final technical report - acp fish ii - welcome africa, caribbean and the pacific asareca association...

"Strengthening Fisheries Management in

ACP Countries"

Project Funded by the European Union.

“This publication has been produced with the assistance of the European Union. The contents of this publication are the sole responsibility of COFREPECHE and can in no way be taken to reflect the views of the European Union.”

“The content of this document does not necessarily reflect the views of the concerned governments.”

Final Technical Report

Building Eastern African Capacity for Freshwater Aquaculture Research:

Study Tour to Kenya

Project ref. N° EA-3.3-B17/REL

Region: Eastern Africa Country: Burundi, Ethiopia, Rwanda, South Sudan

17th June 2013

Assignment by: COFREPECHE

Building Eastern African Capacity for Freshwater Aquaculture Research: Study Tour to Kenya Final Technical Report (AFE141R02B)

Project Funded by the European Union pg. 2 A project implemented by COFREPECHE

Table of contents

1 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY .................................................................................................................................. 8

2 BACKGROUND .............................................................................................................................................. 10

2.1 CURRENT STATE OF AFFAIRS IN THE RELEVANT SECTOR ............................................................................. 10 2.2 RELATED PROGRAMMES AND OTHER DONOR ACTIVITIES ............................................................................. 11

3 APPROACH TO THE ASSIGNMENT ............................................................................................................ 11

4 COMMENTS ON RESULTS AND OUTCOMES ............................................................................................ 12

5 ORGANISATION AND METHODOLOGY ...................................................................................................... 13

5.1 DELIVERY OF TERMS OF REFERENCE ......................................................................................................... 13 5.2 CONDUCT AND DETAILS OF THE ASSIGNMENT INCLUDING VISIBILITY ACTIVITIES ............................................. 13

5.2.1 Initial briefing with the ACP Fish II Programme and NARDTC Management ......................... 13 5.2.2 Documentary review .............................................................................................................. 14 5.2.3 Consultations ......................................................................................................................... 15 5.2.4 Study tour material ................................................................................................................. 15 5.2.5 Visibility activities ................................................................................................................... 15 5.2.6 The study tour ........................................................................................................................ 16

6 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS .............................................................................................. 19

6.1 CONCLUSIONS ......................................................................................................................................... 19 6.2 RECOMMENDATIONS ................................................................................................................................ 20

7 BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................................................................................................................................. 20

8 ANNEXES ....................................................................................................................................................... 21

8.1 ANNEX 1: TERMS OF REFERENCE .............................................................................................................. 21 8.2 ANNEX 2: AGENDA OF THE STUDY TOUR .................................................................................................... 33 8.3 ANNEX 3: INCEPTION REPORT ................................................................................................................... 33 8.4 ANNEX 3: ITINERARY ................................................................................................................................ 33 8.5 ANNEX 5: LIST OF PEOPLE MET ................................................................................................................. 34 8.6 ANNEX 6: LIST OF REPORTS AND DOCUMENTS CONSULTED ......................................................................... 35 8.7 ANNEX 7: PHOTOGRAPHS OF PROJECT, KEY ACTIVITIES AND EVENTS ........................................................... 35 8.8 ANNEX 8: TECHNICAL OUTPUTS ................................................................................................................. 46

8.8.1 Annex 8A: Presentation about ACP Fish II Programme and the study tour ........................... 46 8.8.2 Annex 8B: Presentations on status and challenges of aquaculture ....................................... 46 8.8.3 Annex 8C: Opening speech ................................................................................................... 47 8.8.4 Annex 8D: Press release & communication ........................................................................... 49 8.8.5 Annex 8E: Summary of workshop evaluation by the participants .......................................... 51 8.8.6 Annex 8F: Study tour material ................................................................................................ 53

Study tour materials

1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................................. 55

1.1 RESEARCH IN AQUACULTURE .................................................................................................................... 55

2 RESEARCH PROCESS ................................................................................................................................. 55

2.1 DEFINITION OF RESEARCH ........................................................................................................................ 55 2.2 CATEGORIES OF RESEARCH ...................................................................................................................... 55

2.2.1 Descriptive research .............................................................................................................. 55 2.2.2 Experimental research ........................................................................................................... 55

2.3 RESEARCH PROCESS ............................................................................................................................... 56 2.3.1 Research problem .................................................................................................................. 56



2.4 HYPOTHESIS ............................................................................................................................................ 58

3 BASIC STATISTICS ....................................................................................................................................... 58

3.1 MEAN ...................................................................................................................................................... 59 3.2 VARIANCE ................................................................................................................................................ 60 3.3 STANDARD ERROR ................................................................................................................................... 60 3.4 CONFIDENCE INTERVALS........................................................................................................................... 61

4 DESIGN OF EXPERIMENTS .......................................................................................................................... 62

4.1 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................................... 62 4.2 PRINCIPLES OF EXPERIMENTATION ............................................................................................................ 63

4.2.1 Randomization ....................................................................................................................... 64 4.2.2 Replication ............................................................................................................................. 64 4.2.3 Local control ........................................................................................................................... 65

4.3 EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN ............................................................................................................................ 65 4.3.1 Completely randomised design (CRD) ................................................................................... 66 4.3.2 Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) ....................................................................... 67 4.3.3 Factorial Design ..................................................................................................................... 69

5 DATA COLLECTION ...................................................................................................................................... 70

5.1 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................................... 70 5.2 WHAT SHOULD BE MEASURED ................................................................................................................... 70 5.3 HOW SHOULD BE MEASURED .................................................................................................................... 70 5.4 FREQUENCY OF MEASUREMENT ................................................................................................................ 70

6 DATA ANALYSIS ........................................................................................................................................... 70

6.1 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................................... 71 6.2 DATA PROCESSING .................................................................................................................................. 71 6.3 COMPARISONS ......................................................................................................................................... 71

7 PRESENTATION OF RESEARCH RESULTS ............................................................................................... 72

7.1 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................................... 72 7.1.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 72 7.1.2 Methodology/ Materials and Methods .................................................................................... 72 7.1.3 Results ................................................................................................................................... 73 7.1.4 Discussion .............................................................................................................................. 73 7.1.5 References ............................................................................................................................. 73

8 ETHICS IN RESEARCH ................................................................................................................................. 73

8.1 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................................... 73 8.2 ETHICAL PRINCIPLES ................................................................................................................................ 74

9 BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................................................................................................................................. 75



List of tables

Table 1 – Phases of the assignment ..................................................................................................................... 12 Table 2 - Delivery of terms of reference ................................................................................................................ 13 Table 3 – Aquaculture production in Africa ............................................................................................................ 14 Table 4 – List of participants .................................................................................................................................. 16 Table 5 – Agenda of the study tour........................................................................................................................ 33 Table 6 – Itinerary of the KE .................................................................................................................................. 33 Table 7 – List of stakeholders met by KE .............................................................................................................. 34

List of figures

Figure 1 - The research process............................................................................................................................ 56 Figure 2 – Variance of individual values in relation to mean ................................................................................. 60 Figure 3 - Why standard error? ............................................................................................................................. 61 Figure 4 – A 96% CL of 20 randomly picked samples from a particular population. Note the shaded area indicate the confidence interval while open circles indicate means which do not include μ, ............................................... 62 Figure 5 – Mean and confidence interval (CI) for 20 replications, based on independent samples of size n=20 from a population with mean µ. Means whose CI does not contain µ are shown with an open symbol; means that do not lie within the preceding CI are marked with a triangle. ............................................................................... 65 Figure 6 – Complete randomization of treatments in all the experimental units .................................................... 66 Figure 7 - Separation of effects of treatment and experimental error in a Completely Randomised Design (CRD) .............................................................................................................................................................................. 67 Figure 8 –Randomization of six treatments with three replicates in experimental units set in a CRBD ensuring that each treatment is randomised within each block ................................................................................................... 68 Figure 9 - Separation of effects of treatment, block and experimental error in a Completely Randomised Block Design (CRBD) ...................................................................................................................................................... 68 Figure 10 -Separation of variability in factorial design ........................................................................................... 69

List of pictures

Picture 1 - Welcoming remarks by Dr H. Charo, Acting Director of the NARDTC, Sagana ................................... 35 Picture 2 - Dignitaries who attended the opening ceremony ................................................................................. 36 Picture 3 - Group photo of participants and invited guests .................................................................................... 36 Picture 4 - Group 1 discussing a suitable experiment design for evaluating growth performance of Nile tilapia in Juba ....................................................................................................................................................................... 37 Picture 5 - Group 2 discussion a suitable design for evaluating three commercially available fish feeds in Kenya 37 Picture 6 - A cap and bag provided to the study tour participants ......................................................................... 38 Picture 7 - Participants listening attentively to Mr Kiama, owner of the Highland Green Algae Fish Farm in Sagana .............................................................................................................................................................................. 38 Picture 8 - Variety of ornamental fish breed at the Highland Green Algae Fish Farm in Sagana .......................... 39 Picture 9 - Mr MUREKAMBANZE (extreme right) from Burundi practicing fish tagging using floy tags at NARDTC .............................................................................................................................................................................. 39 Picture 10 - Ms KYULE from Kenya demonstrating fish smoking kiln for value addition at NARDTC ................... 40 Picture 11 - Ms KYULE from Kenya demonstrating fish dryer which keeps away bow flies at NARDTC .............. 40 Picture 12 - Participants admiring lined pond at Mr Mbogo’s household in Embu ................................................. 41 Picture 13 - Participants observing feeding caged fish at Mwea Aquafish Farm in Mwea ..................................... 41 Picture 14 - Happy and healthy fish in a lined pond at Mwea Aquafish Farm in Mwea ......................................... 42 Picture 15 - Participants enjoying a farm lunch with fresh caught pond tilapia at Mwea Aquafish Farm in Mwea . 42



Picture 16 – Participants pose with Mr Tony owner of Thamuru farm in front of a paddle wheel aerated fish pond .............................................................................................................................................................................. 43 Picture 17 – One of the participants giving a vote of thanks at Thamaru Farm in Kandara ................................... 43 Picture 18 - Participants admiring catfish nursery tanks in recirculation system at JASA Fish Farm in Thika ....... 44 Picture 19 - Participants admiring catfish ready for market at JASA Fish Farm in Thika ....................................... 44 Picture 20 - Indoor recirculation system for tilapia fingerling production at Kirathe Fish Farm in Juja ................... 45



Acknowledgements

The Experts and COFREPECHE would like to thank Mr Koane Mindjimba, ACP Fish II Programme RFU-East Africa Office for his support throughout the assignment. We would also like to thank the Government of the Republic of Kenya for allowing the study tour take place in the country. Sincere gratitude to the Ministry of Fisheries Development especially Dr Harrison Charo-Karisa and all staff at National Aquaculture and Research Development and Training Centre (NARDTC) – Sagana, for organizing and hosting the study tour and its participants. Appreciation also goes to ACP Fish II Focal Points for their assistance in liaising with Ministries responsible for Aquaculture/Fisheries in Burundi, Ethiopia, Rwanda and South Sudan. Appreciation also goes to Directors in Ministries responsible for Aquaculture/Fisheries in each of the beneficiary countries as well as Executive Secretary of Lake Victoria Fisheries Organisation (LVFO) for nominating suitable officers to take part in the study tour. We would also like to thank all the fish farmers we visited for their kindness and willingness to share their aquaculture experiences. Last but not least we are also grateful for the interest and enthusiasm of the study tour participants which made this mission mutually wonderful and unique learning experience.



List of abbreviations and acronyms

ACP Africa, Caribbean and the Pacific ASARECA Association for Strengthening Agricultural Research in Eastern and Central Africa CGIAR Consultative Group on International Agriculture Research COMESA Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa CU Coordination Unit DFTR Draft Final Technical Report EA Eastern Africa EAC East African Community EARO Ethiopia Agricultural Research Organisation EC European Commission EU European Union EDF European Development Fund EIAR Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research ESA-IO Eastern-Southern Africa and Indian Ocean ESP Economic Stimulus Package FA Fisheries Administration FAO Food and Agriculture Organisation FFEPP Fish Farming Enterprise and Productivity Programme FR Final Report FTR Final Technical Report GDP Gross Domestic Product HDI Human Development Index IGAD Intergovernmental Authority on Development IOTC Indian Ocean Tuna Commission IR Inception Report ISABU Institut des Sciences Agronomiques du Burundi ISAR Institut des Sciences Agronomiques du Rwanda KE Key Expert KMFRI Kenya Marine and Fisheries Research Institute LCD Liquid Crystal Display LTA Lake Tanganyika Authority LVEMP Lake Victoria Environnemental Management Project LVFO Lake Victoria Fisheries Organisation MoFD Ministry of Fisheries Development (Kenya) NARDTC National Aquaculture Research, Development and Training Centre REC Regional Economic Communities RFB Regional Fishery Bodies RFU Regional Facilitating Unit (ACP Fish II) SADC Southern African Development Community SWIOFC SouthWest Indian Ocean Fisheries Commission TNA Training Need Assessment ToR Terms of Reference USD United States Dollar



1 Executive summary The study tour to Kenya aimed at Building Eastern African Capacity for Freshwater Aquaculture Research through increased knowledge and exchange of information on aquaculture research in the region as well as sharing good practices in fisheries and aquaculture research in the region. It brought together participants from Burundi, Ethiopia, South Sudan, Rwanda, the Lake Victoria Fisheries Organisation (LVFO) and the host Kenya. The study tour was undertaken in three phases. The 1st phase involved briefing with ACP Fish II and NARDTC, documentary review, preparation of training materials and inception report. The 2nd phase involved finalisation of training materials, selection of participants, preparation of visibility materials and logistical preparations for study tour. The 3rd phase involved facilitating the study tour and writing the final technical report. The 5-day study tour was officiated by Permanent Secretary from the Ministry of Fisheries Development from Kenya. The tour was hosted at NARDTC Sagana and it involved both classroom activities and field trips to fish farms. Participants had an opportunity to share status and challenges facing aquaculture in their respective countries. Most of the participants reported similar challenges such as lack of feed, seed, fish farming knowledge and lack of enabling policies and strategies just to mention a few. The participants learned the importance of aquaculture research as a tool for knowledge – and – innovation based aquaculture development. This session was followed by a lecture on the research process with a main emphasis on how to translate practical aquaculture problems into researchable problems. Participants also learned designing of aquaculture experiments, data collection, disseminating research findings and importance of ethics in research. Field trips provided a practical experience of what can be achieved in small scale commercial fish farms using simple and low cost technologies available within the country. It is recommended that there should be more training dedicated on aquaculture research methodologies and also similar field study tour should be organized for other stakeholders i.e. fish farmers and extension agents.

Résumé analytique

Le voyage d'étude au Kenya visait à renforcer les capacités en Afrique de l'Est dans le domaine de la recherche en aquaculture d’eau douce à travers l'accroissement des connaissances et l'échange d'informations sur la recherche en aquaculture dans la région ainsi que le partage des bonnes pratiques en matière de recherche halieutique et aquacole. Il a réuni des participants venus du Burundi, de l'Ethiopie, du Sud-Soudan, du Rwanda et du Kenya, hôte de ce voyage d’études. Il s'est déroulé en trois phases. La 1ère phase consistait au briefing avec ACP Fish II et le NARDTC, une revue documentaire, la préparation des supports de formation et la rédaction du rapport de démarrage. La 2ème phase comprenait la finalisation des documents de formation, la sélection des participants, la préparation des outils de communication et la préparation logistique de voyage d’études. La 3ème phase a consisté à faciliter le voyage d'étude et rédiger le rapport technique final. Le voyage d'étude de 5 jours a été inauguré par le Secrétaire permanent du ministère du Développement des Pêches du Kenya. La visite a été organisée au NARDTC, basé à Sagana au Kenya et elle a impliqué à la fois des activités en classe et des visites sur le terrain sur des exploitations piscicoles. Les participants ont pu présenter un état des lieux de l’aquaculture dans leurs pays respectifs ainsi que les défis auxquels l'aquaculture fait face. La plupart des participants ont signalé des difficultés similaires telles que, pour n'en citer que quelques-uns, le manque d’aliments, d’alevins, de connaissance en pisciculture et l'absence de politiques et de stratégies favorables au



développement. Les participants ont appris l'importance qu’a la recherche en aquaculture en tant qu’outil de connaissance et pour le développement aquacole basé sur l’innovation. Ce module a été suivi par une présentation sur le processus de recherche avec un accent sur les manières de traduire des problèmes pratiques d'aquaculture en problèmes pouvant faire l'objet de recherches. Les participants ont aussi appris à concevoir des expériences, à collecter des données, à diffuser des résultats de recherche et ils ont perçu l'importance de l'éthique dans la recherche. Les visites de terrain ont fourni une expérience pratique de ce qui peut être réalisé par des fermes piscicoles commerciales de petite taille en utilisant des technologies simples et peu coûteuses disponibles dans le pays. Il est recommandé de mettre en place plus de formations dédiées aux méthodologies de recherche en aquaculture ainsi que d’autres voyages d'études sur le terrain similaire à celui-ci avec comme bénéficiaires d’autres parties prenantes comme les éleveurs et les agents de vulgarisation.



