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Livelihoods in El Salvador Livelihood Zone Profiles

Lorena Aguilar

Livelihoods in El Salvador

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WORLD FOOD PROGRAM – MESOAMERICA FAMINE EARLY WARNING SYSTEM (MFEWS)

August 1, 2010

Prepared by Lorena Aguilar


Livelihood Zone Profiles


LIVELIHOODS IN EL SALVADOR

Livelihood Zone Profiles

Table of Contents LIVELIHOODS IN EL SALVADOR ................................................................................................................3

ACRONYMS...................................................................................................................................6 PREFACE ...........................................................................................................................................7

INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................................8 USES OF PROFILES ............................................................................................................................8

INTRODUCTORY GUIDE TO FOOD SECURITY AROUND THE COUNTRY......................................................8 EARLY WARNING AND RESPONSE PLANNING.....................................................................................8

DEVELOPMENT POLICIES................................................................................................................9 KEY CONCEPTS .................................................................................................................................9

DEFINITION OF THE CONCEPTS OF RISK, HAZARD, VULNERABILITY, AND NEED ........................................9

BASELINE ..................................................................................................................................10 WEALTH BREAKDOWN ................................................................................................................11

HAZARD....................................................................................................................................12 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK FOR LIVELIHOOD PROFILES .........................................................................13

METHODOLOGY .............................................................................................................................14 DATA COLLECTION AND PROCESSING METHODS ..................................................................................14

LIVELIHOOD ZONING METHODS AND PROCEDURES ..........................................................................14

COUNTRY OVERVIEW.....................................................................................................................16 SOURCES OF FOOD AND INCOME: MAIN CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS .............................................18

SOURCES OF FOOD..........................................................................................................................18 SOURCES OF INCOME ......................................................................................................................19

FARMERS AND FARM WORKERS........................................................................................................20 HAZARDS AND RESPONSE STRATEGIES................................................................................................23

SUMMARY OF LIVELIHOOD ZONES .....................................................................................................25

LIVELIHOOD PROFILES....................................................................................................................28 LIVELIHOOD ZONE 1: STAPLE GRAIN AND LABOR ZONE .............................................................................28

MAIN CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS........................................................................................28 LIVELIHOOD ZONE DESCRIPTION ...................................................................................................29

MARKETS ......................................................................................................................................31 SEASONAL CALENDAR......................................................................................................................31

BREAKDOWN BY WEALTH GROUP .....................................................................................................32 BREAKDOWN BY TYPE OF FARMER.....................................................................................................34

SOURCES OF FOOD..........................................................................................................................35

SOURCES OF INCOME AND PATTERNS OF MIGRATION ...........................................................................36

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HAZARDS ......................................................................................................................................37

RESPONSE STRATEGIES ....................................................................................................................37 EARLY WARNING INDICATORS...........................................................................................................38

LIVELIHOOD ZONE 2: COFFEE, AGRO-INDUSTRIAL, AND LABOR ZONE ..........................................................39 MAIN CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS ............................................................................................39

LIVELIHOOD ZONE DESCRIPTION........................................................................................................40 MARKETS ......................................................................................................................................41

SEASONAL CALENDAR......................................................................................................................42


SOURCES OF FOOD..........................................................................................................................45 SOURCES OF INCOME AND PATTERNS OF MIGRATION ...........................................................................47

HAZARDS ......................................................................................................................................48 RESPONSE STRATEGIES ....................................................................................................................48

EARLY WARNING INDICATORS...........................................................................................................48 LIVELIHOOD ZONE 3: SUGARCANE AND AGRO-INDUSTRIAL ZONE ...............................................................49

MAIN CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS ............................................................................................49

LIVELIHOOD ZONE DESCRIPTION........................................................................................................51 MARKETS ......................................................................................................................................52

SEASONAL CALENDAR......................................................................................................................52 BREAKDOWN BY WEALTH GROUP .....................................................................................................53

BREAKDOWN BY TYPE OF FARMER.....................................................................................................54 SOURCES OF FOOD..........................................................................................................................55

SOURCES OF INCOME AND PATTERNS OF MIGRATION ...........................................................................57

HAZARDS ......................................................................................................................................58 RESPONSE STRATEGIES ....................................................................................................................58

EARLY WARNING INDICATORS...........................................................................................................58 LIVELIHOOD ZONE 4: EASTERN STAPLE GRAIN, LIVESTOCK, AND REMITTANCE ZONE......................................59

MAIN CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS ............................................................................................59 LIVELIHOOD ZONE DESCRIPTION........................................................................................................61


BREAKDOWN BY WEALTH GROUP .....................................................................................................63


SOURCES OF INCOME AND PATTERNS OF MIGRATION ...........................................................................67 HAZARDS ......................................................................................................................................68


LIVELIHOOD ZONE 5: CENTRAL FREE-TRADE AND INDUSTRIAL LABOR ZONE .................................................69


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MARKETS ......................................................................................................................................71

SEASONAL CALENDAR......................................................................................................................72 BREAKDOWN BY WEALTH GROUP .....................................................................................................72



RESPONSE STRATEGIES ....................................................................................................................77

EARLY WARNING INDICATORS...........................................................................................................77 LIVELIHOOD ZONE 6: FISHING, AQUACULTURE, AND TOURISM ZONE ..........................................................78




SOURCES OF FOOD..........................................................................................................................83



BIBLIOGRAPHIC REFERENCES.........................................................................................................87

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ACRONYMS

CF Commercial Farmer

HEA Household Economy Approach

LZ Livelihood Zone

MFEWS Mesoamerica Famine Early Warning System

SF Small Farmer

WFP World Food Program

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PREFACE

The livelihood zone profiles presented in this report document the way of life of different population groups in El Salvador. Livelihoods are the sum of the ways in which households occupy themselves and live throughout the course of the year and the measures they take in times of crisis.

The main outputs included are:

A livelihood zone map dividing the country into homogeneous zones based on a livelihoods framework.

Livelihood zone profiles describing the main characteristics of each zone and providing a brief outline of the socioeconomic situation of the different wealth groups in that zone, with the accent on existing hazards and the ability of different types of households to deal with these hazards.

An analysis of agricultural census data breaking down the main census data with regard to the production systems of each livelihood group.

The report is divided into the following four sections:

An Introduction, broken down into four subsections:

Uses of Profiles: describes three main ways in which the profiles can be used. Key Concepts: defines the key concepts used in livelihoods analysis. Conceptual Framework for Livelihood Profiles: describes the design and content of each profile. Methodology: describes the methods used to construct the map and profiles.

A Country Overview, presenting the national livelihood zone map and a country-wide bird’s eye view of the different livelihoods in El Salvador.

The Livelihood Profiles, describing the characteristics of each livelihood zone and household livelihoods in that zone.

A Livelihoods-Based Analysis of Agricultural Census Data, examining and breaking down National Agricultural Census data by livelihood zone.

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INTRODUCTION

Uses of Profiles

The livelihood profiles and livelihood zone descriptions presented in this report examine rural food security conditions in different geographic areas. The country is divided into relatively homogeneous zones according to the typical livelihoods found in each zone. There is a brief description of each zone, including a description of the different wealth groups in that zone.

The report is useful on a number of levels, as outlined below:

Introductory Guide to Food Security Around the Country It is a valuable tool providing a quick look at the sources of food and income for the populations of each zone, their assets, the main hazards they face, and the way in which they deal with these hazards, identifying the causes of the food insecurity and vulnerability of different groups in different contexts.

Early Warning and Response Planning Food insecurity is oftentimes incorrectly equated with the gap between agricultural production and the food needs of the local population, assuming that any production shortfall will immediately result in food insecurity. Accordingly, most early warning and food security monitoring systems draw on two main sources of information: (i) agricultural (crop and animal) production data; and (ii) market price data. However, this information does not tell the whole story.

A complete picture of the so-called “food economy” includes both food availability or, in other words, the amount of food produced, and food access, or the amount of cash income earned for the purchasing of food. Information on casual employment, other sources of food such as foraging for wild plant foods, food aid, etc. can be equally important as guidance for the designing of more appropriate monitoring systems and better and more rapid emergency assessments.

A livelihoods framework can be used to examine the crisis management capacity of individual households. The information provided can serve as the basis for a study of household needs and can help provide answers to a number of key questions such as: which areas and types of households would be able to cope with a given hazard, should it occur, and which households would require assistance? Or: what types of interventions would be most appropriate and when should they be implemented and for how long? For instance, take the case of households in a particular geographic area which are highly dependent on urban employment. In the event of a decline in this type of employment, could these households find an alternate source of income? Would they be competing with people from other areas in these activities?

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Development Policies

Livelihoods analysis can be used as the basis for the development of more appropriate and more selective policies and interventions, making it possible not only to distinguish between short and long-term measures, but also to predict the potential effects of different types of interventions on peoples’ lives over time.

It can also help strengthen and better target interventions to ensure immediate food access in emergencies, rebuild and reinforce crisis management capacity, and bolster longer-term development initiatives aimed at alleviating hunger and poverty.

Key Concepts

The terms risk, hazard, vulnerability, and need are all commonly used terms in a food security context. The sense in which they are used in this report is best explained by the following example.

Definition of the Concepts of Risk, Hazard, Vulnerabili ty, and Need Drought is a major hazard affecting crop and animal production in many countries. Poor households are more vulnerable to (less able to cope with) droughts than more affluent

households (referred to as “better-off” households in this report). Poor households have smaller reserves of food or cash to fall back on and fewer options for earning extra income.

Poor households living in drought-prone areas of the country are more at risk of facing a food shortage than other households because of their exposure and vulnerability to droughts.

When a drought does strike, poor households have the greatest need for assistance.

Thus, in order for households to be at risk of food insecurity, they must be exposed to a hazard and vulnerable to that hazard, as in the case of the poor households in drought-prone areas of the country referred to in the previous example.

Because of the close correlation between vulnerability and hazards, there is no general state of vulnerability. People can only be vulnerable to something. For instance, farmers growing crops in dry riverbeds can be vulnerable to a flood (which could destroy their crops), but cannot be vulnerable to a drought (since they can always irrigate their crops with water from the river). Likewise, temporary workers in free-trade zones can be vulnerable to changes in international trade policy for the nonfood products manufactured in their plants, but may be less vulnerable to a crop failure caused by a drought (except to the extent that they are affected by high market prices for staple foodstuffs).

Once a hazard occurs, it no longer makes any sense to talk about vulnerable groups. Simply put, people are vulnerable before the event (in that the very concept of vulnerability refers to their ability to cope with any future situations which may arise should a hazard occur). People are in need after the event (in other words, once they are affected by and find themselves unable to cope with a given hazard). Coming back to the example of a drought, poor households are vulnerable to a drought before there is an actual shortage of rainfall but, once they have lost their crops or animals, they are in need of aid.

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One of the most widely used livelihoods-based approaches to a study of food security is the so-called household economy approach developed by Save the Children UK back in the 1990s.1 The basic guiding principle of this approach is that:

An analysis of local livelihoods is essential for a proper understanding of the impact of hazards such as droughts, conflicts, or market dislocations at the household level.

For instance, a crop failure may leave a particular group of households destitute because these crops were their only source of staple foods. In contrast, another group of households may be better able to cope because they have other sources of food and income such as livestock to sell or relatives to help them, which may help offset any production shortfall. Thus, an effective hazard impact assessment should be based on a livelihoods analysis. The food economy approach is grounded in just such an analysis, which is essential to a proper understanding of the impact of a particular hazard on local livelihoods and food security conditions.

Thus, the food economy approach examines the effects of a given hazard on future access to food and income as the basis for making decisions as to the most appropriate types of interventions to mount. The main rationale behind this approach is that a good understanding of how people have survived in the past is a sound basis for making future projections. It uses a combination of three types of information: (i) baseline data on access to food and cash; (ii) information on hazards (events affecting access to food and cash such as droughts, conflicts, or market dislocations); and (iii) information on household response strategies (such as the sources of food and income that people turn to when exposed to a hazard).

Baseline

The baseline has three components: the livelihood zone map; the wealth breakdown; and the food economy baseline (sources of food and income and seasonal calendars), as described in the following paragraphs.

1 See The Household Economy Approach, Seaman J., Clarke P., Boudreau T., Holt J., Save the Children UK, 2000.

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Livelihood Zone Map

Obviously, livelihood patterns vary from one area to another, which is why the construction of a livelihood zone map is the first step in a livelihoods-based analysis. Local factors such as climate, soils, market access, etc. all influence livelihood patterns. For instance, people living in fertile highland areas may engage in intensive farming, while those in semi-arid lowland areas are able to grow few crops and are more likely to be pastoralists or agropastoralists. People in coastal areas or riverside dwellers may live from fishing or from a combination of fishing and other activities, and so forth.

However, agro-ecological factors are only one type of geographical factor shaping livelihood patterns. Another is market access, which affects the ability of people to sell their output (crops, animals, or other commodities) and the prices they are able to get for their products. However, since livelihood patterns are largely shaped by geography, it makes sense to divide a country or region into a number of different livelihood zones or areas within which people generally share the same livelihood pattern (the same production system, such as farming or pastoralism, for example, and the same pattern of business and trade).

The boundaries of livelihood zones do not always coincide with administrative boundaries. It is not uncommon to find a number of different livelihood patterns within a single political subdivision. However, since all decision-making on resource allocation and the supply of services is based on political subdivisions rather than livelihood zones, it is advisable for the boundaries of livelihood zones to follow administrative boundaries as closely as possible.

Wealth Breakdown

Geography is not the only defining factor for livelihoods. It tends to define the different livelihood options available, but the extent to which households are able to take advantage of these options also depends on their “wealth.” For instance, better-off households which own larger farms or estates produce more crops and are unaffected by food insecurity problems, unlike poor households without access to land, unable to grow enough to eat. However, land is only one aspect of wealth, which also depends on factors such as a household’s livestock holdings, assets, educational level, skills, labor availability, and social capital.

Defining the different wealth groups in each livelihood zone is the second step in the food economy approach, producing a wealth breakdown.

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Food Economy Basel ine 2

The next step after disaggregating households according to their place of residence and wealth group is to generate food economy baseline data for the average household in each group for a baseline or benchmark year. This involves a study of different household sources of food and income and of their relative contribution to the overall household budget over the course of the year. It also includes the construction of a seasonal calendar of different activities showing how access to food and income varies throughout the year. These types of information are all crucial to understanding the way of life of households in different locations and different wealth groups and how they will be affected by a particular hazard.

2 The information provided in the profiles does not constitute a complete food economy baseline. A complete baseline furnishes quantitative data on the amounts of food accessed and the amounts of cash generated from the different sources of food and income of at least three of the main wealth groups in a given livelihood zone. In contrast, the livelihood profiles provide information on the overall relative share of different sources of food and cash. Simply put, the units of measurement in a food economy baseline are kilocalories (food energy) and cash, while the unit of measurement used in a livelihood profile is percentage of the total. National livelihood zone maps and livelihood profiles are designed as stand-alone products (see the section on the uses of profiles, but they are also an intermediate step in the development of a complete food economy baseline.

Hazard

Food economy baseline data is a good starting point for studying the effects of a specific hazard on household food security and livelihoods.

Hazards may either be natural (such as droughts or floods) or man-made (such as conflicts or market dislocations). Their effects will vary according to their nature and local livelihoods. For instance, a drought can cause losses of crops and animal products, losses of income from crop and livestock sales, losses of on-farm employment, etc., posing a threat to households highly dependent on crop or animal production or on-farm employment. Insecurity, on the other hand, may be tied to poor access to certain areas (markets, wells, grazing areas, or fields) and disruptions in trade or transportation services, all of which can pose a threat to any groups engaged in trade in insecure areas.

