 2012 it may be over taken by Litopenaeus vannamei in Andra Pradesh.

Leptopenaeus vannamei

Recently introduced in Indian shrimp farming, commonly known as white shrimp, white leg shrimp, Pacific white and Mexican white , because of its disease free status (SPF, better performance, better disease resistant, higher survival and higher meat yield.

So far 192 farms have been licensed by Coastal Aquaculture Authority with the farming area of 2425.59 ha (1645.31 ha WSA). 18 hatcheries have been permitted by CAA to import brood stock and produce vannamei seeds for our commercial shrimp farming. By the end of 2010 around 35000 MT of L.vannamei is expected to be produced.

Macrobrachium rosenbergii

Scampi farming was taking a momentum around 1999 and the total Andhra Pradesh production was 6,000 MT(84%) out of 7,140 MT of total production in the country and it has peaked in 2002-2003 to 27,020 MT(89%) out of 30450 MT(total production).

Fig 5. Leptopeneaus. vannamei culture pond pond

Fig 2. Peneaus monodon pond

Fig 3. Leptopeneaus vannamei pond

Fig 4. Scampi pond


Initially more than 10,000 ha were developed and at present only 5400 ha are under active farming. The unit production had drastically reduced due to inbreeding , White tail diseases and nodavirus infections are also present. In the peak year almost 40 % of hatcheries were producing scampi seeds. In the year 2009-2010 Andhra Pradesh’s contribution of scampi was 1,759 MT of the total of 6568 MT.

Penaeus indicus

Indian white shrimp was once a cash crop before WSSV out-breaks in Andhra Pradesh coast. No SPF and disease free seeds are available now. At present 1 or 2 hatcheries produce 5-10 million seeds in one cycle per annum and sell to few specific farmers who rear them up to 7-12 gm and se ll in the local market. There are still some coastal farmers who stock wild indicus seed (1 -2 paise per seed) and grow them in raw water farms up to 4-5 gm minimum and se ll to the local market and it is seasonal and possible once in a year.

Significant contribution of small and marginal farmers

Andhra Pradesh stands first in aquaculture among all other states of India. It also stands first in brackishwater shrimp production, fresh water prawn production, second in fresh water fish production, second in total value of fish and shrimp production and fifth in marine fish production.

Fisheries sector in Andhra Pradesh is contributing 2.39 % to the Gross state Domestic product 2008-09. The quantity of fish and prawn produced is 12.52 lakh tons (102%) against the target of 12.20 lakh tons for 2008-09. AP’s export earnings is at 2500 crores and that represents 40 % of total marine export of India.3

Socio Economic Benefits of marginal farmers

Shrimp culture development has led to lot of developmental activities through out the coastal villages. Many villages have got good road facility, small business establishments, like farmer owned shrimp feed shops, aqua-chemicals shops, purchase sheds are all developed in many coastal villages. Shrimp feed dealers and other farm input shop owners make money and every year go on a fore ign trip sponsored by the feed or chemical company. Many farmers, my own clients, every year take holiday tours to hill stations, all India sight seeing, boat house trips, ayurvedic treatment, yearly visit to Sabarimala and Lord Venkateshwara etc., Every other shrimp farmer made lot of investments in real estates in Bangalore and Hyderabad. Hyderabad properties are mostly owed by coastal communities.

Many rural areas have got banks in the recent years, number of farmers take loan every year from these banks by giving collateral securities, either land documents or houses/commercial places and then pay back after the crop. Some clever farmers form a syndicate of 3 or 4 and farm shrimps with minimum input of 3-5 lakhs /head. This amount will take care of seed and monthly maintenance of shrimp farms. Later, the feed dealer/company give them credits on


the standing crop and up to harvest. In this way, with an investment of only Rs.10-15 lakh, the farmers make not less than a crore turn over.

Initially in early 1990’s, when corporate farms entered the industry, small and marginal farmers, mostly owner of the agricultural lands were dislocated. Corporate houses were buying large tracts of land for their farms and allied facilities. After 1994, once the WSSV affected the standing crop, many of the corporates could not survive in shrimp farming and wound up their operations.

Later on no such displacemene of farmers has ever happened. Major farming areas of Kandaleru creek, Thungabadra canal, Pandilapalli creek and Chinnaganjam creek farms are mosly owned by local farmers only and almost every body are also engaged in other activities like agriculture, coconut, mango and lemon crop and even in real estate business.When they are economically comfortable they will indulge in shrimp culture, otherwise they will give their farm on lease and still make money. Sale of farm lands is restricted to within the local community and land is not sold to outsiders or companies..

Abandoned and idle shrimp farms were brought to life in the last two years because of introduction of L.vannamei. Since then, shrimp culture has become a continuous activity in coastal Andhra Pradesh. Stocking and harvestings are being done throughout the year and all are employed. Prior to the introduction of L. Vannamei, farm labour were unemployed for almost4-5 months and farm equipment and machinery lay in a state of disuse and rusted. Reviving these equipment and machinery was a challenging task.

More and more new farms have been dug out recently and to my knowledge, no pond has been kept idle except disputed ones.

In East and West Godavari districts, fish culture was in vogue, particularly, the fresh water catfish, Pangasius pagasius. Last year the prices have crashed down due to over production and hence huge loses were incurred by the farmers. They have now turned towards shrimp farming and some have taken to tiger shrimp and others to L.vannamei. 10 -15 acre ponds were stocked with 5-7 pieces of tiger shrimp and 15-20 pieces of vannamei per sq m and they are harvesting good crops. When the prices are good, farmers suddenly dig out more and more ponds for shrimp culture and even if they are unable to do farming themselves, they will give their ponds on lease and make good money. If the market crashes too low they will revert their ponds back to agriculture crops without disturbing the drain structure and drain canal. Whenever there is an uptrend in farm gate prices of shrimp, the fields are converted to ponds. Some farmers in certain areas, where lot of fresh water facilities are available , do crop rotation. In summer, they farm black tiger and in winter, go for paddy culture: in another module they do 2 year scampi and one year paddy and these people are always successful in both paddy and shrimp farming. Use of irrigation water for shrimp farming has not resulted in any conflicts among the farmers. Agriculture and aquaculture coexists.


Kota vakadu area of Nellore district has become a vannamei hub. Earlier they were all doing monodon and few were farming scampi without much success. Most of them just broke even, and some failed too. Once vannamei entered, that area has again become the most successful commercial shrimp farming area. Land prices have increased at least 5 fold in a short period of 4-5 years. Lease amount for 1 acre pond has increased from Rs. 40,000 Rs 1.0 – 1.5 lakh at present. Socio-economic status of farmers have increased a lot. All farmers has bought luxury cars and sophisticated mobile phones. Many of them have even two in hand. Internet, international market prices and all other information is in their palms now. Many farmers have sent their children to hill station convent schools and good colleges in and outside the country also.

Kandaleru creek is about 50 km length with 2500 ha of farming area. Shrimp was very successful for quite a few years, status of the farmers improved, thatched roofs were converted to pucca buildings and few bungalows were built, roads laid, water tanks constructed, schools came in. But now they are not happy as earlier, because some want to do vannamei and some want to remain with black tiger. There is lot of confusion and failures. The disadvantage with the Kandeleru creek is that the intake canal and the drain are the same.

Since the introduction of vannamei, the requirement of man power is growing. Farmers bring feed boys from West Bengal, Orissa and hilly districts of Andhra Pradesh. Owing to intensification in vannamei culture, many ice factories have made a comeback, the feed companies are also doing good business. Many containers are transhipped from processing plants and all these activities has created lot of employment opportunities to the local and migrants. Lot of earth work have been done for vannmei pond conversion and new pond excavation. Bulldozers, excavators and lot of Rajasthan tractors are on the job. Pond preparation, pond cleaning, algae removal, harvesting have been taken care of by utilizing the local village people .

Currently the farmers are paying wages for ladies at the rate of Rs.150-200 and for men at Rs. 250-300 for 8 hours work and monthly salaries are around Rs. 4500 per head. Shrimp farmers employ them throughout the year where as in agriculture they have hardly have 2 -3 months work only. Commercial shrimp farmers are getting Rs. 1-1.2 lakh / ha / annum when compared to agriculture where they get Rs.10000 – 12000 / ha / annum.

MPEDA Schemes

1. Subsidy for new farm development @ 25 % capital cost up to Rs.2.5 lakh for 5 ha

2. Small scale hatchery @ 25 % of capital cost not exceeding Rs.3.0 lakh per beneficiary

3. Subsidy for ETP and ETS @ 50 % of cost maximum Rs. 1.5 lakh or the WSA of 5.0 ha and up to Rs. 6.0 lakh for a beneficiary.

Fig 6. Paddy and shrimp pond

Fig 7. Coconut and shrimp pond

Fig 8. Pond view

Fig 9: Farmer with shrimp


NaCSA

Shrimp farmers Societies have been formed by National Centre for Sustainable Aquaculture (NaCSA), Kakinada in various shrimp farming villages. These societies have improved the socio economic conditions of marginal farmers by ensuring sustainable production through adoption of Better Management Practices(BMP) to reduce the risk of diseases and improve production and productivity.

The role of marginal farmers in commercial shrimp farming is very important in the development of Andhra Pradesh’s and Indian shrimp sector since they are the primary beneficiaries of high value shrimp aquaculture.

References:

1. Government of Andrapradesh January 2001.

2. MPEDA 1998-99 Percentage of total farmers in the state

3. Assembly notes 9 th December 2009 submitted by DOF on the status of fisheries activities

4. M.Kumaran et al ( 2003) shrimp farming practices and its socio economic Consequences in east Godavari dt, Aquaculture Asia vol. V III no 3.

5. Shrimp aquaculture and the environment(2001) EIA Assessment report submitted to the Supreme court by Aquaculture Authority.

Name : Dr.P.E.Cheran

Educational background

: Msc. Marine Biology & Oceanography, Annamalai University

Ph.D in Fisheries Science, CIFE, Mumbai

Posit ion : Consultant in Shrimp Farming Industry

Name of the company : Super Shrimps Consultants

Product profile of the company

: Consultancy for farming of Tiger shrimp, L.vannamei, Scampi and Fishes; Feed, Probiotic and other neutraceuticals Evaluation.

Phones : 08643-224226

Mobile : 09490246716

Email id : [email protected]


Integrating Farmers as Stakeholders in Coastal Commercial Aquaculture

M. Krishnan, R. S. Biradar, Swadesh Prakash, Ananthan, P.S., V inod Kumar Yadav and B. Nightingale Devi

Central Institute of Fisheries Education, Mumbai

I. Background

Global shrimp farming has been growing at 5% in the last 5 years. Of the global production of 3.5 million metric tonnes of shrimp, 85% is produced in China and South East Asia. India’s share is just 3.5% while 12-13% is produced in Western hemisphere and other countries (Sarada et al., 2006)

Shrimp always has been an export commodity for India. The shrimp export trade in India started in 1953 when the first consignments of canned shrimps were exported. Traditional shrimp aquaculture had been in vogue in certain parts of the country like Kerala, West Bengal, Orissa and limited parts of Karnataka and Goa. Commercial shrimp farming started with culture of F.indicus in late 1980’s. But it was with the adoption of the New Economic Policy in 1991 and emphasis on export oriented growth that commercial shrimp farming of P.monodon started in earnest in 1990’s and enjoyed a boom period till 1995.

Despite the fact that shrimp enjoyed the numero uno position in terms of value among all agricultural commodities exported, the shrimp sector slumped during the late nineties. Besotted by multiple problems like battling shrimp diseases, facing trade barriers and low productivity resulting in flight of capital, shrimp was fighting a losing battle as a cultivable species. But with the establishment of the Coastal Aquaculture Authority, the pro-active role of Marine Products Exports Development Authority (MPEDA) in both culture and trade, institutionalisation of accredited PCR laboratories and the decision of the government to import SPF broodstock and introduce L. vannamei seed production and culture in the country, Indian aquaculture is set for another bull run.

II. Institutionalising shrimp aquaculture

The initial failure of the shrimp aquaculture sector to sustain its take off and sustain its growth can be traced to a number of factors. The non-institutionalised and exclusive development strategies were the primary causes of its failure. Absence of land and water use policies, absence of inclusive growth strategies and poor enforcement and policing were inherent system bugs that acce lerated the decline.

Shrimp farming is a small farmer activity. 90% of the farmers are small and marginal. Shrimp culture is also a rural remote area activity. The welfare measures of the State Departments of Fisheries (DoF) have appropriately taken the opportunity offered by growth of shrimp sector for distribution of fallow, derelict and unproductive lands for shrimp culture and enable economic growth and rural prosperity.


But unfortunately, commercial shrimp aquaculture in its first coming, had not adopted an inclusive growth approach. It had excluded the local communities as partners in the growth process, treating them as a source of cheap local labour. The loss in this process was enormous for the shrimp sector. Monetary losses was compounded by loss of traditional knowledge and practices and practically irreparable community trust and involvement (Anderson et al., 1987)

With the shrimp sector in the launch pad for the second commercial growth phase, the need to institutionalise shrimp sector growth is paramount. Thus this paper looks at the various aspects that could provide critical inclusive growth strategies.

We look at the existing development strategies and business models, identify gaps and suggest possible integrating strategies that could carry the next growth phase of shrimp sector development on a sustained and sustainable growth trajectory.

III. Institutional arrangements for coastal aquaculture development

Central Agencies

The Coastal Aquaculture Authority (CAA), Chennai is the authorised nodal aquaculture regulatory government agency. The CAA in conjunction with the Departments of Fisheries (DoF) of the various state governments focus on approval of licenses for aquaculture in approved sites. A clear hierarchy has been developed for this approval process. The CAA approval is essential for availing loans and subsidies of other central and state government departments and agencies

The National Fisheries Development Board (NFDB), Hyderabad funds various projects for aquaculture and marine fisheries development. NFDB also funds research and has venture capital on offer.

The Marine Products Exports Development Authority (MPEDA) has emerged the biggest player in aquaculture basically because seafood is primarily an export item. Having its roots in international trade, MPEDA has also been very active in the area of seafood exports and aquaculture development, directly funding culture activities through various subsidy schemes, establishment, maintenance and commercial operations of SPF broodstock and hatcheries. The MPEDA has a wide network of offices across India that is engaged in development of aquaculture in various states.

Commercial banks led by the State Bank of India (SBI) and others have started funding aquaculture projects that have been approved by CAA. The commercial banks are still licking their wounds from the bad loans committed in the nineties and hence are still wary of funding shrimp aquaculture. The banks do pre-sanction inspection. They sanction a maximum of cash credit limit of Rs. 3,20,000/ha for AA approved projects.


Institutional insuran ce has also emerged from the shadows and are underwriting shrimp aquaculture projects again, restricting themselves to those approved by CAA. The rate of insurance premium for natural calamities and diseases of shrimps is @4.5% of total input cost. Insurance for input cost of Rs. 3,75,139 / ha @4.5% and including service [email protected]% amounts to Rs. 16,154/-. For natural calamities, premium amount @2.5% for the same input cost is Rs. 9378 + Rs. 966 (service tax) which adds upto Rs. 10,344.

Central research and development institutes which include the ICAR fisheries institutes and institutes governed by the Ministry of Agriculture and few CSIR institutes are engaged in fisheries and aquaculture research, teaching and training. Extension work by way of training DoF personnel and other direct stakeholders are also a responsibility of these central research and development institutes.

Table 1: Unit cost – Contract Farming Oceanaa model scheme for shrimp culture Area 1 ha WSA

Culture period 140 da ys (4-5 months) Stocking dens ity 10 PL/ Sqm Total no. 1,00,000 Cost of seed Rs. 22,000 Survival rate 70% ABW 33 g (30 count) Feed consumed 3927 kg FCR 1.7 Feed @ Rs. 55 /kg 2,15,985 Cow dung application (Rs .) 500 Pond preparation (Rs.) 5000 Ferti lizers (Rs .) 1500 Crab fencing charges (Rs .) 6,000 Cost of chemicals (Rs.) 18,000 Labour (Rs .) 40,000 Electrici ty (Rs .) 35,000 H arvesting (Rs.) 5,000 Misc. charges (Rs .) 10,000 [email protected]% (Rs.)+ Serv. Tax 10.3%

16,154

Total op. cost (Rs .) 3,75,139

Less 15% margin (Rs .) 56,271

Bank loan (Rs .) 3,18,868 (R/o.3,20 lakh )

State Agen cies

State Departments of Fisheries

The State Departments of Fisheries (DoF) are the directly responsible for development and execution of welfare schemes that include the allotment of land for aquaculture to the socially marginalised sections of the society. Most DoF’s also have Freshwater Fish Farmers Development Agency (FFDA) and most maritime states have Brackishwater Fish Farmers


Development Agency (BFFDA) that have clear mandate for development of the designated sub sectors. The DoFs are also directly responsible for transfer of technology and organising outreach activities that re late directly to the stakeholders. Some DoF also have active R&D wings that concern themselves with local operational and management issues in culture activities.