2 Background

2.1 Current state of affairs in the relevant sector

Humankind has relied on capture fisheries since time immemorial. Several engravings on Egyptian tombs dating as early as 2500 BC stand as testimony of the importance of fish in early civilization (Jhingram, 1987). Fish have been used for food, religious functions as well as a medium of exchange. A significant proportion of fish in recent years comes from Aquaculture. According to FAO (1990), aquaculture is defined as the farming of aquatic organisms including fish, molluscs, crustaceans and aquatic plants with some sort of intervention in the rearing process to enhance production, such as regular stocking, feeding and protection from predators. Farming also implies individual or corporate ownership of the stock being cultivated. Aquaculture is widely believed to have started in Asia, and particularly China, where freshwater carp were cultured since approximately 1100 BC (Song, 1996). Around 460 BC Fan Li published what is believed to be the first monograph in aquaculture titled “On Pisciculture” which described fish pond design and layout as well as breeding and rearing of carp. Mariculture was practiced by the Romans who cultured fish and shellfish over 2 200 years ago (Landau, 1992). From these humble beginnings, aquaculture has grown and spread all over the world, gradually transforming itself from traditional practice into science with much technological innovations and adaptations in response to changing demands. Its contribution to global fish supply has increased from 3.9% in 1970 to over 41.3% in 2011 amounting to 63.7 million metric tonnes with a value over USD 119 billion (FAO, 2012). It is now the fastest growing animal producing sector with an average growth rate of 8.8% since 1970 outpacing capture fisheries (1.2%) and terrestrial farmed meat production (2.8%) (FAO, 2007). The fast growth has played a key role in augmenting dwindling catch capture fisheries. Contrary to the global trends, aquaculture production in Africa has remained low, despite the demand. Fish account for 17.4% of total animal intake; second from Asia (25.7%) (Brummet et al., 2008). Most of capture fisheries have been exploited to their maximum and in some cases even overexploited. The per capita consumption of 9.1 kg/capita/year is low compared to global average of 18.4 kg/capita/year (FAO, 2012). With ever increasing population, African countries import in excess 4.2 million tonnes of fishery products at a net loss of more than USD 3 thousand million in order to cope with the demand (Brummet et al., 2008). Therefore, there is a need to utilise potential for aquaculture in order to increase fish supply for both domestic consumption and export market. The target countries for this assignment i.e. Burundi, Ethiopia, Rwanda, and South Sudan rely on inland fisheries. It is estimated that total fish landings (inland and aquaculture) of the four countries in 2009 was estimated at nearly 86 770 tonnes, with 32 000 tonnes (36.9%) from Southern Sudan, 25 000 tonnes (28.8%) from Burundi, 16 770 tonnes (19.3%) from Ethiopia, and 13 000 tonnes (15%) from Rwanda. In 2009 the sector had 254 000 people directly or indirectly engaged in fisheries. The contribution of the sector to GDP varies from country to country, ranging from a tiny 0.02% in Ethiopia to 1.5% in Rwanda, according to available estimates. Inland fisheries account for close to 93% of the landings and aquaculture for only 7%. Despite its low contribution, these countries have enormous potential to develop aquaculture which is poised to play a more significant role in provision of fish and fishery products in the coming years. They are endowed with abundant water resources such as lakes (e.g. Lake Tana, Rift Valley lakes), rivers (e.g. Nile), as well as swamps and other wetlands (including the Sudd in South Sudan). Research plays an important role in aquaculture by developing technological innovations to overcome various challenges facing the sector. However, research activities have been curtailed by a number of factors such as:

Lack of effective aquaculture research agenda; Weak scientific research strategies;



Over-emphasis on applied research and a complete neglect of basic research; Low funding; Weak linkages between research and extension; Ill-equipped research facilities.

This study tour aimed at providing an opportunity for officers from research institutions and government ministries responsible for fisheries and aquaculture to share their experiences about challenges and opportunities for developing the sector. Also the tour allowed the participants to learn from the success story of the Kenyan aquaculture which has grown tremendously in recent years.

2.2 Related programmes and other donor activities

Effort was made by the consultant to liaise with the representatives of relevant national and regional projects and concerned Research Institutes and Fisheries Administrations not only to gather the relevant information, but also to maximise project synergies while minimising duplication as stipulated in the ToR.

3 Approach to the assignment The main activities undertaken during the assignment were:

i. Initial briefing with the ACP Fish II Programme RFU and NARDTC Management; ii. Documentary review and development of Study Tour programme and learning objectives; iii. Preparation of Inception Report (IR) which was submitted to the ACP Fish II Programme and NARDTC

Management;

“A range of development partners are active in the Eastern Africa region in support of fisheries in general and fisheries and aquaculture research in particular but most interventions are at the national level. Exceptions to this rule include:

The Implementation of a Regional Fisheries Strategy for the Eastern-Southern Africa and Indian Ocean (ESA-IO) Programme (SmartFish) – Funded by the European Commission (EC) under the 10th European Development Fund (EDF), the overall objective of this programme is to support the implementation of a fisheries strategy for sustainable management and development of the fisheries sector in the region.

The Lake Victoria Environmental Management Project (LVEMP II) – LVEMP II is an eight-year (2009–2017) USD 254 million regional project under implementation in the five EAC Partner States (Burundi, Kenya, Rwanda, Tanzania, and Uganda). Whilst the first phase, which was supported by the World Bank, focused on research, 50 % (or USD 67.5 million) of the second phase funds will be spent on socio-economic development.

The Association for Strengthening Agricultural Research in Eastern and Central Africa (ASARECA) Project – This project, which is funded by the World Bank to the tune of EUR 915 000, aims to enhance productivity and competitiveness of fish farming in three Eastern Africa countries (Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda). It will run for two years (2012–2013) and will involve intensive research in aquaculture in the three countries.”

Source: ToR (Section 1.5).



iv. Preparation Study Tour materials (training manual) which was distributed to the Participants at the onset of the Tour;

v. Organization and implementation a study tour in Kenya for 9 officers in collaboration with the RFU-EA, LVFO Secretariat and NARDTC;

vi. Preparation of Draft Final Technical Report (DFTR) and submission to the ACP Fish II Programme, LVFO Secretariat and NARDTC Management;

vii. Preparation and submission of Final Technical Report (FTR) after incorporating inputs on the DFTR. The assignment was undertaken in three phases as shown below: Table 1 – Phases of the assignment

Phase Activities Timing

Phase 1: Mission 1 Briefing, initial preparations of the workshop, documentary review, preparation of training materials, Inception Report

15th – 20th of April 2013

Phase 2: Interim period Finalisation of training materials, selection of participants, preparation of visibility materials, logistical preparations for study tour

21st April – 25th May 2013

Phase 3: Mission 2 Facilitating the study tour, Final Technical Report

26th May – 2nd June 2013

The study tour was managed by two experts:

Dr Nazael Madalla, as Key Expert 1 - Aquaculture Research Specialist - was responsible to undertake briefing to NARDTC Management, documentary review and preparatory work, facilitate and report the study tour.

Mr Sammy Macaria was recruited after the award of the contract to COFREPECHE as Other Expert - Fisheries Specialist. He supported the KE1 in the collection of information and documentation in the first phase of the project and mainly facilitated field visits and participatory learning of the participants during the study tour.

4 Comments on results and outcomes

Major outcomes anticipated at the end of the tour: o Increased knowledge and exchange of information on aquaculture research in the region; o Shared good practices in fisheries and aquaculture research in the region.

These outcomes were mostly achieved through presentations from each country on aquaculture practices as well as research activities followed by discussions between participants. Each country presented its achievements and challenges in efforts to develop good practices for aquaculture and fisheries research.

ACP Fish II Focal Points played a key role to ensure that right participants were selected (i.e. an officer from the ministry and an officer from aquaculture research station, in absence of aquaculture station, researcher from University). In addition, the following pre-requisites were taken into consideration:

o Some basic knowledge in statistics and aquaculture; o Two presentations from each country on (1) Status, Potential and Challenges and (2) Aquaculture

Research activities.



Flow of information on aquaculture research within the region is poor. Most of research findings exist as grey literature hence not accessible to the wider community. Moreover, there is lack of networking among researchers, institutions and countries within the region and beyond. This has often resulted in duplication of research efforts thus little generation of new knowledge and appropriate technologies. This study tour has, therefore, initiated and nurtured networking among aquaculture and fisheries researchers within the region to facilitate knowledge and exchange of information. It is anticipated that this will foster sustainable aquaculture development for improved livelihoods through increased food security and incomes.

5 Organisation and methodology

5.1 Delivery of terms of reference

Table 2 - Delivery of terms of reference

Terms of reference Delivery

1 Initial briefing with the ACP Fish II Programme RFU and NARDTC Management

Briefing with ACP Fish II Programme RFU was

undertaken on 10th April 2013 through Skype

Physical briefing with NARDTC Management took

place on 17th April 2013

2 Documentary review and development of Study Tour programme and learning objectives

Undertaken in April/May

3 Preparation of Inception Report (IR) Undertaken and IR submitted to the ACP Fish II Programme and NARDTC Management on 19th April 2013

4 Preparation of Study Tour materials (training manual)

Undertaken and the study tour materials were distributed to participants at the onset of the Tour on 27th May 2013

5 Organization and implementation of a study tour in Kenya for 9 officers in collaboration with the RFU-EA, LVFO Secretariat and NARDTC

The study tour involved 7 officers from Burundi, Ethiopia, South Sudan, Rwanda and LVFO and 2 participants from Kenya (NARDTC)

6 Preparation of Draft Final Technical Report (DFTR) and submission to the ACP Fish II Programme, LVFO Secretariat and NARDTC Management

DFTR was prepared and submitted for commenting on 24th June 2013

7 Preparation and submission of Final Technical Report (FTR) after incorporating inputs on the DFTR

Comments and inputs from ACP Fish II and LVFO were received and incorporated in the FTR

5.2 Conduct and details of the assignment including visibility activities

5.2.1 Initial briefing with the ACP Fish II Programme and NARDTC Management

A Skype conference call between COFREPECHE (Vincent Defaux), Key Expert (Nazael Madalla) and ACP Fish II Programme RFU-EA (Koane Mindjimba) was held in which a number of issues were discussed. The 1st mission was made at NARDTC facilities in Sagana, Kenya from 14th to 21st April 2013. The NARDTC Management were briefed on expected outputs of the tour. In addition, a number of issues regarding facilities and personnel requirements for implementing the tour were discussed.



5.2.2 Documentary review

A number of documents were reviewed to establish the current status of aquaculture production and research as indicated in the inception report (Annex 3: Inception report). Aquaculture production is still mostly rural, secondary and a part-time activity undertaken in small freshwater ponds within small farm holdings. Tilapia is the most common cultured species often in polyculture with catfish and/or carp. Sources of fingerlings include hatcheries (government or private), wild stock or own ponds after harvest. There is a heavy reliance on family labour and on-farm inputs to enhance pond productivity through organic fertilization, occasional feed inputs such as cereal bran, kitchen waste and vegetable matter. Fish yields are typically low and mostly consumed directly and little surplus is bartered or sold locally. Africa produced 1.4 million tonnes in 2011 accounting for 2.2% of the global fish production. Despite being low, the production has been increasing steadily (Table 3). Table 3 – Aquaculture production in Africa

Selected groups and countries

1970 1980 1990 2000 2009 2010

Africa (tonnes) 10 271 26 202 81 015 399 676 991 183 1 288 320

(percentage) 0.40 0.60 0.60 1.20 1.80 2.20

Sub-Saharan Africa

(tonnes) 4 243 7 048 17 184 55 690 276 906 359 790

(percentage) 0.20 0.10 0.10 0.20 0.50 0.60

North Africa (tonnes) 6 028 19 154 63 831 384 986 714 277 928 530

(percentage) 0.20 0.40 0.50 1.10 1.30 1.60

World (tonnes) 2 566 882 4 705 841 13 074 379 32 417 738 55 714 357 59 872 600 Source: FAO, 2012

The increase in production is attributed to the emerging private sector led SMEs stimulated by growing public support and inflow of foreign capital and expertise. Notable examples include:

Tilapia cage farming in Zimbabwe, Ghana and Uganda;

Pond/tank culture of tilapia and catfish farming in Kenya, Nigeria;

Shrimp/seaweed farming in Tanzania. There is more room for increased production as about 43% of continental Africa has been identified as being suitable for both small-scale and commercial farming of tilapia, African catfish and carp in terms of:

soil type;

precipitation;

evapotranspiration;

seepage;

slope;

agricultural activities;

animal husbandry activities;

human population;

roads;

market size;

optimum temperature to support aquatic growth year-round.



However, full utilisation of this potential has been held back by persistent bottlenecks such as:

Poor policies, plans and strategies for aquaculture development;

Inadequate critical inputs for aquaculture such as feed, seed and husbandry technical know-how;

Insufficient support services in terms of extension services, loan/capital;

Inappropriate technologies due to weak research and poor linkage with farmers/ extension. Thus there is a need to address these bottlenecks through:

Revising existing aquaculture development policies, plans and strategies through involvement of all stakeholders;

Encouraging private sector to get involved into supplying aquaculture inputs;

Enhancing support services through institutional and human capacity building as well as involvement of the financial sector;

Strengthening development of appropriate aquaculture technologies through increased research funding and strengthening research-extension-farmers linkage.

Nonetheless, the future of aquaculture looks promising as private sector is gradually getting more involved in input supply (feed and seed) as well as extension services. The involvement of private sector is responsible for a noticeable increase in aquaculture production in Nigeria, Zimbabwe, Uganda, Ghana and Kenya. The governments are increasingly taking a monitoring and facilitation role. Training institutions have introduced certificate, diploma and degree courses in aquaculture in efforts to increase extension and research manpower. There is a notable increase in funding by international, regional and national bodies to fund research to address a number of challenges facing the aquaculture sector. ACP Fish II, FAO, ASARECA are playing an important role in funding various activities towards developing the sector.

5.2.3 Consultations

Before onset of the 1st mission, an e-mail was sent to all ACP Fish II Focal Points in the beneficiary countries and to LVFO to request for information on status, potential and challenges of aquaculture and research in particular. The information from each country was presented and discussed during the study tour by the study tour participants.

5.2.4 Study tour material

The study tour material (Annex 8F: Study tour material) covers the following topics:

Research in Aquaculture;

Research Process;

Basic Statistics;

Design of Experiments;

Data Collection;

Data Analysis;

Presentation of Research Results;

Ethics in Research.

5.2.5 Visibility activities

The study tour was officially opened by Mr Patrick Osare (Director of Administration at the Ministry of Fisheries Development) representing the Permanent Secretary on the second day of the training. Mr Osare was accompanied by coordinator of the ESP, Mr Maina Gichuri. Officials from the Indonesian embassy who were present at NARDTC



at the time of the opening also attended1. Members of press were also present to cover the event. The opening speech and press release for the tour can be found in annex (Annex 8C: Opening speech and Annex 8D: Press release).In addition, a number of visibility materials were prepared as per ACP Fish II guidelines. The participants were given caps, tee-shirts and bags with bearing ACP Fish II and EU logos.

5.2.6 The study tour

The 5-day study tour took place from 27th May to 31st May in Kenya. The NARDTC provided its facilities for accommodation and discussions during the tour. The overall learning objectives of the study tour were:

To initiate and foster sharing of knowledge among Fisheries Officers and Aquaculture Research Officers within the participating countries;

To enhance knowledge and skills on design and interpretation of aquaculture experiments. Participants were nominated by Directors in Ministries responsible for fisheries/aquaculture in the four participating countries as well as Executive Secretary of Lake Victoria Fisheries Organisation (LVFO). The nominating criteria were:

Officer from the ministry/ aquaculture research station, in absence of aquaculture station, researcher from University;

Basic knowledge in statistics and aquaculture;

Preparation of a presentation on status, potential and challenges of aquaculture production and research activities.

