HARVARD COLLEGE

Extracurricular Education Improving Education Outcomes by Supporting

Experiential Learning

Jason J. Wong

5/14/2009

Contents Introduction ........................................................................................................................................ 2

Fulfilling Schooling Objectives: Weaknesses and Potential Solutions ................................................ 3

Extracurricular Activities and Types of Schooling ............................................................................... 4

Student Interviews .............................................................................................................................. 7

Methodology and Explanation ....................................................................................................... 7

Interviewee Backgrounds ................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.

Results ............................................................................................................................................. 8

Analysis ........................................................................................................................................... 9

Extracurricular, Experiential Learning and Classroom Learning ....................................................... 10

Extracurricular Involvement and Purposes of Schooling .................................................................. 11

Bibliography ...................................................................................................................................... 13

Wong, Jason Page 2 of 15

Introduction

On a typical school day, the American education system educates almost 49 million students in approximately 100,000 public K-12 schools.1 Including private schools, the American education system comprises of almost 55 million students. The public education system is perhaps the most direct way that the government influences the lives of the vast majority of its citizens. In terms of social services, only Social Security and Medicare come close to the level of interaction with individuals that schools have. For many students, this system is failing. In some states, the high school graduation rate hovers around 60%— or worse.2 According to a survey administered by Education Next in 2008, published by the Hoover Institute and the Program on Education Policy and Governance at Harvard University, confidence in public schools is declining (West, 2008). The great question challenging American society today involves analyzing what methods school teachers, administrators, and policymakers can utilize to increase and equalize learning outcomes from students of all economic and sociological backgrounds.

Current education reform focuses on the idea that a high quality, transparent, and standardized school curriculum can improve educational outcomes and decrease the achievement gap between urban and suburban schools. The question that primarily concerns this paper, however, is whether or not high test scores on standardized tests are enough to indicate that students are graduating with the tools to thrive in modern society. If all schools achieve equally high test scores, will students in poor urban areas achieve educational parity with their suburban peers? This paper suggests that high test scores aren’t enough. In particular, students from more advantaged backgrounds tend to have access to higher quality extracurricular activities than students in poor urban communities have access to. Extracurricular activities, I argue, offer an opportunity for students to develop skills, abilities, and social networks that supplement their education within the classroom setting. Equalizing access to high quality extracurricular learning is an important component to reducing the achievement gap, and to supplement curricular learning in the classroom in important ways that are relevant to a 21st century modern society.

Extracurricular activities, broadly defined, are organized activities that take place outside of the classroom setting. They typically include organizational supports or structure in physical and psychological safety, supportive relationships, opportunities to belong, positive social norms, support for efficacy and mattering, opportunities for skill building, and the integration of family, school, and community efforts (Eccles & Gootman, 2002). Specific examples of after-school extracurricular activities include: sports activities, theater and other artistic productions, community service activities, competitive events (such as debate, mock trial, forensics, etc.), scientific research, music rehearsal, and a wide variety of other activities. For an issue that effects a large proportion of the student population, which Mahoney et al. reported at approximately 75% for 14-year-olds

1 http://www.localschooldirectory.com/

2 http://www.nytimes.com/2008/03/20/education/20graduation.html

Wong, Jason Page 3 of 15

(Mahoney & Bergman, 2002), surprisingly little research has been conducted on the effects of extracurricular activity and adolescent development, and how to improve extracurricular practices (Feldman & Matjasko, 2005) and (Fredricks & Eccles, 2006).

Fulfilling Schooling Objectives: Weaknesses and Potential Solutions Objectives of schooling have evolved throughout time and differed according to