Universities and other related state departments

Universities and other related state departments like those designated for Panchayat / block level development, women empowerment and skills and market development are also engaged in fisheries and aquaculture development and extension work.

Fisheries universities and colleges are also working independently and in tandem with central research and development organisations and institutes in teaching, training, research and extension.

Responsible and committed NGO’s may also be included as agencies that address fisheries and development issues.

IV. Development via shortage of Social Overhead Capital

As can be seen from the existing framework of institutional arrangements established for the development of fisheries and aquaculture, we can observe that institutions maybe working towards the same end from different directions not necessarily in tandem with one another. There does appear to be some overlapping of responsibilities and tasks performed. There is also a gap in the smooth flow of information across institutions and mechanisms.

Proper implementation of land and water use policies, concerted development efforts and most importantly, the direct involvement of local population who are the beneficiaries of welfare schemes, in private investment in commercial aquaculture needs to be improved significantly (Samal Suman Sekhar, 2010).

Development via shortage of social overhead capital (SoC) seems to be the rule rather than planned establishment of directly productive activities (DPA) for aquaculture. The indirect engagement of local communities and improvement in social and economic quality of life is more incidental than planned. This also appears to be in contrast to aquaculture development strategies adopted in other shrimp countries like Thailand.

V. Current successful replicable business models

a. Contract farming model

Chennai-based Oceanaa group is doing contract farming for tiger shrimp culture from 2008 with financial assistance from Indian Overseas Bank (IOB). Oceanaa currently has 450 hectares under tiger shrimp cultivation from 200 farmers from Chennai and Puducherry.


The company has now signed a pact with IOB for doing white shrimp (L.vannamei species) culture through contract farming. According to the pact, Oceanic Bio-harvests (part of Oceanaa group) will identify farmers having a minimum of one hectare of cultivable land with licence from the Coastal Aquaculture Authority and recommend them to the bank for sanction of loans.

The total cost of cultivation will be a little over Rs 4,75,000 a hectare a crop. The farmer will invest 15 per cent and the rest (Rs 4,00,000) will be extended by the bank as cash credit repayable in six months. There will be two crops a year.

Oceanaa will supply seed, feed and actual health products to farmers against invoices to the bank. The company has its own shrimp hatchery with a capacity to produce 350 million seed a year. Besides, the company will also provide free technical assistance to shrimp farmers and will buy back shrimps at market prices prevailing at the time of harvest, based on weight, count and quality.

The group also has a processing unit at Marakkanam about 100 km from here, where it will process shrimps and sell them in the domestic and export markets. The sale proceeds will be routed through the bank. This will facilitate repayment of loans and leave surplus in the hands of farmers. Besides, shrimps will also be insured against white spot disease and ponds insured against natural calamities by New India Assurance Company.

Some of the existing farmers have expressed interest to cultivate L.Vannamei shrimp as the yield on a hectare will be much more than in the case of former. Another 300 farmers will be identified in 2011 to cultivate white shrimp as there is a great demand for this in both domestic and international markets. Oceanaa planned to start shrimp exporting from March 2011.


It planned to export at least 500 tonnes of shrimp to European and Japanese markets during the last quarter of 2010. For 2011, the target is to export at least 5,000 tonnes. International buyers were scornful of Indian shrimps because of their muddy tang and a lingering smell of antibiotics. The company claims to have a technology that eliminates the disagreeable tang — a factor that helped it get the bank loan.

This contract farming model will ensure traceability and more transparency to the export market right from the purchase of brood-stock, hatchery, farming and processing (Hatch and Engle, 1987). With the help of a new software developed, Oceanaa will ensure availability of all traceability records to the buyer.

It also has a chain of nine retail outlets under the brand Fish N Fresh in Chennai and plans to expand its horizon with 16 more outlets in other cities too.

b. Elitist- Changing Lifestyles Model

Since 2007, MPEDA has initiated organic aquaculture in India by availing the consultancy and technical collaboration from the Swiss Import Promotion Programme (SIPPO) Zurich, Switzerland. The project implemented by MPEDA with the approval of the Ministry of Commerce & Industry, Govt of India, initially envisages the organic aquaculture production for brackish water shrimp Penaeus monodon (tiger shrimp) and the fresh water giant prawn, Macrobrachium rosenbergii (scampi), in the States of Kerala and Andhra Pradesh. Farmers, hatcheries, feed mill and processors have been motivated for organic conversion to produce organic products for exports from India and as a result a hatchery each for producing the organic seeds of scampi and black tiger shrimp, a feed mill for producing organic feed for the culture of organic scampi and black tiger shrimp and two organic processors have been established in India. MPEDA is implementing a financial assistance programme to assist the farmers to adopt organic farming. Under this, the farmers are given subsidy assistance @ 50% on organic feed cost and inspection/certification charges subject to a maximum of Rs. 25,000/- per ha. This assistance will be provided to the farmer for three consecutive crops of scampi/black tiger shrimp. One beneficiary can avail the subsidy for a maximum area of 6 ha subject to a financial ce iling of Rs. 1.50 lakh. In the case of farm cluster, the upper limit will be Rs. 7.50 lakh for 30 ha.

Organic shrimp farming offers one of the best opportunities for involving small and marginal farmers engaged in traditional and improved extensive shrimp farming systems. Development of a network business model initiated by private investment monitored by MPEDA and CAA will be ideal for ensuring an end to end sustainable and sustained organic shrimp farming business.

Basic production data of organic and conventional shrimp farming in Kakdwip Research Centre of CIBA is given in Table 4.


Table 3: Supplementary features of the Oceanna model

Role of Bank

Will do pre-sanction inspection

Sanction cash credit (Rs. 3,20,000/ha)

Shall insure the shrimps, ponds

Disburse the loan to farmers against invoices

Carry out post sanction inspection

Renew the limit once loan amount is repaid

Benefits to farmers

Availability of cheaper credit at the required time

Availability of quality inputs at farmgate at competitive price (seed, feed, chemicals)

Free technical services

Buyback guarantee by Oceaanic @attractive market prices

Net income Rs.3.00 lakh/ha/crop

WIN WIN Situation for all stakeholders

Farmers – cheaper and timely credit

Banks – enhanced quality credit deployment- improved recovery of loans

Oceanna – availability of quality shrimps for i ts processing unit and retail outlets

Traceability

Oceanna initiatives for govt intervention

Subsidy for premium

Interest subvention @7 % p.a. upto Rs. 3.00 lakh

Subsidy for pond renovation @ Rs.15,000/ha

Feed subsidy

Educational tours

Business Plans for 2010

To cover 500 h a in Nagapattinam, Si rgazhi, Pattukottai, Marakkanam, Cuddalore, Chidambaram, Ponneri, Tamil Nadu


Table 4: Input-Output Relationships in Organic and Conventional Shrimp Farming Systems.

Organic Shrimp Farming Conventional Shrimp Farming

Operational Costs Total WSA: 1 ha Total WSA: 1 ha

0.65 lakh seeds@ 0.05 ps./PL

Rs.30,000 Rs.30,000

Pond Preparation incl. manure and other organic inputs

Rs. 25,000 Rs. 28,000

Feed cost 1.5 tonnes (FCR: 1.2) @Rs. 32/-

Rs. 25,000 1.43 tonnes (FCR: 1.25) @ Rs.42/-

Rs.60,000

Lime and other inputs Rs. 25,000 Rs,30,000

Labour and other management costs

Rs.27,000 Rs.27,000

Harvesting and related expenditure

Rs.15,000 Rs.15,000

Total Operational Cost Rs. 1,70,000 Rs.1,90,000

Cost of production (Kg) Rs. 136 Rs. 165

Returns

Production 1.20-1.30 tonnes 1.10 – 1.20 tonnes

Gross Returns (Rs. 240/kg)

Rs.3,00,000 Rs. 2,76,000

Rate of return over operational cost

70% 45%

Source: Kakdwip Research Centre, CIBA .

c. Mariculture - livelihood and scalable business models

Mariculture production from India was 19.300 tonnes @ Rs. 111 million, mussel production was 16,000 tonnes @ Rs. 85 million, oyster 2500 tonnes @Rs.16 million, clams 800 tonnes @10 million, negligible production of crabs and lobsters through fattening (CMFRI, 2009).


Box 2: New Zealand Mussel Industry

Improved techniques in New Zealand mussel culture industry have led to rapid production increases, and bulk handling methods have been introduced to meet growing demand for export to more than 60 countries. By 2006 there were over 900 mussel farms in New Zealand covering about 6500 hectares, and worth about $224 million in annual sales. About $180 million were exports, usually sold as frozen mussels in half shells, patented with the trade name NZ Greenshell Mussels

Box 3: O ysters in New Zealand

By 2006 there were over 230 oyster farms in New Zealand using over 900 hectares, and worth about $32 million in annual sales. A bout $18 million were exports.

Mariculture is still in its infancy in India. There is tremendous scope for enhancing private investments in mariculture. Instances of big business in Barramundi culture, processing and marketing, mussel and oyster culture and others are abundant. The following gives a brief overview of the scope and extent of culture opportunities of mariculturable species.

Mussel culture

World mussel production during 2006 was 1.89 million tonnes valued at USD 1.2 billion. Of which Perna viridis was 305,321 tonnes valued at USD 2.74 million. Mussel culture is popular as a group farming activity. Production in India increased from zero in 1996 to 16,000 tonnes in 2008. 1800 families have started mussel culture in Kerala, Karnataka and Maharashtra. 5500 families have benefited through ancillary job opportunities like seed collection and marketing. They earn Rs. 150 – 200/- day during seeding and harvesting season. Kerala produced 10,060 tonnes of mussel in 2005-06. They comprised of independent, SHG and family categories of farms. There were 875 farms in 3 districts of Kasargod, Malapuram and Kozhikode districts.

Mussel culture is upscalable (Box 2). A well organised industry with a strong policy backup involving local communities has made mussel culture a sustainable and technology driven avocation that has yie lded high returns to the stakeholders and trade in New Zealand.

Oyster Farming

Oyster farming is another seasonal group farming activity in Kerala. Small scale aquaculture units are of 20 to 24 sq.m. The enterprise benefits more than 500 families. There are part time labour opportunities for making oyster rens and shucking of oyster meat. There is good demand in domestic markets for smoked oysters and oysters in brine. BFFDA provides Rs 1500 per farmer for putting 500 rens. Production from 300 sq m. farm is 4.25 tonnes. Total cost of production works out to Rs. 14,000 and net returns, Rs. 8000.


Box 4. The Case of Finfish as a Mariculture Investment Opportunity

Finfish culture is inclined to mariculture. It is perhaps more suitable for mariculture than land based aquaculture for various reasons, since the opportunity cost of the use of a given area of open water resource could be substantially less than that for the same land area. Mariculture of finfishes is also capital and management intensive and that will generate good local employment and put to best use the indigenous technical knowledge of the local fisher communities. The social benefits of finfish mariculture include reduction in fishing pressure resulting in gains in carbon credits

Constraints in Mussel and Oyster farmin g

Methods suitable for seed collection from open sea are yet to be developed in India. Social conflict between common resource users like fishers and farmers are also a deterrent to consistent performance of mussel and oyster farming. Lack of depuration facilities in villages, and cold storage facilities for holding harvested mussels for a short period in villages, appropriate leasing policy for water bodies, land and poaching of farm stock in open sea farming are other constraints.

Sustaining local interest and containing social conflicts is directly re lated to organisational structure of the production system, more so in community based production systems. Experienced and committed private investments offer the ideal solution for exploiting such scalable near shore mariculture opportunities.

Finfish culture

Finfish culture is insignificant in India. The constraints include inherent culture glitches with finfish species compounded by the requirement of huge capital investment in terms of land and other resources. Since finfish culture in ideally located sites will be management intensive, it offers great scope for employment of local communities in culture activities. Such

investments are not only capital intensive but also knowledge and technology intensive.

Finfish culture is perhaps the typical case that should be taken up with foreign direct investment (FDI) of companies that has long standing experience in finfish culture in different parts of the world.

VI. Innovative Institutions

There is a need for developing innovative integrated institutions that can actually serve as a single window system for development of commercial aquaculture and mariculture integrating local communities in the scheme of investment, production, management and profit sharing (Csavas, 1994).

Self help group (SHG) model has acted as a catalyst for bringing private investment into seaweed farming in Tamil Nadu successfully. The win-win situation has substantially improved


the quality of life both economically and socially among the fisher communities in Ramanathapuram district.

Marketing arrangements based on corporate social responsibility has also proved to be a big success and has integrated local women SHGs in the supply of fresh fish directly to star hotels. The scalability of such models is directly related to the investments made by private capital.

VII. Conclusions

A sector develops e ither by deficiency of Social Overhead Capital (SOC) or availability of Directly Productive Activities (DPA) or vice-a-versa. Either of these development strategies or business models in a macro sense is suitable depending upon current stage of development of a sector.

In a typical model that warrants the development of forward linkages, it is most crucial that support infrastructure and policy are available to the entrepreneurs for furthering the growth of the sector. The shortage of overhead capital offers an investment opportunity for specialists. Like, the shortage of cold storage facilities in production locations is an investment opportunity for a company like Dole Food Company of the US that has set up cold chain facilities and backward linkages and contract-farming facilities across the country in agriculture. Its incursions into fisheries and aquaculture in India may have been restricted by lack of proper information on investment opportunities. Cold storage investments in remote locations catering to mussel and oyster farmers must be backed by investments in production by equally experienced specialists like the green mussel companies in New Zealand which are not only specialists in mussel production but since mussel and oyster culture is a community enterprise, are equally adept in human resource management.

Therefore the integration of local communities in commercial aquaculture is not only a function of public-private investment partnership but also will involve institutional structural changes that will enable comprehensive information on opportunities, liabilities and challenges including scalability and vulnerability to potential investors both within and outside the country (Ali and Byerlee,1991).

Lessons need to be learnt from policies in place for New Zealand aquaculture development. A hectare of water area is leased at NZ$200,000. This could keep weak firms from entering the market. The Government of New Zealand has a 10 point policy plan which has helped the country’s aquaculture to reach new heights. New Zealand aquaculture, though restricted to mussels, oysters and salmon, has had a disease free track record.

Modified version of such measures which promotes inclusive growth of stakeholders at all leve ls of the local community needs to be charted out for the development of the aquaculture sector. Based on track record of multi-national aquaculture companies, contract farming through Fore ign Direct Investment (FDI) may also be examined. This would make the field more competitive and spur movement towards a perfectly competitive market structure.


References

Adams, C.M., Prochaska, F. and Spreen T.H. (1987) Price determination in the US shrimp market. Southern Journal of Agricultural Economics, 19: 103-111.

Ali, M. & Byerlee, D. (1991) Economic efficiency of small farmers in a changing world: a survey of recent evidence. Journal of International Development, 3, 1-27.

Ayyappan S. and M. Krishnan (2007) Changing Consumption Patterns, The Hindu Survey of Indian Agriculture, 102-105

Csavas, I. (1994) Important factors in the success of shrimp farming. World Aquaculture, 25: 34-56

Hatch, U. and Engle, C. (1987) Economic analysis of aquaculture as a component of integrated agro-aquaculture systems; some evidence from Panama. Journal of Aquaculture in the Tropics, 2: 93-105

Katiha, P. K., Vass, K. K., Sharma, V. K., Shrivastava, N. P. and Sarkar, S. (2007b), Socio-Institutional Aspects Effecting Reservoir Fisheries in Rajasthan, Presented at VIII Asian Fisheries Forum at Kochi November, 20 to 23, 2007 p.404

Krishnan, M (2008) Trends in Agricultural and Rural Marketing- Lessons from Fisheries and Aquaculture,, Marketing Extension and its Linkages in the Development of the Indian Economy, Training Programme Manual, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, December 12, 2008.