A total of 7 participants were selected to take part in the study tour. In addition, 2 participants from NARDTC joined the study tour. Only one participant from Rwanda was nominated and one nominated participant from Ethiopia could not join due to passport issues. Table 4 – List of participants

No Country Title Name Surname Position

1 South Sudan Mr Pio Anthony Sisto LONGA Inspector for aquaculture development (pond management)

2 South Sudan Mr Khamis Killei John MORRIS Fisheries officer

3 Uganda (LVFO) Dr Oliva Charles MKUMBO

Senior Scientist / ACP Fish II Focal Point

4 Ethiopia Dr Adamneh Dagne ADMASSIE

Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research, National Fish and Other Aquatic Life Research Centre

5 Burundi Ms Rose NDAYIRAGIJE Advisor, National Centre for Aquaculture Development

6 Burundi Mr Alain MUREKAMBANZE Assistant Advisor, National Centre for Aquaculture Development

7 Rwanda Mr Gregoire DUSABEMUNGU Manager of Kigembe Fish Farming Centre

1 The Indonesian embassy provides assistance to NARDTC.



No Country Title Name Surname Position

8 Kenya Dr Jonathan MUNGUTI Scientist, NARDTC, Sagana

9 Kenya Ms Domitila KYULE Scientist, NARDTC, Sagana

In addition to classroom discussions about aquaculture production and research, the study tour participants had an opportunity to visit the following fish farms; Green Algae Highland Fish Farm in Sagana, Mbogo fish farm in Embu, Mwea Aquafish Farm in Wang’uru, Kirathe farm in Thika, Thamaru farm in Kandara, JASA Fish farm in Thika. The study tour involved a number of daily activities (cf. Annex 2: Agenda of the study tour for details) as described below. Day 1 The study tour started with a prayer from one of the participants and then NARDTC Acting Director welcomed all the participants to Kenya and Sagana in particular and asked each participant to introduce him/herself. The Acting Director went on to give a presentation on ACP Fish II as well as the study tour on behalf of the Regional Manager for the Programme (Error! Reference source not found.). Thereafter, the KE gave an overview of status, potential and challenges facing aquaculture in Africa followed by country presentations from the participants on status and challenges facing aquaculture production and research in their respective countries as shown in Annex 8B: Presentations on status and challenges of aquaculture. Participants from Burundi also shared novel ideas about pelleting, anaesthesia and fry harvesting in ponds. On pelleting; they use 1 part a mixture of soybean, maize and fishmeal and 2 parts water which is then pressed against a tray with 0.5mm holes to make pellets. For anaesthesia they use a local herb which is yet to be identified but it is very effective on fish and it does not cause mortality afterwards. For fingerling harvesting, they have designed a large scoop net which make it unnecessary to drain the pond. Kenyan participants mentioned the use of baking powder (sodium bicarbonate) as anaesthesia for fish. NARDTC Director shared the experience of the Economic Stimulus Package (ESP) through which the government funded construction of thousands of 300 m2 ponds all over the country and also provided fingerlings and feeds. Day 2 The day started with a discussion on importance of aquaculture research as a tool for knowledge – and – innovation based aquaculture development. This was followed by a lecture on the research process with a main emphasis on how to translate practical aquaculture problems into researchable problems. The participants were divided into two groups to identify a practical problem and develop it into a researchable problem. Group 1 thought of designing an experiment in Juba, South Sudan to determine how long it will take for Nile tilapia to grow to 500g in earthen ponds while Group 2 thought of designing an experiment to determine growth and feed utilization of three brands of commercially available fish feeds. After the official opening and lunch, the participants went to their first field visit at Green Algae Highland Fish Farm in Sagana. The farm is owned by Mr Kiama who was very happy to show participants around the farm and provided a lot of technical and financial details of the farm. The farm keeps and sells fingerlings and table size Nile tilapia and African catfish. The farm also breeds ornamental fish and at the time of the visit there were 12 different species. The participants were so impressed with his creativity in many of the activities and many were inspired to start their own fish farms.



Day 3 The day started with a demonstration on different methods used at NARDTC for fish tagging which is important for the on-going fish selection programme at the station. This was followed by a discussion on designing of aquaculture experiments, data collection, disseminating research findings and importance of ethics in research. Participants learnt how to collect data using a case study of fish nutrition experiments in line with the practical problems which were identified in the previous day. Day 4 The day started with a field trip to Embu to visit a household which benefited from the ESP programme. The owner, Mr Mbogo showed us two ponds one stocked with tilapia and the other one with catfish and uses underground water. Thereafter, participants visited Mwea Aquafish farm in Mwea which is a commercial farm with an area of 8.5 acres. The farm is integrated producing fish, poultry and crops. They produce both table size fish and fingerlings of catfish and tilapia (including monosex). They have a capacity of producing up to 500 000 fingerlings a month and they played an important role during the peak of the ESP programme. The farm also serves as a training centre for on-farm training and attachment for undergraduate and postgraduate students to undertake research. Day 5 Participants travelled close to Nairobi and visited Thamaru Farm in Kandara which covers an area of 18 acres. It is an integrated farm (vegetables, bananas, dairy cattle, poultry, fish and sheep). The farm cultures tilapia, catfish and ornamental fish and it uses underground water in its tanks and ponds. A unique feature of this farm is that it uses paddlewheel aerators in some of the ponds. The participants were impressed with the high level of integration and nutrient recycling within the farm. The participants then visited JASA fish farm in Thika which produces catfish fingerlings using recirculation system. An amazing feature of this farm is its location within small plot in a residential area and yet producing substantial number of catfish fingerlings. The last farm to visit was Kirathe farm in Juja which also uses recirculation system to produce tilapia fingerlings. The system is located within a greenhouse in order to maintain higher water temperatures. Upon returning to the station, participants filled evaluation forms (Annex 8F: Study tour material). The evaluation was positive mostly being excellent and good. However, most of the participants were of the opinion that the duration of the tour was short. Some of the comments given were:

Include a visit to shops selling aquaculture equipments;

Course contents and field visits were very relevant and informative; include extension officers and farmers in future;

The tour was good but it was expected to have practiced on how to fill a questionnaire, enter data and its analysis;

Duration of the workshop be extended to cover more and diverse areas;

The tour was relevant and expectation realized but it will be better to include investors from the participating countries next time;

Duration was short to get practical and essentials of basic statistics. Participants also described their future activities following the study tour as follows:



Burundi

Expectations to improve survival of catfish fingerlings by applying techniques such as warmer water temperatures, reduced light intensity and use of artemia as first feed which are widely practiced in the visited farms.

Conduct experiment to evaluate different local feed materials as well as further evaluation of the plant with anaesthetic effects.

Undertake genetic improvement of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus). Ethiopia

Organise a meeting to share the study tour experience and devise a strategy of adopting practices seen in Kenya;

Encourage private sector to invest in aquaculture;

Convince the government to support aquaculture sector in similar ways the Kenyan did through the ESP programme;

Set own farm. Kenya

Develop a PhD proposal after getting skills through the discussion on the research process;

Analyse data which was collected sometime back and could not be analysed due to lack of data analysis skills;

Set own hatchery. Rwanda

Organise a meeting and share experiences gained during the tour;

Mobilise private sector to invest in aquaculture as well as inviting someone from Kenya to share experience;

Collect and analyse locally available ingredients through growth trials;

Develop catfish fingerlings rearing techniques similar to those observed in Kenya;

Develop a PhD proposal. South Sudan

Support farmers through training;

Explore possibility of setting up postgraduate degrees;

Organise a stakeholders’ workshop to develop national strategy for aquaculture. LVFO

Report the experience from the study tour to the LVFO Council of Ministers;

Advocate for feed and seed certification at regional level;

Encourage member states to organise study tours to Kenya;

Influence harmonisation of issues regarding use of cages and hormones for sex reversal;

Influence for increased support for research in order to be more responsive to fish farmers’ challenges.

6 Conclusions and recommendations

6.1 Conclusions

The study tour provided an opportunity for the participants to share information about the status and challenges of aquaculture in their respective countries. It was established that aquaculture is mostly a secondary and part-time



activity undertaken in small freshwater ponds in rural area. Aquaculture production in the target countries, as presented by the participants, was mostly being hampered by lack of fingerlings, lack of feeds, poor feeding practices and inadequate pond management skills. Research activities are challenged by inadequate funding, personnel and facilities. However, learning from Kenya’s success story, it is possible to boost aquaculture through direct funding to farmers in terms of initial capital outlay as well as involvement of private sector for input provision. Field visits provided a practical experience of what can be achieved in small scale commercial fish farms using simple and locally available technologies hence minimising costs of production and making aquaculture attractively profitable. Research skills of the participants were enhanced through lectures and group discussions on undertaking aquaculture experiments.

6.2 Recommendations

There is a need for government to put more emphasis on aquaculture in order to realise its potential for increasing fish supply for both domestic use and export:

Governments should increase funding on aquaculture; Private sector involvement is crucial for increased fish production and supply of inputs; More training on aquaculture research methodologies is required for research officers; Similar study tour to Kenya should be organized for other stakeholders (fish farmers and extension agents)

from the participating countries.

7 Bibliography Brummett, R. E., Lazard, E. and Moehl, J. (2008). African aquaculture: Realizing the potential, Food Policy, Volume 33: 371-385 FAO (1990) CWP Handbook of Fishery Statistical Standards - Section J. Aquaculture. Rome, Italy: FAO Coordinating Working Party on Atlantic Fishery Statistics (CWP). FAO (2007) The State of Fisheries and Aquaculture - 2006.Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations. FAO (2012) The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2012. Jhingram, V.G. (1987) Introduction to aquaculture. RAF/82/009. Port Harcourt, Nigeria: UNDP/FAO/Nigerian Institute for Oceanography and Marine Research Project . Machena, C. and Moehl, J. (2000) African Aquaculture: A Regional Summary with Emphasis on Sub-Saharan Africa. In: Subasinghe, R.P., Bueno, P., Phillips, M.J., Hough, C., McGladdery, S.E. and Arthur, J.R., (Eds.) Technical Proceedings of the Conference on Aquaculture in the Third Millennium, 20-25 February 2000, Bangkok, Thailand, Bangkok & Rome. NACA & FAO. Song, Z.W. (1996) A review of aquaculture extension services in the People's Republic of China. RAP Publication 1997/34. Bangkok, Thailand: Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.



8 Annexes

8.1 Annex 1: Terms of reference

1. BACKGROUND INFORMATION 1.1 Beneficiary country The beneficiary countries of this assignment are Burundi, Ethiopia, Rwanda, and South Sudan.

1.2 Contracting Authority ACP Fish II Coordination Unit 36/21 Av. de Tervuren 5th Floor Brussels 1040, Belgium Tel.: +32 (0)2.7390060 Fax: +32 (0)2.7390068

1.3 Relevant regional background The Eastern Africa (EA) region for the purposes of the implementation of the ACP Fish II Programme, operating through the Regional Facilitation Unit (RFU) in Kampala, Uganda is made up of Fisheries Administrations (FAs) in Burundi, Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Rwanda, Somalia, South Sudan, Sudan, Tanzania, and Uganda. These countries are members of a variety of Regional Fishery Bodies (RFBs) including the Lake Victoria Fisheries Organisation (LVFO), the Lake Tanganyika Authority (LTA), the Indian Ocean Tuna Commission (IOTC), and the Southwest Indian Ocean Fisheries Commission (SWIOFC), as well as Regional Economic Communities (RECs) including the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA), the East African Community (EAC), the Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD), and the Southern African Development Community (SADC). Four (4) of them with important inland fisheries and aquaculture potential are the subjects of this assignment, namely Burundi, Ethiopia, Rwanda, and South Sudan. They are all landlocked and cover a total area of over 1.8 km2 and have a combined population (2009) of about 109.4 million ranging from less than 10 million in Rwanda to around 82.8 million in Ethiopia. The current average population density thus stands at 61 inhabitants/km2 ranging from 13 (South Sudan) to 380 inhabitants/km2 (Rwanda). Population growth rate (over 2010–2015) ranges from 1.9% in Burundi to 2.9% in Rwanda, according to the UNFPA State of World Population 2011 Report. The current (2009) combined gross domestic product (GDP) of these countries is estimated at close to USD92 billion but huge disparities exist across the region with regard to gross national income (GNI) with Burundi at USD 140 and Sudan at USD 1 120, according to several sources.2 In general, annual real GDP growth rate (over 2001–2009) has exceeded population growth rate with the fastest growth rates recorded in Ethiopia (8%), followed by Sudan (7.1%),3 Rwanda (6.5%), and Burundi (3%). Despite these performances, poverty is still widespread in the region and these countries are all classified in the low human development group, ranking from 166th (Rwanda) to 185th (Burundi) out of 187 countries in terms of 2011 Human Development Index (HDI).

2 United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division, World Population Prospects, The 2008 Revision; African

Development Bank Statistics Department; various domestic authorities and International Monetary Fund (IMF) World Economic Outlook (March 2010).

3 Statistics prior to 9 July 2011, i.e., before the separation of South Sudan, are those of the former Sudan (both south and north).



1.4 Current state of affairs in the relevant sector The target countries are endowed with numerous freshwater bodies including lakes (e.g. Lake Victoria, Lake Tana, Rift Valley lakes), rivers (e.g. Nile), as well as swamps and other wetlands (including the Sudd in South Sudan) all of which support significant fishery resources. Although precise data are not available, total fish landings (inland and aquaculture) of these countries in 2009 was estimated at nearly 86 770 tonnes, with 32 000 tonnes (36.9%) from Southern Sudan, 25 000 tonnes (28.8%) from Burundi, 16 770 tonnes (19.3%) from Ethiopia, and 13 000 tonnes (15%) from Rwanda. Inland fisheries account for close to 93% of the landings and aquaculture for only 7%. Despite this relatively low contribution, given the global trends (aquaculture stands at almost 50:50 to capture fisheries) and the present focus on aquaculture by a majority of the Eastern African countries, aquaculture is poised to play a more significant role in provision of fish and fishery products in the coming years. Some 254 000 people are currently (2009) directly or indirectly engaged in fisheries. The contribution of the sector to GDP varies from country to country, ranging from a tiny 0.02% in Ethiopia to 1.5% in Rwanda, according to available estimates. In addition to the Fisheries Departments or equivalent for the management and development of the sector, a number of fisheries research institutes, centres and stations have also been established in each country with a view to informing fisheries management decision-making. Examples include:

In Burundi – Agricultural Research Institute of Burundi (ISABU).

In Ethiopia – Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research (EIAR) Aquaculture and Aquatic Resources Management with Aquaculture and Fisheries Research Station, Sebeta; Ethiopia Agricultural Research Organisation (EARO); Regional Fisheries and Aquatic Life Research Centres (Zeway, Bahir Dar).

In Rwanda – Agricultural Research Institute of Rwanda (ISAR) with Fish Farming Stations (e.g. Rwasave Fish Farming and Hatchery Station).

In most cases, fisheries and aquaculture research activities are also conducted by universities but generally in an ad-hoc fashion, if at all. Like fisheries issues and government service provision to the sector, research activities vary between countries but can be generally characterised as suffering from the following constraints:

Lack of effective aquaculture policies and strategies;

Weak scientific research strategies with limited resources and emphasis on applied research of practical use to managers and other stakeholders;

Low funding of the sector;

Weak linkages between research and extension; and

Ill-equipped facilities in general and laboratories in particular. Yet, these countries have significant plans and in some cases high expectations of the potential contribution of the sector to national targets for economic growth and food security. If sustainable growth is to be achieved, then there is a need for effective national fisheries and aquaculture research but in the context of an understanding of the experiences of other countries and also regional research efforts. To enable the existing freshwater fisheries and aquaculture research institutes to overcome the above-mentioned constraints and to fulfil their mandate, it is essential that officers and staff of these research institutes are offered the opportunity to share their experiences across the region. This assignment is aimed at providing such an opportunity through a study tour focused around one research centre in Kenya.



The experiences of Kenya in general and the National Aquaculture Research Development and Training Centre (NARDTC) in particular will be of special interest to participants from across the region, not just because of the recent broad experiences of stakeholders in developing aquaculture in the country, but also as the NARDTC has been successful in implementing a number of initiatives aimed at improving the standards and effectiveness of research consulted in this field. As host of the Study Tour, NARDTC can be expected not only to contribute to the sharing of relevant knowledge and experience, but also it is anticipated that the Centre itself will benefit from the opportunity of interacting in a practical environment with like-minded professionals from neighbouring countries.

