environment impacts of energy sector (non-renewable)

ENVIRONMENT IMPACTS OF ENERGY

SECTOR (NON-RENEWABLE)

Suresh Jain, Ph.D. Professor and Head

Department of Natural Resources

TERI University, New Delhi-110070

Email: [email protected]; [email protected]

National Training Programme on Environmental Audit of

Infrastructure Projects” from 22nd February to 26th February, 2016

Non-renewable energy sources

Non-renewable energy is energy from fossil fuels

such as coal, crude oil, natural gas and uranium.

Fossil fuels are mainly made up of Carbon.

Usage of non-renewable energy resources

Source: November 15, 2014: www.globalpost.com

Usage of non-renewable energy resources

Observed

changes in

the climate

system

Causes of climate change

FOUL - Forestry and Other Land Use

Impacts of climate change

In recent decades, changes in climate have

caused impacts on natural and human systems

on all continents and across the oceans.

Impacts are due to observed climate change,

irrespective of its cause, indicating the

sensitivity of natural and human systems to

changing climate.

Global mean surface temperature increase at the time global CO2 emissions

reach a given net cumulative total, plotted as a function of that total, from various

lines of evidence.

Global average surface temperature change

from 2006 to 2100

Global mean sea level rise from 2006 to 2100

Projected changes in the climate system

Future risks and impacts caused by a

changing climate

Risk of climate-related impacts results from the

interaction of climate-related hazards (including

hazardous events and trends) with the vulnerability and

exposure of human and natural systems, including their

ability to adapt.

Rising rates and magnitudes of warming and other

changes in the climate system, accompanied by ocean

acidification, increase the risk of severe, pervasive and

in some cases irreversible detrimental impacts.

Some risks are particularly relevant for individual regions

while others are global as shown in diagram in next

slide.

Background – Indian context

The energy sector is the major contributor to

economic and industrial accomplishments as well

as a pre-requisite for providing the basic human

needs.

In India, the main source of electricity generation is

coal, which contributes to about ~61% of the

electricity generation, whereas natural gas also

contributes a significant ~9% towards electricity

generation.

Total Installed Capacity - As on 31.01.2016

Coal61%Gas

9%Oil0%

Hydro15%

Nuclear2%

RES(MNRE)13%

Classifying the impacts of energy use

By source

For example, oil, natural gas, coal, nuclear power, biomass, hydroelectricity etc.

By pollutant

Pb, CO, Nox, SOx, RSPM (PM1, PM2.5 and PM10), SPM, HC, VOC, CH4 etc.

By scale

Household scale

wood burning in developing countries

Workplace scale

Biomass harvesting and forestry

Hydro and wind power

Coal, oil and gas

Nuclear power

Community scale

Sulphur dioxide, NOx, CO, Dioxins etc.

Regional scale

Acid deposition

Global scale

Global climate change

Impact on human health

The impact pathway approach

PM2.5 (2031: Winter)PM2.5 (2011: Winter)

By 2011/12, most cities in the country had already exceeded the ambient air quality standard

• In 2011/12 mortality from PM 2.5 was 5.73 lakhs

• In future, the air quality worsens increasing the mortality to 10.4 lakhs (2031/32)

Source: TERI’s Integrated MARKAL, WRF, CMAQ Models Results

24

Regional scale air quality in India -2011 and

projections for Reference Scenario 2031

Mortality due to PM2.5 under various

policy intervention's/scenarios

0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

1.2

1.4

1.6

1.8

2.0

BAU 2011 BAU 2031 BAU 2051 ES 2031 ES 2051 CS 2031 CS2051

Mo

rtality

in

millio

ns

Case study

Examples from thermal power

Life cycle assessment -

a case study of thermal power plant

Methodology

The CML 2001 and Eco-Indicator 99 (H) methods have

been used for midpoint and endpoint impacts,

respectively using life cycle analysis (LCA).

This study uses ISO 14040 methodology along with

‘cradle to gate’ approach which includes upstream and

power generation processes.

The primary data collected by personal visits for air

emissions, wastewater, fuel used, and technical

specifications.

The impacts category comprised of global warming,

acidification, eutrophication, ecotoxicity, carcinogens,

respiratory organics, respiratory inorganics and climate

change.