Krishnan M, B. Shanthi and S.M.Pillai (2008) Perce ived Avenues and Systemic Externalities in Market Led Farming Systems in Brackishwater Aquaculture, presented in Institutional Interventions for Development of Market Led Farming Systems, Centre for Agriculture and Rural Development Studies, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, 17-18 March.

Sarada C., T.R avisankar, M.Krishnan and C.Anandanarayanan (2006) Indian seafood exports: issues of instability, commodity concentration and geographical spread, Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, 61(2): 238-252

Samal Suman Sekhar (2010) Brackishwater Aquaculture Development in East Coast States of India Critical Evaluation of Policies, Regulation And Programs Ph.D Thesis (Unpublished) Central Institute of Fisheries Education (Deemed University), Mumbai

New Zealand Coastal Policy Statement 2010, http://www.doc.govt.nz/publications/conservation/marine-and-coastal/new-zealand-coastal-policy-statement/new-zealand-coastal-policy-statement-2010/, accessed 15 April, 2011


Ensuring Community Participation for Sustainable Public-Private-Partnership in Aquaculture

Ojha S.N., Sheela Immanuel, Ananthan P.S., Mishra, S.K and Nisha Elezabeth Joshwa


I. Conceptual Framework

As per Reserve Bank of India, “Investment in agriculture is undertaken by both public as well as by private sectors. While public sector investment in agriculture is undertaken for building necessary infrastructure, private investment in agriculture is made either for augmenting productivity of natural resources or for undertaking such activities, which supplement income sources of farmers. Private sector investment includes investments made by private corporate and households. The corporate sector investment includes investment by organized corporate bodies like big private companies and unorganized entities like sugar co-operatives and milk co-operatives. The household sector investment comprises investment on farm equipments, machinery, irrigation, land improvement and land reclamation. With about 90 per cent share, households dominate the private investment scene. These investments enable farmers to grow existing crops more productively and intensive ly and take up non-conventional/high value crops” i.

According to the above interpretations, private sector investment includes corporate and household investment, of which household sector is 90%. Therefore corporate have 10% share in private investment. Since investment of household sector is very high, it may be further divided into resource-rich and resource-poor communities to get a better picture.

Public Investment

“Since the mid 1990s private investment in agriculture has stagnated while public investment has continued to decline (since 1980). It is essential to reverse these trends, especially for public investment in irrigation and water resource management. It is also essential to increase public investment in rural roads and rural e lectrification. Success in these areas will stimulate private investment and contribute to a revival of growth momentum in agriculture”ii. However, this requires corruption-mitigation strategy to get the results. High corruption is associated with: (i) low operation and maintenance expenditure; and (ii) poor quality of infrastru cture. This m ay manifest into “Vicious Cycle of Exclusive Growth” (Table 1).

“Public investment projects have frequently lent themselves to acts of high-level corruption or rent seeking. Because of the discretion that some high-level public officials have over decisions regarding public investment projects, this type of public spending can become distorted, both in size and in composition, by corruption and rent seeking. Public projects have, at times, been carried out specifically to provide some individuals or political groups with opportunities to receive commissions” from the project implementers, or to benefit


particular areas or individuals. This has reduced the efficiency of such expenditures and has resulted in projects that would not have otherwise been justified on the basis of objective criteria of investment selection such as cost-benefit analysis”.iii

Table 1: Vicious Cycle of Exclusive Growth- Actors, Actions and Beneficiaries

Actions Beneficiaries

Actors Technical Managerial

Public Provides subsidized and welfare schemes for better adoption by resource poor beneficiary.

Inefficient

- Public actors have bio-physical background and lack social skills.

-Poor political commitment for development.

It is believed that poor vote for cash money needed for urgent short term needs, while development works for relatively medium and long term goals.

-May forge development benefits and re- distributed them between the “illicit- controller” of the poor (to fulfill their long term needs) and the poor (to fulfill their short term needs), may be 80:20 basis.

-Such “illicit-controller” may even block the corporate to prosper in the area as their unproductive-rate- of-return may be higher than the productive-rate-of –return of the corporate.

Corporate High Profit & cost –driven-technically-efficient.

Profit & cost –driven- managerially –efficient, mainly to support backward and forward linkages and for value addition.

May exclude poor as individually resource-poor provide less cost and profit opportunities to the corporate.

Resource-Rich- Community

Seed, fertilizers, irrigation, instruments and production re lated investments.

Modern production management tools

Benefits from enhanced marketing

Resource-Poor-Community

Low cost and profit driven technology

Traditional Management Benefits very less through enhanced household consumption and may get displaced.

Vicious Cycle of Exclusive Growth

More displacement of the poor and productive investors by unproductive investors, less purchasing power, and poor governance, law and order.


If corruption affects investment, it must also affect growth. Rigidity of public-investment regulation breeds corruption. However abuse of public power produces private benefits is corruption. Or it is Illegal-Public-Power-Private-Profit-Partnership (IP5).

Corporate Investment

Center of Concern, Washington, DC, USAiv opines “Large-scale corporate agriculture is unsustainable over the medium- and long-term because it:

1. Concentrates market share among a small handful of firms, removing price discipline along the supply chain through vertical integration, resulting in uncompetitive markets that ultimately hurt consumers and producers alike

2. Creates environmental disaster through excessive pesticide use, soil erosion, genetic engineering, monoculture, and concentration of animal waste

3. Threatens the inte llectual property rights of local producers through biopiracy and the patenting of indigenous crop varieties

4. Eliminates the live lihoods of small producers in the U.S. and developing countries, using government subsidies and monopoly power to price sustainable products out of the market

5. Jeopardizes food security and food sovereignty in developing countries

6. Endangers the public health of communities and consumers through food-borne diseases, chemical residues and the potential effects of i rradiation

7. Exploits migrant farm workers whose labor rights are not protected, and uses their artificially cheap labor to undercut domestic small and medium producers

8. Destroys the fabric of rural communities

9. Empowers lobbyists to shape the U.S. farm policy in favor of large-scale agro-industry

10. Guarantees agribusiness privileged access to the negotiation of trade agreements and export credits which favor U.S. and European firms at the expense of producers in developing countries”.

Private investment is also inversely related to corruption. Fore ign direct investment, especially, reacts very negatively to corruption. This is particularly so for more irreversible forms of fore ign direct investment such as investment in farming. By pushing firms outside the formal regulatory process and obliging managers to spend time and money with government officials, corruption raises transaction costs. If the top officials are monopolist rent seekers, the private sector can be forced into a prisoner's dilemma where the dominant strategy is to bribev and they may be displaced. A corrupt equilibrium is reached but at high social cost. If Public-Investment is corruption-driven and private-investment is profit driven, both can not be pro-poor, as resource-poor can neither negotiate above-table nor under-

table. They continue to be displaced from one place to the other (Table 1). If public and private join together or develop partnership under such situation, it is likely that poor will be displaced faster. This may result into a “vicious cycle” More displacement of the poor, more displacement of productive investors by unproductive investors, less purchasing power, and poor governance, law and order.

Virtuous Cycle of Inclusive Growth

Kautilya believed that institutions are a prerequisite to economic growth. He believed that knowledge, ethical conduct and economic growth are interdependent in the virtuous cycle of economic growthvi. The participatory process also has implications for the processes typical of the other two sectors (Public and Private sectors). For the government, it means a grassroots-up approach to decision-making and the presence of a watchdog, which provides an additional level of corruption control. For the private player, it implies that its customers will have better knowledge of the services they pay for, as well as the presence of monitoring for fair (rather than excessive) profitsvii. This may help to exclude unproductive leaders from the institutions by productive leaders.

II. Commercial Aquaculture

However, the success of commercial aquaculture in India is claimed to the availability of vast untapped surface water resources, standardisation of many new production and associated techniques of input and output subsystems, extension of technology and practical knowledge to the farmers through the State/Central Government agencies/organisations (i.e . FFDAs, ICAR research institutes, KVKs etc.), setting up of norms for institutional finance for aquaculture and refinance to banks by NABARD, provision of adequate credit by financial institutions, etcviii (Fig 1 & 2).

Fig 1. Forms of Aquaculture

Aquaculture Traditional Modern

Type Subsistence Commercial

Capital Low High (Intensive)

Fig 2. Levels of Aquaculture

Aquaculture

Non-animal farming

Algaculture Pearl farming

Animal farming

Aquatic animal farming


Commercial Aquaculture is “Fish farming operations whose goal is to maximize profits, where profits are defined as revenues minus costs (perhaps discounted). Commercial aquaculture supplies aquatic products for consumption, generate business profits, create jobs, pay labour incomes, including wages and salaries, and provide tax revenues.”ixFor commercial aquaculture to be sustainable the potential for risk-adjusted profitability must exist. Cultivation must be biologically and technically feasible, and the returns after transport sufficient to compensate for risks. If inputs are unavailable or at too high a cost, there are incentives that governments can provide. Cultivation techniques should also be known without considerable research expenditures…Subsidies are often not available and when they are, they constitute a serious drain from public funds.x. Therefore Aquaculture Governance is needed to sustain its commerciality.

As intensive, commercial aquaculture is very costly, only those who have enough capital to invest in commercial aquaculture actually benefit from it; Poorer farmers do not have sufficient capital. Wealthy companies and commercial farmers benefit from aquaculture. Commercial companies buy poor farmers’ land cheaply. Poor subsistence farmers did not benefit as they relied on small ponds for local consumption – commercial farming destroyed thousands of hectares of mangrove forests.

Appreciations and Apprehensions of Commercial Aquaculture

Appreciationsxi

1. Commercial aquaculture has offered economic benefits to producing countries through the production of aquaculture products for food, and/or the generation of income (through job creation) by which to purchase food, commercial aquaculture contributes to increasing food security.

2. By paying taxes, can generate government revenues and indirectly support government funding for rural aquaculture.

3. Through export and/or import substitution, commercial aquaculture can be a source of hard currency. However, there have also been costs.

4. By generating its own funds, commercial aquaculture offers the prospect of financial self-sufficiency.

5. Commercial aquaculture, if is bio-technical feasible and economic viable , it is a success.

6. Regulations, economic incentives and se lf-policing, are instruments that can promote the sector; they can also reduce adverse effects of commercial aquaculture.

Apprehensionsxii

1. Aquaculture operations sometimes make the poor worse off. while some types of aquaculture can make a positive contribution to local nutritional needs, most modern,


'intensive' aquaculture operations are directed at export markets and do not provide increased food supplies for local poor.

2. In some cases fingerlings which previously had been consumed by the poor are now fattened in aquaculture operations which cater to upscale markets.

3. Coastal shrimp mariculture has displaced many traditional coastal fisheries, and has damaged or destroyed mangrove ecosystems which had served as breeding grounds for these fisheries.

4. Many commercial aquaculture operations for export use large amounts of low-cost protein sources, including meal made from fish, as feed to produce high value products like shrimp. Such operations are net consumers of prote in -- more goes in than comes out the other end. Although investors get rich, in nutritional terms it is highly inefficient. The capital and other resources could be used to produce much more food for many more people .

5. What is more, communities are often dispossessed by intensive aquaculture farms of several vital resources over which they have held traditional rights based on long-standing patters of land use

6. In India, for instance, there is growing concern that conversion of rice paddies to shrimp ponds may adversely affect local rice production. In the Indian state of Tamil Nadu, where 60% of the population is landless, thousands of hectares of land have been set aside for shrimp farms despite concerns over threats to the livelihoods of 25,000 families.

7. While a one-hectare salt-water fish pond produces a profit of US$ 32,000 for investors in shrimp and prawn exports to Japan and North America, if that same shrimp pond were devoted instead to small-scale agriculture, some 300 people could obtain some form of employment in small-scale agricultural methods.

8. Aquaculture production has destroyed over one-million hectares (2.5 million acres) of coastal wetlands and mangrove forests despite the crucial ecological functions that are lost when they are cleared, and the significant economic and social impacts.

PPP in Aquaculture

World Fish Centerxiii has suggested for opportunities to use PPPs in support of fisheries and aquaculture and they are listed below as such:

1. Improving access to national and international markets. Small and medium-sized fisheries and aquaculture enterprises often struggle to market their products as demand for product quantity and quality increase. Serving national or international markets often requires improved supply chain arrangements and effective marketing campaigns. Small and medium-sized enterprises often have limited contacts with the


larger international food supply and marketing system. They need support to enter these global supply chains. This support may include help with competitor analysis, export regulations, customs arrangements and logistics infrastructure. PPP can often be an effective way to meet such needs. For example, a partnership between Chinese and German private exhibition companies, and their governments , helped provide organic farmers from Asian countries with access to national and international traders and retail chains, ‘BioFach China’.

2. Improving food safety and quality. Small-scale farmers who want to export find it increasingly difficult to clear food safety and quality hurdles. Food safety and quality standards can act as barriers to trade, but they can also catalyze improvements that will position products competitively in high-value markets. Service contracts, awarded by governments to private companies under PPP arrangements, can help with this. Helping small-scale fishers and fish farmers to meet production standards and operating certification, as well as auditing or traceability requirements, may all be done more efficiently by the private sector with oversight and regulation by government partners. Vietnam provides an example of success with this approach. Here, certifying small-scale catfish producers and their products to Euro-Retailer Produce Working Group Good Agricultural Practices (now GLOBALGAP) standards and International Food Standards has helped improve access to international markets.

3. Developing niche markets. Experience from marketing organic products suggests that diversification into niche markets can create higher revenues and competitive advantages for farmers. Entrepreneurs that produce new aquaculture species are exposed to higher risks because of uncertainties in production management and markets. PPPs that, for example, support the clustering of companies in aquaculture parks or he lp with marketing efforts for niche products can help to distribute risk and thereby reduce the risk to a single entity to a manageable level.

4. Improving sector-specific infrastructure services. In fisheries and aquaculture, the main infrastructural needs are improvements in seed-dissemination systems, feed production and supply networks, and the postharvest handling and transportation of products from fisheries and fish farms to processors or markets. Effectively producing quality seed in adequate amounts and disseminating it to producers, who are often in remote areas, demands an efficient organizational structure. Arrangements that link publicly run genetic improvement programs supplying superior broodstock with networks of private hatcheries serving as seed multipliers offers one of the most promising models to achieve this. Feed cost, quality and supply are central determinants of the economic viability and environmental footprint of aquaculture enterprises. Using local feed sources to replace fishmeal and improving feeding regimes are key technological goals for many aquaculture enterprises. A partnership of the Chilean and Peruvian governments with Nutreco, the world’s largest feed


producer, and with the International Union for the Conservation of Nature, reduced fishmeal content in fish feeds (Nutreco Annual Report 2006). This provides a good example of how PPPs can help in this area. Postharvest losses of wild-caught fish are high in many developing countries. Researchers estimate that up to a quarter of fish landed in Africa is lost to spoilage. The lack of e lementary processing or cold chain facilities causes much of this waste. PPPs that support decentralized fish collection and transport systems could improve matters in many regions. An example of such an approach comes from Bangladesh, where the public and private sectors have collaborated to install icing facilities at shrimp-collection points and marketing centers

5. Improving fin ancial services. The lack of access to credit remains a problem for many small-scale enterprises. Those operating in the fisheries and aquaculture sector are no exception. Rural banks are perhaps the most likely institutions for microcredit start-up support to entrepreneurs wishing to develop fishery and aquaculture enterprises. Government-backed credit and risk guarantees for rural banks are important public interventions for rural microfinance initiatives. A good example of a PPP arrangement in financial services is the Global Commercial Microfinance Consortium, which promotes private sector investments in developing countries. Supported by USAID funding and credit guarantees, and managed by Deutsche Bank, the consortium is a PPP of governments and international banking institutions.

6. Technology development and research. Partnerships between publicly funded national agriculture research institutes and the private sector are key drivers of technological progress. Institutional collaboration through PPP arrangements can mitigate risks for the private sector that would otherwise prevent them from proceeding and provide financial support to the public sector to help cover costs. Public-private investments in researching and developing genetically improved fish strains have the potential to provide attractive economic returns to the private sector and to meet a public need for improved seed quality.

7. Improving information and communication. Market information systems, transaction platforms and information service provision are possible fields for PPP, as access to timely and reliable market information is increasingly important for small-scale entrepreneurs and fishers’ and farmers’ associations. In Bangladesh the e-Krishok initiative , a partnership between Grameen Phone and WIN is disseminating agricultural information via community information centers to farmers (e -agriculture 2008). The dissemination of fish market prices through cell phones to fishing villages in Kerala provided extensive rural benefits at low cost in India . The volatility of fish prices fe ll dramatically, the wastage of unsold fish was ended and the security and income of fishermen was increased (Jensen 2007). A partnership of the Syngenta Foundation for Sustainable Agriculture, Uganda National Farmers. Federation, and Information Communication Technology for African Rural Development improved the


exchange of customized health and agro-re lated information between district farmers’ associations and farmers, by installing village telephones.