1.5 Related programmes and other donor activities A range of development partners are active in the Eastern Africa region in support of fisheries in general and fisheries and aquaculture research in particular but most interventions are at the national level. Exceptions to this rule include:

The Implementation of a Regional Fisheries Strategy for the Eastern-Southern Africa and Indian Ocean (ESA-IO) Programme (SmartFish) – Funded by the European Commission (EC) under the 10th European Development Fund (EDF), the overall objective of this programme is to support the implementation of a fisheries strategy for sustainable management and development of the fisheries sector in the region.

The Lake Victoria Environmental Management Project (LVEMP II) – LVEMP II is an eight-year (2009–2017) USD 254 million regional project under implementation in the five EAC Partner States (Burundi, Kenya, Rwanda, Tanzania, and Uganda). Whilst the first phase, which was supported by the World Bank, focused on research, 50% (or USD 67.5 million) of the second phase funds will be spent on socio-economic development.

The Association for Strengthening Agricultural Research in Eastern and Central Africa (ASARECA) Project – This project, which is funded by the World Bank to the tune of EUR 915 000, aims to enhance productivity and competitiveness of fish farming in three Eastern Africa countries (Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda). It will run for two years (2012–2013) and will involve intensive research in aquaculture in the three countries.

In carrying out this assignment, the Consultant is expected to liaise with the representatives of relevant national and regional projects and concerned Research Institutes and Fisheries Administrations not only to gather the relevant information, but also to maximise project synergies while minimising duplication. The participatory planning approach adopted in the development of this intervention will continue through implementation to ensure that risks of overlap and lack of coordination with other government or donors’ initiatives are minimised.

2. OBJECTIVE, PURPOSE & EXPECTED RESULTS 2.1 Overall objective The overall objective of the ACP Fish II Programme is to contribute to the sustainable and equitable management of fisheries in ACP regions, thus leading to poverty alleviation and improving food security in ACP States.

2.2 Purpose The purpose of this assignment is to strengthen the capacity of fisheries and aquaculture research institutions to fulfil their mandate in fisheries management.

2.3 Results to be achieved by the Consultant The Consultant will achieve the following results as part of this assignment:



Increased knowledge and exchange of information on aquaculture research in the region through a study tour for 9 nominated Fisheries Officers and Aquaculture Research Officers for 5 days;

Shared good practices in fisheries and aquaculture research in the region. Indicators to measure progress in achieving these results are presented in Section 8.1 below.

3. ASSUMPTIONS & RISKS 3.1 Assumptions underlying the project intervention An important assumption underlying project intervention is that the target groups are well prepared to allocate official hours to this project and to support its implementation. Other important assumptions are that:

the participating countries’ fisheries and aquaculture sector government policies and priorities with regard to research remain in place, and that these policies and priorities are effectively implemented;

the institutional setup in the target countries remains stable during the implementation of the project;

the Consultant is able to get access to relevant documents and facilities.

3.2 Risks The following risks could threaten the implementation of the project:

Inaccessibility to the relevant data and information. Concerted efforts will be required by all parties to ensure that the correct information is made available at the correct time to the correct person.

Reorganisation of government setup in terms of change of ministries and merging of departments or replacement of key personnel.

The need for this intervention was clearly identified in the Regional Needs Assessment Workshop (RNAW) with FAs and representatives from RFBs carried out in December 2009. The relevance of this need for the region has been confirmed in all subsequent meetings and discussions between the Regional Facilitation Unit (RFU) Manager and the ACP Fish II Focal Points including the Programme Monitoring Workshops held in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, and Kisumu, Kenya in October 2010 and March 2011, respectively. The triangulation of ToR appropriateness with the FAs and international partners further reaffirmed the target groups’ need for the intervention. These ToR have been prepared in cooperation with local administrations, thus the risk associated with implementation is low. ACP Fish II, through this intervention, sets out to respond to this felt need. Since it is a demand-driven programme, it is assumed that counterpart institutions will take all the necessary measures to ensure their fulfilment of obligations and responsibilities as set forth under this project. Failure to meet that requirement is likely to end up in the project not achieving the desired results.

4. SCOPE OF THE WORK 4.1 General 4.1.1 Project description This project is intended to build the skills and capacities of Fisheries Officers and Aquaculture Research Officers to conduct relevant and effective research. To achieve this purpose the Consultant will be required to organise and conduct a study tour in the National Aquaculture Research Development and Training Centre (NARDTC), Sagana, Kenya. This study tour will involve 9 Fisheries Officers and Aquaculture Research Officers (one each from each of the four target countries and one Officer from the LVFO Secretariat) and will last 5 full days.



Albeit under the Fisheries Department, the NARDTC is operated by the Kenya Marine and Fisheries Research Institute (KMFRI). It is located 2 km outside of Sagana town, in Kenya’s Central Province, some 105 km northeast of Nairobi. The Centre is well equipped with fish farm facilities including a hatchery, water quality laboratory, poultry unit, zero-grazing unit, and an agro-forestry project, among other facilities. In addition, a hostel is being constructed at the Centre for trainees, which should be ready ahead of the proposed Study Tour under this assignment. Furthermore, the Centre has, since 2009, constructed, stocked and provided fish feeds for 47,000 fishponds and constructed some fish processing facilities countrywide with a view to producing fish food, creating employment and generating income through sustainable aquaculture enterprises as part of the Fish Farming Enterprise and Productivity Programme (FFEPP) under the Economic Stimulus Programme (ESP). The Centre has also hosted a number of on-farm training programmes for fish farmers in various farming techniques (e.g., production and rearing of fingerlings, feed production) within Kenya and neighbouring countries (Ethiopia, Rwanda, Tanzania, and Uganda). The Consultant is free to propose a programme of topics to be covered and visits to selected institutions and other proposed activities, and associated learning objectives, in and around the Centre as part of the 5-day Study Tour but the following should be considered in guiding the selection and development of activities:

1. Adult approach to learning 2. Learning based on field experience 3. Practical hands-on activities should be preferred 4. Use of Guest speakers and resource persons where possible

Study Tour materials (e.g. programme, visit summaries, learning objectives) will be distributed to participants on the first day of the Tour. A simple report of the activities undertaken as part of the Study Tour will be provided to participants BEFORE their departure at the end of the Study Tour. The final content and visits as part of the Study Tour will be agreed between the Key Expert (KE), the NARDTC and RFU-Eastern Africa. The implementation of the assignment will be through one Aquaculture Research Specialist as a Key Expert (KE). He/she will be assisted in his/her tasks by one Other Expert. The KE will work closely with representatives of the NARDTC in developing, planning and implementing the Study Tour. One officer from the Lake Victoria Fisheries Organisation (LVFO) Secretariat will join the Study Tour as a participant but also to facilitate learning and provide technical inputs, alongside maintaining an East African, sub-regional component to the activity. The LVFO has a sizeable and growing aquaculture programme covering the Lake Victoria basin and, furthermore, the three member states of the LVFO have extensive experience in aquaculture research and development. The Consultant must give a full recognition of EC funding, ACP Secretariat’s involvement and visibility to the ACP Fish II Programme, in all the activities implemented as part of the project.

4.1.2 Geographic area to be covered The countries covered by this contract will be four (4) selected ACP landlocked countries in Eastern Africa and freshwaters under their jurisdiction, namely Burundi, Ethiopia, Rwanda, and South Sudan.

4.1.3 Target groups The target groups for this assignment will be Fisheries Officers and Aquaculture Research Officers from the four target countries and LVFO Secretariat.



4.2 Specific activities 4.2.1 Specific activities The Consultant will complete the following specific tasks as part of this contract:

viii. Hold initial briefing with the ACP Fish II Programme and NARDTC Management; ix. Carry out documentary review and develop Study Tour programme and leaning objectives; x. Prepare an Inception Report (IR) and submit it to the ACP Fish II Programme and NARDTC Management,

for comments and approval; xi. Prepare Study Tour materials (e.g. guidelines, documents, programmes and learning objectives) to be given

to the Participants at the start of the Tour; xii. In collaboration with the RFU-EA LVFO Secretariat and NARDTC, organise, implement and report a study

tour for 9 officers based in the NARDTC, Sagana, Kenya; xiii. Prepare written report on the Study Tour to be given to Participants before departure; xiv. Prepare the Draft Final Technical Report (DFTR) and submit it to the ACP Fish II Programme, LVFO

Secretariat and NARDTC Management; xv. Prepare and submit the Final Technical Report (FTR) incorporating inputs on the draft.

The Consultant will make all the logistical arrangements (subcontracting is allowed) to organise the Study Tour (including invite participants, arrange travel, book and pay for flights and vehicles for participants as necessary, provision of interpretation services English/French, as necessary). The indicative number of participants in the Study Tour is 9 for an expected duration of 5 full days. Participants will be identified by the beneficiary FAs, Research Institutes and LVFO Secretariat in collaboration with the RFU-EA and the Consultant. On approval of the Final Technical Report, the Consultant will be in charge of the translation of the Executive Summary of the Draft and Final Technical Report into French.

4.2.2 Communication and project visibility a) ACP Fish II projects should follow the EU requirements and guidelines for communication and visibility

available on the Programme website at: http://acpfish2-eu.org/index.php?page=templates&hl=en

b) The CU will provide ACP Fish II templates for various communication products.

c) When validation workshops (where technical documents are presented to stakeholders for validation) are needed, given their importance for disseminating the results of the project and ACP Fish II Programme, the following activities will be requested:

1) The Consultant will provide all necessary information in press-release style (“information note”) on the project objectives and results, the activities to undertake, the main axes or strategic goals proposed and the future role of the beneficiaries.

2) The concerned Fisheries Administrations/Regional Fishery Bodies/Regional Economic Communities will receive the information note at least 3 days before the workshop, through their Government communication/press bodies or officials, in order to mobilise local media and to assure full coverage of the event. Financial support to media coverage is included in the “Incidental Expenditure”. Receipt(s) of the incurred cost for media coverage will be required to verify the costs incurred.

http://acpfish2-eu.org/index.php?page=templates&hl=en



d) The Consultant will provide photographic record of the project activities including the workshop, as well as visibility materials such as T-shirts.

4.3 Project management 4.3.1 Responsible body The Coordination Unit (CU) of the ACP Fish II Programme, based in Brussels, on behalf of the ACP Secretariat is responsible for managing the implementation of this assignment.

4.3.2 Management structure The ACP Fish II Programme is implemented through the CU in Brussels and six Regional Facilitation Units (RFUs) across the ACP countries. The RFU in Kampala, Uganda, covering ACP member countries in Eastern Africa, will closely supervise the implementation of this intervention and equally monitor its execution pursuant to these Terms of Reference. For the purposes of this assignment, the ACP Fish II Programme Coordinator will act as the Project Manager. All contractual communications including requests for contract modifications or changes to the Terms of Reference during the execution period of the contract must be addressed with a formal request to the CU and copied to the RFU. Beneficiary’s support for these changes is required.

4.3.3 Facilities to be provided by the Contracting Authority and/or other parties Not applicable.

5. LOGISTICS AND TIMING 5.1 Location The place of posting for this contract will be the NARDTC in Sagana, Kenya.

5.2 Commencement date & Period of implementation The intended commencement date of this assignment is 15th February 2012, and the period of implementation of field activities will be 3.5 months from the date of signing of the contract. Please refer to Articles 4 and 5 of the Special Conditions for the actual commencement date and period of implementation.

6. REQUIREMENTS 6.1 Personnel 6.1.1 Key Experts All experts who have a crucial role in implementing this assignment are referred to as key experts. Their profiles are described as follows:

Key Expert 1: Aquaculture Research Specialist

Qualifications and skills

Postgraduate degree, or equivalent experience, in aquaculture, fisheries, biology (e.g., ecology, natural resource management, or any other related field);

High proficiency in spoken and written English; knowledge of French will be an advantage.



General professional experience

Minimum 8 years experience in freshwater aquaculture or fisheries research;

Proven report writing and communication skills.

Specific professional experience

Experience in conducting research in the freshwater aquaculture or inland fisheries sector (minimum 5 assignments);

Proven training and facilitation skills (minimum 3 assignments);

Demonstrated relevant experience in the Eastern African region (minimum 2 assignments);

Experience in carrying out consultancies for EU or other international development agencies (1 assignment).

The indicative number of missions for this expert outside the normal place of posting requiring overnights is 0. There will be in-country field visits for this expert.

Indicative number of working days by expert and task

No. Indicative Task Key Expert 1 (Days)

1 Briefing by ACP Fish II and NARDTC Management 1

2 Documentary review and preparatory work 4

3 Facilitate and report Study Tour, Sagana, Kenya 6

4 Reporting (IR, DFTR and FTR) 2

Total 13

Additional information

a) Key Experts are expected to spend at least 90% of the total indicative number of working days in the country concerned.

b) Note that civil servants and other staff of the public administration of the beneficiary country cannot be recruited as experts, unless prior written approval has been obtained from the European Commission.

c) The Consultant must complete a timesheet using the ACP Fish II template provided by the CU at the start of the implementation period. The Consultant is entitled to work a maximum of 6 days per week. Mobilisation and demobilisation days will not be considered as working days.

6.1.2 Other experts The Consultant may hire, for a period not exceeding 6 days, the services of a Fisheries Specialist, to support the KE in the collection of information and documentation and to facilitate field visits and participatory learning of the participants in the Study Tour. This expert will have the following profile:

Qualifications and skills

Degree in fisheries, aquaculture, natural resource management or related subject;

Fluent in written and spoken English; knowledge of French or Swahili will be an advantage.



General professional experience

At least 3 years experience in supporting the development and implementation of inland fisheries or aquaculture projects.

Specific professional experience

Experience in the fisheries and aquaculture sector in Eastern Africa and particularly Kenya will be an advantage.

The CV of this expert is not examined prior to signing of the contract. It should not have been included in tenders. The Consultant shall select and hire the other expert as required according to the profile identified in these Terms of Reference. It must indicate clearly which profile they have so it is clear which fee rate in the budget breakdown will apply. This expert must be independent and free from conflicts of interest in the responsibilities accorded to him/her. The selection procedures used by the Consultant to select this other expert shall be transparent, and shall be based on pre-defined criteria, including professional qualifications, language skills and work experience. The findings of the selection panel shall be recorded. The selected expert shall be subject to approval by the Contracting Authority. Note that civil servants and other staff of the public administration of the beneficiary country cannot be recruited as experts, unless prior written approval has been obtained from the European Commission. 6.1.3 Support staff and backstopping Backstopping and support staff costs are considered to be included in the fee rates of the experts.

6.2 Office accommodation Office accommodation of a reasonable standard and of approximately 10 square metres for each expert working on the contract is to be provided by the Consultant. The costs of the office accommodation are to be covered by the fee rates of the experts.

6.3 Facilities to be provided by the Consultant The Consultant shall ensure that experts are adequately supported and equipped (transport, laptop, printing services, internet and appropriate communication tools). In particular it shall ensure that there is sufficient administrative, secretarial and interpreting provision to enable experts to concentrate on their primary responsibilities. It must also transfer funds as necessary to support its activities under the assignment and to ensure that its employees are paid regularly and in a timely fashion. If the Consultant is a consortium, the arrangements should allow for the maximum flexibility in project implementation. Arrangements offering each consortium member a fixed percentage of the work to be undertaken under the contract should be avoided.

6.4 Equipment No equipment is to be purchased on behalf of the Contracting Authority or beneficiary country as part of this service contract or transferred to the Contracting Authority or beneficiary country at the end of the contract. Any equipment related to this contract which is to be acquired by the beneficiary country must be purchased by means of a separate supply tender procedure.



6.5 Incidental expenditure

The Provision for incidental expenditure covers the ancillary and exceptional eligible expenditure incurred under this contract. It cannot be used for costs which should be covered by the Consultant as part of its fee rates, as specified above. Its use is governed by the provisions in the General Conditions and the notes in Annex V of the contract. It covers:

a) KEY EXPERTS

Travel costs for field visits for the Key Experts (car or boat rental, fuel and domestic flights or other appropriate means of transport).