Environmental impact assessment

Source: Eco indicator 1999-H method would be used for environmental impact assessment using LCA approach

LCA framework used

to estimate the life

cycle environmental

impacts from NGCC

thermal power plant

Source: Agrawal, K., Jain, S., Jain, A.K.,

Dahiya, S., 2014. Assessment of

Environmental Impacts of Natural Gas

Combined Cycle Power Plant using life cycle

approach. Environmental Development ,

doi.org/10.1016/j.envdev.2014.04.002

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envdev.2014.04.002

Boundary conditions

Global warming and climate change

potential - NGCC thermal power plant

0.00

0.05

0.10

0.15

0.20

0.25

0.30

0.35

0.40

0.45

0.50

Combustion process Remaining process

GW

P (

kg C

O2 e

q./

kW

h)

(a) Global Warming Potential (CML)

0.0E+00

2.0E-08

4.0E-08

6.0E-08

8.0E-08

1.0E-07

1.2E-07

Combustion process Remaining process

CC

P (

DA

LY

/kW

h)

(b) Climate Change potential (Eco-Indicator)

Human health damage potential - NGCC

0

0.005

0.01

0.015

0.02

0.025

0.03

0.035

0.04

Combustion process Remaining processes

HT

P (

kg

1,4

-DB

eq

./k

Wh

)

(a) Human Toxicity potential (CML 2001)

5.08E-08

5.1E-08

5.12E-08

5.14E-08

5.16E-08

5.18E-08

5.2E-08


Res

pir

ato

ry i

no

rga

nic

s (D

AL

Y/k

Wh

)

(c) Respiratory Inorganics potential

(Eco-Indicator-99)

0

5E-11

1E-10

1.5E-10

2E-10

2.5E-10

3E-10

3.5E-10

4E-10


Res

pir

ato

ry o

rga

nic

s (D

AL

Y/k

Wh

)

(d) Respiratory Organics potential

(Eco-Indicator-99)

0

5E-10

1E-09

1.5E-09

2E-09

2.5E-09

3E-09


CP

(D

AL

Y/k

Wh

)

(b) Carcinogens potential (Eco-Indicator-99)

Global

warming and

climate change

potential of 1

kWh electricity

generation –

Imported coal

vs. natural gas

0.00

0.20

0.40

0.60

0.80

1.00

1.20

Upstream + Combustionprocesses

Combustion process

GW

P (

kg

CO

2 e

q./

kW

h) (a) Global Warming Potential (IPCC 2001)

Imported coal NGCC

0.0E+00

5.0E-08

1.0E-07

1.5E-07

2.0E-07

2.5E-07

3.0E-07

3.5E-07

Upstream + Combustionprocesses

Combustion process

CC

P (

DA

LY

/kW

h)

(b) Climate Change Potential (Eco-Indicator 99-H)

0

0.02

0.04

0.06

0.08

0.1

0.12

0.14

0.16

Total of all processes Combustion process

kg

1,4

-DB

eq

.

(a) Human Toxicity Impacts (CML 2001)

Coal TPP with FGD Coal TPP without FGD Natural Gas TPP

0.0E+00

5.0E-11

1.0E-10

1.5E-10

2.0E-10

2.5E-10

3.0E-10

3.5E-10

4.0E-10

4.5E-10


DA

LY

(c) Respiratory Organic Impacts (Eco-Indicator 99-H)


0.0E+00

2.0E-08

4.0E-08

6.0E-08

8.0E-08

1.0E-07

1.2E-07

1.4E-07


DA

LY

(d) Carcinogenic Impacts (Eco-Indicator99-H)


0.0E+00

3.0E-07

6.0E-07

9.0E-07

1.2E-06

1.5E-06

1.8E-06


DA

LY

(b) Respiratory Inorganics Impacts (Eco-Indicator 99-H)


Human health damage potential

0.E+00

2.E-03

4.E-03

6.E-03

8.E-03

1.E-02

1.E-02

1.E-02

2.E-02


kg

SO

2 e

q.

(a) Acidification Impacts (CML 2001)

0.E+00

2.E-04

4.E-04

6.E-04

8.E-04

1.E-03

1.E-03

1.E-03


kg

PO

4 e

q.