Response

When exposed to a hazard, households will do their utmost to deal with its effects. For instance, if a particular hazard limits their access to certain sources of food or income, they may try and expand their use of alternative sources or turn to little-used sources. In certain scenarios, these types of measures referred to as “response” strategies3 may involve more foraging for wild plant foods, the selling of more livestock, or heavier temporary labor migration.

When effective, such strategies can significantly reduce vulnerability to a particular hazard. However, bear in mind that some response strategies can have short or long-term detrimental effects on local livelihoods. Examples include the sale of productive assets, unsustainable sales of livestock, increased sales of firewood in areas where this can seriously harm the environment, etc.

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3 Use of the term “response” strategy rather than “coping” strategy is preferred for two reasons. First, the term coping strategy is commonly used to refer to regular elements of everyday livelihoods (such as the sale of firewood, for example) which, strictly speaking, are only coping strategies when their use is stepped up in response to a particular hazard. Secondly, use of the term “coping” can be taken to imply that the strategy in question does not involve any cost, which is not always the case.


Conceptual Framework for Livelihood Profiles

The livelihood zone profiles are broken down into the following sections:

The Main Conclusions and Implications summarize the main findings for the livelihood zone in question and provide important insights informing the planning of different types of interventions, including emergency response, disaster mitigation, and development programs.

The Livelihood Zone Description outlines local livelihood patterns (crop production, livestock-raising, rural nonfarm income-generating activities, etc.)

The Markets section presents basic information on the marketing of local products and any local or outside trade in staple foodstuffs.

The Seasonal Calendar graphically illustrates the timing of key activities throughout the year. This information can be used in a variety of different ways, such as to measure the potential impact of a given hazard according to the time of year at which it occurs or to assess whether a particular activity is being conducted at its usual time of year.

The next four sections furnish core information on the zone’s food economy.

The Wealth Breakdown describes the zone’s three main wealth groups (poor, middle-income, and better-off households) and explains the differences among them and how these differences affect their potential access to food and cash.4

Sources of Food and Income: This section identifies the sources of food and income for each wealth group, relating them to the characteristics of each group.

Hazards: This section describes the different types of hazards affecting a particular zone, with specific references to their effects on different wealth groups, where applicable.

Response Strategies: This section outlines the various strategies used by different types of households within a particular zone and assesses their potential effectiveness.

Imminent Crisis Indicators: Early warning involves identifying and interpreting key events indicative of a possible developing food security crisis. This section identifies key indicators of impending crises and their likely timing in different livelihood zones based on an understanding of local livelihoods and response patterns to food security crises.5

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4 It is important to bear in mind that wealth or wealth status is discussed in relative (and local) terms for purposes of this analysis. Statistical data may show 80% or even 90% of the population of a given area living below the poverty line, but this measure of poverty is based on a national, absolute scale. Since a livelihoods analysis is designed to elucidate some of the differences between different groups within a community and their causes, it is not especially helpful to lump 80% or 90% of the population into the same group. 5 Fred Cuny identified two types of early warning indicators, those providing advance warning of a famine (imminent crisis indicators) and those confirming the existence of a famine (famine indicators). The latter include indicators such as distress sales of productive assets (such as oxen used for plowing), seed consumption, and


METHODOLOGY

Data Collection and Processing Methods

The basic source of the information used to conduct this study was the national livelihoods workshop, along with an analysis of secondary data sources to ensure the quality of the study findings.

The guiding principles for the collection and processing of this data were to:

Make maximum use of existing sources of country and local data as the basis for the livelihood zoning exercise; and

Maximize participation by all interested stakeholders.

Guided by these principles, the following combinations of methods were used at different levels of the study process:

Review and processing of available data: agricultural maps, wealth data, production data, etc. Interviews of experts familiar with the agricultural sector and recent trends in each established

livelihood zone. Follow-up visits to local communities in each zone and use of focus groups to verify the assembled

data. Interviews of officials or experts involved in designing the framework for the census and in collecting

and processing the agricultural census data. Processing and analysis of selected National Agricultural Census data to identify and disaggregate

relevant data by the different types of farmers and wage earners in different agricultural subsectors.

Livelihood Zoning Methods and Procedures

The livelihood zoning and profiling exercises and the analysis of agricultural census data were divided into two phases, as described below:

Phase 1

a. The first step was the construction of different maps from data on rainfall, crop and animal production, remittances, human development indexes, poverty, hazards, land use, etc. with the help of GIS (ArcGIS) tools to get a rough overview of the country. The overlaying of these maps produced a preliminary outline of possible livelihood zones, which helped make data management relatively easy and helped ensure an acceptable level of precision.

b. This review of secondary data was followed by a national livelihoods workshop attended by country stakeholders and other informants representing all parts of the country with an in-depth knowledge of their area and of rural household dynamics to authenticate the preliminary livelihood

higher malnutrition and mortality rates. Famine indicators are not normally context-specific (i.e. the same list of indicators could apply to all livelihood zones). Furthermore, they are of very little use in predicting or preventing an acute food shortage or famine, which is why they are not included in the livelihood profiles.

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zone map. The key informants attending the workshop prepared a brief description and seasonal calendar for each zone. The choice of the informants attending the workshop was intentional and designed to ensure that all parts of the country were represented.

c. This was followed by field work in which key informants were interviewed at different sites representative of each livelihood zone to corroborate the data collected through the national workshop (the livelihood zone descriptions and seasonal calendars). Both the field sites and the participants were deliberately chosen to maximize their representativity and obtain more precise information on each livelihood zone.

Phase 2

d. The first step in this second phase was the selection of National Agricultural Census data to supplement the livelihood data and facilitate food security monitoring efforts by breaking down the data according to the main types of farmers in each livelihood zone, the total number of wage earners in each agricultural subsector, and selected characteristics of the farm units in each zone.

e. The next step was the collection of local data in each livelihood zone to refine the previously collected data and get a more accurate picture of the situation of the local population through the use of qualitative methods such as interviews and focus groups. Wherever possible, each interview was checked for internal consistency, followed by the triangulation of all relevant data.

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COUNTRY OVERVIEW

El Salvador lies in the northwestern reaches of Central America, bordered by Honduras on the north and east, the Gulf of Fonseca on the far southeast, the Pacific Ocean on the south, and Guatemala on the west and northwest. It is the smallest and most densely populated Central American country, with an area of 21,041 square kilometers and a population of 5,744,113 inhabitants.6 The country is divided into 14 “departamentos” (departments) which, in turn, are divided into 262 “municipios” (municipalities).

It has a tropical climate, with very little seasonal change in temperatures. However, the ocean winds affecting the area along the Pacific coast and the accompanying heat and humidity can produce large variations in temperature between the Pacific lowlands and higher elevations. El Salvador has two seasons: a dry season (from November to April) and a rainy season (from May to October). It has an extensive road network consisting of approximately 1,400 kilometers of paved highways. There are more than 2,000 kilometers of paved inter-city roads in the form of primary and secondary roads and multi-lane highways. Its rail system is divided into three districts, the first of which runs from Puerto Cutuco to San Salvador over a distance of 251 kilometers. The second runs from the northern cement-producing area of Metapán to San Salvador (a distance of 140 kilometers). The third district runs from Puerto de Acajutla to San Salvador (110 kilometers).

According to the make-up of national NDP, the mainstays of the country’s economy are manufacturing (the textile industry in particular) and mining, which account for 23% of NDP, followed by trade (19.9%) and agriculture (13.1%). Output from the crop farming sector consists mainly of coffee, sugar cane, corn, bean, and sorghum crops, which occupy over 90 percent of all arable land. Approximately 17% of the country’s total population lives in rural areas and is involved in agriculture. The country still has a subsistence farming system based on “minifundios” or dwarf-sized farm units. These activities are the cornerstones of the livelihoods of Salvadoran households.

Household livelihoods in this heterogeneous country from both an agro-ecological and wealth standpoint are shaped by a number of different factors varying as a function of location and wealth. The type of soil, the relief, the climate, access to factors of production, and other physical factors also affect local livelihoods, as do access to services, markets, land, etc. There is a whole series of similar structural indicators, but the main determinants of differences in the livelihoods and economic situation of individual households and in their production systems are agro-ecological conditions and wealth.

This only serves to underscore the importance of dividing the country into homogeneous livelihood zones which, unlike conventional political subdivisions such as departments and/or municipalities, whose very nature makes it impossible to fully appreciate how the local population really lives, provide a better understanding of the relationships between the different factors outlined above and local livelihoods.

Likewise, the livelihood zoning exercise and available National Agricultural Census data were used as the basis for selecting a number of variables to focus on as part of the zoning process, such as the types of farmers in each zone, their assets, the intended uses of their output, existing hazards, and strategies for

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6 http://www.ocavi.com/index.php?mod=el_salvador

http://www.ocavi.com/index.php?mod=el_salvador


dealing with crop failure. Note that only the most relevant quantitative and qualitative livelihood data are examined.

The following suggested breakdown of the country into different livelihood zones is a means of describing and explaining all the aforesaid differences. It is based on the proposed livelihood zoning system developed by country stakeholders extremely knowledgeable about conditions in rural areas of the country, the review of secondary data, and field verifications. In effect, it divides the country into the following six zones:

Zone 1. Staple grain and labor zone Zone 2. Coffee, agro-industrial, and labor zone Zone 3 Sugarcane and agro-industrial zone Zone 4. Eastern staple grain, livestock, and remittance zone Zone 5. Central free-trade and industrial labor zone Zone 6. Fishing, aquaculture, and tourism zone

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Sources of Food and Income: Main Conclusions and Implications

The inequities in access to food and income found all across Central America, as well as in property ownership, have created a situation in which household livelihoods are polarized by wealth. With their lack of capital and investment funds, members of poor and middle-income households earn their living primarily through wage labor and by selling part of their output, while better-off households take advantage of the situation by hiring this labor to increase their output. Household livelihoods are relatively similar in most zones, but vary according to the types of activities involved, which are generally shaped by agro-ecological and wealth-related factors and establish a pattern for determining the level of household income and the way in which households obtain their food supplies.

Sources of Food

The main staples of the Salvadoran diet (beans, corn, and rice) are all produced locally. Sources of food access for Salvadoran households include on-farm production, purchasing, fishing, foraging for wild plant foods, hunting, and distributions of free food aid in certain areas.

Household crop production plays an important role in rural areas, particularly in the case of poor and middle-income households, who meet part of their yearly food needs through on-farm production of staple grain crops, but are forced by adverse climatic and agro-ecological conditions, limited access to land and technology, a lack of storage facilities, and inadequate access to information for maximizing their output to supplement their diet with purchased foods.

The poor have limited access to livestock and, thus, to related animal products, whose production costs are unaffordable for this group of households. Thus, livestock are not a major source of food for poor households. Middle-income households have somewhat better access to livestock and are able to supplement their diet with animal products. Fishing can also be an important household food source, depending on location.

The main source of food for better-off households is purchasing. Their income allows them to select and buy the types of food they prefer to eat. Their crop and animal production is earmarked mainly for sale on export and domestic markets and, to a much smaller extent, for household consumption.

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0% 50% 100%

Staple grain and labor zone

Coffee, agro-industrial, and labor zone

Sugarcane and agro-industrial zone

Eastern staple grain, livestock, and remittance

zone

Central free-trade and industrial labor zone

Fishing, aquaculture, and tourism zone

Zon

e 1

Zon

e 2

Zon

e 3

Zon

e 4

Zon

e 5

Zon

e 6

POOR

0% 50% 100%

MIDDLE

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

BETTER-OFF

Crop production

Animal production

Purchasing

Fishing, hunting, and foraging for foodFood aid

Fishing

Other


Figure 1. Breakdown of Sources of Food by Livelihood Zone

Sources of Income

The main income-generating activity for poor households in El Salvador is wage labor in crop-farming and livestock-raising activities, as well as in factories and free trade zones. The most important source of income for better-off households in rural areas of the country is the sale of crops and livestock, together with other types of businesses and trade.

Middle-income households have the most diversified sources of income, which make them less vulnerable to food insecurity by giving them more options in crisis situations. Examples include, but are not limited to, wage labor, sales of crops and livestock, and business and trade in general. Large-volume sales of crops and livestock for export or domestic markets are the main source of income for better-off households.

Shortages of jobs are a problem in most of the country’s livelihood zones. The combination of their limited access to income-generating activities and heavy dependency on purchased food supplies makes the poor especially vulnerable to increases in food prices and cuts in employment putting their food security at risk.

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0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%




Eastern staple grain, livestock, and remittance zone



Zon

e 1

Zon

e 2

Zon

e 3

Zon

e 4

Zon

e 5

Zon

e 6

POOR

0% 50% 100%

MIDDLE-INCOME

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

BETTER-OFF

Sale of firewood

Retail trade

Sale of large animals and animal productsSale of small animals and animal productsWage labor

Medium-size wholesale businessesRemittances

Sale of crops


Figure 2. Breakdown of Sources of Income by Livelihood Zone

Farmers and Farm Workers

The analysis of 2005 Agricultural Census data breaks down farmers by type and livelihood zone. According to the census data, most of the country’s 325,044 small farmers are concentrated in staple grain-producing areas, underscoring the importance of these crops in rural areas. Most of its 70,544 commercial farmers are concentrated in coffee-growing areas, since these farming activities require larger amounts of investment and infrastructure (Table 1).

Fishing areas and free trade zones have the smallest percentage of farmers, which could be due to the limited access to land in these areas and to their location, as well as to the predominant role of fishing activities in these areas.

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–

–

– --

–


Table 1. Breakdown of Farmers by Livelihood Zone

Livelihood Zone Total Small Farmers

Total Commercial Farmers

1 Staple grain and labor zone 111,389 17,918

34 25

2 Coffee, agro-industrial, and labor zone 74,848 21,714

23 31

3 Sugarcane and agro-industrial zone 44,707 11,191

14 16

4 Eastern staple grain, livestock, and remittance zone 61,072 9,915

19 14

5 Central free-trade and industrial labor zone 21,764 6,281

7 9

6 Fishing, aquaculture, and tourism zone 11,264 3,527

3 5

TOTAL 325,044 70,544

100 100

Source: Constructed by the author based on 2005 National Agricultural Census data

A breakdown by type of activity shows most small farmers in all livelihood zones devoted to growing staple grains. This is easily explained by the fact that staple grains are the mainstay of the Salvadoran diet and an important part of its farming tradition. Large numbers of small farmers also raise livestock, primarily in livelihood zones 1 and 4 (the staple grain and eastern livelihood zones).

Commercial farmers concentrated mainly in the coffee-growing zone account for most coffee and fruit and vegetable production (Table 2).

Table 2. Breakdown of Farmers by Agricultural Activity

21

Livelihood Zone

Total Number of Farmers by Activity

Group 1 Staple Grains Group 2 Industrial Activities

Group 3 Fruits and Vegetables

Group 4 Coffee

and Forest Crops

Group 5 Livestock raising and Bee

keeping

Group 6 Aquaculture

SF CF SF CF

Staple grain and labor zone 110,737 13,818 2,545 5,942 4,171 13,337 9,403 139

Coffee, agroindustrial, and labor zone

74,597 11,042 1,351 7,245 13,327 6,106 4,251 47

Sugarcane and agroindustrial zone

44,245 8,490 2,435 4,197 993 6,302 5,824 44


60,533 8,922 712 2,441 1,399 13,567 7,131 58


21,662 2,761 377 3,106 2,780 1,542 1,078 15

-


Fishing, aquaculture, and tourism zone 11,164 2,720 509 2,096 138 1,626 1,572 58

SF = small farmers; CF = commercial farmers Source: Constructed by the author based on 2005 National Agricultural Census data

The main source of income for the poor is temporary and full-time employment. The livelihood zone with the largest number of wage earners is the coffee-growing zone, followed by the sugarcane and agro-industrial zone and the central free-trade and industrial labor zone (Table 3).