different political beliefs and ideologies. During the Great Depression, George Counts wrote about the idea of schools serving as a means of social justice. He wrote that the major objective for schools must be to educate students about how to change society to become more just (Counts, 1932). Three decades later, Richard Hofstadter wrote about how qualities of intelligence different with qualities of intellect, and that it is the goal of schools (or that it should be the goal of schools) to develop their students’ intellect. Whereas intelligence “seeks to grasp, manipulate, re-order, adjust, intellect examines, ponders, wonders, theorizes, criticizes, imagines.” (Hofstadter, 1963, p. 25) Education for Hofstadter, then, becomes a means and an end unto itself, with economic and social benefits being a secondary concern. Paulo Freire went further, and wrote about education as a form of liberation (Freire, 1970). Freire writes that the ideal of education is that “the teacher-student and the students-teachers reflect simultaneously on themselves and the world without dichotomizing this reflection from action, and thus establish an authentic form of thought and action.” (Freire, 1970, p. 71) Simply put, in Freire’s view, a great education transcends power relationships and allows the world to be analyzed and thought about without deceit. People such as William Galston believe that schools should teach citizenship and educate students on how to flourish in a democratic state (Galston, 1989). Recently, Norton Grubb and Marvin Lazerson have written about the economic purposes of schooling, and try to balance the ideas of vocational education for economic benefit, and the need for a minimum standard for knowledge that all individuals should obtain (Grubb & Lazerson, 2004).

Most of our educational objectives are not mutually exclusive, and many are mutually supportive. For example, a more equally educated society might correlate with a more just society, and a more egalitarian education system might promote economic and social equality. The question then arises, are our schools fulfilling these objectives? Are they training our students to succeed in their individual endeavors and social endeavors? Some important studies and statistics tell us that they aren’t.

According to most metrics, schools are failing miserably. In addition to a high high-school dropout rate, test scores are dismally low. Only 15% of low-income students scored proficient in reading on the National Assessment of Educational Progress in 2007, and only 17% of low-income students scored proficient in math (Jihyun, Grigg, & Dion, 2007). Reading and math test scores for 17-year-old students have largely remained stagnant since the 1970s3, while classroom structures have largely remained the same.

3 http://www.nytimes.com/imagepages/2009/04/28/education/28scores.graphic.ready.html

Wong, Jason Page 4 of 15

Even if we were to successfully raise test scores to an equitably high level across all schools, schools as they are currently structured still would not be meeting their students’ learning needs. According to an executive report by The Conference Board, Corporate Voices for Working Families, the Partnership for 21st Century Skills, and the Society for Human Resource Management, an in-depth survey of over 400 employers across the United States on the readiness of new entrants into the U.S. workforce indicates that employers believe that high school graduates are:

“Deficient” in the basic knowledge and skills of writing in English, mathematics, and reading comprehension

“Deficient” in written communications and critical thinking/problem solving (The Conference Board, et. al., 2006, p. 11)

Specifically, 72% of employer respondents in the survey rated new entrants with a high school diploma as “deficient” in writing in English, and 53.5% of high school graduate entrants were deemed “deficient” in math. Based on test score indicators noted above, that high numbers of high school graduates cannot achieve “proficient” on a nationally normed test correlates with a high number of employers believing that high school graduates are “deficient” in basic skills is unsurprising. The NAEP test score data doesn’t tell us, however, how schools are preparing graduates in skills that we don’t currently have measurements or tests for, such as written communications, and critical thinking/problem solving. Over 80% of employer respondents in the survey reported that high school graduate entrants were “deficient” in written communications, and almost 70% of employer respondents indicated that high school graduate entrants were “deficient” in critical thinking/problem solving. These are skills that are not only relevant for the job market, but are also important for citizenship development and individual development as well. These are also the skills that most schools de-prioritize in order to raise their standardized test scores.

Extracurricular Activities and Types of Schooling Generally, the purpose of schooling revolves around the development of

two ideals: 1) the development of the individual (private goals), and 2) the development of the citizen (public goals). Both of these goals can be supported by a high quality academic program, and extracurricular program in schools. The predominant theory in education policy circles today is that to equalize and improve educational outcomes you need to focus on curricular improvements within the classroom. In order to accomplish this goal, policymakers have focused on increasing teacher reliance on a standardized curriculum in the form of standardized tests and accountability, at the cost of utilizing other methodologies to teach students. The result is that many highly successful schools in this model have highly scripted classes, which leaves room for extracurricular activities to add to the educational dynamic of these schools. Currently, there are three different types of methodologies that are practiced by schools: the “traditional” model, “new paternalism” model, and the “community school” model that de-emphasizes

Wong, Jason Page 5 of 15

standardized curriculum. Each of these models have their own strengths, but the first two models tend not to engage students individually in the curriculum, while critics of the third model question the scalability of the third model.