(b) Eutrophication Impacts (CML 2001)

0.0E+00

5.0E-03

1.0E-02

1.5E-02

2.0E-02

2.5E-02

3.0E-02

3.5E-02

4.0E-02


PD

F×

m2

×yr

(c) Acidification/ Eutrophication Impacts (Eco-Indicator 99-H)

Coal TPP with FGD

Coal TPP without FGD

Natural Gas TPP

0.E+00

2.E-02

4.E-02

6.E-02

8.E-02

1.E-01

1.E-01

1.E-01

2.E-01


kg

1,4

-DB

eq

.

(a) Fresh Water Aquatic Toxicity Impacts (CML 2001)

0.E+00

1.E-01

2.E-01

3.E-01

4.E-01

5.E-01

6.E-01


kg

1,4

-DB

eq

.

(b) Marine Water Aquatic Toxicity Impacts (CML 2001)

0.0E+00

2.0E-02

4.0E-02

6.0E-02

8.0E-02

1.0E-01

1.2E-01


PA

F×

m2

×y

r

(c) Ecotoxicity impacts (Eco-Indicator 99-H)

Coal TPP with FGD

Coal TPP without FGD

Natural Gas TPP

Uncertainty analysis for imported coal with

FGD vs. without FGD technology

Conti..

Cost analysis

Parameter Units Coal based TPP Gas based TPP

Fixed Cost Rs/kWh 1.55 1.54

Variable Cost Rs/kWh 2.11 3.09

Total Cost Rs/kWh 3.66 4.63

Economic analysis

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

PC - Importedcoal

PC + FGD PC + CCS PC + CCS +FGD

IGCC SC NGCC

To

tal c

os

t (R

s./

kW

h)

Alternate Power Generation Technology

Technology cost (Rs./kWh) Total hidden cost (Rs. kWh)

The twin problems that India's thermal

power sector must overcome

India has around 20 coal-fired thermal plants with capacities

of 2000 MW or above while the average energy efficiency of

these plants is a mere 32.8 percent (CSE)

The average CO2 emission of these plants was 1.08 kg per

kWh, which was 14% higher than China's

Some of India's power plants emit up to 120 percent more

CO2 than the average emissions by plants in European

countries.

Thermal power plants have historically accounted for 88

percent of water consumed by all industry sectors put

together (TERI)

Source: The twin problems that India's thermal power sector must overcome

http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/articleshow/51056423.cms?utm_source=contentofinterest&utm_

medium=text&utm_campaign=cppst

http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/articleshow/51056423.cms?utm_source=contentofinterest&utm_medium=text&utm_campaign=cppst

New emission norms to raise power

cost by 10 per cent

The environment ministry notified new

standards for thermal power stations

relating to consumption of water, PM, SO2,

NOx and mercury

New emission norms for thermal power

plants are likely to increase NTPC's cost of

producing power by 10 per cent

The cost of power production would

increase by Rs 50 lakh per Mw. The

current cost of power production is Rs 5

crore per Mw. This translates into a 50-60

paise increase in the final customer tariff

Other Industry estimates cost escalation

of Rs 1.5 crore per Mw and tariff hike of 80

paisa per unit

Source: Emission norms to raise NTPC power cost by 10 per cent - http://www.business-standard.com/article/companies/emission-

norms-to-raise-ntpc-power-cost-by-10-per-cent-116022000026_1.html

http://www.business-standard.com/article/companies/emission-norms-to-raise-ntpc-power-cost-by-10-per-cent-116022000026_1.html

References

Agrawal, K., Jain, S., Jain, A.K., Dahiya, S., 2014. Assessment of

Environmental Impacts of Natural Gas Combined Cycle Power Plant using

life cycle approach. Environmental Development,

doi.org/10.1016/j.envdev.2014.04.002.

Agrawal, K., Jain, S., Jain, A.K., Dahiya, S., 2014. Assessment of

greenhouse gas emissions from imported coal and natural gas combined

cycle thermal power plants using life cycle approach in India. International

Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, 11(4): 1157-64.