Table 3. Total Numbers of Wage Earners by Livelihood Zone

Full time Workers Temporary Workers

1 Staple grain and labor zone 11,753 137,870

20 19

2 Coffee, agro-industrial, and labor zone 17,908 318,621

30 44

3 Sugarcane and agro-industrial zone 11,172 95,648

19 13

4 Eastern staple grain, livestock, and remittance zone 5,171 52,752

9 7

5 Central free trade and industrial labor zone 10,950 93,525

19 13

6 Fishing, aquaculture, and tourism zone 1,921 17,807

3 2

Total 58,874 716,223

100 100


Most temporary employment is in the coffee-growing zone, where there are more than 300,000 casual laborers, followed by staple grain and sugar cane-producing areas. The pattern is similar for full-time employment (Table 4).

Table 4. Numbers of Temporary Workers by Activity and Livelihood Zone

22

Livelihood Zone Total Numbers of Temporary Workers by Activity

Miscellaneous Activities

Group 1 – Staple Grains

Group 2 – Industrial Activities

Group 3 – Fruits and Vegetables

Group 4 – Coffee and

Forest Crops

Group 5 – Livestock-raising and

Bee-keeping

Group 6 – Aquaculture

Staple grain and labor zone 94,914 9,430 18,076 1,587 10,697 3,146 20

23 34 25 15 6 39 6


163,406 7,564 6,113 3,953 136,278 1,304 3

39 27 9 38 77 16 1

Sugarcane and agro-industrial zone 61,992 4,368 25,043 1,558 1,092 1,521 73

15 16 35 15 1 19 22


46,484 3,418 65 239 1,523 1,022 0

11 12 0 2 1 13 0

Central free trade and industrial 41,062 2,097 20,679 2,059 26,791 813 23


labor zone 10 8 29 20 15 10 7

Fishing, aquaculture, and tourism 13,346 979 1,915 1,012 0 347 208 zone 3 4 3 10 0 4 64

Total 421,205 27,857 71,891 10,408 176,382 8,153 327

100 100 100 100 100 100 100


Hazards and Response Strategies

The most common hazards in El Salvador are climate-related, including too much or too little rainfall, an extended mid-summer heat wave and dry spell in the middle of the rainy season (known as the canícula), and regular floods and droughts. Increases in prices for food and farm inputs are another major hazard. According to the agricultural census data, the latest reported crop failures were attributable mainly to climatic hazards, followed by crop pests and other causes.

The eastern zone has been especially hard hit by droughts. Flooding problems are also responsible for crop failures in the sugar cane and agro-industrial zone (Table 5).

Table 5. Causes of Crop Losses by Small Farmers

Livelihood Zone Total Farmers Cause of Crop Failure

Drought Flood Pests Other Causes

Staple grain and labor zone 35,874 30.9 26.6 29.0 29.1


23,958 28.6 28.5 29.3 27.3


14,691 39.0 31.7 21.0 19.6


13,634 51.7 20.6 13.7 19.8

Central free trade and industrial labor zone

5,815 23.1 30.5 26.4 40.3


4,048 33.0 45.0 12.9 19.4


Households generally take different types of measures to deal with these different hazards, such as selling a larger portion of their food reserves, skipping meals, selling livestock, engaging in other types of business activities, usually informal trade, or heavier labor migration. Some of these strategies may undermine their food security and limit their ability to cope with future crises.

According to the agricultural census data, the most common household strategies in response to crop failures were to take no action whatsoever, to engage in other income-generating activities, and to use their savings to buy food (Table 6).

Table 6. Response Strategies of Small Farmers to Crop Failures

23


Livelihood Zone Response Strategy

None Other Use of Help from Sale of Aid from the Charity business savings to friends or land/ government/other activities buy food relatives animals organizations


40.9 33.7 17.5 6.1 5.2 0.8 0.3


46.3 33.3 14.5 4.0 4.4 0.2 0.1

Sugarcane and agroindustrial zone

42.0 30.1 19.3 6.1 5.5 0.7 0.3

Eastern staple grain, 39.7 23.5 28.1 6.4 6.1 0.2 0.4 livestock, and remittance zone

Central free trade and industrial labor zone

22.6 53.2 20.0 4.8 2.0 0.5 0.2


41.6 33.3 18.7 5.1 5.2 0.3 0.1


24

–

– -


Summary of Livelihood Zones

Livelihood Zone 1 Staple Grain and Labor Zone

Livelihood Zone 2 Coffee, Agro industrial, and Labor Zone

This livelihood zone covers a Foods Corn tortillas

large part of the western and Beans Rice central reaches of the

country. Average annual rainfall is 1,800 mm. Staple grain production, a Sources of Sale of crops portion of which is sold by Income Wage labor

local households as a source Sale of large and small animals of income, with the

remainder used for household consumption, and the employment opportunities afforded by these farming activities are

the drivers of the local economy. The zone is criss-crossed by a number of well- Livestock Poultry

maintained major arteries connecting it with numerous urban markets. Holdings Pigs Cattle The main hazards in this zone are climatic anomalies and increases in prices for

farm inputs.

This zone located in the central mountain range includes a small annex in Foods Corn tortillas

Morazán department. Average Beans Rice annual rainfall is 1,900 mm.

Local livelihoods revolve around coffee-growing and the Sources of Sale of coffee

employment opportunities Income Wage labor in

afforded by these activities. In coffee-growing operations addition to growing coffee, local

households also grow and sell fruits, vegetables, and staple grain crops and raise small Livestock Poultry animals (mainly chickens and Holdings Pigs

goats). Goats

The well-maintained road Cattle

network connects local farmers with major regional and national markets. The main hazards affecting this zone are a decline in international coffee prices, too much or too little rainfall, and high winds.

25

– -

–


Livelihood Zone 3 Sugarcane and Agro industrial Zone

Livelihood Zone 4 Eastern Staple Grain, Livestock, and Remittance Zone

This zone, which lies mainly in Foods Corn tortillas

the coastal lowlands, also Beans

includes parts of San Vicente and Rice

areas to the northwest of San Salvador. Average annual rainfall is 1,700 mm.

Sources of Sale of sugar The main income-generating Income cane activity in this zone is the Wage labor Sale growing of sugar cane, both as a of livestock, milk, source of sugar production and and dairy

as a source of employment on products

sugar cane plantations. The main hazards in this zone are

droughts, occurring at regular intervals, crop pests, and wind damage, which is a yearly phenomenon, generally resulting in production shortfalls and/or crop failures and affecting household income.

Livestock Poultry Holdings Pigs

Cattle

This zone, which covers San Miguel, Foods Corn tortillas Beans La Unión, and Morazán

departments, lies in the driest part Rice

Sources of Wage labor of the country. Average annual Income Sale of crops rainfall is 1,800 mm. This livelihood

Sale of livestock zone includes large areas occupied by staple grain crops, pasturelands, and forests. Crops such as corn and beans are grown for both household consumption and sale. Sorghum is grown as fodder for Livestock Poultry

livestock and is also marketed. Local livelihoods include livestock-raising. Holdings Pigs The well-maintained road network connects all municipalities in this zone to Cattle

major domestic markets, as well as markets in Honduras. The main hazards are droughts, forest fires, crop pests, and increases in prices for farm inputs.

26

–

–


Livelihood Zone 5 Central Free Trade and Industrial Labor Zone

Livelihood Zone 6 Fishing, Aquaculture, and Tourism Zone

This zone is largely made up of the San Foods Corn tortillas

Salvador and Ciudad Arce metropolitan Beans

areas, plus parts of La Libertad and La Rice

Paz. Average annual rainfall is 1,800 mm. The sources of income in this zone are informal trade and formal and informal employment in the textile industry, the Sources of Temporary and service industry, and the Income full-time wage

manufacturing industry, as well as in labor

stores or businesses, food stands, tailor shops, etc. Increases in staple food prices are a concern for local residents, who are virtually entirely dependent on wage labor as their sole source of income for buying food. Excessive rainfall is a major hazard in this zone.

Livestock Poultry Holdings Pigs

This zone runs from the coast inland, Foods Corn tortillas

forming a one to five kilometer-wide Beans

coastal belt stretching the length of the Rice

country’s coastline from the northern Fish

reaches of the Gulf of Fonseca to the Guatemalan border. Average annual rainfall is 1,700 mm. Local households are primarily dependent Sources of Artisan fishing on artisan or small-scale fishing activities Income Sale of fish

as their main source of food and income. Fishing

Some local residents are employed in the equipment rental

tourism industry, and households with access to land grow staple grain crops for household consumption, though they do not produce enough to meet their annual needs. Thus, the main source of food for most households in this livelihood zone is purchasing.

Livestock Poultry The coastal highway runs the length of the coast, linking local communities and Holdings Pigsconnecting them with most of the country’s major north-south arteries, ensuring

a regular, year-round flow of trade. The main hazards in this zone are excessive rainfall, winds, and El Niño and La Niña phenomena.

27


LIVELIHOOD PROFILES

Livelihood Zone 1: Staple Grain and Labor Zone

Staple Grain and Labor Zone

Main Conclusions and Implications

Staple grain crops drive the local economy and provide households with a supply of corn and beans to meet their food needs throughout the year. Output varies with access to land and farm implements and equipment. Thus, the poorest households produce fewer crops and use them mostly for household consumption. They also sell part of their crops to pay off debts or to buy essential food or nonfood items. In contrast, better-off households produce enough for household consumption and are also able to market their crops and maximize their profits by better timing their sale.

All local households supplement their diet by purchasing other types of foods. Some households are able to supplement their diet with animal products (milk, meat, and eggs). The types and amounts of food purchased vary according to household income. Better-off households will buy higher-quality foods, including both grain and meat, whereas the poor will buy more grain.

Staple grain production and the employment opportunities afforded by these farming activities are the cornerstone of the local economy in this livelihood zone. Whereas better-off households earn most of their income from sales of staple grain crops, most of the income earned by poor households is from wage labor on the farms of better-off households paying an average daily wage of between US$5.00 and

28


US$6.00. Sales of varying amounts of crops and of a few chickens or pigs according to household needs and the volume of production are another source of household income in this zone. A small percentage of local households receive remittances, primarily from the United States.

The zone is criss-crossed by several well-maintained major roadways connecting it with numerous urban markets. However, the deterioration in road conditions between these cities and local villages during the rainy season limits shipments of crops from more remote areas.

Staple grain crops are sold on local markets or to middlemen, who ship them to larger markets within and outside the livelihood zone. Small animals (such as chickens and pigs) are also sold on local markets, whereas cattle are purchased by traders directly from their owners or shipped to larger weekly markets (“tiangues”) for sale.

The labor market in this livelihood zone is restricted to employment in staple grain-farming activities. Some workers may also look for temporary employment in neighboring villages or outside the area or engage in informal trade. Others migrate to the United States.

Local households are forced to resort to different types of strategies when confronted by problems threatening to limit their access to food and income. The poorest households primarily sell firewood, engage in labor migration to sugar cane and coffee-growing areas, sell more crops from their staple grain reserves and more small animals, and forage for wild plant foods. Better-off households will sell more crops from their staple grain reserves and hire fewer outside workers, replacing them with family members.

Livelihood Zone Description 7

This expansive livelihood zone covers a large part of the western and central reaches of the country. Average annual rainfall is 1,800 mm.

Households in this zone depend mainly on staple grain-farming activities and wage labor on other farms or small holdings. They also raise small (chickens and pigs) and large (cattle) animals, depending on their income level.

Close to 90% of small farmers and 40% of commercial farmers are engaged in these activities. Miscellaneous activities such as field clean-up, fence repairs, etc. provide temporary employment for nearly 70% of the local population. Livestock-raising is an important occupation for 26% of commercial farmers (Table 7).

7 The field work for the construction of this profile dates back to June of 2010. The information in the profile is based on the seasonal calendar

for a relatively “normal” year by local standards (i. e., a year in which food security cnditions were neither good nor bad).

29


Table 7. Breakdown of Farmers and Wage Earners in LZ 1 by Agricultural Activity

Type of Activity Wage Earners Farmers

Full-time Workers

Temporary Workers

Small Farmers

Commercial Farmers

Miscellaneous Activities 8,629 94,914 - -

73.4 68.8 - -

Group 1 – Staple Grains 286 9,430 110,737 13,818

2.4 6.8 89.3 38.4

Group 2 – Industrial Activities 172 18,076 - 2,545

1.5 13.1 - 7.1

Group 3 – Fruits and Vegetables 260 1,587 - 5,942

2.2 1.2 - 16.5

Group 4 – Coffee and Forest Crops 274 10,697 - 4,171

2.3 7.8 - 11.6

Group 5 – Livestock-Raising and Bee-Keeping 2,055 3,146 13,337 9,403

17.5 2.3 10.7 26.1

Group 6 – Aquaculture 77 20 - 139

0.7 0.0 - 0.4

TOTAL 11,753 137,870 124,074 36,019

100 100 100 100


Other sources of household income in this livelihood zone include sesame,8 balsam, vegetable, and other types of crop and animal production, trade, and fishing in local rivers and lakes, which is an alternative source of income for close to 12,000 fishermen, supplemented by grain production.

The food security of most local residents hinges on staple grain production (corn and beans) for household consumption. Better-off households also grow crops for sale. Thus, any threat to local crops will have negative consequences from a food security standpoint and by limiting household sources of income.

Limited crop diversification, particularly in the case of the zone’s poorest households, the limited use of modern technology, the low educational level of local residents, and shortages of necessary resources for diversification are all examples of barriers to local development.

Sesame crops are grown in Juayua, Salcoatitlán, Santa Catarina, Masahuat, Nahuizalco, and Izalcoamo.

30

8


Markets

The main crop and livestock markets are based in local capitals. The zone’s extensive road network provides good market access. Only in the rainy season is there any problem navigating local roads, which can restrict the flow of commodities trade.

Staple grain crops are marketed through middlemen, who buy them directly from local farmers and then ship them to market. Livestock are sold on weekly markets (“tiangues”) held in municipal marketplaces, from where they are shipped to larger markets or slaughterhouses.

Staple grain-farming activities and, to a smaller extent, vegetable farming, informal trade, and livestock-raising are the main sources of employment in this livelihood zone. The majority of the population is employed as day laborers by middle-income and better-off households. Local residents also engage in labor migration to coffee-growing and, in some cases, sugar cane areas. The share of the population engaging in regular migration to the United States is minimal.

Seasonal Calendar

Staple grain production is the mainstay of the local economy. There are two corn and bean harvests, the first of which accounts for 60% of annual output. In general, half of the second corn and bean harvest is put up for sale.

There is internal migration for the staple grain harvest in April and May. Out-migration for the coffee and sugar cane harvest extends from October to March.

Staple grain prices rise in the weeks leading up to the harvest, between May and July, at the very time of year when it is hardest to maintain access to income with the unavailability of employment opportunities in farming and livestock-raising operations, which could create food insecurity problems. The local population will intensify its search for local employment, sell firewood, and forage for wild plant foods at this time of year to help fill this income gap.

The main hazards in this zone are climatic anomalies in the form of excessive rainfall or droughts affecting staple grain-farming activities, which are the main occupation in this livelihood zone. Crop pests and high winds are latent hazards.