The first model represents the traditional public high school, where students make their daily rounds among different academic classes throughout the school day, and where the teacher is largely left to their own devices to teach the curriculum as they see fit. As long as teachers are highly qualified and skilled, the advantages of this methodology are many. John Dewey writes that the great advantage of the traditional model is its utilization of lessons learned in the past to prepare the current young generation for the future. Dewey writes that the subject-matter of traditional education:

consists of bodies of information and of skills that have been worked out in the past; therefore, the chief business of the school is to transmit them to the new generation. In the past, there have also been developed standards and rules of conduct; moral training consists in forming habits of action in conformity with these rules and standards. (Dewey, 1938, pp. 17-18)

Teachers are also given the leeway to individuate and tailor their teaching according to how they believe their lesson plans can best meet the needs of their students. However, a problem for many urban public schools includes the challenge of attracting highly qualified teachers. Another major concern involves equality. Since schools and teachers are largely left to their own devices, there is no mechanism in place, or it is too difficult, to ensure that students are given an equal education regardless of their school’s location, economic situation, or student population. Inequality can also exist to a great degree within a school, where teacher quality can vary from classroom to classroom. Furthermore, while the traditional public high school model attempts to educate students according to academic curricular subjects, the traditional public high school model doesn’t necessarily seek to develop important life skills in students. Recent attempts to address the educational inequalities of this model include focusing on developing curricular standards, and improving standardization across schools and classrooms. However, this new focus on standards and standardization takes away some of the ability of teachers to specialize their teaching to fit their particular student population’s needs, if their priorities differ from the ideas of the larger state or national bureaucratic government departments.

Another type of school emphasizes the idea of strict regimentation and accountability in order to improve educational outcomes for students. This philosophy of “no excuses” and/or “new paternalism” has recently gained traction—the idea being that in order to increase educational outcomes schools need to socialize students to succeed in a modern educational environment in addition to improving teaching methodologies. David Whitman defines paternalistic policies as those “in which the government interferes with the freedom of individuals for their own good, requiring them to wear

Wong, Jason Page 6 of 15

motorcycle helmets, for instance, or save money for retirement.” (Whitman, 2008, p. xi) This form of socialization requires schools not only to require high academic performance, but also teach students how to act “according to what are commonly termed traditional, middle class values.” (Whitman, 2008, p. 3) Some “paternalistic schools” have even gone so far as to “teach students how to look at the person who is talking, [and] how to shake hands.” (Brooks, 2009) There are quite a few schools that have recently begun following this method, to great success, although not without controversy. These schools include the KIPP Academy in the Bronx, the University Park Campus School in Worcester, MA, the American Indian Public Charter School in Oakland, CA, and others. Graduation rates and college acceptance rates are sometimes up to three times higher than their traditional public school counterparts (Whitman, 2008).

The problem that some theorists have with “paternalistic” schools and schools like the KIPP charter school network are that the strict discipline required of students and teachers in “paternalistic” schools stifles creativity in the classroom and leads little room for individualized and specialized learning. Educational theorists such as Deborah Meier would disagree that the level of standardization and control in schools are necessary and constructive to student development. A positive school community, Meier writes, “must relish its disagreements, its oddballs, its misfits,” (Meier, 2000, p. 30) a task that “new paternalism” schools don’t prioritize or which runs counter to its focus of socializing students to a specific aim. Thus, a third method of structuring a school emphasizes individual and community development in order to achieve better educational outcomes. Deborah Meier’s schools, the Mission Hill School in Boston and the Central Park East Secondary School in New York, have only slightly less high test scores as the aforementioned schools following the “no excuses” and/or “new paternalism” model, although Meier would argue that test scores aren’t an accurate measure of the learning outcomes that students receive at her schools (Meier, 2000). An extreme example of the individual and community development model school is the Summerhill Academy in the United Kingdom, which was founded by A.S. Neill.