8. Improving physical and technical infrastructu re. Building and managing infrastructure such as roads, power supplies, or potable or irrigation water systems are typical fields for public-private collaboration. A good example of PPP-supported infrastructure improvement in the fishery sector comes from the Andaman Nicobar region of India. Here a PPP arrangement allowed the construction of a new harbor that is now managed by a private concern. PPP arrangements may also provide and manage mariculture parks, aquaculture investment zones, or one-stop service centers with marketing and processing facilities for small-scale fishers and fish farmers.

9. Improving capacity building and extension services. There is great potential for private companies to form partnerships with public institutions to support education and training. Demonstration plants, national or regional training centers, vocational training programs, and e-learning courses for entrepreneurs and government employees may all be cost-effectively provided under such arrangements. Private ly run extension services working under PPP arrangements, with government setting the regulatory framework and monitoring standards, may serve farmers and fishers more efficiently and effective ly than public services.

10. Privatizin g government-owned facilities and services. Public facilities and services may suffer because of budget problems or ineffective management. Long-term concession and divestiture contracts enable governments to engage private companies to improve efficiency and effectiveness. Areas where governments may consider the merits of such transfers include public hatcheries or fish farms, research infrastructure, and services that assess fish stocks. PPP arrangements offer many opportunities to improve fisheries and aquaculture in support of human development. They are not, however, a general solution for all challenges. Rather, they are among many possible choices for harnessing the development potential of fisheries and aquaculture to meet the needs of developing countries.

Aquaculture Governance

The concept of governance has gained increasing significance in development approaches, in recognition that formal and informal institutions need to be carefully understood and selective ly supported or promoted if positive development objectives are to be realised. In fisheries development and resource management, governance derives both from the wider context of national policies and their implementation, and from the more local environment of government presence and action, social process and traditional understanding. Under governance the issues that need attention are nature and impact of existing governance processes, important areas of development concern, widening economic opportunity, improving access and empowerment, reducing vulnerability, delivering information and services, and resolving conflictsxiv.


A. Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheriesxv

CCRF provides guidelines that satisfy m any of the criteria for good governance.

ARTICLE 9 - AQUACULTURE DEVELOPMENT

9.1 Responsible Development of Aquaculture, including culture-based fisheries, in areas under national jurisdiction

9.1.1 States should establish, maintain and develop an appropriate legal and administrative framework which facilitates the development of responsible aquaculture.

9.1.2 States should promote responsible development and management of aquaculture, including an advance evaluation of the effects of aquaculture development on genetic diversity and ecosystem integrity, based on the best available scientific information.

9.1.3 States should produce and regularly update aquaculture development strategies and plans, as required, to ensure that aquaculture development is ecologically sustainable and to allow the rational use of resources shared by aquaculture and other activities.

9.1.4 States should ensure that the livelihoods of local communities, and their access to fishing grounds, are not negatively affected by aquaculture developments.

9.1.5 States should establish effective procedures specific to aquaculture to undertake appropriate environmental assessment and monitoring with the aim of minimizing adverse ecological changes and related economic and social consequences resulting from water extraction, land use, discharge of effluents, use of drugs and chemicals, and other aquaculture activities.

9.2 Responsible development of aquaculture including culture-based fisheries within transboundary aquatic ecosystems

9.2.1 States should protect transboundary aquatic ecosystems by supporting responsible aquaculture practices within their national jurisdiction and by cooperation in the promotion of sustainable aquaculture practices.

9.2.2 States should, with due respect to their ne ighbouring States and in accordance with. international law, ensure responsible choice of species, siting and management of aquaculture activities which could affect transboundary aquatic ecosystems.

9.2.3 States should consult with their neighbouring States, as appropriate , before introducing non-indigenous species into transboundary aquatic ecosystems.

9.2.4 States should establish appropriate mechanisms, such as databases and information networks to collect, share and disseminate data related to their aquaculture activities to facilitate cooperation on planning for aquaculture development at the national, subregional, regional and global level.


9.2.5 States should cooperate in the development of appropriate mechanisms, when required, to monitor the impacts of inputs used in aquaculture.

B. Why does governance mattersxvi?

1. it is the collection of laws, institutions, and government policies that make up the economic environment.

2. “good governance” provide an enabling environment for the accumulation of capital, both human and physical, which in turn enhances their rate of economic growth compared with those jurisdictions with weak governance.

3. Unless property rights are secure and enforceable, commercial aquaculture will not develop;without them there would be no incentive to invest time and resources, and poaching would be a rational strategy.

4. without respect for the rule of law and enforcement of contracts, farmers would have difficulty marketing products and obtaining inputs from suppliers.

5. the dissemination of new research and technology, and hence long-run factor productivity, depends on administrative and institutional frameworks.

6. Aquaculture governance should therefore aim to replicate a “virtuous cycle” in which an effective administrative and regulatory framework not only encourages investment, but also increases the efficiency of public services.

7. This should induce investment in backward and forward linked activities. 8. At the farm level, secure property rights and long leases encourage adoption of best

practices, and se lf-regulating management codes. 9. Regulations and economic measures can eliminate practices that are ecologically and

socially harmful without destroying entrepreneurial motivation. 10. Sustainability(in governance) incorporates the usual four aspects; technical feasibility,

economic viability,environmental integrity and social licence . 11. There is now a consensus that modern aquaculture depends on the private sector and

the profit motive. 12. In the absence of effective governance there will be misallocation, influence peddling

or stagnation.

C. Social Licence to Operatexvii

1. Social License at any time is Rejection, Acceptance, Approval and Co-ownership of the project by the affected community. Social License is rooted in the beliefs, perceptions and opinions held by the local population and other stakeholders about the project it is dynamic and non-permanent because beliefs, opinions and perceptions are subject to change as new information is acquired. Hence the Social License has to be earned and then maintained.

2. ‘Community‘ is frequently used in a way that suggests a singleness and purpose that does not always exits.


3. Most ‘communities’ are really aggregations of communities, kinships or interest groups that operate as a network.

4. However, the concept of the Social License to Operate presupposes that all of the families, clans, interest groups and institutions in a geographic area have arrived at a shared vision and attitude towards a resource development project. This kind of cohesion is often absent, and therefore may have to be built.

5. That is why earning a Social License to Operate often involves building social capital in a process that is also known as ‘community building’, ‘capacity building’ and ‘institutional strengthening’, among others.

III. Community Participation and Commercial Aquaculture: An Alternative Aquaculture Administration Approach for Aquaculture Extension

Since the centralized, government-led system of protecting and managing fisheries resources is not working effective ly in most cases, alternative approaches are necessaryxviii. Minimising the effect of “Vicious Cycle of Exclusive Growth” and maximizing the scope of “Virtuous Cycle of Inclusive Growth” should be the internal strategy of Aquaculture Governance and should not be left out as external factor that cannot be addressed by such governance. While the vicious cycle will eliminate both the corporate/entrepreneur and small farmers, the virtuous cycle will eliminate/weed out the unproductive brokers and rent seekers. To make the unproductive-rent seekers powerless there is a need to empower the growers and entrepreneurs in the system. Community should be involved in the growout technology, private should be encouraged in manage the backward forward linkages and production of value added products and government agencies should regulate and facilitate the coordination between the community and the private agencies for better aquaculture governance. There are a few private agencies like SCAPAxix is working for the development and support of community-based outgrower farmers in eastern Uganda, which may be encouraged to take up such work under overall supervision of public and community organization.

For ensuring “Community Participation for Sustainable Public-Private-Partnership in Aquaculture” two Aquaculture Extension Approaches are suggested. They are:

Entrepreneurship Driven Approach

Community Empowerment-cum-Assistance Driven Approaches

a. Entrepreneurship Driven Approach

Business Entrepren eurship Approach

Seed production, commercial aquaculture, ornamental fisheries, and cage culture that are knowledge-capital-risk-profit-intensive attracts entrepreneurship in aquaculture. The profitability of shrimp farming has been re latively high as the entrepreneurs have been able to realize their investment in a couple of years. Lack of clarity in Government policies are the


major problems. It is very difficult for the Fisheries Department to help all the entrepreneurs for preparing the project report and poor linkages among entrepreneurs, traders, exporters, research organizations and government as their important problems. To achieve the objectives of a productive and sustainable aquaculture, infrastructure for processing and value addition at the level of industry and support services in terms of production and investment credit, extension, input supply and training at the farm level should be strengthenedxx.

Social Entrepreneurship Approach

Social entrepreneurs apply business practices to solve societal problems such as pollution, poor nutrition, and poverty. Cleanfish, a company in USA that connects small-scale fish suppliers with distributors to get sustainable seafood to restaurant kitchens and supermarkets is in an effort to build a market for sustainable aquaculturexxi.

Contract Fish Farming Approach

Contract farming in aquaculture is less common, partly due to the high cost of entry into the farming operation itself. KUALA TERENGGANU: An aquaculture company’s move to introduce contract farming is expected to boost the income of young entrepreneurs here, particularly those in Kuala Berang, Malaysiaxxii. The promotion of Contract Farming in riverine aquaculture with companies promising farmers guaranteed prices, financial support and convenient technologies, started in 1997 in Th ailand. In the case of riverine aquaculture, local stores selling agricultural and aquaculture products often act as representatives of companies. Instead of directly employing the farmers, they sub-contract the production to individual farmers. Thus farmers become themselves responsible to invest in setting up the farm and to bear all the risks associated with the productionxxiii.

Corporate Social Responsibility Approach

In Assam, India Tata Tea has already launched a pilot project in a couple of its estates to initiate cultivation of spices, vegetables, apart from fisheriesxxiv. In Maharashtra, India, Tata Power has devised a flow through system of hatching for production of Mahseer seed. Mahseer population in some regions of the country is declining rapidly and would get extinct unless protected and re juvenatedxxv.

b. Community Empowerment-cum-Assistance Driven Approaches

Participatory Approach

The Community Building approaches applied in aquaculture extension are, Participatory Technology Development , Participatory Farmer to Farmer Extension through establishing local institutions for information dissemination, idea sharing, input supply and integrated services (4I strategy), Community-Based Extension Services through Resource and Learning Centres, etc.xxvi


Farmer-to-Farmer Diffusion Approach

“Farmer-to-farmer diffusion of information is the major source of fish farming information for farmers. This source reached most farmers, including the disadvantaged rural based farmers, resource poor, less educated and women. In addition, this source was mentioned by most farmers as of high quality and easily accessible . Similarly, farmer-to-farmer extension visited most farmers more often than other sources of information, and was consulted by most farmers when faced with problems. Regionally, government extension system and reading materials also played a significant role in the diffusion of aquaculture information to peri-urban farmers, and were considered to be of high quality and very accessible”xxvii. Thompson, Paul M., 2006 xxviii, has documented the approaches in Aquaculture Extension, revealing the increased role of farmer-to farmer approach. Fish Farmer’ Friend and Fish Farmers Fie ld School may be Farmer-to-Farmer Approaches.

Fish Farmers Friends Approach

India has initiated Farmers Friend Approach. “Extension Support at the village level would be provided to the farmers through a Farmer Friend (FF) for every 500 farmers or one FF in every village, whichever is higher. This would be very useful in extending the reach of the agriculture extension system up to the farmer level. Many states have since institutionalized the system of FF with different nomenclature suited to local usage and acceptability. The FF should be given a suitable designation in the local language e .g. ‘Kisan Mitra’, etc”xxix. Amongst them those who are Fish Farmers Friends (FFF) may be trained on Aquaculture Extension Approaches at the District/Block level. FFFs can be encouraged to develop nursery ponds and can be encouraged to develop partnership arrangements with seed/input suppliers and marketing agents. Those who get skilled on Aquaculture Extension Approaches may be registered to start a village level Fish Farmers’ Field School.

Fish Farmer Field School Approach

FFSs have spread rapidly to all continents since their first introduction in 1989 in Indonesia, where Integrated Pest Management FFSs were developed to help farmers deal with the pesticide-induced problem of rice brown plant hoppers in irrigated rice . As the concept has spread, it has been adapted for a wide range of crops (including tree crops such as bananas, various high value crops such as vegetables and fruits, industrial crops such as cotton, cocoa). FFSs curricula and learning processes also have been developed for the livestock sector (dairying, veterinary care, poultry and integrated rice-duck systems, goat husbandry, aquaculture and fishing), for land productivity issues (land and water management, soil fertility, land degradation), for a range of social and health issues, such as food security, HIV/AIDS and vector-born diseases, and environmental issues, such as water quality. These innovations have brought new types of participants within its ambit, including school childrenxxx.


Ever Green Group (EGG)xxxi followed a farmer field school approach to working with the fish farmers that involves training and communal learning through regular experience-sharing opportunities. Field sessions involved test netting and technology demonstration and are facilitating discussion of the performance of carp and tilapia fish culture systems, as depicted below.

Activities Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb

1 2 3 4. 5 6 7 8 9

Formation of fish farmers group X

Training course on preparation

and stocking X

Preparation of fish ponds

and verification X

Purchase and stock of fingerlings X X

Training courses and

farmer fie ld schools X X X X

Harvesting of fish begins X

Source: Edwards, P., 2010, Rural Aquaculture, Sustainable Aquaculture, Volume XV No. 2, , April-June 2010, p 5 http://library.enaca.org/AquacultureAsia/Articles/april-june-2010/2-peter-edwards-april-2010.pdf

Livelihood /Pro-poor Approach

Pro-poor aquaculture is attributed to multiple uses of the water bodies, higher number of users, improper management of the physical and biological resources, lower productivity and profitability, conflicts over rights and interests among the users, violation of safety norms threatening to sustainability, and so on. It is cultured in backyard ponds and ditches, community water bodies such as oxbow lakes, canals, roadside ditches, drainage channels, check dams etc. whether they are perennial or seasonal that does not matter. These water resources, manmade or natural are the source of livelihood of wide range of stakeholders and the primary stakeholders are the poor. Co-management approaches were followed with different perspectives to achieve success in pro-poor aquaculture addressing the issues of vulnerability to a great extent.xxxii Working in partnership with the private and public sectors and civil society the WorldFish Center is at the forefront of the development of pro-poor sustainable aquaculture. Our approach considers not only the needs of farmers for productive technologies, but also upstream and downstream activities, such as the supply of quality seed and affordable feed, post harvest processing distribution and marketing, and development of sustainable business enterprises that benefit the poor. We are thus helping make it possible for a growing number of the world's poorest people to better feed and support themselves.xxxiii


Community Based Approach

The potential for village tanks to help the poor is shown by their historical usage by communities. The tanks are basically communally-owned rainwater harvesting devices for paddy cultivation and have helped successive generations achieve food security for over two millennia. In addition to irrigation, tanks also provide water for domestic use: bathing, washing and animal husbandry. Given such a time-tested record of collective action, here is obviously great potential to develop Community Based Aquaculture (CBA) in these tanks. CBA in village irrigation tanks has specific features that appeal strongly to policy makers. The major policy advantages are: (a) the involvement of local resources and the direct contact with the rural poor; (b) the obligatory need for community participation due to common ownership of tanks; (c) the ability to cater to the needs of a large section of the population; (d) the low cost nature of the technologies involved and their success in demonstration projects; and (e) the potential to address the problems of poverty, malnutrition and unemployment simultaneouslyxxxiv. Chhattisgarh Tribal Development Programme takes up aquaculture through the formation of common interest groups interested in aquaculture and provision of technical and financial support to them for aquaculture activities. They have formed 310 Common Interest Groups (CIGs) in which 2646 women are involved against only 612 males to produce 367000 fingerlings and 175.5 kg of fish fryxxxv. In Tripura many se lf-help groups (SHGs) are today silently transforming the lives of several youngsters. They are helping the local youth to develop self-reliance by personal initiatives to start new ventures putting behind the turbulent past of the Statexxxvi.

Gender Approach

Gender covers "the social roles of both men and women". In the aquaculture sector, which is now emerging as a major activity, participation of women in all stages of aquaculture is noticed.xxxvii Higher yields are obtained from fish ponds managed mainly by women because of male migration to cities. Small-scale aquaculture development is increasingly considered as a means by which the live lihoods of the poor, including women, could be improved, addition to seed rearing, integrated fish farming, net making and its repair, pearl and oyster culture, fresh water prawn farming, etcxxxviii.

