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The Victorian Period

The Victorian period formally begins in 1837 (the year Victoria became Queen) and ends in1901 (the year of her death) !s a matter of e"pediency# these dates are sometimes modifiedslightly 1830 is usually considered the end of the $omantic period in %ritain# and thus ma&es acon'enient starting date for Victorianism imilarly# since Queen Victoria s death occurred sosoon in the beginning of a ne* century# the end of the pre'ious century pro'ides a useful closingdate for the period

The common perception of the period is the Victorians are +prudish# hypocritical# stuffy# ,and-narro*.minded/ ( urfin 92 ) This perception is (as most periodic generali ations are) notuni'ersally accurate# and it is thus a grie'ous error to 4ump to the conclusion that a *riter orartist fits that description merely because he or she *rote during the mid to late 19th century5o*e'er# it is also true that this description applies to some large segments of Victorian 6nglishsociety# particularly amongst the middle.class# *hich at the time *as increasing both in numberand po*er any members of this middle.class aspired to 4oin the ran&s of the nobles# and feltthat acting +properly#/ according to the con'entions and 'alues of the time# *as an importantstep in that direction

!nother important aspect of this period is the large.scale e"pansion of %ritish imperial po*er%y 1830# the %ritish empire had# of course# e"isted for centuries# and had already e"periencedmany boons and setbac&s erhaps the most significant blo* to its po*er occurred in the late18th century *ith the successful re'olt of its 13 !merican colonies# an e'ent *hich *oulde'entually result in the formation of the nited tates as *e no* &no* it uring the 19thcentury# the %ritish empire e"tensi'ely e"panded its colonial presence in many parts of !frica# in:ndia# in the middle.east and in other parts of !sia This process has had many long.term effects#

including the increased use of the 6nglish language outside of 6urope and increased trade bet*een 6urope and distant regions :t also# of course# produced some long.standing animosityin coloni ed regions

Literature of the Victorian Period:

:t is important to reali e from the outset that the Victorian period is ;uite long Victoria s reignlasted o'er 23 years# longer than any other %ritish monarch The Victorian era lasted roughlyt*ice as long as the $omantic period <eeping in mind that e'en the relati'ely short $omantic period sa* a *ide 'ariety of distinguishing characteristics# it is logical that much longerVictorian period includes e'en more 'ariety %elo* are a fe* of the note*orthy characteristics

*hich appear often enough to be *orth mentioning# but certainly do not encompass the entiretyof the period

• The dri'e for social ad'ancement fre;uently appears in literature This dri'e may ta&emany forms :t may be primarily financial# as in =harles ic&ens s Great Expectations:t may in'ol'e marrying abo'e one s station# as in =harlotte %ronte s Jane Eyre :t mayalso be intellectual or education.based Typically# any such attempt to impro'e one s

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social standing must be accompanied by +proper/ beha'ior (thus helping to pro'ide the period *ith its stereotype)

• The period sa* the rise of a highly ideali ed notion of *hat is +6nglish/ or *hatconstitutes an +6nglishman / This notion is ob'iously tied 'ery closely to the period smodels for proper beha'ior# and is also tied 'ery closely to 6ngland s imperial

enterprises any colonists and politicians sa* it as their political (and sometimesreligious) duty to +help/ or +ci'ili e/ nati'e populations in coloni ed regions :t *as thusimportant to ha'e a model *hich pro'ides a set of standards and codes of conduct# andthe ideali ed notion of *hat is +6nglish/ often pro'ided this model

• >ater Victorian *riting sa* the seeds of rebellion against such ideali ed notions andstereotypical codes of conduct These +proper/ beha'iors often ser'ed as sub4ects ofsatire? @scar Ailde s plays are an e"cellent e"ample The later years of the Victorian period also sa* the rise of aestheticism# the +art for art s sa&e/ mo'ement# *hich directlycontradicted the social and political goals of much earlier Victorian literature @ne of thefascinating *ays of approaching the Victorian period is to e"amine the influence of theselater de'elopments on the odernist period *hich follo

efining Victorian literature in any satisfactory and comprehensi'e manner has pro'entroublesome for critics e'er since the nineteenth century came to a close The mo'ement roughlycomprises the years from 1830 to 1900# though there is ample disagreement regarding e'en thissimple point The name gi'en to the period is borro*ed from the royal matriarch of 6ngland#Queen Victoria# *ho sat on throne from 1837 to 1901 @ne has difficulty determining *ith anyaccuracy *here the $omantic o'ement of the early nineteenth century lea'es off and theVictorian eriod begins because these traditions ha'e so many aspects in common >i&e*ise#identifying the point *here Victorianism gi'es *ay completely to odernism is no easy tas&