The Summerhill Academy is a longstanding, highly controversial school in the U.K. for students of all ages. The school is controversial because the school has neither learning standards, nor a set curriculum per se. Students are allowed to show up to class whenever they feel like. The goal behind this school is the idea that students learn at their own pace, and flourish when unencumbered by standards and material that they are disinterested in. A.S. Neill, an educational theorist and the founder of the Summerhill Academy, writes that “a school that makes active children sit at desks studying mostly useless subjects is a bad school. It is a good school only for those who believe in such a school, for those uncreative citizens who want docile, uncreative children who will fit into a civilization whose standard of success is money.” (Neill, 1960) Students at the school also form their own “democracy” where all school rules, such as curfews, punishments, etc. are determined by the school population at large, where each person (student, teacher or administrator), gets one vote no matter their age. These community meetings are what I would argue as one of the most aspects of the school, offering each child the

Wong, Jason Page 7 of 15

ability to stand on their own ideas and express their opinions on controversial school matters of the day, in addition to socializing with one another and encouraging collaboration. On the flip side, many education theorists and policy makers would balk at the idea of zero public accountability, and a lack of transparent test score data. A big question that concerns detractors is whether or not the Summerhill model is too extreme, and whether or not implementation on a system-wide basis would not be disastrous for students and society alike.

What does it mean to provide for a high quality education in light of all these contexts? Admittedly, I do not believe that there is any one way to establish schools, and formulate school policies and bureaucracies in order to provide for a more individualized educational experience in addition to ensuring that schools maintain a quality high standard. To help answer this question, I asked several successful students their opinion on their development and their educational experiences. Based on their responses, I believe that there are certain policies and resources that schools can put into place to utilize extracurricular opportunities to increase student engagement in learning outcomes. I do not believe that this analysis provides all of the answers, but I believe the observations, data, and arguments made in this paper can shed light on other areas of educational reform that can have a positive impact on student learning outcomes.

Student Interviews

Methodology and Explanation Harvard College is known as one of the most selective colleges in the world. This year, 2009, Harvard’s admissions rate dropped to 7 percent. In addition, most applicants to Harvard are high achievers, scoring among the top 5% in national tests, and are often academically one of the top 10% of students in their class and school.4 Many participated in a plethora of extracurricular activities in high school, and continue to do so in college. Thus, the Harvard student population offers a rich resource of students with interesting educational and extracurricular experiences to interview and learn from. When looking for potential interviewees, I tried to find students with meaningful exposure to both extracurricular experiences and academic/curricular learning experiences. Because of the limited scope of this paper, and due to time and resource constraints, the number of interviews that I could conduct were limited, and a thorough and scientific sampling process was next to impossible to conduct and therefore not utilized. Rather, I attempted to identify students with interesting extracurricular experiences in order to learn from them through interviews how meaningful their extracurricular experiences were to their personal development, and what characteristics of those extracurricular experiences were most beneficial, and hopefully replicable. This paper is not a scientific study, but more of a qualitative analysis of what extracurricular activities are, how they contribute

4 http://collegeapps.about.com/od/collegeprofiles/p/harvard_profile.htm

Wong, Jason Page 8 of 15

to a student’s educational development, and how they contribute to schooling and learning objectives overall.

The interview methodology that I chose was semi-structured. Most of my interview questions were tailored toward the types of experiences that my interviewees had. I interviewed five Harvard undergraduates, and a high school college counselor at a local charter high school. I began with open-ended questions concerning their opinions on what it means to be educated, so that my questions regarding extracurricular and classroom learning would have minimal effect on their initial responses. As the interview progressed, I asked the students to describe their extracurricular activities, to describe their responsibilities and their relationship (position) with those extracurricular activities, to compare their extracurricular experiences with their curricular experiences, and to describe which experiences they believe had the greatest impact on their development. In my results and analysis, each student is referred to as a number, and the high school college counselor is referenced by her position in order to preserve the anonymity of those interviewed. Interview notes, student backgrounds, and recorded interviews, are available from the author upon request.

Results Of the five students that I interviewed, only Student 1 and Student 4 indicated

that their curricular studies and classes were more important to their educational development than their extracurricular activities. The majority of students agreed that extracurricular activities had a greater influence on their personal development than their formal school and academic studies. Every student agreed that extracurricular activities and experiences were/are important to their personal development. Every student also agreed that extracurricular activities gave them some experience or skill development in an area that their classes didn’t provide.