31


Seasonal Calendar

Zone 1: Staple Grain and Labor Zone

Land Prep. Planting Weeding Harvesting

SEASONS

CROPS

ABCABC

PoorPoorPoorAll Decrease Increase Decrease Increase Decrease

All Increase Decrease Increase Decrease Increase Decrease

All Decrease Increase Decrease

All Increase Decrease Increase Decrease

Dry seasonRainy season

Season BSeason A -> Season C

Dry Spell

C ->

All

All

Corn

Beans

Wealth

Groups Season

Lean season

Growing seasons

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Dengue fever

Bean prices

OTHERLocal wage laborLabor migration

Respiratory infectionsWinds

Sorghum pricesRice prices

HAZARDSDroughtExcessive rainfallCrop pests

SorghumRice

Off-farm employmentCorn prices

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400


Ave

rage

mo

nth

ly r

ain

fall

(in

mill

ime

ters

)

Breakdown by Wealth Group

The wealth groups in this livelihood zone are broken down into poor, middle-income, and better-off households based on differences in their access to land and in their production systems.

The production system of poor households with limited access to land is based on staple grain (corn and bean) production for household consumption, though they also plant small areas in tuber and/or vegetable crops to help meet their food needs, generally on leased plots of land. Some poor households also raise poultry for on-farm consumption. They have no cattle or other large animals. They are repeatedly forced to resort to wage labor to supplement their farm income.

32

-


Middle-income households are peasant farmers who own their own land (0.5 – 2 “manzanas”),9 which is very intensively farmed. However, the small volume of farm income generated by their farming activities makes them subsistence farmers with a limited income-earning capacity. For this group of households, off-farm employment is a way of boosting their income. With the small size of their farm units, they rely on family labor and hire very little outside labor. Their equipment consists of small farm implements and small-scale basic infrastructure.

Better-off households are farmers who have been able to increase their staple grain production through intensive farming methods, using plows and farm inputs allowing them to plant larger areas in crops and boost crop yields. They have an average of 4 manzanas of land. Some households with less land will lease small plots of land from neighboring households to plant grain crops and graze their animals. They generally rely on family labor but may hire casual laborers to prepare their fields for the planting of crops. This group of farmers has basic key farming equipment such as plows, backpack pumps, pack animals and oxen, etc. Due to their limited access to land, they have an average of only 2 head of stock (Table 8).

Table 8. Breakdown of Households in LZ 1 by Wealth Group

% Population House hold Size

Land Tenure

Assets Staple Grain Reserves

Productive Activities

Small and Large Animals

Poor households 15% 6 to 8 1 mz of leased land

Small implements (hoe, pick, shovel),

with no post-harvest storage facilities

12 months

Subsistence staple grain

farming activities and on-farm

employment as day laborers

10 to 15 chickens

Middle-income households

60% 5 to 6 0.5 to 2 mz of

family-owned

land

Small implements, spray pump

12 months

Subsistence staple grain and

vegetable farming activities and on-farm employment

as day laborers

15 to 20 chickens

Better-off households

25% 4 to 5 3 to 4 mz of family-

owned land

Small farm implements, spray

pump

12 months

Livestock-raising, subsistence

farming, and sale of staple grain

crops

15 to 20 chickens, 1 to

2 head of cattle

Source: Constructed by the author, July 2010

91 manzana = 0.7 hectares

33


Breakdown by Type of Farmer

According to the agricultural census data, small farmers in this livelihood zone have access to an average of 1.2 manzanas of land, whereas commercial farmers have access to 13.6 manzanas of land. During the census reporting period, 375,499 manzanas of land (47%) were planted in crops, with small farmers working an average of 1 mz of land and commercial farmers an average of 4 mz.

Livestock-raising is another important occupation in this livelihood zone, with commercial farmers owning an average of as many as 31 head of stock per household. Most local households raise small animals (chickens and pigs) and some commercial farmers run poultry farms.

The storage methods most commonly used in this livelihood zone are grain elevators and other storage systems such as sacks, containers, bunkers, etc. (Table 9).

Table 9. Land Tenure, Livestock Holdings, and Storage Systems in LZ 1 by Type of Farmer

Small Farmers Commercial Farmers

Total Farmers 111,389 17,918

Total Average Total Average

Land Tenure and Use (mz)

Forms of Land Tenure Land ownership

Leasing

Tenant farming

Other

Total

Land Use Crops

Permanent pastures

Fallow land

Seasonal pastures

Bodies of water

Misc. facilities

Forests

Unproductive land

Total

62,042 0.6

60,149 0.5

- -

9,912 0.1

132,103 1.2

103,018 0.9

- -9,681 0.09

15,274 0.14

- -1,875 0.02

- -2,255 0.02

132,103 1.2

62,042 11.4

60,149 1.3

- 0.4

9,912 0.5

132,103 13.6

75,954 4.2

27,061 1.5

18,937 1.1

91,075 5.1

152 0.0

3,275 0.2

20,557 1.1

6,385 0.4

243,396 13.6

Livestock (units) Cattle

Pigs

Poultry

69,255 6.9

12,377 7.6

58,637 48.2

256,629 31.9

38,553 121.0

3396,632 4,298.2

34

-

-


Storage Units Metal silos 11,678 0.2 3,071 0.5 Grain elevators 71,888 1.3 8,133 1.4 Storehouses - 131 0.0 Granaries 588 0.0 48 0.0 Other 27,925 2.2 2,532 2.6


Sources of Food

Differences in the assets and productive activities of different wealth groups affect their food access and income level and determine the share of their income used to buy food and the types of foods included in their diet. All households get part of their food supply from crop-farming and livestock-raising activities and part from purchasing (Table 10).

Table 10. Breakdown of Sources of Food in LZ 1

Sources of Food Poor Households

Middle Income

Households

Better Off Households

Household production from small animals x x x

Household production of milk and dairy products x

Crop production x x

Purchasing x x x Source: Constructed by the author, July 2010

Though the incomes of poor households are too low to cover the cost of the basic food basket, their main source of food is purchasing, which accounts for approximately 65% of their supply of staple grains. Their limited access to land precludes their being self-sufficient.

On-farm production by middle-income households meets half their staple grain needs. These households supplement their diet by raising poultry and growing small amounts of vegetables, relying on purchasing to meet their remaining needs. Thus, for these households, wage income is crucial to cover their unmet food needs.

Better-off households grow their own staple grain crops and rely on purchasing for 25% of their food supply. Their diet includes other types of foods, particularly animal products, which their higher income level allows them to afford, while the other two groups of households have a poor diet consisting mainly of staple grains, a few vegetables, and eggs (Figure 3).

35


35

55651

5

1064

4025

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

Poor Middle-Income Better-Off

Purchasing

Animal production

Crop production

Figure 3. Sources of Food in LZ 1


Sources of Income and Patterns of Migration

The main sources of income for local households in this livelihood zone are staple grain production and wage labor in grain-farming activities.

Poor households earn relatively little income from crop and animal production. Most of their income comes from casual employment as day laborers, followed by the sale of firewood and income from informal trade, which is comparatively minor.

Though middle-income households plant larger areas in staple grain crops, they have hardly any marketable surpluses, using their larger harvests mainly to ensure their food self-sufficiency. Thus, they look for other types of farmwork and off-farm employment (wage labor, trade) to try and augment their household income.

Better-off households have more diversified sources of income and larger grain harvests. Thus, their income includes earnings from the marketing of part of their crops, the sale of milk, and business and trade. Foreign remittances account for a relatively small share of the incomes of middle-income and better-off households, but help supplement household needs. The amounts of these remittances vary (Figure 4).

Most migration is internal. Women will travel to near-by cities or town to sell fruits or vegetables or to look for jobs as domestic workers. Some households migrate to sugar cane and coffee-growing areas for the harvest, at the end of the year, returning home in March to prepare their land for the next growing season.

36


101

5

50

10

5

25

10

5

5

18

35

50

70

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%


On-farm employment as day laborersSale of crops

Remittances

Medium-size wholesale businessesWage labor

Sale of small animals and animal productsSale of large animals and animal productsRetail trade

Figure 4. Sources of Income in LZ 1


Hazards

The most common hazards in this livelihood zone are rainfall anomalies in the form of excessive rainfall or droughts, as well as infestations of crop pests and strong winds.

Rainfall anomalies, crop pests, and winds all affect harvests, reducing crop yields and, thus, the volume of production. This translates into lower incomes from crop sales and less demand for farm labor. A decline in labor needs will cause poor households to migrate to other areas in search of work or to try and sell more firewood. Middle-income households will replant their crops and look for work within or outside the area, whereas better-off households will scale back their on-farm investments.

Response Strategies

The main strategy for poor and middle-income households in this livelihood zone is to look for work on local farms or outside the area. Household members may engage in temporary migration in search of work in staple grain-farming activities. Another option, particularly for the poor, is the gathering and sale of more firewood.

There is regular migration to the United States, particularly by members of middle-income and better-off households who have or are able to borrow enough money to cover the cost of the trip.

The sale of poultry and pigs, as a form of household savings, is another common strategy. The gathering and sale of wild plant foods and fruits, mainly by women and children, is another alternative source of income in times of crisis.

37


Early Warning Indicators

The imminent crisis indicators identified in this livelihood zone are as follows:

Rainfall anomalies, associated with a 15 to 30-day lag in the beginning of the rains in the month of June; or

An extension of the mid-summer dry spell in July by more than 15 days, which is an indicator of problems with the harvest;

An extension of the rainy spell in September by more than 3 days, which is an indicator of problems with the bean harvest in particular.

38

-


Livelihood Zone 2: Coffee, Agro Industrial, and Labor Zone

Coffee, Agro-Industrial, and

Labor Zone


Coffee is the driver of the local economy in this livelihood zone and dominates the landscape. Staple grain crops are grown in what are, basically, subsistence farming activities producing an average of 45 to 60 quintals10 of corn and 18 to 25 quintals of beans. This volume of production, which is generally achieved only by middle-income and better-off households, will cover household food needs for the entire year, while poor households rely mainly on purchasing for most of their food supplies.

The other occupation in this zone is wage labor on coffee plantations or other local farms, which pays an average daily wage of US$4.00 or US$1.00 per arroba (approximately 25 lbs.) of coffee beans harvested. Other sources of income include the sale of firewood, primarily in the dry season, and the sale of fruit

10 1 quintal = 45 kilograms

39


and small animals. Better-off households earn most of their annual income from sales of coffee and livestock (mainly goats, sheep, and chickens).

As in other parts of El Salvador, a well-maintained road network connects local farmers with major regional and national markets. However, there is a sharp deterioration in road conditions between local capitals and rural villages during the rainy season.

In general, farmers have no problem selling their crops. However, heavy rainfall in certain parts of the altiplano or high plateau region can isolate these areas. Small farmers sell their coffee crops to local coffee mills, which process them for sale on domestic and international markets. Other products such as fruit and small animals are sold locally.

There is a large demand for labor for the coffee harvest, which should provide jobs for most of the local population. However, migrant workers from Honduras and Nicaragua flooding the area with cheap labor force local residents to look for work in other municipalities like Sonsonate, La Libertad, and Santa Ana, both within the livelihood zone and in other parts of the country.

In times of crisis, the poor will sell part of their food reserves or small animals, look for work within and outside the zone, and gather and sell firewood and wild plant foods as a means of access to food or income. Better-off households tend to cut their spending, hire less outside labor, use fewer farm inputs, and look for self-employment opportunities in business and trade.

The main constraints for local farmers lie in their poor access to land and the lack of temporary employment. Any improvement in their standard of living is closely pegged to better land access and to the production dynamics of medium and large-scale farmers growing coffee or (to a smaller extent) raising livestock, to provide more employment opportunities for the local farm population. Better access to financing for buying land for certain high-potential groups of farmers in this category (those growing vegetables or coffee or with other year-round plantations) would help improve their development prospects.

Another constraint affecting the local population has to do with fluctuations in coffee prices, which have sharply cut household income, affecting the hiring of outside labor and the upkeep of local plantations. In spite of these problems, farmers in this livelihood zone have been more effective in managing crises due to their greater diversification. However, their lack of capital is preventing them from hiring enough outside labor and using enough inputs to properly maintain their coffee plantations. One possible medium-term option for this group of farmers is to switch from traditional coffee plantations to more organic farming systems to help lower their production costs and raise their income. Training and/or technical assistance are essential in making this transition.

Livelihood Zone Description

This livelihood zone located in El Salvador’s central volcanic mountain range includes a small annex in the northwestern reaches of Morazán Department. Average annual rainfall is 1,900 mm.

40


Local livelihoods are largely dependent on coffee-growing activities and the employment opportunities afforded by these activities, which create 136,278 temporary jobs. This is the main occupation of 35% of commercial farmers, followed by the growing of staple grains and fruits and vegetables (Table 11).



Full-time Workers

Temporary Workers

Small Farmers

Commercial Farmers


60.9 51.3 - -


1.9 2.4 79.3 29.6

Group 2 – Industrial Activities 221 6,113 - 1,351

1.2 1.9 - 3.6


1.2 1.2 - 19.4

Group 4 – Coffee and Forest Crops 5,167 136,278 13,327 13,327

28.9 42.8 14.2 35.8


5.8 0.4 6.5 11.4

Group 6 –Aquaculture 11 3 47 47

0.1 0.0 0.0 0.1

TOTAL 17,908 318,621 94,077 37,263

100 100 100 100


In addition to growing coffee, local households also grow and sell fruits, vegetables, and staple grains, though on a smaller scale. They raise small animals (chickens, pigs, and goats), which they use to supplement their diet and as a source of income at certain times of the year. Better-off households have larger numbers and a larger variety of different animals and may also raise cattle.

Household food access in this livelihood zone hinges on wage labor and the sale of part of the staple grain (corn and bean) harvest earmarked for on-farm consumption. Better-off households may also sell part of their harvest. Thus, any threat to local crops will have negative consequences by hurting productivity and reducing the use of outside labor, undermining food access by curtailing food production and limiting sources of household income.

Limited crop diversification, particularly in the case of the poorest households, the limited use of modern technology, the low educational level of local households, and the lack of necessary funding to improve diversification are all barriers to local development.

Markets

The main crop and livestock markets in this livelihood zone are based in local capitals. Only in the rainy season is there any problem navigating local roads. The area’s well-maintained main road network connects local farmers with major regional and national markets.

41

Seasonal Calendar

Zone 2: Coffee, Agro-Industrial, and Labor Zone


SEASONS

CROPS

All A

All A

All

All

All

All

Poor

Poor


Better-off Increase Decrease Increase

Lean season

DecJan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Oct Nov

Tropical storms

Rice

Coffee

OTHER

Tourism

HAZARDS

Low coffee prices

Wealth

Groups

Prices for farm inputs

Staple food prices

Citrus fruits

Local wage labor

Labor migration

Sep

Dry SpellDry season

Rainy season

Jul

Season

Crop pests

Drought

Aug

Corn

Beans

Sorgum

Season AGrowing seasons

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400


Ave

rage

mon

thly

rai

nfal

l(in

mill

imet

ers)


Coffee is sold directly by farmers to large coffee mills within the livelihood zone, where it is processed for sale on the domestic and international market. The small amounts of staple grains marketed by local farmers are purchased directly from the farmers by middlemen, who then ship them to market. Fruits, vegetables, and chickens are sold locally or shipped to local markets. Livestock are sold on weekly markets (“tiangues”) held in municipal marketplaces, from where they are shipped to larger markets or slaughterhouses.

Seasonal Calendar

The coffee harvest, which is the main economic activity in this livelihood zone, begins in October and runs until sometime in February or March. Staple grain crops (corn and beans), which are used almost entirely for household consumption, are planted beginning in April and harvested in September. There are two citrus harvests, one between March and June and the other in August/September, which help supplement the income of many local households.

The peak hiring season in this livelihood zone coincides with the coffee harvest (between October and February). Out-migration picks up between February and April, coinciding with the decline in labor needs on local coffee plantations.

42


Staple grain prices rise in the weeks leading up to the harvest, between May and August, which is the very time of year when it is hardest to maintain access to income with the unavailability of employment opportunities in farming and livestock-raising operations. In response, local residents will intensify their job search, sell more firewood, and forage for wild plant foods to help fill this income gap.