>iterary periods are ne'er the discrete# self.contained realms *hich the anthologies so suggest$ather# a literary period more closely resembles a rope that is frayed at both ends any threadsma&e up the rope and *or& together to form the *hole artistic and cultural milieu The Victorian*riters e"hibited some *ell.established habits from pre'ious eras# *hile at the same time pushing arts and letters in ne* and interesting directions :ndeed# some of the later Victorianno'elists and poets are nearly indistinguishable from the odernists *ho follo*ed shortlythereafter :n spite of the uncertainty of terminology# there are some concrete statements that onecan ma&e regarding the nature of Victorian literature# and the intellectual *orld *hich nurturedthat literature

:f there is one transcending aspect to Victorian 6ngland life and society# that aspect is change Bor# more accurately# uphea'al 6'erything that the pre'ious centuries had held as sacred andindisputable truth came under assault during the middle and latter parts of the nineteenth century Cearly e'ery institution of society *as sha&en by rapid and unpredictable change :mpro'ementsto steam engine technology led to increased factory production ore manufacturing re;uiredmore coal to be mined from the ground The economies of 6urope e"panded and accelerated# asthe foundations of a completely global economy *ere laid 5uge amounts of *ealth *ere

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the Victorians# or at least not as self.consciously The $omantic o'ement *as mar&ed byintro'ersion and abstraction? they *ere much less interested in commenting on# much lessaltering the course of *orld e'ents Durthermore# the $omantics did not see leadership as a primary ob4ecti'e for art Victorians# on the other hand# tacitly agreed that encouraging societyto*ard a higher good *as a righteous# noble occupation for any artist

Cot surprisingly# *omen in the Victorian *orld held 'ery little po*er and had to fight hard forthe change they *anted in their li'es Ahat one thin&s of as feminism today had not yet ta&enform in the Victorian period The philosophy of female emancipation# ho*e'er# became arallying point for many female Victorian *riters and thin&ers Though their philosophies andmethods *ere often ;uite di'ergent# the ultimate goal of intellectual *omen in the nineteenthcentury *as largely the same oets and no'elists fre;uently had to be coy *hen addressing theirstatus in society =hristina $ossetti s +Eoblin ar&et/ combines early feminist imagery *ithmany other concepts in a fairy.tale li&e *orld of imagination 5er use of religious symbolism isespecially fascinating Though not as highly regarded# >etitia 6li abeth >andon *as also anaccomplished and popular female poet =harlotte and 6mily %rontF crafted no'els that ha'estood the test of time and ta&en their place as literary classics These *omen *ere e"ceptions tothe rule atriarchy had been firmly entrenched in Aestern society for so long that *omen*riters faced an uphill climb to gain any le'el recognition and acceptance ome authors# li&eary !nn 6'ans# felt the need to *or& under a male pseudonym in order to recei'e recognition6'ans published her first t*o no'els# Adam Bede and Scenes of Clerical Life # under the falsename of Eeorge 6liot :nterestingly# e'en today 6'ans is more commonly &no*n by her pseudonym than her real name

:n the early years of the Victorian eriod# poetry *as still the most 'isible of literary forms >i&ee'erything else# poetry and poetics under*ent an e'olution during the nineteenth century %oththe purpose of poetry and its basic style and tone changed drastically during the Victorian eriod:n the first half of the nineteenth century# poetry *as still mired in the escapist# abstract imageryand themes of the earlier generation Ahile essayists and no'elists *ere confronting social issueshead.on# poets for their part remained ambi'alent at best This self.induced coma graduallylifted# and by mid.century most poets had mo'ed a*ay from the abstractions and metaphysicaltropes of the $omantics and fashioned a more do*n.to.earth# realistic &ind of 'erse !lfred# >ordTennyson *as the master of simple# earthy lyricism to *hich e'eryone could relate 5is In