Students indicated that extracurricular activities helped them develop social, political, leadership and entrepreneurial skills. Student 3 went so far as to say, “My extracurriculars have defined my life at Harvard, allowing me to become more interested in the Chinese language and in international affairs.” (3, 2009) Student 5 agreed that extracurricular activities were more important to his development than his classes, stating that “I saw more in my extracurricular activities. Classes were valuable in that they exposed me to different camps of thought, but most of what we learned ultimately seems trivial, whereas outside of class I learned how to come up with my own ideas and to draw on resources to complete it.” (5, 2009) Student 1 noted that extracurriculars “provided place where I could display leadership and have responsibility.” (1, 2009)

Student 1 and Student 4, who indicated that their curricular and academic studies were more important to their educational development than their extracurricular activities, stated that their curricular and academic studies were more important because they provided relevant skill development that matched their interests. Student 4 noted that his major, Computer Science, taught him skills and material that was directly related

Wong, Jason Page 9 of 15

with his desire to develop as a computer programmer and coder. Student 1 indicated that Philosophy was important to him because it taught him to question assumptions, and how to evaluate arguments and analyze evidence.

In my interview with the high school college counselor, she stated that in urban schools like the one she served, preparing students academically for college was their top priority. She noted that unfortunately, because the need to emphasize academic subject matters such as reading, writing and math was so great, extracurricular activities and classes were limited. The school only offers a visual arts class as an elective, and hosts only a Junior Statesmen of America club and a Model United Nations club. For her, increasing the extracurricular offerings of the school is an important priority, but the primary concern is raising and maintaining high test scores, and ensuring a high graduation and college acceptance rate. She believes that the purpose of education is the further process of self-definition, “the more stuff you know, the better you are able to draw parallels, make conclusions, find relationships, so I think a good education improves one’s decision-making abilities.” (Counselor, 2009) Extracurricular activities, she noted, allows students to develop all of the above.

Analysis The results of these interviews are not scientific, nor do they necessarily represent the opinions or experiences of the majority of Harvard students, and especially do not represent the opinions or experiences of the majority of college students and high school graduates. Furthermore, the student population of Harvard may be more predisposed than average toward extracurricular participation, by virtue of the competitive admissions process. In addition, I chose to interview students with interesting extracurricular experiences, further increasing the potential bias in my interview results.

In light of these potential biases, the students interviewed for this paper are all qualified informants because they are all experienced in extracurricular, experiential learning and academic, curricular learning. They are generally considered “successful students” not only because of their admission into Harvard, but also because of their personal achievements, including extracurricular accomplishments. Their perspective offers support to the idea that developing extracurricular experiences for students provides meaningful learning opportunities for students socially, politically and academically, as well as growth opportunities in leadership, teamwork, creativity, entrepreneurship, and in critical analysis. Their experiences largely affirms the idea that extracurricular activities engage students mentally, physically and educationally, and brings into focus the lack of attention being taken by policymakers and theorists on an activity that comprises a significant amount of learning for some of our top students.

The high school counselor interview reminds us of the myriad of priorities and objectives that high schools have, which also differ according to a school’s social and economic situation, and other factors. The ability of schools such as hers to offer more extracurricular learning opportunities is limited by the amount of physical, human, and

Wong, Jason Page 10 of 15

financial resources that the school possesses. Her experience in an urban public charter school also informs us how students in a high-performing high school can still have limited learning opportunities in extracurricular subjects and activities compared to other high performing schools.

Extracurricular, Experiential Learning and Classroom Learning

The “traditional,” “new paternalism,” and “community development” schools each contain an important component to serve varied objectives that we have set for our schools. From “traditional” schools, we can improve classroom curriculum based upon historical experience and community agreement. Furthermore, it is easy to promote equity in a “traditional” classroom by virtue of a standardized curriculum. “New paternalism” schools indicate that many underperforming “traditional” schools fail to teach material and skills that students of disadvantaged backgrounds have less experience with. Simply put, “new paternalism” schools show the importance of a school’s ability to target curriculum towards students with unique needs (i.e. the needs of low-income students versus suburban students.) The strengths of “community” schools such as Summerhill indicate that “traditional” and “new paternalism” schools can do more to increase student engagement in their own learning, as well as give students more responsibility over their own education.