The main hazards in this zone have to do with trends in international coffee prices, which dictate production levels which, in turn, affect hiring. Other hazards include crop pests, high prices for farm inputs, and climatic anomalies.


Poor households in this livelihood zone are peasant farmers with little or no access to land. Due to the small size of their farm units (0.5 to 2 manzanas), they are looking to intensively farm their land by planting permanent crops. However, their survival depends on outside wage labor (harvesting the coffee crop, mowing grasslands used as pastures, etc.) and the leasing of land from other farmers.

The assets of this group of farmers consist mainly of small farm implements and a backpack pump. They normally have no cattle, but most have anywhere from 10 or 15 chickens. Their small output and limited access to land (which is generally leased) prevents them from producing enough to live on, which is why the majority of these households rely on wage labor or engage in other off-farm activities.

Middle-income households are small farmers with small amounts of land per family worker, but with good land access and favorable agro-ecological conditions for growing coffee. Most of their land is devoted to growing annual and permanent crops like coffee and bananas. The main elements of their farming systems include the growing of coffee and bananas and other types of crops (fruit orchards), with small areas planted in vegetables. They produce very little grain.

In addition to their land (4 to 10 manzanas) and coffee plantations, this group of farmers owns small farm implements and equipment, including a pulper, plow, and four-wheel-drive vehicle. Some also have livestock (5 to 6 head of stock). They mainly rely on family labor, but will also hire casual labor for the coffee harvest and/or to maintain their coffee plantations. They have regular access to credit and technical assistance.

Corn and beans are the crops most commonly grown by poor and middle-income farmers. Most production is used to meet household needs. A small number of these farmers with better market access and access to some form of irrigation will plant small areas in vegetable crops for commercial sale.

The last wealth group consists of better-off, well-capitalized farming households in areas with favorable agro-ecological conditions for growing coffee, which offers the highest returns on family labor and the largest profits. Their main resources are their land (50 to 200 manzanas), plantations, and large capital assets like pulpers, pickup trucks, coffee mills, etc. They also have small dairy herds (with 30 to 50 animals). They create large numbers of jobs, hiring as many as 20 temporary workers. They have the best access to financing and technical assistance services of any group of farmers (Table 12).

43


The importance of agriculture for this group of households is reflected in the weight given to permanent plantations and annual crops in their pattern of land use. These farmers maintain large residual forests as fertility reserves, giving them a certain amount of flexibility to adapt their activities to fluctuations in the relative prices of different types of crops. While the main focus of this group of farmers is clearly on growing coffee, their farming system is relatively well-diversified thanks to the area’s generally good agro-ecological conditions allowing them to grow a variety of different crops (bananas, fruits, vegetables, etc.)


% Population Household Size

Land Tenure Assets Staple Grain Reserves


Small and Large

Animals

Poor households 80% 5 to 6 Limited, precarious land access

through leasing or

sharecropping arrangements

(0.5 to 2 manzanas)

Small farm implements, spray pump

4 months Subsistence staple grain-farming

activities; on-farm employment as

day laborers

10 to 15 chickens


15% 4 to 5 Access to small plots of family-owned land (4 to 10 manzanas)

Animal-drawn equipment, spray

pump, barrels, threshing machine

12 months

Staple grain-farming activities

plus coffee plantations,

combined with small-scale

livestock-raising for household consumption

Small dairy cattle herds with 5 to 6

head of cattle,

chickens


5% 4 to 5 50 to 200 manzanas in a single land

holding

Coffee mill 12 months

Coffee-growing, dairy farming,

livestock-raising, and subsistence

farming

30 to 50 head of

livestock plus chickens



According to the agricultural census data, small farmers have access to an average of 0.95 manzanas of land, nearly all of which is planted in crops. Commercial farmers have 11 manzanas of land, planting an average of 8 manzanas in crops.

Most land is occupied by crops, followed by seasonal pastures and forests, in that order. Poultry farming is the main livestock-raising activity in this livelihood zone, which has a number of poultry farms. Some parts of the zone are used for raising cattle. Herd size is estimated at 80,000 head.

44


The most commonly used storage methods in this zone are grain elevators and other storage systems such as sacks, containers, bunkers, etc. (Table 13).







Leasing

Tenant farming

Other

Total

Land Use Crops

Permanent pastures

Fallow land

Seasonal pastures

Bodies of water

Misc. facilities

Forests

Unproductive land

Total

30,990

33,727

-

6,031

70,748

60,471

-2,901

4,733

-1,714

-928

70,748

0.41

0.45

-

0.08

0.95

0.81

-0.04

0.06

-0.02

-0.01

0.95

221,894

10,119

6,140

7,702

245,855

187,698

5,941

9,966

15,250

10

4,406

17,482

5,101

245,855

10.22

0.47

0.28

0.35

11.32

8.64

0.27

0.46

0.70

0.00

0.20

0.81

0.23

11.32


Pigs

Poultry

24,891

5,300

27,683

5.52

7.07

62.41

54,118

12,506

14710,712

20.11

65.33

30,548.22

Storage Units Metal silos

Grain elevators

Storehouses

Granaries

Other

5,151

47,396

759

26,597

0.21

0.83

0.02

0.01

2.14

1,492

7,340

240

163

2,940

0.12

1.03

-

0.02

2.78 Source: Constructed by the author based on 2005 National Agricultural Census data

Sources of Food

Differences in the productive assets and activities of the three wealth groups affect their food access and income level and determine the share of their income used to buy food and the types of foods included in their diet. Purchasing and farming are the main sources of food in this livelihood zone (Table 14).

45

-

-


15

50 50

1

5 1084

45 40

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%


Purchasing

Animal production

Crop production



Middle Income

Households


Household production from small animals x

Household production from large animals x x

Crop production on family-owned land x x x

Crop production on leased land x

Purchasing x x x Source: Constructed by the author, July 2010

Poor households rely on purchasing for most of their food supplies. Their poor access to land limits their volume of production, allowing them to grow enough food to meet their needs for an average of only 4 months out of the year.

On-farm production by middle-income households covers half their food needs in an average year, supplemented by purchasing and by small and large animals and animal products. Crop and animal production by better-off households covers 60% of their food needs, supplemented by purchases of generally high-quality foods and animal products, which their higher income level allows them to afford.



46



Sources of Income and Patterns of M igration

Coffee growing is the main income-generating activity in this livelihood zone, through the sale of coffee crops and wage labor in related activities. Earnings from on-farm crop and animal production account for a relatively small share of the income of poor households. The largest share of household income comes from wages, followed by sales of firewood and other income from informal trade, which is comparatively minor.

A third of the income of middle-income households comes from coffee-growing, staple grain-farming, and livestock-raising activities, though not all middle-income households engage in these latter activities. They supplement their income by engaging in wage labor and trade. Certain households also receive remittances.

Better-off households are agricultural entrepreneurs, marketing most of their output, which accounts for an average of 80% of their income. Their high income enables them to afford to supplement their output with purchases of foods which tend to improve their diet.


20

5

5

2015

8 102

10

70 7060

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%


On-farm employment as day laborers

Sale of crops

Remittances

Medium-size wholesale businesses

Wage labor

Sale of small animals and animal products

Sale of large animals and animal products

Retail trade

Sale of firewood

Most labor migration is internal, even in times of crisis. Women will travel to near-by cities to sell crops or to look for jobs as domestic workers. The area is flooded with migrant workers from other parts of the country at harvest time to help bring in the coffee crop.

47


Hazards

The main hazard in this livelihood zone has to do with the price of coffee, which affects production and, thus, demand for labor, which is the main source of income for most poor households in this zone.

The steady rise in prices for farm inputs poses another hazard, prompting households to limit their use, which is affecting crop yields and contributing to infestations of crop pests.

Climatic anomalies in the form of excessive rainfall or droughts can also affect crop production in this zone, reducing output, limiting food availability for household consumption, creating production shortfalls, and cutting employment.

Response Strategies

The main strategy for poor and middle-income households in this zone is to look for work on local farms or in other parts of the country. Another important strategy for poor households is to sell more firewood.

Other common household strategies include the selling of small animals and the growing of vegetable crops. Foraging for wild plant foods and the selling of fruit, mainly by women and children, are alternative sources of income in times of crisis.

There is regular migration to the United States, mostly by members of middle-income and better-off households who have or are able to borrow enough money to cover the cost of the trip.



A slowdown in rainfall activity between March and May, preventing coffee plants from flowering and affecting the harvest, and rainfall anomalies, associated with a 15 to 30-day lag in the beginning of the rains in June; or

An extension of the mid-summer dry spell in July by more than 15 days, which is an indicator of problems with the harvest;

An extension of the rainy spell in September by more than 3 days, which is an indicator of problems with crops in general and with bean crops in particular;

Sustained winds for a period of 2 to 3 days, affecting the fruit of the coffee plant and spoiling the harvest.

48

-


Livelihood Zone 3: Sugarcane and Agro Industrial Zone

Sugarcane and Agro-Industrial

Zone


The main activity in this livelihood zone is the growing of sugar cane, which generates the most employment, crowding out staple grain-farming and livestock-raising activities. Local residents either work on sugar cane plantations or lease their land for the growing of sugar cane.

There has been a steady expansion in the size of the area devoted to growing sugar cane, limiting the area used to grow food crops for household consumption. As a result, the poorest households are unable to grow enough food to live on for the entire year. Thus, purchasing is the main source of food in this livelihood zone.

Poor households grow crops on 1 to 2 manzanas of land under tenant farming arrangements, using their harvest to pay for the use of the land and the cost of farm inputs and keeping the rest for household consumption. So-called “better-off” households with better land access are able to devote more land to growing staple grain and other crops and, thus, to earmark part of their output for sale. They are also

49


able to supplement their diet with a larger variety of animal products such as milk and cheese from their own livestock herds.

Employment opportunities on sugar cane plantations and in the sugar cane industry provide poor households in this livelihood zone with most of their yearly income, which is supplemented by sales of chickens and part of their crops in times of crisis. Better-off households earn most of their income from the marketing of their sugar cane crops, followed by sales of staple grain crops, small animals, and dairy products or livestock.

Sugar cane is sold directly to processing plants within the livelihood zone, while staple grain crops (corn and beans) are sold to middlemen, who then ship them to regional and national markets. Some farmers with large enough harvests will stockpile their grain crops for marketing in later months when they are able to command higher prices.

A well-maintained road network ensures a smooth year-round flow of commodities within and out of the zone. Labor needs in the sugar cane industry are met locally. There is regular migration to Usulután, San Salvador, or San Miguel between November and April. In addition, the Temporary Protected Status (TPS) program11 giving Salvadorans in the United States temporary resident status is an important alternative source of income.

The main hazards in this zone are droughts, which occur at regular three to five-year intervals, crop pests, and wind damage, which is normally a yearly phenomenon, limiting and/or creating shortfalls in crop and animal production and affecting household income. Should these hazards occur, poor households will make up for any losses by looking for extra work within and outside the zone and selling part of their grain reserves or some of their small animals, if they have any. “Better-off” households with more productive assets will sell larger amounts of staple grain or other crops and cattle and scale back their on-farm investments and the hiring of outside labor.

The expansion of sugar cane farming activities also poses a hazard to this area and adjacent areas due to the harmful effects of the pesticides and fertilizer used to grow these crops. Another problem presented by the expansion of these farming activities has to do with the consolidation of land holdings purchased from cooperatives or individual farmers in crisis by large agricultural entrepreneurs with easy access to bank credit and large amounts of capital for buying up land. The purchasing of livestock or investments in nonfarm businesses (such as supermarkets, finance companies, gas stations, etc.) are another form of the consolidation of wealth.

11 The Temporary Protected Status (TPS) program gives eligible Salvadorans meeting specific requirements temporary resident

status.

50



This livelihood zone, which lies mainly in the coastal lowlands, also includes parts of San Vicente and a few areas northwest of San Salvador. Average annual rainfall is 1,700 mm.

Sugar cane operations provide 25,000 temporary jobs, with other miscellaneous activities (field cleanup, fence repairs, etc.) creating another 61,992 jobs. Twenty-six percent of commercial farmers are engaged in livestock-raising, followed by staple grain production and the growing of industrial crops, in that order (Table 15).

Though most of the land in this area is used for the growing of sugar cane on large plantations, many households also grow corn and beans for on-farm consumption and keep a few chickens, particularly in the case of poor households. Better-off households also raise pigs and cattle. The municipalities of Aulingo and Ixalco are traditional livestock-raising areas, providing jobs for more than 300 households in local dairies.


Activity Wage Earners Farmers

Full-time Workers

Temporary Workers

Small Farmers

Commercial Farmers


68.7 64.8 - -


1.5 4.6 87.5 38.6

Group 2 – Industrial Activities 1,026 25,043 - 2,435

9.2 26.2 - 11.1


1.6 1.6 - 19.1

Group 4 – Coffee and Forest Crops 51 1,092 - 993

0.5 1.1 - 4.5


17 2 12 26


1.6 0.1 - 0.2

TOTAL 11,172 95,648 50,547 21,983

100 100 100 100


Household food access in this livelihood zone hinges on wage labor and the sale of part of the harvest of staple grain (corn and bean) crops earmarked for on-farm consumption.

Better-off households are large-scale sugar cane farmers, while poor and middle-income households lease land to sugar cane growers or work as laborers on sugar cane plantations. Limited crop diversification and the displacement of staple grain crops by the expansion in sugar cane-farming areas pose a hazard, particularly to poor and middle-income households, by making them more dependent on

51

Seasonal Calendar

Zone 3: Sugarcane, Agro-Industrial, and Labor Zone


SEASONS

Season A

Season B

CROPS

Wealth

Groups Season

A

B

A

B

All

Increase Increase

All Increase

Poor

Poor

Poor

All

Poor Increase

Poor

Growing seasons

Dry Spell

Jan Feb Mar Apr

Dry season

Rainy season

Months of food reserves

Livestock prices

OTHER

Staple food prices

Sale of sugarcane by-products

Labor migration (coffee)

DecMay Jun Jul Aug NovOctSep

Sugarcane

LIVESTOCK

Winds

HAZARDS

Crop pests

Animal diseases

Floods

Illness

Crop diseases

Drought

Dairy product prices

Beans

Labor - staple grains

Labor - sugarcane

Corn

Lean season

Milk and dairy products

All

All

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400


Ave

rage

mon

thly

rai

nfal

l(in

mill

imet

ers)


food supplies purchased on local markets.

Markets

All sugar cane is sold to sugar mills within the livelihood zone, in San Miguel, San Vicente, San Salvador, Ahuachapán, and Sonsonate. Area roads are well-maintained and serviceable year-round.

Other crop and livestock markets are based in local capitals. Only in the rainy season is there any problem navigating local roads. A well-maintained main road network connects area farmers with major regional and national markets.

Staple grains sold by local farmers are purchased directly from the farm by middlemen, who then ship them to local or major markets. Livestock are sold on weekly markets (“tiangues”) held in municipal marketplaces, from where they are shipped to larger markets or slaughterhouses.

Seasonal Calendar

52


Sugar cane farming activities reach their height at harvest time, between November and February, which is also the peak hiring period, attracting large numbers of migrant workers from all parts of the country, as well as from neighboring countries like Nicaragua and Honduras.

There are two staple grain (corn and bean) harvests. The first runs from August to September, followed by a second harvest in November / December. Virtually all grain production is used for on-farm consumption.

Staple grain prices rise in the weeks leading up to the harvest, between May and July, which is the very time of year when it is hardest to maintain access to income with the unavailability of job opportunities in farming and livestock-raising operations. In response, local households will intensify their job search, sell more firewood, and forage for more wild plant foods to help fill this income gap.