Memoriam sho*s off this simplicity and economy of 'erse# *hile remaining an effecti'e and

mo'ing elegy for his deceased friend !rthur 5allam The obsession *ith the natural *orld andthe imagination that so clearly distinguished the $omantic poets *as supplanted during theVictorian eriod by a clear.headed# almost utilitarian &ind of poetics The sub4ect matter ofVictorian poetry *as ;uite often socially.oriented# but this *as by no means set in stoneVictorian poets *ere nothing if not masters of 'ariety and in'enti'eness $obert %ro*ning sdramatic monologues# for e"ample# co'ered a *ide array of sub4ects# from lucid dreams to thenature of art and e'en the meaning of e"istence Throughout his 'arious aesthetic e"periments#

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%ro*ning ne'er failed to in4ect humanity into his sub4ect matter +The %ishop @rders 5is Tombat t ra"ed s =hurch#/ one of %ro*ning s most famous poems# demonstrates the intensity and psychological realism he *as able to portray in the space of a fe* hundred lines

!t some point in the Victorian era# the no'el replaced the poem as the most fashionable 'ehicle

for the transmission of literature This fundamental shift in popular taste has remained to the present day erial publications in maga ines and 4ournals became more and more popular# andsoon these pieces *ere being bound and sold in their complete forms ic&ens made full use ofthe serial format# and his no'els betray the episodic arrangement of their original publicationmethod 5e *as the first great popular no'elist in 6ngland# and *as the forerunner of the artist.celebrity figure *hich in the t*entieth century *ould become the norm The influence ofic&ens *as so se'ere that e'ery no'elist *ho came after him had to *or& under his aestheticshado* art of his appeal certainly o*ed to the fact that his literary style# *hile al*aysentertaining# put the ills of society under the microscope for e'eryone to see 5is Hard Times *as a condemning portrait of society s obsession *ith logic and scientific ad'ancement at thee"panse of the imagination ntil the Victorian eriod# the no'el had been fro*ned upon as alesser form of *riting# incapable of the sublime reaches of lyric poetry =ritics sa* that the no'elappealed to a popular# often female readership# and therefore dismissed it as artless and dull Thelater Victorian no'elists# ho*e'er# pro'ed that the form could attain heights of artisticachie'ement pre'iously reser'ed only for poetry Thomas 5ardy# for e"ample# pushed the no'elto its limits# significantly e"panding the possibilities of the form !lthough he thought of himselfmore as a poet# his first best talent lay in constructing detailed# fatalistic plot.structures that stillcapti'ate readers Co'els li&e Jude the !scure share many ;ualities *ith Eree& tragedy# of*hich 5ardy *as ;uite fond# but they also contain psychologically sophisticated# realistic

characteri ations 5is gift for characteri ation *ould influence an entire generation of *ritersThomas 5ardy must be regarded as a &ey forerunner of the odernist o'ement in literature5is no'els and poetry all display tendencies that *ould reach their ape" in the early t*entiethcentury 5ardy often created desolate# hopeless *orlds *here life had 'ery little meaning 5ealso acti'ely ;uestioned the rele'ance of modern institutions# in particular organi ed religionentiments li&e these *ould find accomplished spo&espersons in poets li&e T 6liot and 6 raound !nother s&illed poet *ho is often considered a precursor to odernism is Eerard anley5op&ins Though he ne'er published in his lifetime# his *or& *as greatly recei'ed after hisdeath 5is unusual use of language set him apart from 'irtually e'ery other poet of his day

5op&ins *as 'ery much concerned *ith religion and the nature of =reation 5o*e'er# he still preser'ed a healthy ;uantity of s&epticism :t is this e"istential doubt that# li&e 5ardy# made5op&ins a fa'orite among the odernist *riters *ho *ould later disco'er his *or&

Dor many# the *ord +Victorian/ con4ures up images of o'er.dressed ladies and snooty gentlemengathered in parlors and reading rooms The idea of +manners/ essentially sums up the socialclimate of middle.class 6ngland in the nineteenth century $ules of personal conduct *ere in factso infle"ible that the Victorians garnered a reputation for saying one thing *hile doing another B