Financial Assistance Approach

Subsidy implies grant and assistance from behind. It is money granted by State; public body etc to keep up the prices of stationeries etc. It is creating a lock between consumer prices and producer costs. Expenditure on major subsidies in India has increased in nominal terms from Rs. 9,581 crore in 1990-91 to Rs.40, 416 crore in 2002-03. Agriculture and rural development and allied activities have the largest claim on total subsidy bill followed by irrigation and flood control, energy, and industry and minerals. The main objective of supporting agriculture should be to protect the farmers against excessive instability in incomes, and to support the poorer farmers in terms of ensuring a minimum income, and credit support enabling the


purchase of inputs at the right time. However, their beneficial potential is at i ts best when they are transparent, well targeted, and suitably designed for practical implementationxxxix.

In India principal tool currently in use is subsidies. Twenty two subsidies are identified against specific capital investments such as pond construction, pumps, aerators, feed and seed units, laboratories, etc. as well as initial operating expenditure, such as first season input costs. Whilst subsidies are available to all categories of fish farmers, the Indian policy identifies Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (communities that are explicitly recognized by the Constitution of India as requiring special support to overcome centuries of discrimination) as well as ‘beneficiaries with small land holding’ (a proxi for poorer stakeholders) for slightly higher financial incentivesxl.

Government of India initiated establishment of Fish Farmers' Development Agencies (FFDA) under the chairmanship of the District Collectors from 1974–75. In order to solve the chronic seed shortage the FFDAS have also introduced the Minikit programme which provides the fish farmers the equipment necessary for induced breeding of fish and training. By 2010 there are 429 Fish Farmers’ Development Agencies (FFDA’s), and 39 Brackishwater Fish Farmers Development Agencies (BFDA’s)xli. Subsidy should be treated as reward against performance given in public in stages, that is, a) when the knowledge is gained, b) pre liminary work completed, c) completion of work and d) demonstrating the results.

Right-based Approach: Lease Settlement

As reported form Bangladesh, which may be true for other similar counties, mostly women who seek to secure their legal rights to fish ponds face both family and social pressures due to their lack of power in their traditional social system to lease in government lands (including silted portion of lakes). The silted portions were usually occupied by those with adjacent private lands or, more frequently, by those with power. Rights to government lands are only user rights, i.e. the right to manage the resource and to enjoy the surplus from its use. The silted portions were usually occupied by those with adjacent private lands or, more frequently, by those with power. Frequent and often bloody conflicts occurred over the possession of these government lands, and those who had the ability to mobilize force usually held sway. Government may settle this by leasing out lakes to groups of poor people living nearbyxlii.

The majority of government-owned ponds are leased out to the local landlords. This was actually to the disadvantage of the fishermen community and they ended up as labourers with all the profits going to the landlords. Interventions made by corporate and NGO have empowered the fishers by getting the ponds leased out themxliii. Corporate-Community-Partnership may be encouraged to emancipate the poor by giving rights to fish ponds, if government departments are influenced by local landlord and mafias and initiate micro-enterprises in fisheries.

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GJMS: Farmers as Stakeholders in Commercial Aquaculture 78

Farmers focused strategies to enhance local availability of quality fish seed for commercial Aquaculture

Nalini Ranjan Kumar and M. Krishnan


Introduction

India is second largest aquaculture producer only after China and contributes about 8.8 per cent of global aquaculture production (FAO, 2010). Though India has made tremendous progress, still huge potential exists for further increase in fish production from inland fisheries and aquaculture resources which are available in the form of rivers & canals (1.95 lakh km), reservoirs (29.07 lakh ha), tanks and ponds (24.14 lakh ha), flood plain, lakes and derelict water bodies (7.98 lakh ha), and 12.40 lakh ha of area suitable for brackish water aquaculture (Govt. of India, 2009). Harnessing full potential of these resources will also contribute to poverty reduction through creation of sustainable rural livelihoods, besides adding to food and nutritional security. However, the major limitation in harnessing the potential of fishery and aquaculture is the paucity of quality fish seed which is one of the most critical inputs in fish production. As per planning commission estimate there is a need of about 65 billion fish seed (fry) against the production of only 31.5 billion fry during 2008-09 in the country (Govt. of India, 2010). Though aquaculture and enhanced fisheries activities are common to most of the states, fish seed production is concentrated mainly in three states: West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh, and Assam. They jointly contribute more than 75 per cent of total fish seed production and supply to most of the seed deficient states in the country. Transportation of fish seed to distant location increases the mortality and reduces survival of these seeds when stocked and also increases the cost of seed several folds. Unlike seasonal agricultural crops, fish culture is a perennial activity and hence the demand of fish seed is round the year. Several states have also taken the route of participatory enhancement of fish seed resources through several externally funded programnmes also. Therefore, local availability of fish seed should be ensured round the year for enhancing the sustainable growth of aquaculture and enhanced fisheries. Keeping in view the above mentioned fact, the present study is an attempt to assess the present status of fish seed availability and to understand the constraints in fish seed production and round the year local availability of quality seed in India and to suggest suitable measure to overcome the constraints in fish seed production and to ensure sustainable growth in aquaculture.

Materials and methods

The study is based on secondary as well as primary data. Primary data for the study was collected using well structured mailed schedule, specially designed for the study. The schedule was


developed comprising questions related to current fish production, available inland water resources, fish seed production and requirement, constraints in fish seed production and suggestions for improvement. The schedule was mailed to the Director/Commissioner of Fisheries of every state government in the country. They were also persuaded to supply the information keeping the ground reality in their respective states. The study was conducted during the year 2009-10. The replies so obtained were analyzed to understand the current status of fish seed production and its requirement, constraints in quality fish seed production and its round the year local availability to fish farmers in India. Keeping in view the constraints and suggestions made by state governments, some measures were suggested for ensuring local availability of quality fish seed in the country.

Results and discussion

Status of Fish seed Production in different states

Fish seed is one of the critical inputs in determining the yield of fish in aquaculture. Though India produced about 31.49 thousand million fry of fish seed against the requirement of about 47thousand million fry of carp fish seed, its distribution was much skewed. Its production is concentrated mainly into 3 states namely West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh and Assam. They jointly contribute about 80 percent of total fish seed production in the country (Table 1). West Bengal ranked first in fish seed production contributing about 42 percent followed by Andhra Pradesh, which witnessed a revolution in carp culture and seed production during the 1980s, is placed 2nd in fish seed production and contributes about 31 percent of national fish seed production. State-wise data for production and requirement of fish seed during the year 2008-09 obtained from Directorate of Fisheries of different state governments are presented in table 2, table 3 and table 4. Perusal of these table indicate that except four states, West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh, Assam and Tripura all other states are deficit in fish seed production of carps and hence they resort to import from other states. In case of brackish water fish seed production, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh are surplus while all other states are deficit and hence others import from these states. In case of cold water fisheries, none of the states are surplus in fish seed production.

The potential to obtain magur seed from natural sources has become low due to the increasing use of pesticides in the paddy fields-which are the main breeding grounds of this fish in Assam. Therefore, the College of Fisheries, Raha, Nagaon, Assam conducted an experiment to develop a farmer-proven induced breeding and seed production technology for magur using a low-cost hatching device in Assam. The project was conducted under a farmer pa r t i c ipa tory small-scale aquaculture project funded by the ARIASP (World Bank). Aquaculture Asia, 2002, 7(2): 19-21


Table 1: State-wise Fish Seed Production in India

Sl. No. States Year (No. in million) %age to

total 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 1 A.P. 421 851.9 9912.7 31.28 2 Assam 2741.47 3207.99 2062 6.51 3 Bihar 318.31 344.94 330.46 1.04 4 Chhattisgarh 457.78 505.54 591.68 1.87 5 Gujarat 508.93 611.59 621.89 1.96 6 Haryana 249.57 282.08 331.14 1.05 7 Jharkhand 80 17.27 16.21 0.05 8 Karnataka 175.22 215.72 195.43 0.62 9 Kerala 12.17 12.48 12.7 0.04

10 M. P. 334.6 438.62 485.87 1.53 11 Maharashtra 47.45 182.14 549.73 1.73 12 Orissa 604.79 554.14 546.72 1.73 13 Punjab 133 139.03 153.38 0.48 14 Rajasthan 255 299 342 1.08 15 Tamil Nadu 529.28 529.28 529.28 1.67 16 Uttar Pradesh 1037.32 1085.75 1091.56 3.44 17 West Bengal 12200 12500 13200 41.66 18 NEH Regions 609.36 762.77 648.47 2.05 19 Others 111.51 105.50 95.00 0.29 20 India 20790.64 22614.72 31688.01 100

Source: Ministry of Agriculture, Govt. of India. & Indian Council of Agricultural Research

Movement of fish seed in India

Due to skewed distribution of fish seed production in the country, fish seed were marketed

across states to a long distance from the state of West Bengal up to Tamil Nadu in south and

Jammu and Kashmir in north and Manipur in north east. This does not mean that only the state

of West Bengal exports seed to other state and others import. The export and import of fish seed

by different states during 2008-09 has been presented in table 7. Export of fish seed from the

state of West Bengal was not destines to the Indian states only but even to neighbouring

countries like, Bhutan, Nepal and Bangladesh. The fish seed was not being exported only by fish

seed surplus states to others but also by seed deficit states to take advantage of seasonal

availability and proximity of seed production centre to seed deficit area of other states. The

trades of fish seed takes place for all the categories of seed i.e. spawns, fry and fingerlings but


most of the states do not have category wise export or import data. Among all the states, West

Bengal was largest exporter of fish seed and also imports fish seed of P. Monodon from the

states of Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa and Kerala. The movement of fish seed has been

depicted in Table 5 and figure- 1.

Table 2: State-wise Production and requirement of carp seed in India during 2008-09

States Production (million) Requirement (million) Surplus/ deficit (millions) Fry Fingerling Fry Fingerling Fry Fingerling Total

Assam 2914.6 515.3 2631.3 600 283.3 -84.7 198.6 AP 1530 0 1255 0 275 NA 275 Bihar 250 200 1600 800 -1350 -600 -1950 Chhatishgarh 513.7 80.6 542.5 85.4 -28.8 -4.8 -33.6 Gujarat 47 21.2 47 79.8 0 -58.6 -58.6 Haryana 332.2 0 346 NA -13.8 NA -13.8 Jharkhand 540 34 800 80 -260 -46 -306 Karnataka 206.8 0 465 0 -258.2 0 -258.2 Kerala 12.17 2.4 40 NA -37.6 -25.43 MP 523.5 0 637.7 0 -114.2 0 -114.2 Maharashtra* 574.44 103.19 1181.79 999 -607.3 -895.81 -1503.2 Orissa 782.3 142.5 880 440 -97.7 -297.5 -395.2 Punjab 52.8 21.1 102.8 21.1 -50 0 -50 Rajasthan 340.1 0 576.6 0 -236.5 0 -236.5 Tamil Nadu 529 160 529 252 0 -92 -92 West Bengal 13370 8010 8050 4775 5320 3235 8555 UP 1297.6 6.5 1470 30 -172.4 -23.5 -195.9 Tripura 420 287 420 143.3 0 143.7 143.7 Other NEH regions 251.2 126.611 281.5 138.4 -30.3 -11.8 -42.1

Others 73.02 10.4 124.7 28.2 -87.5 -17.8 -105.3 India 24560.4 9720.8 21940.9 8512.2 2571.6 1208.59 3792.3

Source: Based of information supplied by the Directorate of Fisheries Govt. of different states. Notes: 1. *Data for the state of Maharashtra is based on data supplied from 4 regions (Nashik,

Nagpur, Aurangabad and Amravati) excepting Mumbai and Pune regions 2. Production figure for the state of Tamil Nadu, Tripura, Mizoram and Kerala were taken

from the figure for the year 2006-07 published by Department of Animal Husbandry, Dairying and Fisheries, Govt. of India.


Table 3: State wise production and requirement cold water Fish seed in India during 2008-09

States Production (million) Requirement (million) Surplus/deficit (millions)

Fry Finger-ling Total Fry

Finger-ling Total Fry

Finger-ling Total

Arunachal Pradesh 0 0.9 0.9 2 1.2 3.2 -2 -0.3 -2.3 HP 0.4 0 0.4 5 0 5 -4.6 0 -4.6 J&K 21.2 10 31.2 35 20 55 -13.8 -10 -23.8 Sikkim 0.5 0.1 0.6 0.5 0.1 0.6 0 0 0 West Bengal 0.05 0.025 0.075 0.5 0.25 0.75 -0.45 -0.225 -0.68 India 22.15 11.03 33.17 43 21.55 64.55 -20.85 -10.53 -31.38

Source: Directorate of Fisheries Govt. of different states.

Table 4: State wise production & requirement brackish water fish seed in India during 2008-09

States Production (million) Requirement (million) Surplus/ deficit

(millions) Post

larvae Juvenile Total Post larvae Juvenile Total Post

larvae Juvenile Total

Andhra Pradesh 7500 0 7500 5000 0 5000 2500 0 2500

Goa 1.5 0 1.5 18 0 18 -16.5 0 -16.5 Gujarat 30 0 30 31.2 0 31.2 -1.2 0 -1.2 Karnataka 38.8 0 38.8 40 0 40 -1.2 0 -1.2 Kerala 0 1.31 1.31 0 216 216 0 -214.7 -214.7 Puducherry 0 0 0 0.75 0 0.75 -0.75 0 -0.75 Tamil Nadu 1000 0 1000 300 0 300 700 0 700 West Bengal 630 376 1006 1170 704 1874 -540 -328 -868 India 9200.3 378.1 9578.4 6559.9 920 7479.9 2640.4 -541.9 2098.5

Source: Directorate of Fisheries Govt. of different states

Seed production Infrastructure

Presently, hatcheries account for the lion’s share of India’s fish seed production. A quantum jump in fish seed production in India from the 1980s is attributed mainly to the introduction of the technology of the Chinese type of carp hatchery and refinement of the technology of induced breeding, coupled with usage of ready-to-use fish spawning agents like ovaprim. Fish hatchery was earlier used as a facility for hatching of fish eggs collected from rivers and bundhs. At that time, rivers and bundhs were the main sources of carp seed. Over the years, the development


and refinement of the technique of induced breeding of carps has been enlarged. Hence, more emphasis is being given to hatcheries for large scale production of fish fry. Details on the number of hatcheries (both public and private sector) and spawn production are presented in Table-9. Chinese type of circular hatchery is the most widely used hatchery for large scale seed production all over the country. Double walled hatching happa are used for medium or small-scale operation in some parts of the country. At present, there are about 1700 chines/circular hatcheries and about 1200 hatcheries using happa. With 573 chinese/circular hatcheries, state of West Bengal is leader in number of hatcheries in the country followed by states of Assam (227), Uttar Pradesh (198), Orissa (107) and others. This indicates that fish seed production infrastructure is also concentrated in only few states.

Even though the seed of the major cultivated species are now produced in large quantities in hatcheries, poor quality is still perceived as a major constraint to expansion of aquaculture in India. The availability of quality fish seed at the right time and at the right location is a prerequisite for sustainable aquaculture. A number of agencies (both government and private) are involved in fish seed production and distribution networks. In addition, seed production by farmers themselves is now widely practiced in India. However, there is still a shortage of quality fish seed. In genetic terms, quality seed may be defined as those having better food conversion efficiency, high growth rate potential, better ability to changing environmental conditions and


resist diseases (Padhi and Mandal, 1999). While the ease of production of fish seed in India has revolutionized farming, now a major problem, supply of poor or substandard seed to farmers and entrepreneurs has appeared. The quality and management of brood fish and hatchery practices that lead to inbreeding or contamination, in addition to poor husbandry during nursing, handling or transportation may be the reason for poor quality of fish seed. Prevalence of pathogens and parasites may also result in poor performance of fish seed.