The main hazards in this livelihood zone are climatic anomalies and winds, which primarily affect subsistence crops with the widespread use of modern technology in sugar cane farming activities. Other hazards include crop pests and high prices for farm inputs, translating into low crop yields.


Poor households in this livelihood zone do not own their land or homes. At best, they have access to a small plot of land on a landlord’s estate. Due to their precarious land access, the entire household, including any children over the age of 10, will look for work as farmhands as a way to earn extra income. These households have very few capital assets and infrastructure, which are limited to a few small farm implements. Very few poor households have backpack pumps and grain storage facilities.

With their limited if any access to land, their farming system involves the growing of staple grain (corn and bean) crops on 1 or 2 manzanas of land with virtually no farm inputs as a way to meet household food needs. Those with small plots of land turn them into family vegetable gardens in which they will also grow “guineos” (green bananas) or tuber crops. Many of these households raise poultry and some also have one or two pigs. However, their crop and animal production generates very little household income, which consists mostly of wage income.

Middle-income households are more reliant on crop and animal production than the poor. Some may even raise cattle and grow a wider variety of crops such as sugar cane, staple grains, bananas, etc. In addition to their better access to land, they also have animal drawn equipment allowing for the more intensive farming of these crops.

Better-off households in this zone are well-capitalized farmers using large amounts of labor, inputs, and equipment. This group of households consists of medium-size and large farmers generally engaged in growing sugar cane and in extensive livestock-raising activities which, together with mechanized single crop-farming activities, provide summer feed for raising livestock.

These households have large land holdings ranging in size from 20 to 50 manzanas. Some may even have more than 50 manzanas of land, oftentimes on 2 or more estates. They employ an average of anywhere from 8 to 20 full-time workers and hire large numbers of casual laborers, mainly at harvest

53


time. Family labor is used only to run the farm. Some especially large entrepreneurs will hire outside managers to run their farm-based businesses. They have ample amounts of equipment at their disposal (Table 16).

Their farming system is a combination of sugar cane farming and livestock-raising activities (which are being steadily scaled back due to the larger returns provided by sugar cane). Their mix of crops (sugar cane and sorghum) produces crop residues for feeding their livestock during the summer months, which is vital to keep production levels at an average of 4 liters / cow during the dry season.

Table 16 . Breakdown of Households in LZ 3 by Wealth Group


Land Tenure

Assets Staple Grain Reserves


Small and Large

Animals

Poor households 80% 6 to 8 No land of their own (in some cases a

small plot of land), access to 1/2 to 3

mz of leased land

Small farm implements (hoe, pick, shovel), with

no post-harvest storage facilities

3 - 4 months

Subsistence farming of

staple grain crops and on-

farm employment

as day laborers

10 to 12 chickens


18% 5 to 6 Access to 4 to 10 mz

of land


pump, barrels

12 months Mixed farming (staple grains,

sugar cane, bananas) with

animal traction,

combined with small-scale livestock-

raising

Small cattle herd with 5 to 10 head of cattle, chickens, and pigs


2% 4 to 5 20 to 50 mz of land

Tractors and farm implements,

vehicles, storehouses

12 months Mechanized sugar cane

faming with or without

livestock-raising

Varies from one

household to another



According to the agricultural census data, on average, small farmers have access to 1 mz of land and commercial farmers to 14 mz of land, corresponding to the wealth groups of poor and middle-income households, respectively, used for purposes of the livelihoods analysis.

54


Land use is divided mainly between crops and seasonal pastures. Cattle-raising and the raising of other small animals are important occupations for commercial farmers.

The storage methods most commonly used in this livelihood zone are grain elevators, other storage systems, and, to a smaller extent, silos (Table 17).







Leasing

Tenant farming

Other

Total

Land Use Crops

Permanent pastures

Fallow land

Seasonal pastures

Bodies of water

Misc. facilities

Forests

Unproductive land

Total

22,655 0.51

23,555 0.53

- -

3,707 0.08

49,917 1.12

42,355 0.95

- -1,972 0.04

4,275 0.10

- -967 0.02

- -348 0.01

49,917 1.12

134,240 12.00

20,058 1.79

5,868 0.52

5,403 0.48

165,569 14.79

86,271 7.71

17,492 1.56

8,262 0.74

41,261 3.69

224 0.02

2,787 0.25

6,345 0.57

2,928 0.26

165,569 14.79


Pigs

Poultry

35,843 6.41

5,086 7.98

7,143 36.03

183,697 37.28

10,018 52.23

1978,355 8,690.20


Grain elevators

Storehouses

Granaries

Other

5,584 0.40

23,247 0.69

0.02

527 0.02

16,327 4.28

1,927 0.18

3,396 0.85

172 -

75 0.02

2,632 3.30 Source: Constructed by the author based on 2005 National Agricultural Census data

Sources of Food

The main sources of food in this livelihood zone are food purchases and crop and animal production (Table 18).

55

-

-


12

402

10

20

84

50

80

2

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%


Fishing, hunting, and foraging for food

Purchasing

Animal production

Crop production



Middle Income

Households


Household production from small animals x

Household production from large animals x x

Crop production on family-owned land x x x


Purchasing x x x

Poor households rely on purchasing for most of their food supplies. Even with half their harvest earmarked for household consumption, their limited access to land prevents them from producing enough to meet their needs. Middle-income households have more diversified sources of food. Still, household crop and animal production meets only half their annual food needs and must be supplemented by purchasing.

Purchasing is also the main source of food for better-off households. These households generally do not live on farms but, rather, in the city, and are able to afford to purchase their food supplies.



56

20

5

5

2015

8 102

10

70 7060

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%



Remittances





Sugar cane is the driver of the local economy in this livelihood zone and the main income-generating activity for the local population. Members of poor households earn a living by working as laborers in sugar cane operations, supplementing their wage income by selling firewood and a small portion of their harvest to cover expenses for the following growing season, and by engaging in retail trade.

Middle-income households earn most of their income by growing staple grains, sugar cane, and bananas and raising livestock, which they supplement through wage labor or by engaging in trade. Some households also receive remittances.

Better-off households are agricultural entrepreneurs, marketing most of their output, which accounts for an average of 80% of their income. Their higher income level allows them to afford to supplement their output with purchases of foods which tend to improve their diet (Figure 8).



Most labor migration is internal, even in times of crisis. Some residents will migrate to the city or, depending on their income level, to the United States. Women will travel to near-by cities to sell crops or to look for jobs as domestic workers.

57


Hazards

Climatic anomalies in the form of excessive rainfall or droughts can affect crop production in this livelihood zone, lowering output, limiting food availability for household consumption, creating production shortfalls, and cutting employment.

The steady rise in prices for farm inputs is another hazard, prompting households to scale back their use, which is affecting crop yields and contributing to infestations of crop pests.

Response Strategies

The main strategy for poor and middle-income households in this livelihood zone is to look for local on-farm employment. Another strategy is to sell more firewood.

Other regular household strategies involve sales of small animals, foraging for wild plant foods, and fishing.




A slowdown in rainfall activity between March and May, preventing coffee [sic] plants from flowering and affecting the harvest, and rainfall anomalies, identified with a 15 to 30-day lag in the beginning of the rains in the month of June; or

An extension of the mid-summer dry spell in July by more than 15 days, which can indicate problems with the harvest;

An extension of the rainy spell in September by more than 3 days, which can indicate problems with the bean harvest in particular.

58


Livelihood Zone 4: Eastern Staple Grain, Livestock, and Remittance Zone

Eastern Staple Grain, Livestock,

and Remittances Zone


The eastern zone lies in the driest part of the country. Local livelihoods revolve around staple grain farming activities and wage labor in related activities, dual-purpose livestock-raising, and labor migration to the United States.

Staple grain crops from subsistence farming activities are primarily used for household consumption. Poor households farm an average of 0.5 manzanas of land, with crop yields ranging from 50 to 60 quintals per mz. Thus, their limited production capacity forces them to rely on market buying to meet most of their food needs, plus whatever they can get from selling chickens. Middle-income households supplement their grain production with small-scale livestock-raising.

59


So-called “better-off” households produce larger amounts of crops, which gives them more income from crop sales and allows them to time their sale according to movements in prices. They also devote larger areas to growing sorghum, which is either sold or used to feed their own livestock. The main source of food for this group of households is purchasing, who have high enough incomes to afford to purchase their food supplies, which are supplemented by animal products (milk and dairy products, meat, and eggs).

As in other livelihood zones, poor households earn most of their income from wage labor on other farms and estates and from the sale of poultry or of their own meager food reserves in times of crisis. The main source of income for better-off households is the sale of cattle, followed by the sale of staple grain crops and remittances from family members living and working outside the area, in some cases, in San Salvador, but mostly in the United States, which are used primarily to buy more livestock.

A well-maintained road network connects all municipalities in this zone with major domestic markets, as well as markets in Honduras. Local households are able to sell their output (staple grains and livestock) year-round without any problem.

Staple grain crops and livestock are sold locally or to middlemen, who then ship them to larger market centers. This is the source of most of the staple grains purchased by the local population.

More than half the labor force is employed locally, though some laborers also look for better-paid work outside the area. Daily wage rates range from US$6.00 to US$7.00. The Temporary Protected Status (TPS) program giving Salvadorans in the United States temporary resident status encourages temporary migration, especially from this livelihood zone, which is a major destination for foreign remittances from that country. Even with the financial crisis in the United States, which has sharply reduced the flow of remittances, this is still an important option for local households.

Households in this livelihood zone resort to different types of response strategies to make up for shortfalls in their income. Thus, poor households will sell part of their staple grain reserves, poultry, and firewood and engage in other types of business activities such as informal trade, contraband, etc. “Better-off” households will sell more head of cattle, scale back their use of outside labor, sell more crops from their staple grain reserves, and send more household members off to work in major cities and, in particular, in the United States.

The main constraints for poor households in this livelihood zone are difficulties finding well-paid jobs and increasingly limited access to land for growing subsistence crops. These problems are at the root of their high rates of under-employment, particularly during the dry season, and their increasingly critical state of poverty. As a result, this group of households is becoming more and more impoverished and is under increasing pressure to migrate to the city or other countries (like the United States).

The main constraints for middle-income and better-off households vary according to their location and market access. For those with poor market access, market entry would help boost the value of their milk production and promote a more intensive system of production, improving their productivity and slowing down the conversion of larger tracts of land to pastures. The main constraint for those with better market access is their limited access to technology to help increase their milk production to improve their situation and boost their potential. Access to credit is also limited and, with this gap filled by remittances, the decline in remittances as a result of the global financial crisis is creating yet another production constraint.

60



The eastern zone, covering the departments of San Miguel, La Unión, and Morazán, lies in the driest part of the country. Average annual rainfall is 1,800 mm. The local landscape is dominated by grain fields, pasturelands, and forests. Crops like corn and beans are grown for household consumption and for sale. Sorghum is grown as fodder for cattle and is also marketed.

Eighty-two percent of small farmers and 43% of commercial farmers grow staple grain crops. Miscellaneous on-farm activities account for 88% of all temporary employment in this zone and 89% of all full-time employment (Table 19).



Full-time Workers

Temporary Workers

Small Farmers

Commercial Farmers


89 88 - -


1 6 82 43

Group 2 – Industrial Activities 4 65 - 712

0 0 - 3

Group 3 – Fruits and Vegetables 15 239 - 2,441

0 0 - 12

Group 4 – Coffee and Forest Crops 31 1,523 - 1,399

1 3 - 7

Group 5 – Livestock-Raising and Bee-Keeping 493 1,022 13,567 7,131

10 2 18 35

Group 6 – Aquaculture 2 - - 58

0 - - 0

TOTAL 5,171 52,752 74,100 20,663

100 100 100 100


Food access for poor households in this livelihood zone hinges on wage labor in farming activities and the sale of a negligible part of their harvest to cover expenses for the following growing season. Middle-income households also grow staple grain crops for on-farm consumption, combined with livestock-raising activities as a source of income and generally also receive remittances.

Better-off households with access to more land are more focused on livestock-raising activities and trade. They also receive larger remittances, which are used to buy more livestock.

61

Seasonal Calendar

Zone 4: Eastern Staple Grain, Livestock, and Remittance Zone


SEASONS

Dry Spell

Season A Season B

CROPS

Wealth

Groups Season

A

B

All

All

All

Better-off

All

Poor

Poor


All

Poor Increase Decrease

MayMar Apr

Farm labor

OTHER

LIVESTOCK

Jan Feb

Lean season

Rainy season

Dry season

Growing seasons

Labor - livestock-raising and milk production

Crop pests

DecJun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov

Irrigated vegetable crops

Vegetables

Sorghum

Corn

Beans

All

Animal diseases

Remittances

Milk and dairy products

Livestock sales

Forest fires

Prices for farm inputs

Staple grain prices

HAZARDS

Floods

Droughts

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400


Ave

rage

mon

thly

rai

nfal

l(in

mill

imet

ers)


Markets

The staple grain crops grown in this zone are sold locally or, in some cases, to middlemen, who ship them to major markets. The main market centers in this livelihood zone are San Miguel, Usulután, and Morazán.

Livestock are sold on weekly markets or “tiangues” held in municipal marketplaces, from where they are shipped to larger markets or slaughterhouses. Milk and cheese/milk curd are normally sold locally.

There is good year-round market access. Only a few rural villages experience any problems during the rainy season, which does not impede the flow of commodities trade.

Seasonal Calendar

There are two corn harvests. The first falls sometime in August / September, followed by a second harvest in November / December. Practically the entire harvest is used for household consumption.

62


White sorghum and bean crops are harvested once a year, in August and October/November, respectively. The timing of vegetable crops depends on the use of irrigation.

Staple grain prices rise in the weeks leading up to the harvest, between May and July, which is the very time of year when it is hardest to maintain access to income with the unavailability of employment opportunities in farming and livestock-raising operations. In response, local residents will intensify their job search and sell more firewood.

The main hazards in this livelihood zone are climatic anomalies in the form of excessive rainfall and regular droughts affecting staple grain production. Other hazards include crop pests and high prices for farm inputs, which can reduce crop yields. This zone is also prone to outbreaks of forest fires in the first half of the year.


Poor households in this livelihood zone are peasant farmers with very little if any land of their own engaged in growing staple grain crops and in raising small animals. They also generally rely on seasonal employment in staple grain-farming activities or outside the area, harvesting coffee and sugar cane crops, or employment as day laborers on the stock farms of near-by middle-income households and farm owners. Their equipment consists of small farm implements, machetes, picks, hoes, etc.

Middle-income households are farmers devoted almost exclusively to growing annual crops, which occupy more than half their land, with only extremely small areas planted in permanent crops. They grow staple grain crops for household consumption, which do not meet all their needs, resorting to wage labor or engaging in other off-farm activities as sources of disposable cash income. The main types of crops produced by this group of households are corn, beans, or white sorghum in drier areas. They may also plant small areas in vegetable and tuber crops and a combination of banana and other fruit trees as companion crops. Very few of these households own spray pumps, and their access to plows and draft animals varies according to their ability to save up enough to afford these types of animals.

Some of these households may have a few head of livestock, leasing pasturelands or taking advantage of grain crop residues or grasses growing along rural roads and highways to produce milk for household consumption. In some cases, their herds will include a team of oxen. The high stocking rates associated with these livestock-raising activities are a reflection of the limited land access of this group of households, whose animals are usually extremely poorly nourished during the summer months and oftentimes forced to graze alongside local roads or wherever they can find anything to eat. These households will often grow companion crops, mainly corn in combination with beans or white sorghum in combination with corn, due to their limited access to land or the high risks presented by climatic anomalies in this zone.