Cobert, A., 2009. Environmental Comparison of Michelin Tweel™ And

Pneumatic Tire using Life Cycle Analysis, Georgia Institute of Technology.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envdev.2014.04.002

Bibliography

http://www.slideshare.net/sandeep7162/analysis-of-environmental-

impact-on-oil-gas-company?related=1

http://www.eia.gov/todayinenergy/detail.cfm?id=18491

http://www.slideshare.net/sandeep7162/analysis-of-environmental-impact-on-oil-gas-company?related=1

http://www.eia.gov/todayinenergy/detail.cfm?id=18491

Case study

Impacts from transport sector

Introduction

• Nine districts spread in an area of 1483 square kilometers (in 2011)

• Population is 16.75 million (2011) and projected to grow up to 23 million by 2020

• Largest road network with 7.49 million registered vehicles

• Current traffic volume 182.7 million PKM and projected to increase up to 280.9 million by 2021

Urbanization & transportation in Delhi

• Automobiles cause 66% of total transport-based carbon emissions in Delhi

• Ambient air pollutants from automobile violates NAAQS reflecting poor air quality and deteriorating human health

• Policy interventions till date focus more on controlling the ambient air emissions; while, the impact of urban transport on climate remains unrecognized (Aggarwal and Jain, 2014)

Energy demand and CO2 emissions

Scope of work & objectives

Inventorizing and

characterizing on-road

vehicle activity

Energy demand modeling

Carbon emission

accounting

Future policy intervention

using Scenario Analysis

To assess the impact of transport policy

interventions on energy demand and carbon

emission in Delhi region; using ASIF energy

modelling and scenario analysis approach

Study area

ASI and ASF framework for estimation

of energy demand and CO2 emissions

Where, EEnergy is energy demand from all modes of transport; ECO2-emissionis CO2 emission load from all modes of transport;

‘k’ represents mode-type (scooter, motorcycle, cars, auto, bus and Delhi metro); ‘j’ represents vehicle technology (2/4

stroke); ‘i’ represents fuel type (gasoline/diesel/CNG); represents travel demand activity (in km); represents modal

structure (in percentage); represents vehicle mileage by mode and fuel type (km/kg or km/l); represents fuel-based

calorific value (MJ/kg or MJ/l); represents CO2emission factor (g/km).

ASF framework for estimation of air emissions

According to the ASIF framework

E = A x S x I x F

A is activity level expressed as total travel demand in passenger-kilometers

(PKM). Passenger-kilometer demand by each mode has been estimated using

vehicle kilometers (VKM) travelled and occupancy of each mode.

VKM = Total number of vehicles in each mode x Average vehicle utilization

Travel demand = ∑ PKM = ∑ VKM x Occupancy

S stands for structure, which is the modal split of travel demand.

I is energy intensity i.e. energy consumed per passenger kilometer. Energy

intensity depends upon occupancy and fuel efficiency of the mode.

I = 1/(Mileage x occupancy)

F is emission factor of the fuel used.

Energy consumed in passenger transport = ∑Total passenger kilometers x Share of

each mode x Energy intensity of each mode

Total emissions resulting from passenger transport = ∑Energy consumed in

passenger transport x emission factors for each of the fuels used in different modes

Scenario analysisScenario Description and Rationale

2007-REF Lines 1 to 3 of the Delhi metro (part of IMRTS), covering a distance of 65 km are taken as

operational

2021-BAU No policy interventions except covered under 2007-REF year

BS IV was introduced in the year 2010 and others have been have been assumed in

accordance to BS III norms, respectively.

2021-ALT-I Full phase of IMRTS implementation, which includes 4 phases of Delhi metro and Bus

Rapid Transit (BRT) system, has been considered by the year 2021 (see SI Table S.3), in

addition to the assumptions taken in 2021-BAU.

2021-ALT-II Two interventions have been added to the 2021-ALT-I scenario, in addition to the

assumptions taken in 2021-BAU –

(i) bus speed has been regulated to 25 km h–1 because of new infrastructural development

for dedicated bus corridors, and (ii) parking fees has been hiked (from Rs. 10-20 to Rs. 60-

200) for private vehicles.

2021-ALT-III One intervention have been added to 2021-ALT-II scenario, in addition to the assumptions

taken in 2021-BAU –

(i) Fuel economy standards have been implemented for gasoline and diesel cars in India,

by 2017 (as proposed by EU).