Table 5: Movement of fish seed across different states of India

State of Origin Species Spawn Fry Fingerli

ng Destination states million 1000 1000

Bihar IMC 190 11400 7600 UP, Nepal, Jharkhand Exotic carp 10 600 400 UP, Nepal, Jharkhand

Chhattisgarh IMC 174100 MP Orissa Maharashtra Goa IMC &EC 0 0 50 Maharashtra Gujarat IMC 100 0 0 Maharashtra, Rajasthan

Jharkhand IMC 10 10000 0 Chhattisgarh Exotic carp 0 15000 0 Orissa

Punjab IMC &EC 0 5000 0 Haryana, Rajasthan, HP and J&K Rajasthan IMC &EC 0 175 0 Haryana, Punjab Tripura IMC 0 0 143.62 NEH U. P. IMC 0 55000 0 Bihar, MP, Haryana, HP

Including all spawn, fry and fingerlings (million)

Assam IMC & EC 283.3 NEH region

A. P. IMC & EC 300 Maharashtra, TN, Karnataka, Orissa, West Bengal

J&K 90 Sikkim, Bhutan, Uttarakhand

West Bengal IMC

5190

AP, Assam, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Jharkhand, Maharashtra, Manipur, Orissa, Rajasthan, TN, Tripura, Uttarakhand, Nepal, Karnataka, Bangladesh, Bhutan,

Tamil Nadu P. Monodon 700 million PL stage AP, Kerala, Gujarat, West Bengal,

Maharashtra

Source: Directorate of Fisheries, Govt. of different states of Indian Union to CIFE, Mumbai.


Fig.1: Movement of Fish Seed in India

Flow of Fish seed from one state to another


Table 9: Fish Seed Production Infrastructure in India

States Chinese hatcheries

Spawn (million)

Hatcheries using happa

Spawn (million)

Seed rearing ponds

Assam 227 9226 400 4415 500 Andhra Pradesh 86 6000 0 0 1241 Bihar 37 259 553 3.8 0 Chhattisgarh 50 24151 0 0 379 Gujarat 10 58.57 0 0 25 Haryana 15 4982 10 NA NA Jharkhand 22 400 0 0 1500 Karnataka 50 400 21 60 77 Kerala 20 20 0 0 0 MP 53 1895.7 0 0 479 Maharashtra 28 1897.57 53 356 1540 Orissa 107 2992.5 0 1105 Punjab 81 90 92 9 308 Rajasthan 7 90 0 0 60 Tamil Nadu 28 900 0 0 West Bengal 573 28130 0 70000 UP 198 2190.1 0 0 113 Tripura 7 1400 6 0 7472 Other NEH states 9 634 36 0.5 155 Others 7 41.5 3 21.61 22 India 1,615 85,758 1,174 4,866 84,976

Source: Directorate of Fisheries, of state Govt. Notes: * Data for state of Maharashtra is based on data supplied from 5 regions excepting

Mumbai region.

Constraints in fish seed production in India

On the basis of feedback received from the Department of Fisheries of various state governments, following major bottlenecks were identified in production of quality fish seeds:

i. Lack of proper fish seed policy in country

ii. Inadequate availability of genetically pure brood stock.

iii. Deterioration in genetic quality of fish seed due to inbreeding

iv. Lack of proper infrastructure facilities for seed rearing, and its marketing.


v. High cost of power (Commercial power tariff) for aquaculture and fish seed production.

vi. Extreme summer and winter season affects the maturity of brood fish particularly in north and central western states

vii. Land prices are very high which works as deterrent for farmers to come forward to establish fish seed hatchery.

viii. Consistent and sustained involvement of farmers in fish seed production

Strategies to Enhance local availability of quality fish seed in India

Based on feedback received from different state governments and scientific findings following measures are suggested to improve the round the year local availability of fish seed in the country.

i. Establishment of a gene bank for production and supply of quality fish seed of major cultivated species to the hatcheries may go a long way in improving the quality of fish seed. The quality of fish seeds produced in several hatcheries are reportedly not satisfactory due to continuous inbreeding

ii. In order to avoid inbreeding, a mechanism of registering hatcheries and seed certification should be developed on priority basis.

iii. Capacity building of hatchery operator and young fish Farmers: Existing Fish hatchery operators should be trained on better brood stock management, hatchery management and nursery management to produce quality fish seed. This will also help in preventing mixed spawning and protect the genetic purity of our precious carps gene pools. Imparting training to young fish farmers in different aspects of hatchery management and seed rearing along with easy availability of credit from financial institutions and technical support from Department of Fisheries in seed deficit area will encourage them to establish fish seed production unit.

iv. More emphasis should be laid on development of nursery ponds which can rear fingerlings/yearlings that can be made available round the year for stocking to grow table size fishes.

v. Apart from the routine production of carp seed, emphasis needs to be given also to produce seed of valuable species like catfish and murrels, which command a good price in several parts of the country.

vi. Special programmes must be developed to involve the women folk in the locality and provide a opportunity for empowerment and gender binding.


vii. Electricity should also be provided for fish seed hatcheries and nursery ponds on par with agriculture sector that will reduce the cost as well as ensure round the year water availability in nursery ponds for fish seed rearing.

viii. Provision for appropriate fish crop insurance should be made

References

1. Govt. of India. 2010. Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Department of Agriculture and Cooperation, Ministry of Agriculture, Govt. of India (downloaded from website http://dacnet.nic.in/eands/latest_2006.htm).

2. Padhi, B.K. & Mandal, R.K. 1999. Fisheries Genetics. New Delhi, Oxford-IBH

3. Govt. of India, 2010. Annual Report. 2009-10, Department of Animal Husbandry, Dairy and Fisheries, Ministry of Agriculture, Govt. of India, New Delhi.

4. FAO (2011) Food and Agriculture Organization FAO Fishstat. (www.fao. Fishstat.com)

5. Govt. of India (2006) XI Five year Plan on Fisheries. Planning Commission GOI.


Indigenous Technical Knowledge (ITK) as Local Resource for Sustainable Development: Study of Cases in Fisheries and Aquaculture

Arpita Sharma, Banti Debnath and S.K. Mishra


Introduction

All over world and mostly in traditional civilisations, ITK is a way of life and has been existent in agriculture, fisheries, dairy, animal husbandry or any other field. ITKs have originated with the advent of humankind and evolved as civilisations grew. As they helped humans in various ways, this knowledge became an integral component of communities. ITKs have existed since generations but there is a concern that these will cease to exist if they are not documented, preserved. Another concern is that this knowledge will be exploited commercially without sharing the benefits with the community. Are these real concerns? The critiques however may say that the knowledge gets preserved if the community sees benefit out of it. Moreover, if there is a chance of commercial exploitation it will get exploited by someone and the benefits may or may not be shared.

The documentation of ITKs becomes a priority so that this information is not lost and also in the Intellectual property Right (IPR) regime, it is all the more imperative to document and protect our valuable ITKs. The draft text on intellectual property and traditional knowledge by World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) is awaited in this regard. Established by the WIPO General Assembly in October 2000, WIPO Intergovernmental Committee on Intellectual Property and Genetic Resources, Traditional Knowledge and Folklore (IGC) is undertaking text-based negotiations with the objective of reaching agreement on a text of an international legal instrument (or instruments) which will ensure the effective protection of traditional knowledge (TK), traditional cultural expressions (TCEs)/folklore and genetic resources. The Intergovernmental Committee on Intellectual Property and Genetic Resources, Traditional Knowledge and Folklore – Intersessional Working Group - Third session was held in Feb 28 to March 2011.

It is encouraging that in recent times academicians and researchers are realising the importance of it. It is gaining increasing attention by academia and development institutions. But this has not yet led to a unanimous perception of the concept of indigenous knowledge. There are a number of definitions existing in literature but there is not one uniform definition.

Regarding documentation of ITKs in agriculture it is noteworthy to appreciate that under National Agricultural Technology Project (NATP), a World Bank aided project, implemented by Indian Council of Agriculture Research (ICAR) and Department of Agriculture and Co-operation


(DAC) in 1998, a project was undertaken on documenting of ITKs in agriculture which resulted in 7 volumes of documentation. Few ITKs in fisheries sector were also documented.

As regards to fisheries, it is known that people have been fishing about as long as they have been hunting. Fishing is an ancient practice. The rich and ancient Hindu knowledge of fish was first documented during the period 600-300 B.C. Fishers have detailed knowledge and this knowledge has evolved over many hundreds or thousands of years.

For fisheries management researchers, development workers and policy makers must understand and appreciate the indigenous knowledge shared by fishing communities. As indigenous knowledge is practiced since many generations it shows that this technology has been adapted to environment. Fisher community has established a viable relationship with ITK and environment. In recent times it is encouraging to see that traditional knowledge is appreciated and often the development projects integrates ITKs to make the projects sustainable both environmentally and sociologically. The ITKs from fisheries sector were documented but there were many which were not documented. Central Institute of Fisheries Education (CIFE), Mumbai too took up a project on documenting ITKs in fisheries sector resulting in a number of documented ITKs. Kumar et al (2010).

Methodology

This paper is based on the ITKs documented in the state of Tripura. For the documentation of ITKs narrative enquiry method was used. Narrative methods has been applied in various research projects and is unique in the sense that it lets the respondents to describe their views rather than researcher ascribing meaning to what respondents’ have reported. In this study narrative enquiry method was used with fewest assumptions or hypothesis. Narrative inquiry is a fairly recent movement in social science qualitative research. Boje (2001) advocate the alternative nature of this method of discourse analysis and present diverse methods for deploying it. Narrative Inquiry challenges the philosophy behind data-gathering and questions the idea of objective data. Researchers like Greenhalgh et al. (2005) have reviewed and critiqued the different approaches to the use of narrative interviews in quality improvement research. Thus in the present study we make the methodological case for narrative inquiry as a means to document ITKs which was self directed. The scientists usually look for empirical answers to all the research questions and use quantitative data gathering techniques but this method suited the context of the present study. Their narrations were noted down and recorded. These were later written in a uniform way. It is agreed that the analyzing unstructured text streams by narrative method was challenging.

A total of 8 cases which seemed to be local resources and pathways for sustainable fisheries development are presented. Source of information and location and community practicing the ITKs was recorded for each ITK so as to give credit to the information providers and also to stress


that the intellectual property of that ITK rests with the communities practicing the ITK. It is possible that there may be more communities practicing a particular ITK. Thus not at any stage we say that our study is conclusive. Even though we tend to agree that as these ITKs have been in practice since many generations they are validated by the communities practicing it, but still scientific research is needed to validate the documented ITKs. Thus this study reports what has been narrated by the respondents/fishers. The field work was done in Tripura and a number of ITKs were also documented other than those presented in this research paper.

Results

Case 1: ITK on restricting the entry of otter using egg shell and lime is an ITK was reported by Sri Maran Das, Sri Nilu Paul and Sri Balai Saha of Village Bhabatoshpara, Sonatala, Khowai Block of West Tripura Dist and Mr. Arup Nath, Fisheries Officer, Manu Block of Dhalai District, Tripura.

Otters (Lutrogale perspicillata) which are known as Udbiral in Tripura causes damage to fish stock in the ponds. One of the methods to restrict the entry of otter is by using egg shell and lime. When quicklime comes in contact with water; reaction occurs. Due to the vigorous reaction of quicklime with water, quicklime causes severe irritation when inhaled or placed in contact with moist skin or eyes. Inhalation may cause coughing, sneezing, heavy breathing. It may then evolve into burns with perforation of the nasal septum, abdominal pain, nausea and vomiting. Its reaction with water can release enough heat to ignite combustible materials. Fishers know that otter likes eating duck/hen eggs. Employing this knowledge, empty egg shells are filled with lime and placed around the pond embankment and under shallow water or in floating condition. When the otter bites egg, its mouth would burn due to lime. Once an otter experience this it does not comes back. The ITK is practiced by Bengali community of village Bhabatoshpara, Sonatala, Khowai Block of West Tripura Dist. Debberma and Reang community of Chailengta village. Manu block, Longtarai Sub-div. Of Dhalai District, Tripura. This is an ITK which prevents the entry of otters in the pond. This is sustainable and cost effective.

Case 2: Balai Saha, Nibaran Debnath and Swapan Biswas of Khowai Sub-div of West Tripura narrated that fishers practice unique ITK for preventing entry of frog from nursery pond using ash. Fishers need to prevent the frogs from entering into the pond so that they cannot lay their eggs there so they have devised an indigenous method so that frogs do not enter the fish pond, specially the nursery ponds. This is because if frogs lay their eggs, then the tadpoles in the earlier stage resemble the fish spawn. They compete with the fish spawns in the pond both for food and space and the fishers are unable to separate the tadpole and fish spawn. It is very important to take care of the fish spawns in the nursery pond. So the fishers have to save the stock from both predator and competitor for maximum growth of spawns. Tadpoles are major competitor of fish spawns for food and space. So it is necessary to prevent the entry of frog itself in the pond. In


order to restrict entry of frogs in nursery ponds; fishers have developed this technique. Fishers make a canal in the periphery of pond. Then they keep ash in this canal. When it is raining, water accumulates in that canal and the water becomes alkaline due to ash and if once the frog experiences this alkaline water it does not comes back. Bengali community of village Bhabatosh para, Sonatala, Khowai block, Khowai subdivision of West Tripura district, Tripura practice this ITK.

Case 3: Kingfisher (Alcedo atthis) bird causes a great loss in the fish pond. It eats fish and valuable stock is lost. But it is not easy to catch this bird. So fishers of Tripura have developed this technique to catch and control the entry of this bird in ponds. ITK of catching Kingfisher bird with Jackfruit gum was reported by Mr. Arup Nath, Fishery Officer, Manu block, North Tripura district. In this case, fishers erect bamboo poles around the fish pond. Kingfisher birds attack the fish at particular places. The places where attack of Kingfisher is high are identified and bamboo poles are erected here. On the tip of these bamboo poles, gum of jackfruit is applied by the fishers. Gum acts as an adhesive and if birds sit on these bamboo poles; birds get stuck to these poles. Birds are caught and their entry to fish ponds is controlled. Bengali, Debbarma, Reang communities of village Chailengta, Block Manu, Longtarai sub-division of Dhalai District, Tripura practice this ITK.

Case 4: Use of Mahua (Madhuca longifolia) root powder as piscicide was narrated by Mr. Arup Nath, Fishery Officer, Manu and Kouberi Nath, Fishery Officer, Kumarghat. It is very important to clean fish pond from other unwanted fishes and also predatory fishes before any stocking is done. To clean fish pond, if commercial poisons are used then the dead fishes do not remain in consumable condition. So fishers of Tripura have developed an indigenous technique so that dead fish remain in consumable condition. To kill unwanted fish in the pond, fishers apply dry root powder of the plant Mahua (Madhuca longifolia) in pond. After some time, fish become unconscious and subsequently die. Poisoning is due to the component known as saponin present in Mahua plant root. The poison remains for 15 days. After 15 days interval fishers stock the pond with desired fish species. Dead fish are consumable by humans. Bengali, Debbarma and Reang community of Chailengta village of Manu block, Longtarai sub-division, in Dhalai district and Bengali and Debbarma community of Kumarghat block of Kailasahar sub-division in North Tripura district, Tripura practice this ITK.

Case 5: One of the major components of water quality parameters is pH. The pH must be maintained neutral. Both acidic and alkaline is harmful for fish. It affects both health and growth of fish in pond. So it is very important to control pH of pond water. Dissolved oxygen is also an important water quality parameter for better growth. If dissolved oxygen is less, then fish mortality may occur. So dissolved oxygen must be maintained in the pond. Commercial aerators


are very costly, so fishers of Tripura follow an age old method to increase the dissolved oxygen in the pond. Sri Maran Das, Sri Nilu Paul, Sri Balai Saha of Khowai and Sri Amrit Lal Das, Sri Dilip Das, Sri Dulan Mia Mirza of Udaipur district, Tripura reported that fishers use banana stem for pH maintenance and increasing dissolved oxygen. Seeing the colour and condition of the pond water if fishers feel that water quality of pond is not good for fish they cut banana stem into pieces/whole stem is put in pond to control water quality and pH. Thus water quality and pH is maintained. If water is acidic then banana stem turns the acidic water to alkaline. Putting banana stem in ponds also increases dissolved oxygen of pond water. Bengali and Debbarma (fisher) community of village Bhabatoshpara and other villages of Sonatala, Khowai Block of West Tripura District. Bengali and Muslim community of village Kandi and Village East side of Amar sagar of Matabari block of Udaipur sub-division of West Tripura district, Tripura practice this ITK.