An important component of student development that neither “traditional,” nor “new paternalism” schools address, however, is extracurricular and experiential learning. The idea behind experiential learning is that lessons are more meaningful when they utilize personal characteristics and interests in order to inform content development and skill acquisition. Experiential learning allows the student to interact with their learning goals and objectives, and turns learning into a two-way conversation.

The argument behind this paper is not that experiential learning should displace “traditional,” “paternalistic,” or “community” schools. Rather, the idea is that experiential learning compliments the weaknesses of these models—weaknesses that are accentuated when we analyze whether or not “traditional,” “new paternalism,” or “community” schools meet all the objectives and purposes of schools that we desire and demand. As previously noted, most business leaders, parents, and community members would agree that they aren’t. John Dewey writes that the main dysfunction of schools is their inability to develop “the organic connection between education and personal experience,” (Dewey, 1938, p. 25) which is to say that schools are typically unable to make their educational goals personally relevant to their students. Ideally then, when students attain schools’ and society’s educational goals, their development will have also been a personal experience for each student. By “personal experience,” I mean to say that students feel that they have a stake in their own learning, and also feel that their educational experiences are not only of high quality, but are also unique, meaningful, and memorable.

Wong, Jason Page 11 of 15

A recent study released in 2006 asked the question whether or not extracurricular

participation was associated with beneficial outcomes. In the study, the authors examined the relationship between participation in a range of extracurricular activities, and developmental outcomes in an economically diverse sample of African American and European American youths. The study found that breadth of extracurricular participation was associated with positive academic, psychological, and behavioral outcomes (Fredricks & Eccles, 2006). In particular, the study found that school clubs was a significant predictor of educational attainment, political activity, and social and charitable involvement. Another study found that the duration of participation in school-sponsored activities was positively associated with educational attainment (Gardner, Roth, & Brooks-Gunn, 2008). A surprising result of this study also found that participation in community-sponsored activities indicated that two years after high school, participants were 33% more likely to volunteer than among nonparticipants, and that 2-year participants of community-sponsored activities were 91% higher than nonparticipants. The authors of both studies noted, however, that the differences among participants and nonparticipants could be partially mediated, although not completely explained, by isolating educational attainment as a variable. Although studies measuring the number, type, and quality of extracurricular activities in schools are hard to come by, conjectural evidence indicates that the number and types of extracurricular opportunities in schools vary according to economic, geographic, and social contexts (Perrucci & Wysong, 2007, p. 265).

Although the number of studies analyzing the educational impact of extracurricular activities are limited, these two studies raise the question why policymakers and theorists aren’t doing more to improve extracurricular learning opportunities for students and make more extracurricular learning opportunities evenly available? Perhaps the relationships between extracurricular experience and purposes of schooling aren’t firmly established yet.

Extracurricular Involvement and Purposes of Schooling In the beginning of this paper, I noted that it is problematic if we believe that once

we raise test scores, the achievement gap between disadvantaged urban students and their relatively more advantaged suburban peers will diminish. A benefit of increased analysis of extracurricular learning and its relationship with purposes of schooling is that any lessons can be relatively cheaply applied to schools, regardless of whether or not a school is “traditional,” “paternalistic,” or “community-oriented.” Policymakers and school administrators can easily supplement and extend extracurricular opportunities that already exist. Where few or a limited number of extracurricular opportunities exist, schools can encourage students to travel to neighboring schools in order to participate their activities, and/or partner with other schools to establish activities of their own and combine resources.