2021-ALT-IV One intervention have been added to 2021-ALT-II scenario, in addition to the assumptions

taken in 2021-BAU –

(i) Occupancy for two-wheelers has been increased from 1.2 to 1.5 and for car will

increase from 1.8 to 3.

Energy and CO2 emission in 2021 (BAU & ALT)

• Energy demand reduced from 65.4 billion MJ to 44.6 billion MJ (32% reduction)

• CO2 emission reduced from 4.1 million tons to 2.9 million tons

0%

25%

50%

75%

100%

125%

2021-BAU 2021-ALT-I 2021-ALT-II 2021-ALT-III 2021-ALT-IV

% c

hange in E

nerg

y a

nd C

O2

2021 Scenarios

Energy CO2

Private and public share in 2021 (ALT scenario)

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

2021-ALT-I 2021-ALT-II 2021-ALT-III 2021-ALT-IV

% c

hange in E

nerg

y a

nd C

O2

2021 Scenario

Energy-Private Energy-Public CO2-Private CO2-Public

Fuel and CNG usage in 2007 and 2021 (All scenario)

• 48% reduction in fuel demand in 2021-ALT-IV

• Demand for electricity increased by 71%

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

2007-REF 2021-BAU 2021-ALT-I 2021-ALT-II 2021-ALT-III 2021-ALT-IV

Die

se

l (i

n litre

) a

nd

Ele

ctr

icity (

in M

J)*

Gaso

line

(in

litre

) a

nd

CN

G (

in k

g)*

Gasoline (l) CNG (kg) Diesel (l) Electricity (kWh)

Overall Methodology

for Integrated Impact

Assessment

Annual emissions from passenger

transport under different scenarios

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

2007-BASE 2021-BAU 2021-ALT-I 2021-ALT-II 2021-ALT-III

PM

10 (

in t

ons/y

ear)

Em

issio

ns (

in thou

sands tons/y

ear)

CO HC NO2 PM10

3a. CO concentration in 2007 and 2021

2007-BASE 2021-BAU 2021-ALT-I 2021-ALT-II 2021-ALT-

III

2007-BASE 2021-BAU 2021-ALT-I 2021-ALT-II 2021-ALT-III

2007-BASE 2021-BAU 2021-ALT-I 2021-ALT-II 2021-ALT-

III

3b. NO2 concentration in 2007 and 2021

3c. PM10 concentration in 2007 and 2021

Imp

act

on

urb

an

air

qu

ali

ty

5a. CO concentration in 2007 and 2021

2007-BASE-O 2021-BAU-O 2021-ALT-I-O 2021-ALT-II-O 2021-ALT-III-O

5b. NO2 concentration in 2007 and 2021

2007-BASE-O 2021-BAU-O 2021-ALT-I-O 2021-ALT-II-O 2021-ALT-III-O

5c. PM10 concentration in 2007 and 2021

2007-BASE-O 2021-BAU-O 2021-ALT-I-O 2021-ALT-II-O 2021-ALT-III-O 2021-ALT-IV-O

Air quality and health impact of surface

transport in NCTD region

Modes of Transport POLICY SCENARIOS

Passenger 2007-BASE 2021-BAU 2021-ALT-I 2021-ALT-II 2021-ALT-III

NO2 Annual Conc. (μg/m3) 10 13 8 7 8

MortalityRespiratory 4 (4, 0.3) 8 (8, 0.5) 5 (5, 0.3) 4 (4, 0.3) 4 (5, 0.3)

Cardiovascular 24 (25, 2) 47 (49, 3) 29 (30, 2) 26 (27, 2) 27 (28, 2)

Morbidity

Respiratory - - - - -

Cardiovascular24213 (25244,

1849)

46232 (48217,

3395)

29114 (30383,

2108)

25831 (26961,

1866)

27119 (28304,

1961)

DALY

Respiratory 112 (117, 8) 215 (225, 15) 134 (140, 9) 118 (123, 8) 124 (130, 9)


1963)

49124 (51235,

3604)

30923 (32272,

2238)

27434 (28635,

1981)

28803 (30062,

2081)

PM2.5 Annual Conc. (μg/m3) 0.46 0.36 0.22 0.15 0.15

MortalityRespiratory 136 (142, 8) 155 (162, 9) 96 (100, 5) 85 (88, 5) 65 (68, 4)