Any subsistence allowances to be paid for missions undertaken as part of this contract must not exceed the per diem rates published on the European Union (EU) website at: http://ec.europa.eu/europeaid/work/procedures/implementation/per_diems/index_en.htm

b) WORKSHOP/TRAINING/CONSULTATIONS ORGANISATION

The cost of organisation of the National Consultations and Regional Validation Workshop including cost for venue, communication and media activities, transport (domestic travel or car or boat rental to/from);

The payment of a lump sum to participants requiring an overnight stay to cover accommodation and meals. This lump sum payment will be up to EUR 150 and must not exceed the published EU per diem rate for the country;

The payment of a lump sum, up to 30% of the published EU per diem rate for the country, to all participants not requiring an overnight stay, to cover the cost of transport and meals;

In the two cases above, an attendance list signed by each participant and a separate list stating that the lump sum was received (with an indication of the amount) shall be used to justify the expenditure.

c) FUNDING OF NATIONAL/REGIONAL ADMINISTRATION OFFICERS ACCOMPANYING KEY EXPERTS ON MISSIONS

Exceptionally, the cost of flights, accommodation and meals for the representatives of FAs, BMU Networks, RFBs or RECs accompanying the Key Experts on regional or national missions or in-country field visits, under the following conditions:

i) Request of a prior approval to the CU, attaching to this request the declaration issued by local FAs, RFBs or RECs stating that the cost of this extra activity for their officers cannot be covered given the internal budget restrictions. The administration should acknowledge, despite this, the need of the attendance of its officer for an effective project implementation.

ii) The total cost for accommodation and meals based on actual cost (invoices to be provided) cannot exceed the EU per diem rate for the country.

iii) If private or administration’s means of transport are used by the representatives of FAs, RFBs or RECs accompanying the Key Experts on regional or national missions, fuel cost will be reimbursed upon receipt of the officer’s reimbursement request based on distance travelled and local price for fuel per unit. In case of field visits, not requiring overnights, the same procedures apply for meal and transport costs.

http://ec.europa.eu/europeaid/work/procedures/implementation/per_diems/index_en.htm



d) TRANSLATION

The cost of translation of the Executive Summary of the Draft and Final Technical Report from English into French.

e) OTHER

The cost of producing communication items, printing charts, maps and other technical documents outside normal editing formats to be used in consultations and workshops.

The cost of sending the Final Technical Report to beneficiary countries.

The Provision for incidental expenditure for this contract is EUR 26 000. This amount must be included without modification in the Budget breakdown.

6.6 Expenditure verification The Provision for expenditure verification relates to the fees of the auditor who has been charged with the expenditure verification of this contract in order to proceed with the payment of further pre-financing instalments if any and/or interim payments if any. The Provision for expenditure verification for this contract is EUR 1 000. This amount must be included without modification in the Budget breakdown. This provision cannot be decreased but can be increased during the execution of the contract.

7. REPORTS 7.1 Reporting requirements Please refer to Article 26 of the General Conditions. There must be a final report, a final invoice and the financial report accompanied by an expenditure verification report at the end of the period of implementation of the tasks. The approved Final Technical Report (FTR) must be annexed to the Final Report (FR). The final report must be submitted to the CU after receiving the approval of the Final Technical Report (FTR). The Final Report (FR) shall consist of a narrative section and a financial section. The financial section must contain details of the time inputs of the experts, of the incidental expenditure and of the provision for expenditure verification. To summarise, the Consultant shall provide the following reports:

Title of Report Content Time of Submission

Inception Report (IR) Maximum 10 pages in length including analysis of existing situation, proposed methodology, calendar of activities, work plan, places to visit in the Study Tour and learning objectives, and outline of content of Final Technical Report (FTR).

No later than 5 days after the first expert arriving in the place of posting for the first time. Comments, if any, on the IR must be provided by the CU/RFU, LVFO and NARDTC within 3 days from receipt.

Draft Final Technical Report (DFTR)

Description of achievements, problems encountered recommendations and Study Tour report. The report should be prepared in English.

Within one week of the experts leaving the country on conclusion of the assignment. Comments on the DFTR, if any, must be provided by the CU/RFU, LVFO and NARDTC within 14 days.

Final Technical The DFTR taking into account changes and Within 10 days after receiving comments on



Title of Report Content Time of Submission

Report (FTR) comments from the CU/RFU, LVFO and NARDTC.

the DFTR. If no comments on the report are given within the time limit of 14 days, the DFTR shall be considered as the FTR.

Final Report (FR) Short description of achievements including problems encountered, recommendations and suggestions together with the FTR and a final invoice and the financial report accompanied by the expenditure verification report.

Within 1 month of receiving the approval of the FTR.

The formats of technical reports are available on the ACP Fish II website at:


7.2 Submission and approval of reports One electronic copy of the reports referred to above must be submitted to the Project Manager identified in the contract (CU), RFU and beneficiary FAs. Two hard copies of the approved Final Technical Report must be submitted to the Project Manager identified in the contract (CU), one hard copy to the RFU. The original and a hard copy of the Final Report (FR) must be submitted to the CU together with its annexes and supporting documents. All reports must be written in English. The Project Manager is responsible for approving the reports. The cost of producing such material will be included in the fees.

8. REPORTS 8.1 Definition of indicators The results to be achieved by the Consultant are included in Section 2.3 above. Progress to achieving these results will be measured through the following indicators:

i. Quality of experts fielded (in terms of demonstrated skills and experience); ii. Quality of the technical outputs; iii. Quality and timeliness of backstopping support from head office of the Consultancy Company; iv. Degree of satisfaction of target groups in the conduct of activities; v. Respect of project milestones with regard to timeframe and report delivery. vi. Nature and quality of evaluation reports from participants.

The Consultant may suggest additional monitoring tools for the contract duration.

8.2 Special requirements Not applicable.




8.2 Annex 2: Agenda of the study tour

The study tour was held from 27th to 31st of May 2013 in NARDTC facilities in Sagana, Kenya Table 5 – Agenda of the study tour

DAY 1

AM Introduction to the Training

Overview of Status, Potential and Challenges of Aquaculture in Africa

Country presentations on Status, Potential and Challenges of Aquaculture in Africa

Need for Knowledge-based and Innovation-based Aquaculture Development

Major Areas of Research in Aquaculture

Country presentations on aquaculture research activities

PM Guided tour of the NARDTC

DAY 2

AM The Research Process Basic Statistics

Official Opening

PM Field visit: Green Algae Highland Fish Farm in Sagana

DAY 3

AM Design of Experiments Data Collection & Analysis

PM Presentation of Research Results Ethics in Research

DAY 4

AM/PM Field visits Mbogo Fish Farm in Embu Mwea Aquafish Farm in Mwea

DAY 5

AM/PM Field visits Thamaru Farm in Kandara Kirathe farm,/Samaki Tu Ltd in Juja JASA Fish Farm in Thika

Workshop Evaluation and Follow-up

8.3 Annex 3: Inception report

The Inception Report is attached separately.

8.4 Annex 3: Itinerary

Table 6 – Itinerary of the KE

Days AM PM

MISSION 1

Sunday 14th April Depart to Kenya

Monday 15th April Consultations Documentary review



Tuesday 16th April Documentary review Documentary review

Wednesday17th April Site visits Briefing

Thursday18th April Site visits Inception Report

Friday19th April Inception Report Prepare study tour materials

Saturday 20th April Prepare study tour materials Prepare study tour materials

Sunday 21st April Depart for Tanzania

MISSION 2

Sunday 26th May Depart to Kenya

Monday 27th May Study Tour Study Tour

Tuesday 28th May Study Tour Study Tour

Wednesday 29th May Study Tour Study Tour

Thursday 30th May Study Tour Study Tour

Friday31st May Study Tour Study Tour

Saturday 1st June Reporting Reporting

Sunday 2nd June Depart for Tanzania

8.5 Annex 5: List of people met

Table 7 – List of stakeholders met by KE

No. Name Position Contact

1 Dr Harrison Charo Acting Director, NARDTC +254725555143 [email protected]

2 Dr Jonathan Munguti Head of Research Division, NARDTC +254722622732 [email protected]

3 Mr Sammy K. Macharia Ag. Assist. Director, Directorate of Aquaculture

+254724681954 [email protected]

4 Mr Paul Orina Researcher, NARDTC +255710774477 [email protected]

5 Ms Mary Opiyo Researcher, NARDTC +254721782665 [email protected]

6 Mr Bethuel O. Omolo Asst. Director, MoFD (NARDTC) +254722619909 [email protected]

7 Ms HellenOsore Administrative staff, NARDTC +254720737333 [email protected]

8 Mr William Kiama J. Njaremwe

Managing Director, Green Algae Highland (Fish farm)


9 Mr Jeremia Kiama Manager, Green Algae Highland (Fish farm)


10 Ms Cecily Farm attendant +254726165127 [email protected] www.mweafish.com

10 Mr Raphael Mbaluka Principal Fisheries Officer, MoFD +254721285751 [email protected]

11 Mr Otieno Okello Aquaculture Technologies Ltd +254712047940 [email protected] www.aqua-tech.com



8.6 Annex 6: List of reports and documents consulted

FAO State of Fisheries and Aquaculture 2012; Regional Review on Status and Trends in Aquaculture Development in Sub-Saharan Africa – 2010; Kenya fisheries bulletins; Report submitted by ACP Fish II Focal Point for Burundi; Report submitted by ACP Fish II Focal Point for South Sudan; Proceeding for the Final Regional Workshop of the TCP/RAF/3102(A) Support to the Aquaculture in the

Riparian Countries around Lake Victoria Project Hotel Africana, Kampala Uganda 12th to 13th May 2009; Study on Promoting Commercial Aquaculture in Uganda (Final Report by EU Delegation in Uganda); Progress Report for Aquaculture Research and Development for the Lake Victoria Basin Project; A framework for Aquaculture Research under the CGIAR; FAO-NACA consultation on aquaculture for sustainable rural development; Aquaculture's unrealised potential: an ASARECA funded partnership learning programme for the fisheries

sector; Aquaculture development and research in sub-Saharan Africa; FAO Synthesis of national reviews and indicative action plan for research; Emerging research priorities for the aquaculture sector in sub-Saharan Africa -a case study of Nigeria; Proceeding for the Final Regional Workshop of the TCP/RAF/3102(A) Support to the Aquaculture in the

Riparian Countries around Lake Victoria Project.

8.7 Annex 7: Photographs of project, key activities and events

Picture 1 - Welcoming remarks by Dr H. Charo, Acting Director of the NARDTC, Sagana



Picture 2 - Dignitaries who attended the opening ceremony Opening remarks by Mr Patrick Osare (Director of Administration at the Ministry of Fisheries Development) on behalf of the Permanent Secretary

Picture 3 - Group photo of participants and invited guests



Picture 4 - Group 1 discussing a suitable experiment design for evaluating growth performance of Nile tilapia in Juba

Picture 5 - Group 2 discussion a suitable design for evaluating three commercially available fish feeds in Kenya



Picture 6 - A cap and bag provided to the study tour participants

Picture 7 - Participants listening attentively to Mr Kiama, owner of the Highland Green Algae Fish Farm in Sagana



Picture 8 - Variety of ornamental fish breed at the Highland Green Algae Fish Farm in Sagana

Picture 9 - Mr MUREKAMBANZE (extreme right) from Burundi practicing fish tagging using floy tags at NARDTC



Picture 10 - Ms KYULE from Kenya demonstrating fish smoking kiln for value addition at NARDTC

Picture 11 - Ms KYULE from Kenya demonstrating fish dryer which keeps away bow flies at NARDTC



Picture 12 - Participants admiring lined pond at Mr Mbogo’s household in Embu

Picture 13 - Participants observing feeding caged fish at Mwea Aquafish Farm in Mwea



Picture 14 - Happy and healthy fish in a lined pond at Mwea Aquafish Farm in Mwea

Picture 15 - Participants enjoying a farm lunch with fresh caught pond tilapia at Mwea Aquafish Farm in Mwea



Picture 16 – Participants pose with Mr Tony owner of Thamuru farm in front of a paddle wheel aerated fish pond

Picture 17 – One of the participants giving a vote of thanks at Thamaru Farm in Kandara



Picture 18 - Participants admiring catfish nursery tanks in recirculation system at JASA Fish Farm in Thika

Picture 19 - Participants admiring catfish ready for market at JASA Fish Farm in Thika



Picture 20 - Indoor recirculation system for tilapia fingerling production at Kirathe Fish Farm in Juja



8.8 Annex 8: Technical outputs

8.8.1 Annex 8A: Presentation about ACP Fish II Programme and the study tour

The Power Point presentation is attached separately.

8.8.2 Annex 8B: Presentations on status and challenges of aquaculture

The Power Point presentations are attached separately. The presentation on Africa was done by the experts on the assignment while the presentations on countries were made by participants from the countries:

Africa; Burundi; Ethiopia; Rwanda; South Sudan.



8.8.3 Annex 8C: Opening speech

SPEECH BY THE PERMANENT SECRETARY, MINISTRY OF FISHERIES DEVELOPMENT, PROF. MICHENI, JAPHET NTIBA, CBS, DURING THE AQUACULTURE TRAINING SESSION FOR OFFICERS FROM BURUNDI, ETHIOPIA, RWANDA, AND SOUTH SUDAN, AT SAGANA, 27th-31th MAY 2013. Fisheries/Aquaculture Development Officers from the East African Region, Director-National Aquaculture Research, Development and Training Centre, Staff from the State Department of Fisheries, Invited guests and other stakeholders. Ladies and Gentlemen, I am pleased to join you today during the Official Launch of the Aquaculture Training Session for Officers drawn from the East African Region in Sagana. It is an important day because this training session has come when Kenya is busy sensitizing its people on the need to become disciples of fish farming. Kenyans are being told that fish farming is an enterprise which can be used as a vehicle to develop our country, create wealth and employ our people. Ladies and Gentlemen, As you may have been told, the Government injected KES 5 686 billion between 2009 and 2013 Financial Years, to implement the Fish Farming Enterprise and Productivity Economic Stimulus Programme in the entire country. This programme is now one of the Vision 2030 flagship projects being implemented by the Government in order to ensure food security, create wealth and employment. Under the programme, the Government was able to sensitize all implementing officers and stakeholders on fish farming practises, conducted a national aquaculture suitability appraisal, developed suitability maps for the 210 Constituencies, developed a fish breeding programme with a holding capacity of over 200 000 brood-stock, and developed fish feed specifications and supply chain. The Government also constructed over 46 824 fish ponds in 160 Constituencies country-wide, catalysed the construction of over 50 000 other ponds under the multiplier effect by farmers and investors, stocked them with over 100 million fingerlings, increased the area under aquaculture from 722 ha to 14 076 ha and increased national aquaculture production from 4 220 t to 23 137 t (which is about 9% of the national fish production, overtaking our marine fish production which stands at 4% of the national fish production).



The aquaculture programme also produced a critical mass of well trained public and private-sector-based pond constructors who are now earning a living as pond construction technicians country-wide. The use of Low Density Polyethylene liner sheets has also become big business. The culture of fishes in green houses, recirculation and flow through systems is also being adopted by farmers across the country in order to enhance faster growth rates in the pond systems. Also, within the aquaculture value-chain, the Government has created direct employment for over 100 000 fish farmers, short-term employment for over 1 000 000 youths and indirect employment for over 500 000 other Kenyans. The market value for these aquaculture products is estimated at KES 6 billion currently from 1 billion in 2009. It is projected that aquaculture production will increase to over 50 000 t in the short term to over 100 000 t in the medium and long terms. If all these projections are attained as planned, the market value for aquaculture products in the medium term is estimated rise to over KES 30 billion per year. Ladies and Gentlemen, Turning to today’s function here at the National Research, Development and Training Centre, I wish to congratulate my officers who have worked tirelessly to ensure that this international training session on aquaculture is successful. I also wish to thank the European Union for availing funds for this exercise and COFRECHE for implementing this project. I have also noted that officers have been drawn from public institutions in Burundi, Kenya, Rwanda, and South Sudan.

As you may be aware, these countries are endowed with numerous freshwater bodies including lakes such as Victoria, the Nile, the world’s longest river, and its tributaries, as well as swamps and other wetlands including the Sudd in South Sudan, the largest wetland in Africa averaging over 30 000 km2) all of which support significant fishery resources. Kenya is ready and willing to show leadership in transforming the region into a fish farming and fish eating region. We are willing to share our expertise on aquaculture which has been harnessed during the implementation of the Fish Farming Economic Stimulus Programme. The starting point for the governments of these countries is to put heavy investments in policy and institutional frameworks, pond development, hatchery and fish feed infrastructure, conduct need-driven research and engage the private sector to drive the process thereafter. Ladies and Gentlemen, There is no other trick for all you see happening in Kenya. It is just hard work done by very passionate public and private sector operatives who have invested a lot of their time on the subject matter without ever blinking their eyes or looking backwards. It has been a classic example of “forwards ever backwards never”. When you go back to your countries, provide leadership and you will become transformers of the fisheries sectors in your country.