Case 6: Fishers use Hibiscus (Rosa sinensis) petals to know pH of pond water. This was reported by Sri Maran Das, Sri Nilu Paul and Sri Balai Saha of Village Bhabatoshpara, Sonatala, Khowai Block of West Tripura District, Tripura. They narrated that it is very important for fishers to know pH of pond water to take necessary and right action for better production. But usually fishers do not have pH measurement kit. So they have developed this indigenous technique with readily and locally available raw materials. Petal of red colored Hibiscus is rubbed on a white paper/white blotting paper. The color of paper turns into reddish violet. Now this paper is dried in sun. After drying, the paper is dipped in pond water. If color of paper turns dark red then it is considered that water is acidic, and if it turns into dark blue then it is alkaline water. Bengali and Debbarma (fisher) community of Village Bhabatoshpara and other villages of Sonatala, Khowai Block Khowai Block of West Tripura District, Tripura practice this ITK.

Case 7: Sri Anjan Das, Sri Tamal Barman, Sri Sujan Das, Sri Bijan Das and Sri Ratan Barman of Melaghar, Tripura narrated that it is very difficult for fishers to catch fish in bigger lakes or ponds. So fish aggregating device is the solution for this problem. FADs are artificial device which are designed to accumulate or aggregate the fish in a water body at a particular place. Thus it helps the fishers to locate the fish very easily which minimizes the netting operation cost and also saves time. In bigger lakes, fishers make this type of FADs. First a circular ring like frame is made with bamboo. Then this structure is fixed in certain places of the lake with bamboo poles to make it static. Then aquatic weeds mainly the water hyacinth are collected and transplanted inside the frame. This structure is left for 15 to 30 days to grow. This structure is locally known as ‘Jaak’. This works as FAD as it aggregates the fish. Fishers harvest fish according to their requirement by using locally made nets called as ‘Fellon Jaal’ and ‘Koni Jaal’. If fishers want to harvest the total fish aggregated in the Jaak then they use drag net/ber jaal. Atleast five people are needed for this operation. The fish aggregated inside the Jaak is harvested. Bengali community of village


Durlavnarayan and Kharchowmohani of Melaghar block in Sonamura Sub-division, West Tripura district, Tripura practice this ITK.

Case 8: Use of Catechu (Khaer) and alum for proper hatching of fish eggs was reported by Mr. Subrata Choudhury, Subject Matter Specialist, DKVK, Khowai, West Tripura, Tripura. Sometimes fish eggs do not hatch properly. This results in a huge mortality of the eggs. Fishers use catechu and alum for proper hatching of fish eggs. After breeding, if hatching is not proper, the eggs hatch before maturation. In this case fishers apply alum or ‘khaer’ (catechu) in the hatching pool. Then the egg shell becomes hard and the egg hatches at the right time resulting in better survival and better production. Bengali fisher community of Sonatala village, Khowai block, of Khowai sub-division of West Tripura district, Tripura practice this ITK.

Conclusion

The cases presented in this paper depict that ITKs are local resources/pathways for sustainable fisheries development. These are cost effective and environmental friendly. It is agreed that the scientific principles underlying these ITKs needs to be revealed as well as documented. There is also a need to design psychometric scales to assess the appropriateness of ITKs. If any commercial gains are made from this knowledge the IPR should be shared with the community and an appropriate benefit sharing mechanism with the community be adopted. The effective way to achieve sustainable development and a healthy environment in fisheries is to utilize the indigenous knowledge. If these indigenous practices vanish then these can have a negative effect primarily on those who have developed them and who make a living through them. A greater awareness of the importance of ITK can play in the development process is likely to help preserve valuable skills, technologies, and problem solving strategies among the local communities. CIFE’s efforts to document ITKs in fisheries sector through innovative writeshop approach is a step in this regard. Recently in March 2011 WIPO and India have partnered to protect traditional knowledge from misappropriation.

References

1. Boje D.M, Narrative methods for organizational and communication research, (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage), 2001, 83, 98.

2. Dilip Kumar, Arpita Sharma, Rupam Sharma, S.P. Shukla and Suresh Babu (2010) ITKs in Fisheries Sector of North East, Published by CIFE, Mumbai

3. Greenhalgh T, Russell J, Swinglehurst D, Narrative methods in quality improvement research, Qual Saf Health Care 14 (2005) 443-449.

4. http://www.icar.org.in/files/digital-products-ICAR.pdf 5. http://www.wipo.int/tk/en/igc/index.html 6. http://www.wipo.int/meetings/en/2011/wipo_tkdl_del_11/


A Study on the Performance Appraisal of Non-Governmental Organizations in Fisheries Development in India

S.K. Mishra, S.N. Ojha, Sheela Immanuel, Arpita Sharma, Swadesh Prakash, Archana Sinha and Lipi Das


Introduction

The pressure of changing role and additional responsibility on public extension has added to its whole lot of existing problems like wide ratio between extension worker and fisher/fish farmer, inadequate infrastructure and finance. Hence, the existing extension gap is expected to enlarge. This gap is being filled by voluntary, community and private organizations. In development, the roles of Governmental Organizations (GOs), Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs), Private Organizations (POs) and Community Organizations (COs) must be seen from different perspectives. GOs mostly look after the regulatory and subsidy-driven welfare programmes, POs are profit-driven and COs are limited within small geographical areas. Against this backdrop NGOs have to play a determining role in bringing development at the grass root level. However, most of the NGOs lack such perspectives and are not effective in delivering services. The monitoring of NGOs is to be on very transparent parameters so that they stand as a trusted partner to the funding agencies and the serving communities.

Many studies have revealed that in spite of several limitations of NGOs like limited area of operation, limited infrastructure and staff strength, paucity of funds and sometimes absence of dynamic leader/founder, they can play a very useful role in the transfer of technology. In the recent years its role is increasingly being recognized in the process of generation, verification, validation, refinement and promotion of fisheries technologies, especially for areas with harsher environments and anthropological constraints. Normally, the NGOs adopt a multifunctional, holistic and participatory approach, which arises from a deeper understanding of their clients; because of a close physical proximity to the people they intend to serve. In their area of operation, dedicated and disciplined personnel with a missionary zeal are some of the facets, which have been responsible for their success.

The experiences documented and literature available on the roles and involvement of NGOs in fisheries development is very limited. It is observed that few NGOs are working in fisheries sector. Realizing the future information need, the present study was undertaken with the following specific objectives.


Objectives of the Study

1. To study the personal profile of both field functionaries as well as the beneficiaries of the selected NGOs working in fisheries sector.

2. To find out the expectations met and future needs by the selected beneficiaries from NGOs.

3. To assess the effectiveness of performance of selected NGOs by beneficiaries as well as non-beneficiary stakeholders.

4. To develop a framework for improving the effectiveness of NGOs working in fisheries sector.

Research Methodology

The study was conducted by adopting Ex-Post-Facto research design. Twenty NGOs were selected purposively, 2 each from 8 maritime states and 2 inland states who were working in fisheries development programmes for at least during last 3-4 years. About 6-8 field functionaries (technical and supervisory) staff as per availability in a block/Taluka level of the selected NGOs, 30 beneficiaries of each selected NGO and about 10 other non-beneficiary stake holders like academicians, panchayat members, school teachers, local leaders etc were selected randomly. In this study, a total of 112 field functionaries, 600 beneficiaries and 200 non-beneficiary stake holders constituted the sample for the study.

Data from following twenty selected NGOs were collected and analyzed. Gujarat: 1. Brackish Water Research Centre, Surat; 2. Paryavaraniya Vikas Kendra, Rajkot; Kerala: 3. Erikkalavila Vanitha Sangham, Trivandrum; 4. Gandhi Smaraka Grama Seva Kendram (GSGSK), Alapuzha, Kerala; Tamil Nadu: 5. Fishworkers Development Society, Triruchembur; 6. Sugandhi Devadason Trust, Tuticorin; West Bengal: 7. Paschim Banga Yuva Kalyan Manch, Kolkata; 8. Amaragori Yuva Sangha, Joypur, Howarah; Orissa: 9. United Artists’ Association (UAA), Ganjam; 10. Bio-Village Centre of MSSRF, Kendrapara; Bihar: 11. Sakhi, Madhubani; 12. Co-operative Fisheries Federation (COFFED), Patna; Uttar Pradesh: 13. Action for Women and Rural Development, Kanpur; 14. Sapna Seva Sansthan, Saharanpur; Maharashtra: 15. Parivartan, Chiplun, Ratnagiri; 16. National Fishworkers’ Forum (NFF), Mahim, Mumbai; Karnatak: 17. Sahyadri Community Development & Women Empowerment Society (SCODWES), Sirsi, Karnataka; 18. Snehakunja Trust, Kasarkod, Karnataka; Andhra Pradesh: 19. District Fishermen’s Youth Welfare Association (DFYWA), Visakhapatnam; and 20. Andhra Pradesh State Prawn Farmers Welfare Association (APSPFWA), Nellore. Information were collected through personal interview with the help of three sets of Interview schedules for the above three categories of respondents. Effectiveness of performance of NGOs was appraised in terms of fulfilling the needs of fishing communities like technical support, socio-economic self-sustenance, children’s education, family health & sanitation, financial, infrastructural and marketing support provided to the beneficiaries.


Findings of the Study

Table1: Socio-Economic Profile of the Respondent Field Functionaries (N=112)

a. Age Frequency Percentage Young (Up to 40 years) 61 54.46 Middle-aged (41-60 years) 34 30.36 Old (Above 60 years) 17 15.18 b. Education Up to Matriculate (b)

15 13.39

Up to Graduates : a. Fisheries & allied b. Non-fisheries

11

68

9.82

60.71 PG and above : a. Fisheries & allied b. Non-fisheries

5

13

4.46

11.61 Total: A. Professional subjects

(a+a) 16 14.29

B. Non-professional subjects (b+b+b)

96 85.71

c. Occupation (Primary & Secondary)

NGO service

84 (75.00)* 28 (25.00)*

Private Service 9 (8.04) 18 (16.07)

Farming 14 (12.50) 36 (32.14)

Business 5 (4.46) 30 (26.79)

Figures in parenthesis indicate % values of primary & secondary occupation respectively

Table 2: Communication Profile of the Respondent Field Functionaries (N=112)

Major Sources Fisheries Information

Frequency of Contact (% in parentheses)

Often Some times Never Rank*

1. DoF Staff 42 (37.50) 56 (50.00) 14 (12.50) IV

2. Private Fish Farms 20 (17.86) 20 (17.86) 72 (64.29) V

3. Training/ Workshops 87 (77.68) 25 (22.32) 0 (0.00) II

4. NGO staff 93(83.04) 19 (16.96) 0 (0.00) I

5. Mass Media 51 (45.54) 61 (54.46) 0 (0.00) III


Table 3: Suggestions by the Respondent Field Functionaries for enhancing the Performance of their NGOs (N=112)

Suggestions Very Important

Moderately Important

Not so Important

Rank*

1. More number of field functionaries are required to cover the area of activities effectively

74 (66.07)

26 (23.21)

12 (10.71)

V

2. All newly recruited field functionaries should undergo 3-6 months specialized courses else where

67 (59.82)

31 (27.68)

14 (12.50)

VII

3. Salary of field functionaries need to be at par or nearer to the employees of state government staff

95 (84.82)

17 (15.18)

0 (0.00)

III

4. Field functionaries must from the local area and should have good knowledge of the local culture

101 (90.18)

8 (7.14)

3 (2.68)

I

5. Mobility with POL to all field staff must be provided

87 (77.68)

7 (6.25)

18 (16.07)

IV

6. Regular refresher training should be imparted based on training need assessment of staff

54 (48.21)

45 (40.18)

13 (11.61)

VIII

7. Continuous and healthy relation with the government departments is a pre-requisite for effective and efficient programme implementation (GO-NGO Linkage)

72 (64.29)

25 (22.32)

15 (13.39)

VI

8. Good workers should be paid incentives based on his/her performance

98 (87.50)

14 (12.50)

0 (0.00)

II

(Figures in the parentheses indicate percentages) (* As per ‘Very Important’ responses)


Table-4: Socio-Economic Profile of the Respondent NGO Beneficiaries (N=600)

a. Age Frequency Percentage

Young (Up to 40 years) 205 34.17

Middle-aged (41-60 years) 328 54.67

Old (Above 60 years) 67 11.17

b. Education Illiterate

88 14.67

Up to 7th (ME) 315 52.50

Up to 10th (Matriculate) 176 29.33

Up to Graduation 21 3.50

c. Family Occupation Major Subsidiary

Fishing 600 (100.0) 0 (0.00)

Farming 0 (0.00) 182 (30.33)

Business 0 (0.00) 45 (7.50)

Labour 0 (0.00) 205 (34.17)

No other occupation 0 (0.00) 168 (28.00)

(Figures in the parentheses indicate percentages)

Discussions Based on the secondary information collected from the selected NGOs and interactions with their executives, it was revealed that the selected NGOs were found working on multifarious activities including fisheries developmental activities and fisheries projects based on the obligations towards their funding agencies. They were found working in some selected villages in some confined localities rather than wider coverage of all the villages of a block or district or state depending upon their scarce staff strength and the objectives of their developmental projects. Many NGO offices were found functioning from rented houses without having their own building and infrastructures. They did not have any continuous sources of financing, rather depend on the projects from different national and international funding agencies.


Table-5: Expectations and Needs met by beneficiaries from the NGOs (N=600)

Expectations and Needs Fully-met Partially-met Not met Rank*

1. Fish Technological need 435 (72.50)

107 (17.83)

58 (9.67)

I

2. Market infrastructure and Marketing support

135 (22.50)

224 (40.83)

221 (36.83)

VI

3. Providing short term loans 98 (16..33)

137 (22.83)

365 (60.83)

VIII

4. Social Empowerment need 345 (57.50)

219 (36.50)

36 (6.00)

III

5. Economic Self-sustenance 88 (14.67)

325 (54.17)

187 (31.17)

IX

6. Land Rights & Housing 62 (10.33)

496 (82.67)

42 (7.00)

X

7. Children's’ Educational need 190 (31.67)

217 (36.16)

193 (32.17)

V

8. Family Heath & Hygiene 116 (19.33)

294 (49.00)

190 (31.67)

VII

9. Surplus Family Income 370 (61.67)

143 (23.83)

87 (14.50)

II

10. Family Safety need 315 (52.50)

186 (31.00)

99 (16.50)

IV

Overall Satisfaction of Performance (Cumulative Need)

342 (57.00)

167 (27.83)

91 (15.17)

NA

(Figures in the parentheses indicate percentages) (* As per ‘Fully-met’ responses)

It can be seen from the table-1 that although most of the NGO field functionaries were highly qualified, only 14.29% were having professional degrees and diplomas in fisheries or allied disciplines like zoology or marine biology. This was a serious drawback on their part as they were supposed to educate and train the fishing communities. It put a question mark on the knowledge and competencies they have to deliver to their clients. So far as their major sources of fisheries information was concerned, the major source was found to be their own NGO colleagues (83.04% got information very often) followed by attending trainings or workshops as per table-2.


Table6: Assessment of Performance of selected NGOs by non-beneficiary Stakeholders (N=200)

Area of Activities Fully Satisfactory

Partially Satisfactory

Not Satisfactory

Rank*

1. Agricultural Technology Transfer 105 (52.50)

68 (34.00)

27 (13.50)

IV

2. Fish Technology Transfer 162 (81.00)

29 (14.50)

9 (4.50)

I

3. Community Mobilization (SHGs) 161 (80.50)

21 (10.50)

18 (9.00)

II

4. Market infrastructure and Marketing support

30 (15.00)

112 (56.00)

58 (29)

IX

5. Housing and Rehabilitation for the poor

51 (25.50)

45 (22.50)

104 (52.00)

VII

6. Children's’ Educational needs 60 (30.00)

54 (27.00)

86 (43.00)

VI

7. Rural Health & Hygiene in the area 34 (17.00)

34 (17.00)

132 (66.00)

VIII

8. Income Generating activities (micro-enterprises)

68 (34.00)

75 (37.50)

57 (28.50)

V

9. Honesty in Fund utilization 28 (14.00)

45 (22.50)

127 (63.50)

X

10. Social Safety networks 115 (57.50)

34 (17.00)

51 (25.50)

III

Overall Satisfaction of Performance (Cumulative Performance)

109 (54.50)

66 (33.00)

25 (12.50)

NA

(Figures in the parentheses indicate percentages) (* As per ‘Fully-satisfactory’ responses)

According to the findings in table-3, for enhancing the performance of the NGOs in fisheries development, they suggested that field functionaries must be from local areas having good knowledge of local culture (90.18%), good workers should be paid incentives based on their performances (87.50%), and their salary should be equal or at least nearer to their contemporaries in state government departments. 64.29 per cent also expressed that a healthy GO-NGO linkage is very important for effective and efficient programme implementation. During interaction, it was felt by all project investigators and local enumerators that NGOs mostly planned and worked in isolation with a very weak professional linkage with government organizations (GOs).