Wong, Jason Page 12 of 15

In his treatise on education, Dewey noted that true learning comprises of both

interaction and continuity. He wrote that “growth, or growing as developing, not only physically but intellectually and morally, is one exemplification of the principle of continuity.” (Dewey, 1938, p. 36) Extracurricular activities offer the benefit of not only engaging students in learning of their own interests, and turning education into a two-way conversation, but extracurricular learning can arguably be equally or more continuous than in a classroom setting, where teachers and academic subjects change every school year or every semester. Extracurricular participation for some students can last a lifetime, depending on the activity (for example, the arts or community service). For an issue that effects a large population of the student population, which Mahoney et al. reported at approximately 75% for 14-year-olds (Mahoney & Bergman, 2002), surprisingly little research has been conducted on the effects of extracurricular activity and adolescent development, and how to improve extracurricular practices.

Furthermore, in the second section of this paper we discussed different schooling objectives that Counts, Freire, Galston, Hofstadter, and Grubb and Lazerson all espouse. Meeting these different objectives requires a fundamental reconsideration of the role that extracurricular activities can play in a modern learning environment. Counts and Galston wrote about the idea of schools serving as a means of social justice and citizenship development, and studies show that increased extracurricular involvement is a great indicator for volunteerism (Gardner, Roth, & Brooks-Gunn, 2008) and political activity (Fredricks & Eccles, 2006). Hofstadter wrote that schools should work to develop students’ intellect. What better way for students to put what they learn to practice, and develop their own ideas and solutions and decision-making methodologies, than through extracurricular competitions (such as mock trial and debate), and tackling real-life problems (such as pollution in a local river, or homelessness). Freire wrote that education should serve as a means of liberation. Many extracurricular activities are student-led and student-driven, giving them social responsibility that they lack in a classroom setting. Finally, Grubb and Lazerson espoused the idea that schools should serve an economic objective. Employer surveys show that some of the basic skills that employers prize aren’t being adequately developed in schools such as written communication and problem-solving (The Conference Board, et. al., 2006). One of the major weaknesses of a traditional education is that there is little dialogue and room for group-activities in a traditional classroom. Being in charge of extracurricular organizations allows students to be in constant communication with one another, and practice expressing their ideas in order to come to responsible decisions. Furthermore, in extracurricular activities, students’ abilities to be entrepreneurial, solve problems, and come up with creative solutions can be challenged and developed.

In order to improve educational learning outcomes for all students, we need to re-evaluate the types of learning that takes place in schools, the types of learning that we wish could take place in schools, and consider objectively what skills and experiences we hope our students graduate school with. Ultimately, when looking at the current weaknesses of classroom learning, improving extracurricular opportunities for all

Wong, Jason Page 13 of 15

students, not just motivated students, will help us provide better educational experiences for our students that they deserve (Eccles J. , 2005) (Eccles & Barber, 1999) (Larson, 2000).

Bibliography 1, S. (2009, May). Experiential Education. (J. Wong, Interviewer)

2, S. (2009, May). Experiential Education. (J. Wong, Interviewer)

3, S. (2009, May). Experiential Education. (J. Wong, Interviewer)

4, S. (2009, May). Experiential Education. (J. Wong, Interviewer)

5, S. (2009, May). Experiential Education. (J. Wong, Interviewer)

Anderson, B. (1991). Imagined Communities. New York: Verso Press.

Brooks, D. (2009, May 7). The Harlem Miracle. The New York Times .

Brown v. Board of Education, 347 U.S. 483 (U.S. Supreme Court May 17, 1954).

Cardinal Newman, J. H. (1923). The Idea of the University. London: Longmans, Green and Co.

Counselor, C. (2009, May). Experiential Education. (J. Wong, Interviewer)

Counts, G. S. (1932). Dare the School Build a New Social Order? New York: Arno Press.

Datnow, A., Borman, G. D., Stringfield, S., Overman, L. T., & Castellano, M. (2003). Comprehensive

School Reform in Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Contexts: Implementation and Outcomes

from a Four-Year Study. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis , 25 (2), 143-170.

Dewey, J. (1938). Experience and Education. New York: Touchstone Rockefeller Center.

Eccles, J. S., & Barber, B. L. (1999). Student council, volunteering, basketball, or marching band:

What kind of extracurricular involvement matters? . Journal of Adolescent Research , 10-43.

Eccles, J. (2005). The present and future of research on activity settings as develomental contexts.