Ladies and Gentlemen, With these few remarks, it is now my pleasure to officially open the Aquaculture Training Session for officers drawn from the East African Region at the National Aquaculture Research, Development and Training Centre, Sagana. Thank You.



8.8.4 Annex 8D: Press release & communication

Sagana, 27th May 2013

ACP FISH II – STRENGTHENING FISHERIES MANAGEMENT IN ACP STATES

Study Tour of Fisheries Officers and Aquaculture Research Officers from Burundi, Ethiopia, Rwanda and South Sudan at the National Aquaculture Research Development and Training Centre (NARDTC), Sagana, Kenya from the

27th until 31st of May 2013

In recent years aquaculture has become the fastest growing food-producing sector globally hence becoming an increasingly important contributor to economic development, food supply and food security. Despite the huge potential existing in Africa in terms of water resources, aquaculture production has been low contributing only 2.2% of total global production in 2010. The contribution of Sub-Saharan Africa is even lower standing at 0.60%. The slow growth of aquaculture is attributed to a number of factors including inadequate capacity to undertake research which will provide solutions to constraints facing fish farmers. However, following successes of fish farming enterprises in Nigeria, Ghana, Uganda and Kenya, aquaculture development in Africa is shifting from subsistence to commercial. This demands research based innovations which will ensure profitability and sustainability of such ventures. Hence, capacity building of research infrastructure and manpower is essential. Moreover, promotion of good practices in aquaculture and fisheries research parallel with technology transfer is crucial to ensure an efficient management of the sector across the continent. Furthermore, enhancing synergies at national and regional levels will avoid duplication of research efforts thus saving resources. The ACP Fish II Programme is EUR 30.0 million programme funded by the European Union through the European Development Fund (EDF). It has been formulated to strengthen fisheries management, improve food security and alleviate poverty in 78 African, Caribbean and Pacific (ACP) states. The ACP Fish II Programme has therefore assigned COFREPECHE to facilitate a 5-day study tour of fisheries and aquaculture research officers aimed to “strengthen the capacity of fisheries and aquaculture research institutions to fulfill their mandate in fisheries management”. The study tour will take place at National Aquaculture Research, Development and Training Centre (NARDTC) in Sagana, Kenya, where commercial aquaculture is well established. A total of nine (9) participants will be drawn from Burundi, Ethiopia, Rwanda, South Sudan and Lake Victoria Fisheries Organisation (LVFO). It is anticipated that at the end of the tour, participants will have:

Increased knowledge and exchange of information on aquaculture research in the region;

Shared good practices in fisheries and aquaculture research in the region. The ACP Fish II programme invites the media to participate to the opening session of the five-day study tour which will be held on the 27th of May 2013 at NARDTC at 9am. During the tour, the participants will share information regarding potential, status and challenges facing aquaculture production and research activities in their respective countries as well as good practices. The participants will also receive theoretical and practical sessions on aquaculture search methodologies. The two activities will be complemented with field visits to a number of commercial aquaculture farms in Kenya.

-END-



Full coverage is welcomed. For more information contact person: Mr Timothy ODENDE, ACP Fish II Focal Point for Kenya; e-mail: [email protected] and Dr Harrison CHARO, Head of NARDTC; e-mail: [email protected], Telephone: +254 (0) 725 555143 For further information on the ACP Fish II Programme, please visit: http://www.acpfish2-eu.org. ACP Fish II Programme Regional Manager for the Eastern Africa Region: Mr Koane MINDJIMBA based in Kampala, Uganda; e-mail: [email protected]; Telephone: +256 (0) 414 251640.

This project is funded by the European Union The European Commission is the EU’s executive body. “The European Union is made up of 27 Member States who have decided to gradually link together their know-how, resources and destinies. Together, during a period of enlargement of 50 years, they have built a zone of stability, democracy and sustainable development whilst maintaining cultural diversity, tolerance and individual freedoms. The European Union is committed to sharing its achievements and its values with countries and peoples beyond its borders”. Article published in Daily Nation on the 11th of June 2013



8.8.5 Annex 8E: Summary of workshop evaluation by the participants

Evaluation criteria Excellent (4)

Good (3)

Satisfactory (2)

Fair (1)

Total

Overall assessment of the course 5 3 8

Definition of course objectives 7 1

Clarity of presentations 7 1

Balance between presentations /practice 4 4

Facilitation by the trainer 1 (Nazael MADALLA) 7 1

Facilitation by the trainer 2 (Sammy MACHARIA) 6 2

Interest generated by the sessions 4 4

Transposition of the topic in your work 3 5

Have your expectations been met? 4 4

Duration of the workshop 2 5 1

General Organisation (registration, conference room, etc.).

2 4 1 7

Training center facilities (rooms, kitchen, conference room, etc.).

2 4 1 7

Specific sessions evaluation

Modules/Activities

Day 1 Overview & Introduction to the training 5 5

Country presentation 7 7

Day 2 The Research Process Basic Statistics

5 3 8

Field visit to Green Algae Highland Fish Farm in Sagana

8 8

Day 3 Design of Experiments Data Collection &Analysis

1 7 8

Presenting Research Results Ethics in Research

4 2 1 8

Day 4 Field visit to Mbogo farm in Embu 3 4 1 8

Field visit to Mwea AquafishFarm in Wang’uru

7 1 8

Day 5 Field visit to Kirathe farm in Thika 3 5 8

Field visit to Thamaru farm in Kandara 7 1 8

Field visit to JASA Fish farm in Thika 2 6 8

Total 96 71 9 1 177

Percent 54 40 5 1 100

Comments and suggestion for improvements:

Include a visit to shops selling aquaculture equipment;



Course contents and field visits were very relevant and informative; include extension officers and farmers in future;

The tour was good but I expected to have practiced on how to fill a questionnaire, enter data and its analysis;

Duration of the workshop be extended to cover more and diverse areas;

The tour was relevant and expectation realized but it will be better to include investors from our countries next time. We did not have internet for communication;

The centre should provide internet;

Duration was short to get practical and essentials of basic statistics. Transport arrangement should be improved to avoid length waits at the airport.



8.8.6 Annex 8F: Study tour material

1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................................ 55

1.1 RESEARCH IN AQUACULTURE ................................................................................................................... 55

2 RESEARCH PROCESS ................................................................................................................................. 55

2.1 DEFINITION OF RESEARCH ........................................................................................................................ 55 2.2 CATEGORIES OF RESEARCH ..................................................................................................................... 55

2.2.1 Descriptive research .............................................................................................................. 55 2.2.2 Experimental research ........................................................................................................... 55

2.3 RESEARCH PROCESS ............................................................................................................................... 56 2.3.1 Research problem ................................................................................................................. 56

2.4 HYPOTHESIS ........................................................................................................................................... 58

3 BASIC STATISTICS ...................................................................................................................................... 58

3.1 MEAN ..................................................................................................................................................... 59 3.2 VARIANCE ............................................................................................................................................... 60 3.3 STANDARD ERROR ................................................................................................................................... 60 3.4 CONFIDENCE INTERVALS .......................................................................................................................... 61

4 DESIGN OF EXPERIMENTS ......................................................................................................................... 62

4.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................................ 62 4.2 PRINCIPLES OF EXPERIMENTATION ............................................................................................................ 63

4.2.1 Randomization ....................................................................................................................... 64 4.2.2 Replication ............................................................................................................................. 64 4.2.3 Local control .......................................................................................................................... 65

4.3 EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN ........................................................................................................................... 65 4.3.1 Completely randomised design (CRD) .................................................................................. 66 4.3.2 Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) ....................................................................... 67 4.3.3 Factorial Design ..................................................................................................................... 69

5 DATA COLLECTION ..................................................................................................................................... 70

5.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................................ 70 5.2 WHAT SHOULD BE MEASURED .................................................................................................................. 70 5.3 HOW SHOULD BE MEASURED .................................................................................................................... 70 5.4 FREQUENCY OF MEASUREMENT ............................................................................................................... 70

6 DATA ANALYSIS .......................................................................................................................................... 70

6.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................................ 71 6.2 DATA PROCESSING .................................................................................................................................. 71 6.3 COMPARISONS ........................................................................................................................................ 71

7 PRESENTATION OF RESEARCH RESULTS............................................................................................... 72

7.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................................ 72 7.1.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 72 7.1.2 Methodology/ Materials and Methods .................................................................................... 72 7.1.3 Results ................................................................................................................................... 73 7.1.4 Discussion ............................................................................................................................. 73 7.1.5 References ............................................................................................................................ 73



8 ETHICS IN RESEARCH ................................................................................................................................. 73

8.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................................ 73 8.2 ETHICAL PRINCIPLES ............................................................................................................................... 74

9 BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................................................................................................................................ 75



1 Introduction Overall Learning Objective: to understand importance of research in development of aquaculture

Specific Learning Objectives: to be able to identify challenges facing aquaculture within the country of origin

1.1 Research in Aquaculture

In recent decades aquaculture has been one of the fastest growing food production sectors. The growth has been partly encouraged by the need to augment dwindling fish catch from natural waters. This has resulted in a number of challenges such as:

environmental problems;

threat to indigenous species due to introduction of new aquaculture species;

need to develop breeding, nursing and culture techniques for aquaculture species;

disease outbreaks due to trans-boundary movement of aquatic species and intensification of culture

systems;

need for cost-effective feeds from locally available ingredients to replace expensive ingredients;

need for socio-economic studies on viability, technology transfer and participatory on-farm trials;

need to ensure food safety and quality.

Addressing these challenges requires development of technological innovations which are usually established through research. It is therefore important to have sufficient knowledge and skills on how to undertake research. This is even more critical in developing countries where funds for research are limited hence necessitating a need to have well focused and cost effective research activities.

2 Research Process Overall Learning Objective: to understand the research process and able to develop a concept note

Specific Learning Objectives: to be able to identify a practical problem in aquaculture and develop into a researchable subject

2.1 Definition of research

Research refers to systematic methods of stating a problem, formulating a hypothesis, collecting data, analysing the data and drawing a conclusion towards solving the problem. In so doing, research contributes to the existing body of knowledge and its advancement.

2.2 Categories of research

Research can be grouped in two major categories as follows:

2.2.1 Descriptive research

Descriptive research describes data and characteristics about the population or phenomenon being studied. Descriptive research answers the questions who, what, where, when and how. The methods involved range from the survey which describes the status quo, the correlation study which investigates the relationship between variables, to developmental studies which seek to determine changes over time. The purpose of descriptive research is description of the state of affairs as it exists at the moment. The main characteristic of this type of research is that the researcher has no control over the variables and can only report what has happened or what is happening.

2.2.2 Experimental research

Experimental research involves deliberate manipulation of certain factors under highly controlled conditions. Experimental research adhere to scientific method i.e. replication, randomization and local control. The purpose is to identify causal connections through keeping the levels of some variables constant and manipulating others. This type of research involves introduction of a treatment, use of a control group for comparing subjects who do



not receive treatment with those who do and judging differences between units treated differently in the light of observed variation in units treated alike.

2.3 Research process

The research process consists of the following main stages

identification problem

formulating hypothesis

designing research

collection of data

Processing of data

analysis of data

generalization to reach a conclusion

The process is cyclic in nature and often end of one cycle begins another cycle. This cyclic process continues indefinitely reflecting the progress of scientific discipline.

Figure 1 - The research process Source: Mkoma, S. L. et al., (2009)

2.3.1 Research problem

A research problem is difficulty which a researcher experiences in the context of either a theoretical or practical situation and wants to obtain a solution for the problem in terms of a scientific inquiry. Some sources of a research problem are: personal observation, imagination, mass media, literature or previous research reports.

Problem identification

For a research to be done, the research problem must be researchable. A researchable problem must meet at least the following three conditions:

1. There should be a gap between what is known and what should be known



2. The reasons for this difference should be unclear so that it makes sense to develop a research question

3. There should be more than one possible answer to the question or solution to the problem. If there is

only one possible answer and it is known, there is no need to do a research on the problem since that

would be duplication of knowledge.

Besides being researchable, research problems should: 1. Be relevant to the needs of a society and the theme of research

2. Not duplicate previous researches; they should rather complement or advance them

3. Feasible with regard to financial, time and manpower resources available for the research

4. Applicable, that is they should have useful results

5. Abide by research ethics and be sensitive to culture.

Statement of the problem

A problem should be stated precisely in one or two sentences and clarified in a few more sentences. Problem definition is important in research because it:

enables the researchers to clarify the problem and the possible factors that it may be contributing;

facilitates decisions concerning the focus and scope of the research;

enables the researcher to pool the knowledge of the problem from literature.

Problem justification/significance

After defining a problem a researcher should reconsider the focus and scope of the research. In order to justify a research problem, the following things need to be considered:

• Avoiding duplication of information. What is known (e.g. by local people and other researchers) about the

problem and what has been done to solve the problem are stated. Then, a statement of what remains to

be done should be given.

• Usefulness of the research results. The importance of the research should be stated and how the research

results will help to improve the previous situation.

• Linkage of the problem with existing policies. The problem should be linked to relevant national and

international policies, e.g. sectoral policies and millennium development goals.

• Timeliness of the problem. The problem should be current and various pertinent stakeholders should be

identified.

• Feasibility. The researcher should ask him/herself if it is possible to analyze all the factors related to the

problem within the time and other resources available, e.g. funds and manpower.

Research objectives

Research objective is a purpose or aim for undertaking a particular study. The objectives of a research summarise what is to be achieved in relation to the problem. Objectives are usually stated in two ways:

General objectives General objective states what is generally expected to be achieved by the study. It is advised to have only one general objective in a study so as to avoid ambiguity. The general objective should also include all or most of the key words of the title, either exactly as they appear in the title or in another form.

Specific objectives These are statements that state what will happen in the research study based on the formulated general objective. Specific objectives should reflect the research activities to be carried out and identify the groups of variables to be examined. The activities should be exhaustive to cover the general objective. However, the



objectives should not be too many. Three to five of them are enough. They should be hierarchical and chronological from the most basic to the most complex.

Research Objectives should be developed as they help the researcher to do the following:

• To focus the study (i.e. narrowing it down to essential); • To avoid collection of data that are not relevant for understanding and solving the problem

identified; • To organise the study in clearly defined parts or phases.

Basically, properly formulated objectives will facilitate the development of research methodology, data collection and analysis. In stating the objectives, a researcher should ensure that all objectives of the study:

• Are clearly stated and specifying exactly what is going to be done, where and for what purpose; • Are realistic considering local conditions; • Use action verbs that can be evaluated e.g. to determine, to compare, to verify, to calculate, to

describe, to establish and or to identify; • Avoid use of vague non-action verbs e.g. to understand, to appreciate or to study.

In overall, specific objectives should be SMART i.e. specific, measurable, achievable, relevant and timely.

2.4 Hypothesis

Hypothesis is a starting point for scientific experiment. It is an educated guess consistent with observations from “natural” system and/or existing scientific literature. It predicts how a system will respond when manipulated. The guess i.e. the hypotheses is then tested through experiments conducted under controlled conditions. When testing hypothesis, it is a norm to test a null hypothesis (Ho) rather than the hypothesis itself. If the hypothesis predicts that a particular relationship exists, the corresponding null hypothesis predicts that this relationship does not exist. After data collection and analysis, experimental results are compared to predicted hypothetical results. During data analysis a probability (P, where P = 1.0 is absolute certainty) is obtained, which equals the probability that the observed relationship or treatment differences did not just happen by chance. This probability forms the basis for accepting or rejecting null hypotheses. If the data analysis does not support the original hypothesis, further hypothesis modification may be necessary before designing more focused experiments and repeating the scientific process.

Workshop Activity Think of a practical problem in aquaculture which you or farmers have encountered and develop it into researchable problem along the following lines:

Title Research Problem

Problem identification

Statement of the problem

Justification of the problem

Objectives

General

Specific

Hypothesis

3 Basic statistics Overall Learning Objective: to review basic concepts of statistics



Specific Learning Objectives: to be able to summarise data using mean, variance, standard deviation and standard error

Undertaking research requires sound knowledge and skills of statistics. Statistical background is essential in design of experiments, correct analysis and interpretation of data, and appropriate presentation of findings.