The last group of households is that of better-off households, which are well-capitalized farmers whose relatively extensive livestock-oriented system of production is designed to maximize profits and returns on family labor. These households live and work on their farm but, unlike the other groups of households, are more dependent on wage income and remittances, which can amount to as much as US$400/month and which are oftentimes invested in other nonfarm activities such as the livestock

63


trade. They have comparatively more land (3 or more manzanas) and livestock capital (25 to 30 head of stock) than the other two groups of households. Though relying mostly on family labor, they also hire large numbers of outside workers. These households have regular access to credit and technical assistance (Table 20).

Livestock-raising activities are the mainstay of their production system, supplemented by crop production, which is generally used mainly for on-farm consumption. Their livestock are generally dual-purpose animals. Those located farthest from major arteries and markets have more extensive livestock-raising activities with the accent on milk curd/cheese production and on the raising and fattening of young calves. Those with better market access have more intensive livestock production systems focused mainly on milk production. Though livestock-oriented, many of these households also grow corn and beans and, to a smaller extent, other crops such as tubers and bananas.





Small and Large

Animals

Poor households 85% 5 to 7 No land of their own

(sometimes a small plot

of land), access to

1/4 to 1 mz of leased

land

Small farm implements (hoe, pick, shovel), with

no post-harvest storage facilities

3 - 4 months

On-farm employment

as day laborers and

subsistence staple grain-

farming activities

5 to 6 chickens,

1 to 2 pigs


10% 4 to 5 Access to 1 to 3 mz of

land


pump, barrels

12 months Staple grain production

combined with small-scale livestock-raising for household

consumption

10 to 15 chickens,

1 to 2 pigs, and

1 to 5 head of cattle


5% 4 to 5 3+ mz of land


pump, barrels

12 months Dairy farming milk

(cheese/milk curd)

production plus fattening of steers and subsistence staple grain-

farming activities

25 to 30 head of cattle, 5 to 6 pigs,

and 35 to 50

chickens


64



According to the agricultural census data, the main uses of land in this livelihood zone are for seasonal pastures, crops, and permanent pastures, in that order. On average, small farmers have access to 1.6 mz of land and commercial farmers to 16.5 mz, corresponding to the wealth groups of middle-income and better-off households, respectively, used for purposes of the livelihoods analysis.

This livelihood zone has the country’s largest cattle herd, with a total of 400,000 head of cattle. Pig-raising and poultry farming are also important activities. The storage methods used in this livelihood zone include grain elevators, silos, and other storage systems (containers, sacks, etc.) (Table 21).







Leasing

Tenant farming

Other

Total

Land Use Crops

Permanent pastures

Fallow land

Seasonal pastures

Bodies of water

Misc. facilities

Forests

Unproductive land

Total

57,314 0.94

35,790 0.59

- -

5,621 0.09

98,725 1.62

60,121 0.98

- -10,672 0.17

24,905 0.41

- -1,220 0.02

- -1,808 0.03

98,725 1.62

129,730 13.08

19,382 1.95

8,213 0.83

7,084 0.71

164,409 16.58

34,033 3.43

20,507 2.07

14,563 1.47

84,434 8.52

16 0.00

2,263 0.23

5,818 0.59

2,773 0.28

164,409 16.58


Pigs

Poultry

81,974 6.93

10,664 6.98

25,176 25.28

208,938 31.68

14,255 30.81

398,854 895.65


Grain elevators

Storehouses

Granaries

Other

9,175 0.64

33,444 0.90

0.03

906 0.01

18,935 3.90

2,666 0.23

4,217 0.85

194 -

118 0.02


65

-

-

25

4050

10

2075

50

30

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%


Purchasing

Animal production

Crop production


Sources of Food

The main sources of food in this livelihood zone are staple grain crops grown for household consumption, backyard vegetable crops, and purchasing. The share of annual household consumption from each of these food sources varies according to each household’s production capacity and sources of disposable income (Table 22).



Middle Income Households


Household production from small animals x x X

Household production from large animals x X

Crop production on family-owned land x x X


Purchasing x x x

Fishing x Source: Constructed by the author, July 2010

Thus, poor households rely on purchasing for most of their food supply, since their limited land access enables them to grow only enough staple grains (corn and beans) to feed themselves for three months of the year.

Middle-income and better-off households are able to grow enough staple grain crops to feed themselves year-round and may supplement these crops with animal products (milk, cheese, eggs, and poultry) and purchased food items (Figure 9).



66

2030

1060

20

1020

10

10

20 20

70

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%



Remittances



Sale of firewood


Sources of Income and Patterns of Mig ration

Farming and livestock-raising are the main sources of income for the local population. Poor households rely on wage income from employment on farms and stock farms, which is supplemented by extra income from selling of firewood and a small part of their harvest used to cover expenses for the following growing season.

Middle-income households have more diversified sources of income ranging from staple grain production to animal production, wage labor, remittances, and trade. Better-off households raise livestock, earning more than half their income from milk production and dairy farming activities. They also sell part of their harvest of staple grain crops, run different types of businesses, and receive remittances.



Most labor migration is internal, even in times of crisis. Some local residents will migrate to the city or, depending on their income level, to the United States. Women will travel to near-by cities to sell crops or to look for jobs as domestic workers.

67


Hazards

Climatic anomalies in the form of excessive rainfall or droughts can affect local crop production, reducing output, limiting food availability for household consumption, creating production shortfalls, and cutting employment.

Steadily rising prices for farm inputs are another hazard, prompting households to limit their use, which is affecting crop yields and contributing to infestations of crop pests.

This livelihood zone lying in the driest part of the country is also prone to forest fires, which normally break out in the first half of the year, between January and the end of June. Animal diseases are another hazard in this area, which also tend to surge early in the year, during the dry season.

Response Strategies

The main strategies for poor and middle-income households in this livelihood zone are to look for work on near-by local farms and sell more firewood.

Other common household strategies include the selling of small animals, foraging for wild plant foods, and fishing.




A lack of rainfall activity in April, which is considered a harbinger of less-than-ideal rainy season conditions, causing many farmers to decide not to plant crops;

An extension of the mid-summer dry spell in July by more than 8 days, which is indicative of problems with the harvest and contributes to larger infestations of crop pests. This heat wave and dry spell known as the “canícula” generally occurs sometime between the first and third weeks of July.

An extension of the rainy spell in September and October by more than 3 days, which is indicative of problems with bean crops in particular.

68

-


Livelihood Zone 5: Central Free Trade and Industrial Labor Zone

Central Free-Trade and Industrial

Labor Zone


This livelihood zone encompasses the San Salvador and Ciudad Arce metropolitan areas, southeastern La Libertad, and southwestern La Paz. The main local livelihoods are wage labor, the operation of small businesses, and backyard vegetable and staple grain production by a limited number of area households.

The well-maintained road network and easy access to reasonably priced transportation services allow most of the local population to live in more affordable areas outside the city center and easily commute to their places of employment.

69


Some households have their own small vegetable gardens or will lease land for the growing of staple grain crops to help meet their annual food needs. However, practically all local households purchase most of their food supplies on local markets and in small shops or grocery stores. Some households raise chickens and pigs to round out their diet or as a source of income in times of need.

Households in this livelihood zone purchase different types of foods depending on their income level. Poor households mainly buy staple grains, whereas better-off households will purchase more animal products.

The main source of income for most of the local population is formal and informal employment in the textile industry, the service industry, and the manufacturing industry. Most of the labor supply is unskilled and reliant on seasonal demand. Better-off households are employed in these same areas, but tend to have more skilled jobs, as well as government jobs (as teachers, police officers or administrators). They also generate income from the operation of small shops or businesses, food stands, tailor shops, carpentry shops, etc.

An extensive network of paved roads helps ensure a steady, year-round flow of commodities into this livelihood zone from rural areas of the country, as well as from Nicaragua and Honduras, particularly staple grains. Food products are purchased from street vendors, temporary food stands, or formal markets such as small neighborhood stores and city marketplaces.

Practically all workers find local employment, in San Salvador and Ciudad Arce and other parts of the livelihood zone. However, as is the case in all other parts of the country, some local residents take advantage of the Temporary Protected Status (TPS) program to work in the United States and send remittances back home to their families.

Local residents, who are virtually entirely dependent on wage income for the purchasing of their food supplies, are concerned over rises in staple food prices. Thus, any decline in the demand for labor will also affect household purchasing power. The most common reactions by local households are to engage in informal trade and more migration and, in some cases, turn to crime.


Much of this livelihood zone lies in the San Salvador and Ciudad Arce metropolitan areas. It also extends into southeastern La Libertad and southwestern La Paz. Average annual rainfall is 1,800 mm.

Employment in the textile industry, the manufacturing industry, and the service industry is the main source of income for residents of this densely populated peri-urban area.

Small farmers in this livelihood zone grow staple grain crops. In addition to these crops, commercial farmers also grow fruits, vegetables, coffee, and forest crops. Miscellaneous activities account for 44% of all temporary employment in this livelihood zone, followed by coffee growing (29%) and aquaculture (23%) (Table 23).

70



Livelihood Zone 5 Wage Earners Farmers

Full-time Workers

Temporary Workers

Small Farmers

Commercial Farmers


69 44 - -


1 2 93 27

Group 2 – Industrial Activities 291 20,679 - 377

3 22 - 4


2 2 - 31

Group 4 – Coffee and Forest Crops 2,020 26,791 - 2,780

18 29 - 27

Group 5 – Livestock-Raising and Bee-Keeping 710 813 1,542 1,078

6 1 7 11


0 0 - 0

TOTAL 10,950 93,525 23,204 10,118

100 100 100 100


The food security of most of the population of this livelihood zone hinges on income from wage labor in free trade zones and industry, supplemented by small-scale garden vegetable and staple grain production by households with a little more land.

Markets

The main markets in this livelihood zone are located in its cities, to which its extensive road network provides good year-round access.

The main sources of employment are jobs in free trade zones, industry, informal trade, and small businesses such as grocery stores and food stands. Most local residents are wage earners and engage in regular migration to the United States.

71

Seasonal Calendar

Zone 5: Central Free-Trade and Industrial Labor Zone

LABOR

Wealth

Groups

AllAll

PoorPoor

OTHER

AllPoorPoor Increase Decrease Increase Decrease Increase

Jan Feb Mar

Temporary employment - free trade zones

Health (diarrhea, flu, dengue fever)

Floods

Staple grain prices

Landslides

All

Aug NovSep OctJun JulApr Dec

HAZARDS

Labor migration to San Salvador

Formal employment - industryFormal employment - free trade zones

Employment - construction

Informal tradeTrade

May

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400


Ave

rage

mo

nth

ly r

ain

fall

(in

mill

ime

ters

)


Seasonal Calendar

The main occupation in this livelihood zone is regular, year-round employment in free trade zones and industry. Demand for labor in free trade zones peaks between November and January. Labor needs in the construction industry are highest between January and April and October and December.

Food prices tend to rise in January / February, May, and between September and December, the months of the year when there are no harvests anywhere in the country.

The main hazards in this livelihood zone are floods and landslides, as well as health problems such as diarrhea, dengue fever, etc.


Households in this livelihood zone are broken down into three wealth groups (poor, middle-income, and better-off households) based on differences in their make-up and access to income.

Poor households are normally headed by women with from three to eight children, most of who are under the age of eight. Members of these households have little or no formal schooling. These households are generally found in the highest-risk areas of impoverished communities, on the edges of gulleys or ravines, on steep hillsides, and in dump sites. Their homes are rented or erected on

72


abandoned or unoccupied lots, constructed of tin sheeting or cardboard, and consist of a single room in which the entire family eats and sleeps, with an out-door latrine. Some of these communities have shared latrines. Their assets include a cooking stove, radio, beds, and a kitchen table. These households have no access to formal credit, only to informal credit from shopkeepers and market vendors.

Middle-income households generally consist of a couple with anywhere from three to seven children. The parents are usually literate and their school-age children attend school. Members of these households normally have little formal education and job training. The women are responsible for taking care of the house and the children, preparing meals, and bringing in income. These households are generally found in shanty-town areas exposed to contamination from nearby streams of raw sewage, or on unstable hillsides exposed to landslides. Most of these households rent or are in the process of buying their homes. The walls of their homes are constructed of different types of materials, with tin roofs. Most homes in low-income housing developments are built of cement block, with tin roofs. These households normally have a cooking stove, radio, television, two or three beds, an iron, and dining room furniture.


73




Small and Large

Animals

Poor households 85% 4 to 8 Generally rent their home

Furnishings (stove, radio,

beds, and kitchen table)

n/a Day labor


10% 4 to 8 Normally rent or are in the process of

buying their home

Furnishings (gas stove,

radio, television, two or three beds,

iron, and dining room furniture);

farming households have small

farm implements

3 to 4 months

(only a small percentage

of households engaged in

farming)

Wage labor as bricklayers,

drivers, cleaning

personnel, street

vendors, with women

employed as domestics; growing of staple grain

crops for household

consumption

5 to 6 chickens


5% 4 a 6 Normally rent or are in the process of

buying their home

Furnishings (propane

stove, refrigerator,

audio equipment,

iron, blender, radio,

television, and telephone or cell phone)

n/a Government workers, unskilled

workers in factories and

free trade zones, small businesses

5 to 6 chickens



Better-off households have four to six members, including two or three children, the eldest of who contribute to the household economy. On average, the parents have a complete primary education and, in some cases, the children have a complete upper secondary education, but with inadequate vocational training. These households will have a propane stove, a refrigerator, audio equipment, an iron, a blender, a radio, a television, and a telephone or cell phone. They have access to informal credit for buying food (Table 24).

They also have access to formal credit for home buying, home building, or home expansion projects and for obtaining legal title to their land. Thus, this group of households will spend most of its income on expanding and improving their homes.


According to the agricultural census data, small farmers have access to an average of 0.7 mz of land, whereas commercial farmers have 15.5 mz of land.

Most of the land in this livelihood zone is used as cropland, followed by forests and seasonal pastures.

Most commercial farmers in this livelihood zone have poultry and pig farms. Most small farmers primarily raise small animals. The main types of grain storage facilities are silos, grain elevators, and other storage systems (Table 25).







Leasing

Tenant farming

Other

Total

Land Use Crops

Permanent pastures

Fallow land

Seasonal pastures

Bodies of water

Misc. facilities

Forests

Unproductive land

Total

6,055 0.28

9,297 0.43

- -

1,369 0.06

16,721 0.77

15,141 0.70

- -875 0.04

363 0.02

- -254 0.01

- -89 0.00

16,721 0.77

85,582 13.63

2,820 0.45

2,186 0.35

4,594 0.73

95,183 15.15

66,200 10.54

2,029 0.32

3,921 0.62

6,052 0.96

5 0.00

1,588 0.25

10,793 1.72

4,595 0.73

95,183 15.15

Livestock (units)

74

8 102

5

90 85

100

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%


Purchasing

Animal production

Crop production


Cattle 7,906 4.91 25,026 42.86 Pigs 387 5.89 19,637 666.45 Poultry 3,002 113.60 5039,395 41,351.88

Storage Units Metal silos 1,941 0.16 464 0.13 Grain elevators 9,679 0.35 1,060 0.67 Storehouses 0.01 24 -Granaries 111 0.01 37 0.01 Other 9,891 1.35 755 3.35


Sources of Food

Poor and middle-income households buy their food daily. Food is the main household expense and is generally purchased in neighborhood shops or in the marketplace. Some households grow backyard crops and those who can lease small plots of land on which to grow staple grain crops.

The diet of both groups of households consists of corn tortillas, beans, vegetable oil, and, from time to time, rice, noodles or pasta, and eggs or cheese. They generally eat only two meals a day. The diets of middle-income households may also include chicken or meat from time to time.