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an attac& that the ne"t generation of *riters *ould ta&e up *ith 'igor :n the *orld at large#change *as happening faster than many people could comprehend ! surging global economy*as orchestrated by the might of the %ritish 6mpire The nobility# formerly at the top of the pyramid in society# found their status reduced as agriculture lost its preeminence in the no*industrial economy echani ation and steam po*er led to ruthless efficiency# *hile more oftenthan not the poor suffered under the *eight of the capitalist middle class %eing impo'erished inVictorian 6ngland *as unpleasant to say the least# but there *ere efforts under*ay to impro'ethe lot of the poor The $eform %ills of the nineteenth century e"tended 'oting rights to men*ho *ere pre'iously disenfranchised B but not# of course# to *omen That *ould re;uire yearsmore of struggle Dor all of the social ine;ualities *hich still persisted# the Victorianssuccessfully undermined some of humanity s most time.honored institutions ome *ritersgreeted these changes *ith fear# and *anted desperately for society to chec& its relentless pace@thers embraced the ne* *orld that *as coming into being# thrilled at the progress of scienceand society Together# these 'oices comprise an important and sometimes o'erloo&ed era in

6nglish literary historyThis article is copyrighted G H011 by Ialic :nc o not reprint it *ithout permission Aritten byIosh $ahn Iosh holds a asters degree in 6nglish >iterature from orehead tate ni'ersity#and a asters degree in >ibrary cience from the ni'ersity of <entuc&y

Major Writers of the Victorian Period

• !rnold# atthe* (18HH.1888)• %rontF# =harlotte (1812.18JJ)•

%rontF# 6mily (1818.18 8)• %ro*ning# 6li abeth %arrett (1802.1821)• %ro*ning# $obert (181H.1889)• =arroll# >e*is (183H.1898)• =arlyle# Thomas (179J.1881)• ic&ens# =harles (181H.1870)• oyle# !rthur =onan (18J9.1930)• 6liot# Eeorge (1819.1880)• 5ardy# Thomas (18 0.19H8)• 5op&ins# Eerard anley (18 .1889)• 5ousman# ! 6 (18J9.1932)• <ipling# $udyard (182J.1932)• >andon# >etitia 6li abeth (180H.1838)

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• $ossetti# =hristina (1830.189 )• $ossetti# ante Eabriel (18H8.188H)• te'enson# $obert >ouis (18J0.189 )• *inburne# !lgernon =harles (1837.1909)• Tennyson# !lfred (>ord) (1809.189H)• Thac&eray# Ailliam a&epeace (1811.1823)• Aells# 5 E (1822.19 2)• Ailde# @scar (18J .1900)• Keats# Ailliam %utler (182J.1939)

ENGLISH LITERATURE IN THE NINETEENTH ENTUR!

A "rief #ut$ine Cineteenth century 6nglish literature is remar&able both for high artistic achie'ement and for'ariety The greatest literary mo'ement of its earlier period *as that of romanticism :t *as bornin the atmosphere of the 'iolent economic and political turmoil that mar&ed the last decades ofthe 18th and the first decades of the 19th century The outburst of political acti'ity brought on bythe Ereat Drench $e'olution of 1789# the bitter *ars *ith CapoleonLs Drance that ra'aged 6uropefor almost HJ years *ere the dominant political forces at *or& The hardships of the industrialand agrarian re'olution *hose 4oint effect *as a gradual change of all aspects of social life in6ngland made the situation rife *ith class hatredEreat distress *as caused by large lando*ners enclosing millions of acres of land for their o*n purposes and thus dispossessing labourers *ho *ere reduced either to sla'ing on the fields oftheir masters or to migrating in search of the means to support themsel'es by *or&ing 1HM1hours a day for *ages notoriously belo* subsistence le'el The labouring poor# in to*n andcountry ali&e# suffered the utmost misery from underpayment and o'er*or& and from cro*dingin hugely o'erpopulated industrial areasisery resulted in blind outbrea&s against machinery# *hich# the *or&ers belie'ed# did their*or& lea'ing themsel'es to unemployment and their families to slo* star'ation ean*hile Ntherights of labour *ere not yet recognised# there *ere no trade unions the ma4ority of country. people could not read or *rite? the good old discipline of Dather tic& and his children =at.@L. Cine.Tails# $opeLs 6nd# trap# %irch# Derule# and =ane *as *holesomely maintained? landlords#manufacturers and employers of all &inds did *hat they pleased *ith their o*n 6lections *ere