Experiment design and data analysis are like two sides of a coin. Data analysis skills is like a toolbox while experiment design is like the knowledge of how, when and where these tools should be used for maximum efficient and utility. Mastery of the two is important for a researcher

- It provides analytical skills for effective testing of hypotheses - It enables an objective measure of confidence of results and interpretations - Gives power for critical literature review to discover design flaws and enhancing existing analyses

Source: Knud-Hansen, C. F. (1997)

Statistics can be defined as a science of data collection, processing, analysis with an aim of making inferences about the collected data. It is an inductive process which attempts to understand a population based on representatives obtained through sampling and experimentation. There are two major categories of statistics:

Descriptive Statistics: deals with summarization and presentation of data using tabular, graphical and numerical methods. The most common numerical descriptive statistic is the average or mean.

Inferential Statistics: this deals with methods used to generalise particular characteristic of a population using a sample drawn from the population. In other words, data obtained from a sample is used to make estimates and test hypotheses about characteristic of a population.

Population is a collection of all distinct individuals or objects under study. It could be all tilapia cultured in a pond or all tilapia cultured in earthen ponds of similar dimension situated within tropics. It is denoted by letter . Characteristics of populations such as mean and variance are referred to as parameters (from Greek words para and metro which mean “beyond measure”. Parameters are fixed values without variability. For instance, if there 1 000 fish in a pond, there will be only one true mean weight at harvest for those 1 000 fish. For populations which are too large, indefinite or indeterminate (e.g. All Nile perch in Lake Victoria), it is both impractical and impossible to determine parameter measurements. Thus, in order to understand characteristics of a population, samples are taken from a population.

Sample is a collection of individuals which are representatives of a population. Sample size is denoted by letter . Descriptive measure of a sample such as mean and variance are called statistics. Unlike parameters, statistics can vary with each sample. In other words, sample statistics estimate population parameters. For instance, sample mean estimates the true population mean while sample variance estimates the true population variance.

3.1 Mean

Mean is calculated by adding up all of the values and then divide by the total number of values i.e.

(i)

It is the simplest and widely used measure of central tendency used in summarising data and comparing data. However it is affected by extreme values which distort the actual value of scores hence giving a wrong impression.



3.2 Variance

Variance is a measure of dispersion of individual values in relation to the mean.

Figure 2 – Variance of individual values in relation to mean Source: Field, A (2009)

It is obtained by calculating by averaging squares of the difference between each observation and their mean. In other words, it is an average error between the mean and the observations made (i.e. how well the collected sample represents the population).

(ii)

One shortcoming of the variance it gives a measure in units squared hence often a square root of the variance (which ensures that the measure of average error is in the same units as the original measure) is calculated instead. This is known as standard deviation.

(iii)

3.3 Standard error

Standard error is a measure of standard deviation of the distribution 2) for randomly picked sample of a given size (fig 1).The standard deviations of these distributions of means and variances represent their respective standard errors. In aquaculture we are often concerned with primarily with SE of the mean. Rather than taking a series of samples, SE can be calculated by dividing the standard deviation by the square root of n.

(iv)

It is important to remember that standard deviation describes variability of observations about a sample mean while and standard error describes variability of means about a sample mean. When reporting comparison of

deviations. On the other hand population variability should be reported with standard deviation.



Figure 3 - Why standard error? Source: Field, A (2009)

3.4 Confidence intervals

We have seen that sample means estimates the true mean while standard error describes variability of that estimation. This variability can be conveniently expressed in terms of probabilities by calculating confidence intervals (CI) and confidence levels (CL). Figure 4 shows a CL of 96% of 20 randomly picked samples from a particular population.



Figure 4 – A 96% CL of 20 randomly picked samples from a particular population. Note the shaded area indicate the confidence interval while open circles indicate means which do not include μ, Source: www.stat.auckland.ac.nz/~iase/publications/17/7D3_CUMM.pdf

In aquaculture experiments as with most fields of science, sample means are given with 95% confidence (P=0.95 or = 0.05) interval. The interval is calculated by multiplying SE with tabulated t value from Student’s t Table found virtually in every statistics book. The table have a column for degrees of freedom (df) which equals -1. The other columns present probability values which often range from 0.5 to 0.001.

A sampling of 25 tilapia (from a pond containing 10 000 individuals) gives a mean weight of 350g/fish and standard deviation of 75g/fish. We know that the true mean is unlikely to be exactly 350g/fish, but what is the range of means within which we can say with a certain level of confidence that the true mean falls?

df=24 (25-1), t value at P=0.05 (1-0.95)=2.064, = 15g/fish.

=(2.064)(15g/fish

=31.0g/fish

=350±31.0g/fish

=319.0 – 381.0 g/fish

Therefore, we are 95% confident that the true mean of the 10 000 catfish is somewhere between 319.0 and 381.0 g/fish. In other words, there is a probability of 0.05 (5%) that the true mean is less than 319.0 g/fish or greater than 381.0 g/fish.

Workshop Activity

Participants will be given sets of data to calculate mean, SD & SE using spreadsheet and statistical software.

4 Design of experiments Overall Learning Objective: to understand the principles of experimentation and different experimental design used in aquaculture research

Specific Learning Objectives: to be able to identify appropriate research design to be used in solving the identified problem in aquaculture.

4.1 Introduction

Designing an experiment is an important step towards obtaining appropriate data and which will enable solving the problem under investigation. The structuring of the dependent and independent variables, the choice of their levels in the experiment, the type of experimental material to be used, the method of the manipulation of the variables on the experimental material, the method of recording and tabulation of data, the mode of analysis of the material, the method of drawing sound and valid inference etc. are all intermediary details that go with the design and eventually analysis of the collected data. Experiments must be designed carefully so that observed variations are accounted by manipulations. Variation not accounted for in data analysis are referred to as noise, experimental error, or residual error (often represented by the Greek letter ε, or by R). If the noise is large, it may obscure actual significant relationships.



4.2 Principles of experimentation

Almost all experiments involve the three basic principles namely: randomization, replication and local control. These three principles are, in a way, complementary to each other in trying to increase the accuracy of the experiment and to provide a valid test of significance, retaining at the same time the distinctive features of their roles in any experiment. Before we actually go into the details of these three principles, it would be useful to understand certain generic terms in the theory experimental designs and also understand the nature of variation among observations in an experiment. Experimental Units: These are individual entities, representing a population of similar entities, each of which will receive an individual treatment. Most common experimental units in aquaculture are aquaria, tanks, hapas and ponds. Individual organisms can also be experimental units as long as they can be distinguished from one another through marking or tagging. These should be defined before conducting an experiment.

Treatments: These are manipulations of certain variables of interest resulting in considerable variation among experimental units. The manipulations/treatments are done deliberately to study their influences on experimental units. For instance, diets with different protein levels in growth trial, levels and kinds of fertilizers in pond fertilization trial. Choice of treatments is based on the hypothesis that they will (or will not) make a difference to a particular response variable(s). There are two groups of treatments:

Experimental: when experimental unit is manipulated& Control: when experimental unit kept under normal conditions

Experimental Error: these are variations due to a large number of unknown sources. These include extraneous factors related to the environment, genetic variations in the experimental units other than that due to treatments, etc. They are unavoidable and inherent in the very process of experimentation hence beyond the control of the experimenter. The term experimental errors due to their undesirable influences.

Role of Treatments

To understand the role of treatments, it is useful first to examine a system without treatments. For example, anyone who has worked with earthen ponds knows that if you have 16 tilapia ponds stocked and fertilized identically, you will have 16 different yields at harvest. This result can be expressed by the following model:

where = yield in the ith pond, = the overall mean of all ponds, and = experimental error or residual

for the ith pond.

To better understand residuals, let us assume that for these 16 ponds the overall mean for the tilapia harvest was a net fish yield (NFY) of 23.5 kg/ha/d, and ponds 3 and 7 had yields of 19.9 and 25.1 kg/ha/d, respectively. If the overall mean is thought of as the predicted value of the experiment, then the residual will be the observed value minus the predicted value. The NFY residuals for ponds 3 and 7 would then be -3.6 and +1.6 kg/ha/d, respectively.

Therefore, to improve predictability, should be decreased by identifying manageable sources of variation as

well as evaluating factors that influence these sources. For instance, Oreochromis niloticus will grow proportionally (within limits) to the rate of natural food production. The issue then becomes identifying manageable factors that influence the variability of natural food production, which in turn affects the variability of tilapia production.

More generally, treatments are selected for their hypothesized effect (or relationship) with the response variable. A far from exhaustive list of treatment possibilities for affecting tilapia yields includes stocking density, pond sediments, natural food availability, temperature, inorganic turbidity in the water column, and rates of nutrient input. Treatment effects on Y can be shown by expanding the above model (Equation 10) as follows:



Where = deviation due to treatment i. Now there are two sources of variation in the equation, the treatment

and the residual. The hypothesis tested here is that is a significant source of variation of Y.


It is further interesting to note that these errors introduced into the experimental observations by extraneous factors may be either systematic or random in their mode of incidence. The errors arising due to equipment such a spring balance which goes out of calibration due to continued use or the error due to observer’s fatigue are examples of systematic error. On the other hand, the unpredictable variation in the amount of leaves collected in litter traps under a particular treatment in a related experiment is random in nature. It is clear that any number of repeated measurements would not overcome systematic error where as it is very likely that the random errors would cancel out with repeated measurements. Therefore the three basic principle viz., randomization, replication and local control are meant to avoid the systematic error and to control the random error.

4.2.1 Randomization

Randomization is a process of assigning treatments to the experimental units according to definite laws or probability. Properly done randomisation guarantees to eliminate systematic error. It further ensures that whatever error component that still persists in the observations is purely random in nature. This provides a basis for making a valid estimate of random fluctuations which is so essential in testing of significance of genuine differences. Through randomization, every experimental unit will have the same chance of receiving any treatment. If, for instance, there are five dietary treatments to be evaluated in 15 aquaria, randomization ensures that certain diets will not be favoured or handicapped by extraneous sources of variation over which the experimenter has no control or over which he chooses not to exercise his control. The process of random allocation may be done by using random number generation function in a spreadsheet.

4.2.2 Replication

Replication is the repetition of experiment under identical conditions but in the context of experimental designs, it refers to the number of distinct experimental units under the same treatment. Replication, with randomization, will provide a basis for estimating the error variance. In the absence of randomization, any amount of replication may not lead to a true estimate of error. The greater the number of replications, greater is the precision in the experiment (Figure 5).



Figure 5 – Mean and confidence interval (CI) for 20 replications, based on independent samples of size n=20 from a population with mean µ. Means whose CI does not contain µ are shown with an open symbol; means that do not lie within the preceding CI are marked with a triangle. Source: www.stat.auckland.ac.nz/~iase/publications/17/7D3_CUMM.pdf

The number of replications to be included in any experiment depends upon many factors like the homogeneity of experimental material, the number of treatments, the degree of precision required etc. Number of replicates depends on magnitude of experimental error. For instance, you will need more replicates in an experiment conducted in earthen ponds compared to the same experiment conducted in indoor tanks or aquaria in a recirculation system. It is also recommended that the number of replications in a design should provide at least 10 to 15 degrees of freedom for computing the experimental error variance.

4.2.3 Local control

Local control means the control of all factors except the ones about which we are investigating. Local control, like replication is yet another device to reduce or control the variation due to extraneous factors and increase the precision of the experiment. If, for instance, an experimental field is heterogeneous with respect of soil fertility, then the field can be divided into smaller blocks such that plots within each block tend to be more homogeneous. This kind of homogeneity of plots (experiment units) ensures an unbiased comparison of treatment means, as otherwise it would be difficult to attribute the mean difference between two treatments solely to differences between treatments when the plot differences also persist. This type of local control to achieve homogeneity of experimental units, will not only increase the accuracy of the experiment, but also help in arriving at valid conclusions. In short, it may be mentioned that while randomization is a method of eliminating a systematic error (i.e., bias) in allocation thereby leaving only random error component of variation, the other two viz., replication and local control try to keep this random error as low as possible. All the three however are essential for making a valid estimate of error variance and to provide a valid test of significance.

4.3 Experimental Design

Experiment design outlines plan for data collection and analysis according to the hypothesis under experimentation. It helps the researcher to identify and quantify experimental error. Estimating experimental error is an essential element of data analysis. The greater the experimental error (residual variation) as a percentage of total variation, the more difficult it becomes to find a statistically significant treatment effect, even if there truly is one.



A primary objective in designing experiments, therefore, is to identify and account for other possible sources of variation. Perhaps the most common source of experimental error comes from the allocation of treatments to experimental units. By better understanding any non-uniformity of experimental units, variation due to suspected non-uniformity can be partitioned from other sources of variation, including experimental error. For example, are all the ponds identical? Are some ponds leakier than others? Are they really all the same size? In a tank experiment, are some tanks shaded more than others? Do aquaria on the top shelf have the same water temperatures as those on the bottom shelf? Such examples of potential sources of error are endless. Depending on which experimental units are different, treatment effects could be artificially enhanced or diminished. Therefore choosing a proper experiment design will ensure control on the experiment and appropriate statistical procedures for data analysis. The following designs are commonly used in aquaculture studies.

4.3.1 Completely randomised design (CRD)

CRD is used in a situation where all experimental units are believed to be identical/homogenous. It can also be used in a situation where actual differences between the experimental units are non-systematic. The treatments are therefore allocated to experimental units in a completely random fashion so that each experimental unit has the same chance of receiving any one treatment.

Figure 6 – Complete randomization of treatments in all the experimental units Source: Bhujel, R. C. (2009)

For the CRD, any difference among experimental units receiving the same treatment is considered as experimental error as shown in figure above.



Figure 7 - Separation of effects of treatment and experimental error in a Completely Randomised Design (CRD) Source: Bhujel, R. C. (2009)

Separation of effects of treatment and experimental error

Hence, CRD is appropriate only for experiments with homogeneous experimental units, such as laboratory experiments, where environmental effects are relatively easy to control. For field experiments, where there is generally large variation among experimental plots in such environmental factors as soil, the CRD is rarely used.

The statistical model for CRD is:

where Yi = yield in the ith aquarim, µ = the overall mean of all aquaria, = deviation due to treatment I and εi =

the residual (experimental error) for the ith aquaria.

Therefore, data from CRD experiments is analysed using One-way ANOVA.

4.3.2 Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD)

CRBD is used when there experimental errors are not random but rather relate to some defined variability between experimental units making it feasible to isolate this variation. Such variability among experimental units can be blocked out by allocating treatments according to a randomized complete block design. Blocking reduces experimental error by eliminating known sources of variation among the experimental units. Thus RCBD maximizes experimental unit variation between blocks, and minimizes variation within blocks. Experimental units in RCBD are divided into groups/blocks which are relatively homogeneous with respect to selected variable hence only the variation within a block becomes part of the experimental error. Thus a primary distinguishing feature of the RCBD is the presence of blocks of equal size, each of which contains all the treatments allocated randomly.



Figure 8 –Randomization of six treatments with three replicates in experimental units set in a CRBD ensuring that each treatment is randomised within each block Source: Bhujel, R. C. (2009)

For instance, water in aquaria on the top shelf is warmer than in those on the bottom shelf; or you have 16 cement tanks in a 4 by 4 square, and a dirt road passes along one side (noise/cars make catfish very nervous, and dust has a lot of phosphorus in it); or a water source canal passes by some ponds but not others; or you are doing a fry nursing experiment in hapas (i.e., experimental units) with 15 hapas in each of three ponds, but you know the ponds are not identical. So with the above examples, each shelf of aquaria would be a block; each row of tanks parallel to the road would be a block; ponds adjacent to the canal would be one block, while those away would be another block; and each pond (with 15 hapas in each pond) would be a block. Source: Knud-Hansen, C. F. (1997)

It is worthwhile to note that RCBD restricts randomization of treatment allocation in order to better isolate treatment variation while minimizing residual error. In the hapa experiment, for example, there would be as many replicates per treatment as there are ponds. Each treatment would be represented once in each pond, and randomly allocated to a hapa within each pond. Contrary to CRD, RCBD has three sources of variability namely: treatment, block and experimental error.

Figure 9 - Separation of effects of treatment, block and experimental error in a Completely Randomised Block Design (CRBD) Source: Bhujel, R. C. (2009)

Hence statistical model for CRBD is:



Where = variation due to blocks.

Therefore, data from CRBD experiments is analysed using Two-way ANOVA.

4.3.3 Factorial Design

Factorial design is used when response variable(s) is found to be affected by more than one factor some of can be controlled or maintained at desired levels in the experiment.