Cardiovascular 17 (18, 1) 19 (20, 1) 12 (12, 1) 10 (11, 1) 8 (8, 0.5)

MorbidityRespiratory

1073 (1120,

64)

1225 (1278,

75)754 (787, 43) 667 (697, 38) 516 (539, 29)

Cardiovascular 866 (904, 52) 989 (1032, 60) 609 (636, 35) 539 (563, 31) 417 (435, 24)

DALY

Respiratory5210 (5437,

310)

5949 (6207,

363)

3663 (3825,

209)

3243 (3386,

185)

2510(2621,

143)


82)

1564 (1632,

95)963 (1005, 55) 852 (890, 48)

660 (689,

38)

Diurnal variation in PM2.5 concentration

at Punjabi Bagh station

100

200

300

400

PM

2.5

(µg/m

3)

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

WS (

m/s

)

5

10

15

20

25

Tem

p. (°

C)

20

40

60

80

00:0

0

02:0

0

04:0

0

06:0

0

08:0

0

10:0

0

12:0

0

14:0

0

16:0

0

18:0

0

20:0

0

22:0

0

00:0

0

02:0

0

04:0

0

06:0

0

08:0

0

10:0

0

12:0

0

14:0

0

16:0

0

18:0

0

20:0

0

22:0

0

00:0

0

02:0

0

04:0

0

06:0

0

08:0

0

10:0

0

12:0

0

14:0

0

16:0

0

18:0

0

20:0

0

22:0

0

00:0

0

02:0

0

04:0

0

06:0

0

08:0

0

10:0

0

12:0

0

14:0

0

16:0

0

18:0

0

20:0

0

22:0

0

RH

(%

)

Pre-scheme Post-schemeDuring-scheme

Low PM2.5

High Wind Speed

High PM2.5

Low Wind Speed

Low RH High RH

Source: SEAR, 2016

GOAL

OUTCOMES

IMPROVE

AIR QUALITY

Reduction in

Travel Time

by 25%

Avoided

Emissions

from Traffic

Fuel

Savings

Reduction in

GHG

Emissions

Increased

level of

awareness

3 tonnes of

PM

71 tonnes

of NO2

118 tonnes

of HCs

12,763 kL of

Gasoline

1951 kL of

Diesel

52,931 tonnes

of CNG 282 tonnes

of CO

35,253 tonnes of

CO2eq

Source: SEAR, 2016

Video and latest news web-links

The End of Coal?

http://www.abc.net.au/4corners/stories/2015/06/15/4253096.htm

Linc Energy: Secret report reveals toxic legacy of coal gasification trials near SE

Queensland town of Chinchilla Exclusive by the National Reporting Team's Mark

Solomons and Mark Willacy – available at: http://www.abc.net.au/news/2015-

08-10/linc-energy-secret-report-reveals-toxic-chemical-risk/6681740

Coal Fired Power Plant - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rEJKiUYjW1E

Stricter Norms A Costly Affair for Power Players

http://www.newindianexpress.com/states/odisha/Stricter-Norms-A-Costly-Affair-

for-Power-Players/2016/02/19/article3285355.ece

Climate Change 2014: The State of the Science, IGBP https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jdN9IJQssKE

Top 6 Climate Change Problems

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4Ew05sRDAcU

http://www.abc.net.au/4corners/stories/2015/06/15/4253096.htm

http://www.abc.net.au/news/2015-08-10/linc-energy-secret-report-reveals-toxic-chemical-risk/6681740

http://www.abc.net.au/news/2015-08-10/linc-energy-secret-report-reveals-toxic-chemical-risk/6681740

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rEJKiUYjW1E

http://www.newindianexpress.com/states/odisha/Stricter-Norms-A-Costly-Affair-for-Power-Players/2016/02/19/article3285355.ece

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jdN9IJQssKE

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4Ew05sRDAcU

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The Finance minister Arun Jaitley in his budget speech in support of an additional cess of Rs 100 per tonne on coal that will be used to invest in clean generation." Source: http://www.dnaindia.com/india/report-moef-issues-new-draft-

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http://www.dnaindia.com/india/report-moef-issues-new-draft-emission-norms-for-coal-based-thermal-power-plants-2087316

environment impacts of energy sector (non-renewable)

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