As per table-4, most (54.67%) of the respondent NGO beneficiaries were found to be middle aged between 40-60 years of old, most were educated up to 7th class. As the beneficiaries were purposively selected, all were having fisheries as their main source of family income, while 34.17 per cent were working as labourers and 30.33 per cent were doing farm activities for adding additional income to their family.

So far as expectations and needs of the beneficiaries are concerned, NGOs were found fully met in fish technological needs for 72.50 per cent beneficiaries, achieved in adding surplus family income for 61.67 per cent, were successful in making the beneficiaries socially empowered (57.50%) and their family felt more safe (52.50%) in being associated with NGOs. 57.00 per cent of the beneficiaries expressed they were fully satisfied with the performance of the NGOs, while 27.83 per cent were partially satisfied and 15.15 per cent were not at all satisfied with the performance of the NGOs, as per findings in table-5.

Efforts were made to assess the effectiveness of performances of the selected NGOs through the participation and interactions with non-beneficiary stakeholders like local academicians, local leaders, panchayat members, school teachers etc. As per findings in table-6, 81.00 per cent expressed that they were fully satisfied with the efforts of the NGOs in transfer of fisheries technologies, followed by community mobilization through self help groups (80.50%) and in providing a social safety networks for the local fishing communities (57.50%). In overall, 54.50 per cent expressed fully satisfied, 33.50 per cent partially satisfied and 12.50 per cent were not satisfied with the performance of the selected NGOs.

Suggestions and Policy implications

Based on the results of the study, observations made and experiences gathered by the researchers during interactions with the NGO executive bodies, field functionaries, beneficiaries and non-beneficiary other stake holders, officers of the Dept of Fisheries and available literatures, following suggestions are made for improving the effectiveness of NGOs working in fisheries sector.

1. Primary fisheries NGOs supported on a sustained basis: Only few NGOs are working exclusively in fisheries sector including bio-diversity management. Most NGOs are working on various fields like, agriculture, animal husbandry, fishery, health, literacy, poverty alleviation, natural resources and coastal ecosystem management, land rights, women & child welfare etc on project mode, varying from 3-5 years duration, based on the objectives and programme of their funding agencies. Therefore, the sustainability of the fisheries related programme is a big question. The funding agencies should thoroughly scrutinize and select NGO working primarily on fisheries related activities and support them on a sustainable basis, only then, the impact of the programme can be wider and stronger.


2. An exclusive Web Portal for Fisheries NGOs: For the information and knowledge of general public, all NGOs/VOs (Voluntary Organizations) should be easily accessible through internet. Presently, organizations like Planning Commission of India (www.ngo.india.gov.in) or the NGO Partnership System of the Ministry of Social Justice & Empowerment are having links on the list of NGOs/(VOs) in various fields. In all the cases, NGOs/VOs working on animal husbandry, dairying and fisheries have been clubbed together, although both the sectors have their own action plan and strategies in sectoral development. Many old NGOs/VOs are also not having their own web page, those have, some are very update while other not at all. Therefore, it is suggested that an exclusive portal on fisheries NGOs/VOs be opened and maintained by developmental organization like Planning Commission or Ministry of Rural Development for general public as well as for the monitoring of funding agencies.

3. Strengthening infrastructural facilities of NGOs: Many studied NGOs were found very sick and had extremely poor infrastructural facilities without their own building, some operating from a small room of their own residential house. Basic training equipments and tools, vehicles for mobility, computer with internet facility etc were not available. It is quite difficult for them and is not expected to deliver good things for the faster development of fishing communities or clienteles. Therefore it is suggested both governmental departments as well as international funding organizations should support the NGOs in establishing basic infrastructural facilities.

4. Recruiting fisheries professionals in NGOs: How can one expect from a person, the latest scientific fisheries and aquaculture technologies if he/she does not possess any professional degrees in fisheries or allied disciplines? To understand the intricacies of any technology the basics and fundamentals are a pre-requisite. But, as per the findings of the study on 14.29 per cent of the field functionaries who deliver technologies possessed professional degrees. Therefore, it is suggested that NGOs must recruit professional degree/diploma holders, in the absence of which they should not be supported/ funded.

5. Updating knowledge and skill of NGO field functionaries: Only recruiting professionals at the initial stage may not help them deliver the best unless they possess the skills required as per demand of the particular job. Also they need to update the knowledge and skill with advancement of technologies. Therefore, the NGO executives should send the field level employees for some hands on training to reputed national as well as international training institutions.

6. Providing performance based incentives to field functionaries: Many past studies on job satisfaction and organizational climate have revealed salary/ incentives is the most important parameter for any employee to be satisfied with his/her job and deliver the best to the


organization. The present study also revealed also revealed the same. They should be provided good salary based on their qualifications & experiences and good workers should be given incentives as a token encouragement as well as motivation for others to do better.

7. Healthy professional GO-NGO linkage: In the present era of Public-Private-Partnership (PPP), where we have seen several success stories on PPP, there is a dire need of healthy professional and functional linkage between GOs and NGOs in planning, monitoring and implementation process for achieving true national development. But, unfortunately, it was strongly felt by the investigators that both DoF (Department of Fisheries) of the states and the NGOs plan and work in isolation. Even the senior functionaries in the state DoF do not know much about the NGOs operating in their territorial region. It strongly suggested by the investigators to have a mechanism at state government level for mandatory periodical meetings between these two front runners of fisheries development.

8. More in-depth studies on NGOs: There were hardly any studies found on the role performance of NGOs in fisheries sector. The present study covered only extensive aspects twenty selected NGOs from ten states. Apart from more such extensive studies, there is need for intensive and in depth studies taking few NGOs as cases to understand the functioning the NGOs.


PROCEEDINGS

CIFE Golden Jubilee Mini Symposium on

Farmers as Stakeholders in Commercial Aquaculture

Organised by Fisheries Economics, Extension and Statistics Division

Date: 30th April, 2011 * Venue: Auditorium, CIFE

The Director and Vice-Chancellor Dr. W.S.Lakra welcomed the Chief Guest Dr. B. S. Bisht, Former ADG, ICAR, New Delhi and Director CIPHET, Ludhiana, Bhopal and the present Vice-Chancellor, G. B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar. He also welcomed the speakers for the occasion, Shri Manoj Sharma, Mayank Aquaculture Pvt. Ltd., Surat; Shri Abhiram Seth, AquAgri Processing Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi; Dr P. Elancheran, Farm Fed Ltd., Nellore and Shri Saji Chacko, Onaway Industries Ltd., Surat. He mentioned that all the invited speakers were stalwarts in their field and two of them were alumni of CIFE. They have done a great work in their respective fields. He stressed the need of public private partnerships in commercial aquaculture to achieve the aqua- production goals in XII Five Year Plan. He reiterated the importance of R&D efforts in high value species to reach markets for earning adequate foreign exchange. He mentioned that all students should learn how to develop integrated farming for development of aquaculture, as this is very productive area.

Dr B. S. Bisht congratulated CIFE as a leading and most prestigious Institute in the country and dwelt on the fact that its scope is tremendous in the coming years to lead the sustainable blue revolution. Since our land based resources are shrinking day by day and are not available for the farming operations to produce more food, aquaculture alone holds the key to produce quality protein at a cheaper price. CIFE should undertake proactive R&D programmes to reach the goals. He also added that the students should develop the attitude of to be an entrepreneur, as creators of employment opportunities in the country. He summoned students to command the sector as excellent entrepreneurs and learn from the symposium speakers for their future endeavors. He stressed the importance of seaweed, its commercial scope and high nutritional value in terms of minerals and vitamins present. He also informed about the activities of Fisheries College, Pantnagar for the development of fisheries in the state. He congratulated the Director and staff and students for arranging such a fruitful program.

Manoj Sharma, Director, Mayank Aquaculture Pvt. Ltd, initially thanked his alma mater for inviting him as a speaker on a grand occasion as this. He said that he still felt like a student and felt proud to be an alumni of CIFE. At present, Gujarat has the finest aquaculture production


system in the country and a successful investment destination in the nation. He indicated that India ranks 6th in the global shrimp production scenario. He also stressed upon the fact that earlier, the market dominated by tiger shrimp (P.monodon) is being captured gradually by white leg shrimp (L.vannamei).

He briefed about his venture in millimora, a small aquafarming pocket near Surat. He mentioned that initially, he met with lot of failures due to lack of proper technical expertise and factors such as disease outbreaks, Supreme Court verdict etc., nevertheless, his perseverance and hard work paid him rich dividends to be acknowledged as the best shrimp farmer in India today.

He also revealed the success of his farming and the overall development of shrimp aquaculture in the region. High technical knowledge of the farmers, strict implementation of Best Management Practices, were the keys behind success of the farming operations, he added.

This entrepreneurial attitude of the people made them diversify their operations and the support from the government was also surmountable for the entire developmental process. Later, in 2005, all Surat based aqua farmers were united to form a group SAFA – Surat Aqua Farmers Association. The primary motive was to carry out sustainable shrimp farming with an eco-friendly approach under BMP protocol. Presently, more than 200 farmers are members of the association and the numbers are still increasing. This is the most practical and successful group/club/cluster farming in India with more than 95% successful crops. With respect to the national shrimp production from aquaculture, the state of Gujarat is contributing only near about 5% of the country’s production but with standard and bio-secured culture practices with average count grade of 26/30 against the national average count grade of 35. The average production per unit area of the state is more than double the national production. The state has earned international repute by adhering to better management in production.

He told that looking into the success story of shrimp farming and inclination of coastal people towards this business, the State Government has initiated action plan to develop 50 000 ha area of 38 talukas from coastal parts of the state. Finally, he concluded that the present success story of shrimp farming development in Gujarat can be a role model for the marginal shrimp farming stake holders of India for future practice and to restore back their faith in shrimp farming in the country for a better tomorrow.

Shri Abiram Seth is the Director of AquAgri Processing Pvt. Ltd. and his lecture was on the current status of seaweed farming and its benefits to coastal livelihoods in our country. He narrated the history and the major milestones in seaweed farming in India. He told that initially, Pepsico explored seaweed farming as an opportunity leveraging their contract farming experience in India. Their search for technology and planting material led them to CSMCRI (Central Salt and Marine Chemicals Research Institute) and an enduring relationship was established hence.


After a successful start in 2008, Pepsico transferred the project to AquAgri Pvt. Ltd. and at present they are able to provide employment to more than 1200 fishers and produce 1500 tonnes of seaweed dry mass. They also came out with a product called Aquasap (Liquid seaweed extract), an organic fertilizer rich in micro nutrients, vitamins, amino acids and plant growth hormones. Aquasap gave excellent results with field trials of soyabean, sugarcane and even in poultry. Tata Chemicals Ltd. a major fertilizer company launched ‘Liquid Seaweed Extract’ and ‘Seaweed Granules’ for agricultural application on a pan-India basis under their flagship brand ‘TATA PARAS’. They are actively working with EID Parry and Coromandel Fertilizers Ltd. on development of new value added agri-products. CIPLA has been involved in trials of the product globally.

He also shared about the experiences about the environmental related issues that the firm faced and the way they approached to solve it. He also threw some good light on the debate over the introduction of Kappaphycus sp. He also informed that their entire seaweed farming operation was working in a participatory business model which includes important stakeholders such as NGOs (Aquaculture Foundation of India, Chennai, TRRM Ramnad), Bankers, DRDA (District Rural Development Agency), Private Sector (AquAgri Processing Private Ltd.). He informed that their seaweed farming project has created considerable socio-economic impacts in their project fishing villages. He also stressed that the students should come forward to with business ventures in aquafarming.

Saji Chacho is the Vice President of Onaway Industries Ltd, Surat and an alumni of CMFRI, Cochin. As a leading entrepreneur in shrimp aquaculture, he shared his experiences and breakthrough moments in his career. He stated that India’s aquaculture was dominated by fresh water fish like Indian major carps which were essentially consumed within the country. Beginning from the late eighties, brackishwater aquaculture has been steadily expanding in the country and this activity was concentrated mainly in the coastal region. Today, India produces about 100000 MT of shrimp from a brackish water area of about 140,000 hectares. Although India has over 1.2 million hectares available for shrimp farming, the current exploitation is only 16% of this. About 90% of the shrimp farms in the country were owned by small and marginal farmers. The major species cultured was the Black Tiger shrimp (Penaeus monodon). He noted that shrimp aquaculture production in India has been stagnating around 100,000 MT during the last decade. Now, with the introduction of L. vannamei, the shrimp production in the country is likely to boom in a remarkable way. He informed the gathering that he was the first shrimp farmer to get the license to import the vannamei seeds. He explained the various technical operations and the better management practices adopted in his farms and their farm production as a comparative with past performance. He also enumerated many positive points of the L. vannamei farming in India.


Dr. Elancheran is a leading shrimp aquaculture consultant in Andhra Pradesh and alumni of CIFE, Mumbai. He narrated the important milestones in the growth of Indian shrimp culture industry. His lecture mainly focused on aquaculture / fisheries activities of Andhra Pradesh. He explained practically about the bottlenecks in shrimp farming. He also elaborated about the disease outbreaks and the difficult times the industry faced in the earlier days. He explained how disease outbreaks promoted the corporate firms to quit shrimp farming and how the individual farmers utilized the opportunity and sustained the same in Andhra Pradesh. He said that our Indian shrimp culture industry is fully dominated by the marginal level farmers. The main species, the tiger shrimp was earlier and now the trend has been changing towards the L. vannamei. He stated that the sector was providing an array of support industries and as the farmer’s social status has developed to a great extent. He mentioned that the shrimp farming has not only improved the status of livelihood of farmers but also resulted in the overall societal development and improved rural infrastructure. He informed that the unity and cooperation of the farmers paid rich dividends to them. He also stressed the importance of the L. vannamei farming in today’s context and need of its further promotion for sustainable shrimp farming.

Finally, Dr. M.Krishnan thanked all the speakers and the Chief Guest for their esteemed presence and for sharing their real experiences and success stories in a sparkling manner. He also thanked the Director and Vice Chancellor, staff members, students and the supporting staff for making the mini symposium a great success.


PROGRAMME SCHEDULE

CIFE GOLDEN JUBILEE MINI SYMPOSIUM SERIES

FARMERS AS STAKEHOLDERS IN COMMERCIAL AQUACULTURE

Organised by Fisheries Economics, Extension and Statistics Division

Date: 30 April, 2011 Venue: AUDITORIUM, CIFE, New Campus

Invocation 10.30-10.32 AM Students Welcome Address 10.32 to 10.40 AM Dr. W.S.Lakra,

ViceChancellor & Director, CIFE, Mumbai

Presidential Address 10.40-10.50 AM Dr. B.S.Bisht, Vice Chancellor, G.B.Pant University of Agricultre and Technology, Pantnagar.

Invited Lecture 1 11.00 to 11.30 AM Dr. Manoj Sharma, Director, Mayank Aquaculture (P)., Ltd, Surat on “Inclusive Shrimp Farming: Development Model for Marginal Stakeholders “(with Special Reference to Gujarat)

Invited Lecture 2 11.30 AM to 12.00 PM

Shri Abhiram Seth, MD, AquAgri Proc. (P) Ltd., New Delhi on” Fishers First,: Participatory Model in Seaweed Farming in India”

Invited Lecture 3 12.00 to 12.30 PM Shri Saji Chacko, Vice President, Onway Industries Ltd., Surat on “High Value Aquaculture and Marginal Stakeholders in India”

Invited Lecture 4 12.30 to 1.00 PM Dr. Elan Cheran, Chief Consultant, Super Shrimps Consultants, Nellore on “Impact of Commercial Shrimp Farming on Marginal Farmers in Andhra Pradesh”

Discussion 1.00 to 1.25 PM Vote of Thanks 1.25 to 1.30 PM Dr. M.Krishnan, HoD, FEES Division, CIFE

National Anthem

Anchors: Ms. Prathvi Rani & Ms. Bijayalaxmi Devi, M.F.Sc. (FBM), FEES Division.

fish info - cif education

Documents

indian shrimp farming

commercial aquaculture

satellite farming

cluster farming

compendium of lectures

fisheries economics

dynamic sector

sunrise sector