Consider a nutrient-poor pond. Addition of phosphorus (P) only will result into little algal growth. Similarly, addition of nitrogen (N) only will also result in little algal growth. But if P and N are added together, it may result in a denser algal bloom much greater than the individual N and P responses added together. Source: Knud-Hansen, C. F. (1997)

N and P in the above example are called factors. Within each factor there may be two or more levels of that factor. What characterizes a factorial experiment is that every factor is represented in all treatments, and the treatments represent every possible factor and level combination. A simple factorial designed experiment would have two factors (e.g., N and P input), and two levels of each factor (e.g., no input and input). This experiment is called a 2 by 2 factorial designed experiment because there are 2 levels (input amounts) of 2 factors (N and P). There would be a total of 2 x 2, or four different treatments in this experiment: (1) no N input, no P input, (2) N input, no P input, (3) no N input, P input, and (4) N input, P input. Although there are only four treatments, three different null hypotheses are tested:

1. There is no significant response with the addition of N.

2. There is no significant response with the addition of P.

3. There is no significant interaction between and N and P with regard to the response variable.

Therefore by using factorial design the main effects of two or more factors can be determined in a single experiment hence saving labour and financial resources. In addition, interaction effects of the various factors are also determined. Factorial design has more than three sources of variability namely depending on the number of factors. For the fertilizer experiment described above, there are three sources of variation namely; N, P and the interaction of the two.

Figure 10 -Separation of variability in factorial design Source: Bhujel, R. C. (2009)



The statistical model for the N & P experiment described above will be as follows:

where Ni = ith level of nitrogen treatment, Pj = jth level of phosphorus treatment, and NPij = deviation due to the interaction between N and P. Workshop Activity

Participants should identify appropriate design for the experiment to solve the identified aquaculture problem.

5 Data Collection Overall Learning Objective: to understand principles of experimental data collection

5.1 Introduction

It is important to identify what should be measured, how should it be measured and at which frequency in order to obtain necessary information required in drawing a conclusion.

5.2 What should be Measured

Variable are generally grouped in three major categories: The first category of variables is dependent and independent variables. These are directly related to the null hypotheses being tested and they must be measured. The dependent variable is a variable which depends upon or is a consequence of another variable. The independent variable is a one which influences the dependent variable. For instance, if a null hypothesis states that amount feed Y has no effect on fish growth, then growth is a dependent variable and amount of feed is independent variable. Response variables in aquaculture are often related to aspects of growth, reproduction, productivity, and water quality. The second category is extraneous variable variables. These are not essential for testing the null hypothesis but may influence other sources of variation affecting response variables. These include water quality parameters such as temperature, dissolved oxygen, etc.

The third type involves variables that are used for broader purposes beyond the immediate experiment such as providing baseline information useful for comparing separate experiments conducted in different seasons or climatic regions. Such variable include weather measurements.

5.3 How should be Measured

There are several ways on how to measure variables in aquaculture research. Choice of an appropriate method is influenced by the following factors:

i. Precision or sensitivity

ii. Accuracy

iii. Reproducibility

iv. Ease of operation

v. Cost

5.4 Frequency of Measurement

Frequency of measurement is determined by nature and length of the experiment. However, there should be a balance between data collection frequency and cost implication.

Workshop Activity

Participants should devise a data collection plan for designed experiment

6 Data analysis Overall Learning Objective: to be able to understand procedures involved in data processing and analysis



Specific Learning Objectives: to be able to analyse data collected from aquaculture experiment

6.1 Introduction

After collecting data, has to be analysed in order to determine whether to accept or reject the null hypothesis. Data analysis is mostly achieved through comparison of means. Often before analysis, data has to be processed.

6.2 Data Processing

Before analysis the data may require some processing through data reduction and data transformation.

Reduction is done to summarise the data descriptively using either means and standard deviations/standard errors or frequency tables and histograms. Data reduction may also be done to facilitate data analysis particularly when dealing with large data sets. Such reduction or consolidation makes data to be analytically manageable.

For instance, DO levels recorded in a 10 weeks growth trial with five treatment each in triplicates, did not show any trend within replicates but did vary between treatments. Then DO data can be reduced to by taking an average of the 10 measurements per tank in such a way that treatment means will be based on three tank values per treatment (i.e. n=3).


Transformation is done data set which does not conform to normal distribution. Normal distribution of data is one of the essential requirements before employing any parametric tests such as t-test and ANOVA. Most statistical software have a capability of checking for normality of data sets. Methods used for transformation are:

Square root transformation is used for counting data where most of counts are less than 100. Formula used

is in case counts are low and include a zero. Square root transformation is also used to

normalise percentage data that are generally <10% or >70%. Often percent mortalities and survival fall in this category and they should be transformed before any parametric test.

Arcsine of the square root is used when percentage data range widely from near 0% up to 100%.

The entire data set must be transformed not just those falling within the specified range. Transformation may not be necessary if the majority of percentage data is between 30 to 70%.

The transformed data should be used when examining treatment comparisons using ANOVA or t-test because of the underlying assumption of that the data should be normally distributed. When presenting results however, treatment means should reported in the original scale while variances and standard deviations should be reported with respect to the transformed data.

6.3 Comparisons

Comparisons aim to determine whether treatment means differ significantly from each other. When experiment has only two treatments, t-test is used to test the null hypothesis that one treatment mean is not significantly larger than the other. When experiment has more than two treatments, analysis of variance (ANOVA) is used to test the null hypothesis that no two treatment means are significantly different from each other. The testing is done by comparing variation between treatments with variation within treatments. Both t test and ANOVA partitions overall variation in observed responses into different assignable sources of variation, both known and unknown. Further, the tests tell whether the variation due to any particular component is significant as compared to residual variation that can occur among the observational units. A proportionally large variation between treatments relative to variation within treatments (experimental error) results in a small probability that observed treatment differences happened by chance. Both t test and ANOVA have the following assumptions:

1. The variables involved are continuous

2. The population from which the samples are drawn follow normal distribution



3. The samples are drawn independently

4. The variances of the two populations from which the samples are drawn are homogeneous (equal)

In a situation where initial variation exists among experimental units, it becomes necessary to eliminate influence of such inherent variation on their further responses. Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) is used to reduce the magnitude of error due to such circumstances. Observations are made on one or more correlated variables along with the observations on the response variable under study. These additional related variables are called covariates or ancillary or concomitant variables.

Workshop Activity

Participants should analyse data provided using appropriate methods.

7 Presentation of Research Results Learning Objective: to understand principles of presenting research results

7.1 Introduction

Research findings are usually published as papers in professional journals or chapters in specialist books. There is a more or less standard format for reports which separate text into well-recognised sections namely Introduction, Methods, Results, Discussion and References. Therefore it is important for researcher not only to understand the structure of scientific report but also what should and should not go in each of its section.

7.1.1 Introduction

The Introduction should provide a clear idea as to why the study was carried out and what it aimed to investigate. It should describe the following: The main objective of an introduction is to describe give a background to the study which should include any theoretical or previous experimental/observational work that led to the hypotheses under test. This section should also to include references to previously published work and sometimes a critical review of competing ideas or interpretations. It may also include explanation on timing (seasonal, diel, etc.) of experiments/observations and, in the case of fieldwork, the reasons for choosing a particular study site. Introduction should also include a clear statement of the hypotheses being tested as well as rationale of the study.

7.1.2 Methodology/ Materials and Methods

The methodology section should provide enough detail for someone else to be able to repeat exactly what was done. Clearly, the precise detail in each case will depend on the investigation, but points that need attention are likely to include the following. Experimental/observational organisms or preparations: The species, strain, number of individuals used, growth or housing conditions and husbandry, age and sex, etc. for organisms; the derivation and preparation and maintenance techniques, etc. for preparations (e.g. cell cultures, histological preparations, pathogen inoculations). Specialised equipment: Details (make, model, relevant technical specifications, etc.) of any special equipment used. Study site: Where an investigation has taken place in the field, full details of the study site should normally be given. These should include its location (e.g. grid reference) and a description of its relevant features (e.g. size, habitat structure, use by man) and how these were used in the investigation. The date or time of year of the study may also be relevant. Data collection: This should include details of all the important decisions that were made about collecting data. Again, it is impossible to generalise, but the following are likely to be important in many investigations: any pre-treatment of material before experiments/observations; details of experimental/observational treatments and



controls; sample sizes and replication; methods of measurement and timing; methods of recording; duration and sequencing of experimental/observational periods; details of any computer software used in data collection.

7.1.3 Results

Results section present summarised data necessary to answer the questions posed. These should be accompanied by a substantial amount of explanatory text but solely on analyses and presentation of data and not the interpretations or conclusions that might be inferred from them. It is also important that all the analyses and presentations of data should appear only in this section and not any other section. The summarised data should be presented in figures and tables. Despite figures being easier to assimilate than tables, tables may be more economical when large numbers of comparisons are required. Tables should present all key summary information necessary to judge the claims they make. This usually includes:

summary statistics (e.g. means ± standard errors) for each of the groups being compared,

sample size (n) for each group,

test statistic values,

the probabilities (p-values) associated with the test statistic values,

explanatory legend detailing what the table tells us.,

the test statistics and p-values can be presented either in the table itself or in the legend.

The same information, of course, should be presented in figures except that the summary statistics are represented graphically (e.g. as bar charts) instead of as numbers, and information about sample sizes, test statistics and probability levels more conventionally goes in the legend (now usually called the figure caption) rather than in the figure itself. (Nevertheless, as long as it doesn’t clutter the figure and detract from its impact, it can be very helpful to include statistical information within the figure and we shall do this later where appropriate.

7.1.4 Discussion

Discussion is a section in which comments are made on whether the results support or refute the hypotheses under test and how they relate to the findings of other studies. Hence it involves interpretation and reasonable speculation, with further details about the material investigated and any corroborative/ contradictory/background information as appropriate. The discussion should only comment, compare and conclude and should not bring in new analysis nor develop background information.

7.1.5 References

The report should be referenced fully throughout, with references listed chronologically in the text and alphabetically in a headed Reference section at the end. References styles vary enormously between different kinds of report so there is no one accepted format. Harvard referencing style is often commonly used. Workshop Activity

Participants should summarise the data analysed in tabular and graphical formats.

8 Ethics in Research Learning Objective: to understand ethics of conducting research

8.1 Introduction

Ethics are the rules of conduct in research particularly the responsibility to respect rights of others. In other words, they are norms for conduct that distinguish between acceptable and unacceptable behaviour. There are several reasons why it is important for a researcher to adhere to ethical norms in research.

First, norms promote the aims of research, such as knowledge, truth, and avoidance of error. For example, prohibitions against fabricating, falsifying, or misrepresenting research data promote the truth and avoid error.



Second, since research often involves a great deal of cooperation and coordination among many different people in different disciplines and institutions, ethical standards promote the values that are essential to collaborative work, such as trust, accountability, mutual respect, and fairness. For example, many ethical norms in research, such as guidelines for authorship, copyright and patenting policies, data sharing policies, and confidentiality rules in peer review, are designed to protect intellectual property interests while encouraging collaboration. Most researchers want to receive credit for their contributions and do not want to have their ideas stolen or disclosed prematurely.

Third, many of the ethical norms help to ensure that researchers can be held accountable to the public. For instance, federal policies on research misconduct, conflicts of interest, the human subjects protections, and animal care and use are necessary in order to make sure that researchers who are funded by public money can be held accountable to the public.

Fourth, ethical norms in research also help to build public support for research. People more likely to fund research project if they can trust the quality and integrity of research.

Finally, many of the norms of research promote a variety of other important moral and social values, such as social responsibility, human rights, animal welfare, compliance with the law, and health and safety. Ethical lapses in research can significantly harm human and animal subjects, students, and the public. For example, a researcher who fabricates data in a clinical trial may harm or even kill patients, and a researcher who fails to abide by regulations and guidelines relating to radiation or biological safety may jeopardize his health and safety or the health and safety of staff and students.

8.2 Ethical Principles

Honesty Strive for honesty in all scientific communications. Honestly report data, results, methods and procedures, and publication status. Do not fabricate, falsify, or misrepresent data. Do not deceive colleagues, granting agencies, or the public.

Objectivity Strive to avoid bias in experimental design, data analysis, data interpretation, peer review, personnel decisions, grant writing, expert testimony, and other aspects of research where objectivity is expected or required. Avoid or minimize bias or self-deception. Disclose personal or financial interests that may affect research.

Integrity Keep your promises and agreements; act with sincerity; strive for consistency of thought and action.

Carefulness Avoid careless errors and negligence; carefully and critically examine your own work and the work of your peers. Keep good records of research activities, such as data collection, research design, and correspondence with agencies or journals. Openness Share data, results, ideas, tools, resources. Be open to criticism and new ideas. Respect for Intellectual Property Honor patents, copyrights, and other forms of intellectual property. Do not use unpublished data, methods, or results without permission. Give credit where credit is due. Give proper acknowledgement or credit for all contributions to research. Never plagiarize. Confidentiality Protect confidential communications, such as papers or grants submitted for publication, personnel records, trade or military secrets, and patient records.



Responsible Publication Publish in order to advance research and scholarship, not to advance just your own career. Avoid wasteful and duplicative publication. Responsible Mentoring Help to educate, mentor, and advise students. Promote their welfare and allow them to make their own decisions. Respect for colleagues Respect your colleagues and treat them fairly. Social Responsibility Strive to promote social good and prevent or mitigate social harms through research, public education, and advocacy. Non-Discrimination Avoid discrimination against colleagues or students on the basis of sex, race, ethnicity, or other factors that are not related to their scientific competence and integrity.

Competence Maintain and improve your own professional competence and expertise through lifelong education and learning; take steps to promote competence in science as a whole.

Legality Know and obey relevant laws and institutional and governmental policies.

Animal Care Show proper respect and care for animals when using them in research. Do not conduct unnecessary or poorly designed animal experiments. Animal testing should cause as little suffering to animals as possible, and that animal tests should only be performed where necessary. The "three Rs" are guiding principles for the use of animals in research:

1. Replacement refers to the preferred use of non-animal methods over animal methods whenever it is

possible to achieve the same scientific aim.

2. Reduction refers to methods that enable researchers to obtain comparable levels of information from

fewer animals, or to obtain more information from the same number of animals.

3. Refinement refers to methods that alleviate or minimize potential pain, suffering or distress, and

enhance animal welfare for the animals still used

Human Subjects Protection When conducting research on human subjects, minimize harms and risks and maximize benefits; respect human dignity, privacy, and autonomy; take special precautions with vulnerable populations; and strive to distribute the benefits and burdens of research fairly.

Workshop Activity

Participants should discuss ethical issues which they have experienced.

9 Bibliography Baran E., Warry F. 2008 Simple data analysis for biologists. WorldFish Center and the Fisheries Administration. Phnom Penh, Cambodia.



Barnard, C., Gilbert, F. and Mcgregor, P. (2006) Asking Questions in Biology: A Guide to Hypothesis Testing, Experimental Design and Presentation in Practical Work and Research Projects. 3rd Edition. Pearson Education Limited. Bhujel, R. C. (2009) Statistics for Aquaculture. Wiley-Blackwell; 1 edition. ISBN-10: 0813815878 Brummett,R. E., Lazard, E. and Moehl, J. (2008). African aquaculture: Realizing the potential, Food Policy, Volume 33: 371-385 FAO (1999) A Statistical Manual for Forestry Research. FAO (2012) The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2012 Field, A (2009). Discovering statistics using SPSS. 3rd edition. SAGE Publications, London. Knud-Hansen, C. F. (1997) Experimental design and analysis in aquaculture. In dynamics of pond aquaculture. Eds: Egna, H and Boyd, C.E. Machena, C. and Moehl, J. (2000) African Aquaculture: A Regional Summary with Emphasis on Sub-Saharan Africa . In: Subasinghe, R.P., Bueno, P., Phillips, M.J. , Hough, C., McGladdery, S.E. and Arthur, J.R., (Eds.) Technical Proceedings of the Conference on Aquaculture in the Third Millennium, 20-25 February2000, Bangkok, Thailand, Bangkok & Rome. : NACA & FAO Mkoma, S. L. et al., (2009) Research Methodology: A course manual for PhD. Students. PREPARE PhD Project, Sokoine University of Agriculture, Morogoro, Tanzania. Resnik, D. B. (2011) What is Ethics in Research & Why is it Important?. http://www.niehs.nih.gov/research/resources/bioethics/whatis/ accessed on 12th May 2013

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