Better-off households will buy several days worth of food at a time in supermarkets. Their diet is similar to that of the other two groups, but also includes milk. These households will also eat beef or chicken once or twice a week (Figure 11).



75

90

70

10

10

10

20

90

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%


Informal self-employment

Remittances


Retail trade

Wage labor



The main source of income for the poorest households in this livelihood zone is employment as day laborers. Their employment is extremely erratic, in activities such as washing and ironing clothes, selling goods in the marketplace with a minimal capital investment, and preparing and selling tortillas, or as sales clerks in neighborhood shops. The head of household has two or three jobs which bring in only small varying amounts of cash income.

Women in middle-income households are employed as domestic workers, cleaning personnel for businesses or office buildings, in free trade zones, or as street vendors. The men are employed as part-time bricklayers’ helpers, street vendors, chauffeurs or assistant chauffeurs, factory workers, bakers, government cleaning personnel, caretakers, and couriers. Their employment is extremely sporadic and insecure.

Members of better-off households in this zone have jobs with the government or in the private sector as factory workers in free trade zones, supervisors, store cashiers, secretaries, receptionists, teachers, seamstresses, tailors, mechanics, small shop owners, and taxi drivers, earning low but regular wages. They tend to supplement these wages with miscellaneous business activities (selling clothing, food, jewelry, etc.) Some households also receive family remittances. Their children are forced to begin working after completing their secondary education in order to support themselves and/or pay for the cost of post-secondary studies (Figure 12).



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Hazards

The main hazards in this livelihood zone are floods and landslides due to the location of many homes in high-risk areas for natural disasters, along with resulting fatalities, health problems and losses of homes. Mudslides triggered by torrential downpours during the rainy season cause some households to lose part of their belongings and, in some cases, even their homes. There is also a surge in childhood diseases at that time of year.

Increasing migration and population movements are breaking up families, leading to more and more cases of child abandonment, exploitation, and abuse, domestic violence, teenage pregnancies, the spread of HIV-AIDS, drug and alcohol abuse, a heightened vulnerability to natural disasters, and a rise in poverty.

It is impossible to earn enough income to attain a state of food security. There is no minimum wage legislation governing the amount of wages paid by businesses, factories, and free trade zones. In addition, employment levels in certain industries are badly undercut by health hazards. Many children are forced out onto the street to look for a way to earn extra money to help support the household.

Response Strategies

One of the most common strategies of local households is to look for work in the city. Another household strategy is to cut back food intake (tortillas and beans).

Middle-income and better-off households will sell household goods, make changes in their diet (cutting out more expensive foods like milk and meat), and cut off certain types of services such as electricity and telephone service.

There is regular migration to the United States, particularly by members of middle-income and better-off households who have or are able to borrow enough money to pay for the cost of the trip.


The imminent crisis indicators identified in this livelihood zone are extended periods of rainfall liable to cause landslides and flooding, and the presence of illnesses associated with these climatic anomalies such as respiratory infections and diarrhea.

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Livelihood Zone 6: Fishing, Aquaculture, and Tourism Zone

Fishing, Aquaculture, and

Tourism Zone


This livelihood zone runs from the coast inland, forming a one to five kilometer-wide coastal belt stretching the length of the country’s coastline from the northern reaches of the Gulf of Fonseca, north, to the Guatemalan border. Average annual rainfall is 1,800 mm.

Artisan fishing is the main source of income and an important source of food for households in this zone, some of which may also find income-earning opportunities in the tourism industry. Those with access to land grow staple grain crops for household consumption, although their output is too small to meet their needs for the entire year. Thus, the main source of food for most households in this livelihood zone is purchasing.

The types of food purchased vary according to household income. The poor mainly buy staple grains due to their low cost, which they supplement with fish and fish products. The diets of higher-income households include more animal products, particularly milk and meat.

The main source of income for the poor is the sale of fish and shellfish, followed by wage labor in the tourism industry. The sale of sorghum is an important source of income in the northern part of this zone. The average daily wage earned by a fisherman affiliated with a cooperative is US$20, which comes to somewhere between US$200 and US$400 per month. In addition to earning more income, cooperative members are able to lease fishing equipment from the cooperative for use in their work. The main source of income for better-off households is the sale of fish, supplemented by earnings from the rental of fishing equipment and remittances.

78


In times of crisis, poor and middle-income households will reduce their spending, migrate to other cities in larger numbers in search of work (women in particular, to look for jobs as domestic workers) and collect conches as an alternative source of income. Better-off households will cut back their spending and rent out their fishing equipment more often.


This livelihood zone runs from the coast inland, forming a one to five kilometer-wide coastal belt stretching the length of the country’s coastline, from the northern reaches of the Gulf of Fonseca, north, to the Guatemalan border. Average annual rainfall is 1,700 mm.

The food security of most of the local population depends on fishing income. Only a very small percentage of local households also engage in farming and livestock-raising.

Staple grain production is the main occupation of 86% of small farmers and 38% of commercial farmers. Most commercial farmers raise livestock. Miscellaneous activities are the main source of temporary employment, accounting for one third of all jobs, followed by industrial activities (Table 26).



Full-time Workers

Temporary Workers

Small Farmers

Commercial Farmers


65.6 75.0 - -

Group 1 – Staple Grains 44 979 11,164 2,720

2.3 5.5 86.9 38.7

Group 2 – Industrial Activities 86 1,915 - 509

4.5 10.8 - 7.2


4.8 5.7 - 29.8

Group 4 – Coffee and Forest Crops - - - 138

- - - 2.0

Group 5 – Livestock-Raising and Bee-Keeping 319 347 1,626 1,572

16.6 1.9 12.7 22.3

Group 6 - Aquaculture 119 208 58 -

6.2 1.2 0.5 -

TOTAL 1,921 17,807 12,848 7,035

100 100 100 100


Markets

The coastal highway runs the length of the coast, linking local villages and connecting them with most major arteries criss-crossing the country from north to south, ensuring a steady, year-round flow of trade.

79

Seasonal Calendar

Zone 6: Fishing, Aquaculture, and Tourism Zone

Fish Catches: Low Medium High

SEASONS

FISHING

Wealth

Groups

Increase Decrease

All Increase Decrease Increase Decrease Increase

Poor Increase

Poor

HAZARDS

Tropical storms

OTHER

Fish parasites

Staple grain prices

Months food reserves

AllPoor

Fish sales

FloodsWinds

Artisan fishing

Fish prices

Lean season

JulJun

Dry seasonRainy season

Oct Nov DecJan Feb Mar Apr May Aug Sep

0

100

200

300

400

500


Ave

rage

mo

nth

ly r

ain

fall

(in

mill

ime

ters

)


Fish, the main commodity produced in this zone, is sold locally, directly to consumers or to traders, who then ship it to larger markets or to San Salvador. Local supplies of staple grains are brought into the zone from other parts of the country and sold in municipal marketplaces.

Although most employment is local, some local residents engage in temporary migration to San Salvador, Santa Ana, and San Miguel in search of other job opportunities between April and September, during the low season for fishing. As in other livelihood zones, many households receive regular remittances from one or two family members living and working in the United States.

Seasonal Calendar

Fish availability is a key variable, as the main economic activity in this livelihood zone. The sea provides local fishermen with a wealth of different species of fish, though the size of catches will vary from one season to another (with less variety in August, improving by the middle of September), as well as from year to year.

80


Rough seas can limit food availability at certain times of the year. This problem is compounded by the lack of alternative sources of food production. The shrimp season runs from May to January.

Income levels vary in line with movements in market prices and the size of catches. Fish prices are normally low, with certain species selling for somewhat higher prices at Christmas time and during Easter week.

Outbreaks of malaria, dengue fever, and respiratory infections are a common phenomenon during the rainy season.


Households in this livelihood zone are broken down into three wealth groups (poor, middle-income, and better-off households) based on differences in their make-up and access to income.

Poor and middle-income households in this livelihood zone have anywhere from three to ten members, with an average of six members. Young girls attend school more regularly than do young boys, who are needed to help the men fish. In general, these are single-income households (with the man as the sole breadwinner). The women are responsible for taking care of the children, doing the housework, preparing meals, cleaning, preserving, and selling the fish, and running a small business, usually selling tortillas.

These fishing communities have no access to cropland or pastures. Most are located along the sand line separating the ocean from the wetlands. Local homes are built of wood with thatched roofs made of palm leaves. There is normally no separation between eating and sleeping areas.

Most households own a canoe, wooden boats, and fishing nets, which they use for coastal fishing, but do not have any deep-sea fishing equipment. Some may have a small rowboat or dugout canoe and small nets, while others have only fish hooks.

The homes of better-off households are similar to those of the other two groups of households. However, these households have more fishing equipment, including an engine, as well as chickens and pigs, and are generally members of cooperatives (Table 27).

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Small and Large

Animals



Poor households 85% 3 to 11 Rented wooden

house with a thatched roof made

of palm leaves

No deep-sea fishing equipment; may have a small rowboat or dugout canoe and small nets or only fish hooks

n/a Fishermen or street vendors

n/a


10% 4 to 8 Rented wooden

house with a thatched roof made

of palm leaves

Most have a canoe, wooden boats, and fishing nets

3 to 4 months (only

a small percentage


farming)

Fishermen or fish vendors

5 to 6 chickens

Better-off households 5% 4 to 6 Own their own home, small plot

for growing staple grains

(averaging 2 mz)

Fishing boats, engine, nets,

ice chests

3 to 4 months (only

a small percentage


farming)

Larger-scale fishermen,

members of fishing

cooperatives, traders

5 to 6 chickens



Land is limited in this livelihood zone. Any available land is used mainly to grow crops and as seasonal pastures. Small farmers have an average of 1 mz of land. Commercial farmers have 9 mz of land.

The average number of chickens, pigs, and head of cattle per farmer in this livelihood zone is smaller than in other areas due to its location on the coast. Most storage systems used in this zone fall under the category of “Other” (sacks, containers, etc.) Silos and grain elevators are also used, though to a smaller extent (Table 28).

82








Leasing

Tenant farming

Other

Total

Land Use Crops

Permanent pastures

Fallow land

Seasonal pastures

Bodies of water

Misc. facilities

Forests

Unproductive land

Total

5,320 0.47

5,384 0.48

- -

1,316 0.12

12,020 1.07

9,832 0.87

- -713 0.06

1,113 0.10

- -200 0.02

- -162 0.01

12,020 1.07

25,615 7.26

4,994 1.42

599 0.17

1,730 0.49

32,938 9.34

14,355 4.07

3,536 1.00

2,057 0.58

9,607 2.72

783 0.22

787 0.22

1,320 0.37

495 0.14

32,938 9.34


Pigs

Poultry

8,545 6.63

2,281 11.33

4,270 36.81

43,040 33.79

2,347 19.40

194,225 2,103.57


Grain elevators

Storehouses

Granaries

Other

1,439 0.26

5,064 0.58

0.00

84 0.04

4,777 4.01

502 0.17

914 0.67

13 -

65 0.01


Sources of Food

Most fishermen purchase nearly all their food and supplement their diet with fish. The basic diet of members of poor and middle-income households consists of corn tortillas, beans, and fish. In times of crisis, adults will eat only one meal a day, serving their children two meals. With the exception of fish, all food is purchased and the household diet is the same year-round.

Better-off households have a similar consumption pattern. They also buy most of their food. They do not grow corn for household consumption and have no farmyard animals and animal products with which to supplement their basic diet (Table 29).

83

-

-

Household production from small animals

80 8065

20 20

15

15

5

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%


Animal production

Crop production

Fishing

Purchasing




Middle Income

Households


Purchasing x x x

Fishing x x x

x

Household production from large animals x

Crop production on family-owned land x

Crop production on leased land Source: Constructed by the author, July 2010

Poor households fish year-round, using part of their catches for household consumption and selling the rest. Women and children collect mussels and sea turtle eggs along the beach, which they then sell. They also make tortillas, which are sold locally.

Middle-income and better-off households are also engaged in subsistence fishing. They have a little more equipment, such as canoes. Some rent out their fishing equipment as a source of extra income. Some of the men collect turtle eggs along the beach and mussels and clams in the shallows at low tide. They spend most of their income on food. Loan payments for the purchasing of equipment are another major household expense, particularly for better-off households (Figure 13).




The main source of income in this livelihood zone is fishing, combined with trade and equipment rental, depending on the assets of each fisherman.

84


The poorest households are virtually entirely dependent on fishing. Middle-income households engage in fishing and also sell fish or other commodities. Better-off households with more assets earn extra income by renting out their equipment to other fishermen (Figure 14).


8070

1020

20

10

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%


Fishing equipment rental


Retail trade

Fishing


Hazards

The main hazards for poor and middle-income households in this livelihood zone are adverse climatic conditions and storms (such as hurricanes) causing damage to their homes and fishing equipment. The low selling price of fish during the high season for fishing limits profits from fish sales on the country’s small domestic market.

With the large investments in equipment by the commercial fishing industry, there are fewer and fewer job opportunities for small-scale fishermen from middle-income and better-off households with owners of fishing boats, with increasingly unfavorable terms and conditions. Likewise, the use of modern technology in certain fishing areas has led to the over-fishing of certain species, depleting basic ocean resources.

Rising fuel prices are another important hazard, limiting fishing activities, particularly by poor and middle-income households, who are forced to rent equipment to earn a living from these activities.

Response Strategies

The most common strategy by poor and middle-income households in this livelihood zone are to increase fruit their consumption and reduce their food intake.

Another strategy is to engage in year-round fishing, even without equipment, using only a hook and line.

85


Members of better-off households engage in temporary migration to other rural areas such as sugar cane-growing areas to work as day laborers. They also cut back their number of daily meals from 2 to 1 and seek employment in activities other than fishing.


The imminent crisis indicators identified in this livelihood zone have to do with meteorological and climatic conditions affecting the ability of fishermen to go out fishing and generate enough income to feed their families.

Likewise, the appearance of El Niño and La Niña phenomena will invariably limit the abundance of ocean resources in coastal fishing areas.

86


BIBLIOGRAPHIC REFERENCES

World Bank (IBRD), 2008. Informe sobre el Desarrollo Mundial 2008: Agricultura para el desarrollo.

Centro Latinoamericano para el Desarrollo Rural (RIMISP) [Latin American Center for Rural Development], 2009. Crisis y pobreza rural en América Latina: el caso de El Salvador. Santiago de Chile, Chile.

Dirección General de Estadística y Censos (DIGESTYC) [Statistics and Census Bureau], 2005. Censo Nacional Agropecuario 2007 - 2008.

Dirección General de Estadística y Censos (DIGESTYC) [Statistics and Census Bureau], 2004. Dinámica Estructural del Sector Informal en El Salvador. San Salvador, El Salvador.

Economic Overview, 2003. El Salvador en Cifras. San Salvador, El Salvador.

Ministry of Economy of El Salvador (MINEC), 2008. Republic of El Salvador: Estimaciones y Proyecciones de la Población (1950 - 2050). San Salvador, El Salvador.

United Nations Development Program (UNDP), 2008. Informe sobre Desarrollo Humano El Salvador 2007 - 2008: el empleo en uno de los pueblos más trabajadores del mundo. San Salvador, El Salvador.

Websites consulted:

FEWSNET http://fews.net

Salvadoran Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock-Raising http://www.mag.gob.sv

Salvadoran Ministry of Economy Statistics and Census Bureau (DIGESTYC) http://www.digestyc.gob.sv

World Food Program http://www.wfp.org

Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC) http://www.eclac.org/

United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) http://www.fao.org

United Nations Development Program (UNDP) – El Salvador http://www.pnud.org.sv

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http://fews.net/

http://www.mag.gob.sv/

http://www.digestyc.gob.sv/

http://www.wfp.org/

http://www.eclac.org/

http://www.fao.org/

http://www.pnud.org.sv/

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