In J. Mahoney, R. W. Larson, & J. S. Eccles, Organized activities as contexts of development:

Extracurricular activities, after-school and community programs (pp. 353-374). Hillsdale, NJ:

Erlbaum.

Eccles, J., & Gootman, J. (2002). Community Programs to promote youth development.

Washington D.C.: National Academy Press.

Education Week. (2007, June). Executive Summary: Diploma's Count 2008: School to College.

Retrieved January 5, 2009, from http://www.edweek.org/media/ew/dc/2008/40sgb.us.h27.pdf

Wong, Jason Page 14 of 15

EPE Research Center. (June 2008). Diploma's Count 2008: School to College. Education Week .

Feldman, A., & Matjasko, J. (2005). The Role of School-Based Extracurricular Activities in

Adolescent Development: A comprehensive review and future directions. Review of Educational

Research , 159-210.

Fredricks, J., & Eccles, J. S. (2006). Is Extracurricular Participation Associated with Beneficial

Outcomes? Concurrent and Longitudinal Relations. Developmental Psychology , 698-713.

Freire, P. (1970). The Pedagogy of the Oppressed. New York: Continuum.

Fung, A. (2004). Empowered Participation. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

Galston, W. (1989). Civic Education and the Liberal State. In N. Rosenblum, Liberalism and the

Moral Life (pp. 89-101). Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

Gardner, M., Roth, J., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (2008). Adolescents' Participation in Organized Activities

and Developmental Success 2 and 8 Years after High School: Do Sponsorship, Duration, and

Intensity Matter? Developmental Psychology , 814-830.

Grubb, N. W., & Lazerson, M. (2004). The Economic Gospel. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

Hofstadter, R. (1963). Anti-Intellectualism in American Life. New York: Vintage Books.

Jihyun, L., Grigg, W. S., & Dion, G. S. (2007). The Nation's Report Card. U.S. Department of

Education: National Center for Education Statistics, Institute of Education Sciences.

Land, D. (2002). Local School Boards Under Review: their Role and Effectiveness in Relation to

Students' Academic Achievement. Review of Educational Research , 72 (2), 229-278.

Larson, R. W. (2000). Toward a psychology of positive youth development. American Psychologist ,

125-145.

Mahoney, J., & Bergman, L. (2002). Conceptual and methodological considerations in a

developmental approach to the study of postiive adaptation. Applied Developmental Psychology ,

195-217.

Meier, D. e. (2000). Will Standards Save Public Education? Boston: Beacon Press Books.

National Center on Education Statistics. (2007, September). Average Grade that the public would

give the public schools in their community and in the nation at large: 1974 through 2007.

Retrieved January 5, 2009, from

http://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d07/tables/dt07_022.asp?referrer=list

National Commission on Excellence in Education. (1983). A Nation at Risk. Washington D.C.:

United States Government.

Wong, Jason Page 15 of 15

Neill, A. (1960). Summerhill. New York: Hart Publishing.

Perrucci, R., & Wysong, E. (2007). The New Class Society: Goodbye American Dream? Rowman &

Littlefield.

Swanson, C. B., & Stevenson, D. L. (2002). Standards-Based Reform in Practice: Evidence on State

Policy and Classroom Instruction from the NAEP State Assessments. Educational Evaluation and

Policy Analysis , 24 (1), 1-27.

The Conference Board, et. al. (2006). Are They Really Ready to Work?: Employers' Perspectives on

the Basic Knowledge and Applied Skills of New Entrants to the 21st Century U.S. Workforce. The

Conference Board, Partnership for 21st Century Skills, Corporate Voices for Working Families,

Society for Human Resource Management.

Tyack, D., & Cuban, L. (1995). Tinkering Toward Utopia. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

U.S. Department of Education. (n.d.). Accountability and Assessment: Policy Information.

Retrieved January 5, 2009, from http://www.ed.gov/policy/elsec/guid/states/index.html#aa

West, M. (2008, August 12). Brown University Press Releases: No Child Left Behind. Retrieved from

http://news.brown.edu/pressreleases/2008/08/nclb

Whitman, D. (2008). Sweating the Small Stuff: Inner-City Schools and the New Paternalism.

Washington D.C.: Thomas B. Fordham Institute Press.