carried by open bribery the =hurch *as intolerant# the ni'ersities narro* and pre4udiced NThe situation *as not any better *hen the long *ished for peace *as at last ushered in by the'ictory o'er CapoleonLs army at Aaterloo (181J) nemployment became *orse than e'er aftersoldiers came home only to find that Nthe labouring people *ere almost all become paupers NThis *as the *ay the situation *as summed up by Ailliam =obbett# a democratic *riter and publisher reno*ned for his support of peopleLs rights !fter a 4ourney across 6ngland he *rote*ith the simple elo;uence so characteristic of himO N5ere are all the means of national po*er andof indiP'idual plenty and happiness e'ery ob4ect seemed to pronounce an eulogium on the

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industry# s&ill and perse'erance of the people !nd *hy then *ere those people in a state of suchmisery and degradation Nean*hile the *ealthy ruling classes *ere frightened by *hat they called the e"cesses of theDrench $e'olution and by the gro*ing spirit of discontent at home They *ere e'er ready to seerebellion in any attempt of the *or&ers to better their lot They in'ariably 'oted for aconser'ati'e go'ernment at home and supported all its blundering attempts to suppress re'oltONThe leaders of reaction reigned suPpreme filled *ith dread of the re'olution they seemed tothin& that the only funcPtion of go'ernment *as the maintenance of order and the suppression ofrebellion NThis# briefly# *as the bac&ground of the 6nglish romantic mo'ement :ts principal stimuli *ereon the one hand profound dissatisfaction *ith the atmosphere of reaction that seemed to ha'e setin for good after the hope and fer'our of the Drench $e'olution *as ;uenched in the blood of*ars and numerous uprisings The state of things in 6urope seemed to moc& the theories of thegreat men of the 6nlightenment *ho had e"pected to see a *orld transformed by reason andcommon sense Thence the romantic distrust of reason# rationalism# emphasis on emotion#intuition# the instincti'e *isdom of the heart# on nature as opposed to ci'ilisation@n the other hand# romantic *riters *ere 'iolently stirred by the suffering of *hich they *erethe daily un*illing *itnesses They *ere an"ious to find a *ay of redressing the cruel social*rongs and hoped to do so by their *ritings# by*ord or deed ! feature that all romantics had incommon *as a belief in literature being a sort of mission to be carried out in the teeth of alldifficulties# *ith the 'ie* of bringing aid or# presumably# sal'ation to man&ind:n using the term NromanticN no effort is made here to treat all the romantics of 6ngland as belonging to the same literary school $omanticism is here regarded as a 'ery comple" andcertainly far from unified endea'our to gi'e a ne* ans*er to the problems of re'olution andreaction# of past history and present.day politics# of the materialistic philosophy dominant in theage of 6nlightenment and the idealPistic trends in.early nineteenth century 6uropean thought :tis in the nature of the ans*er gi'en to all these urgent ;uestions that the romantics differ fromeach other !nd it is precisely that difference# no less than the points of li&eness bet*een them#that should be gi'en serious consideration!s distinct from the romantic *riters of Eermany or of Drance# their 6nglish contemporaries didnot call themsel'es romanticists# and some of them *ere at pains to dispro'e public opinioncalling them so Ce'ertheless they all made part of a mo'ement elo;uent of the spirit of the age#*ith its ingrained sense of incessant historical change# of the interdependence of man and theni'erse# of the *orld as ruled by semi.intelligible po*ers surpassing indi'idual *illThe first 6nglish poet to be fully a*are of the dilemmas of the age of great bourgeois re'olutions*as Ailliam %la&e 5is poetry has been discussed in the first 'olume of the present series (!n

!nthology of 6nglish >iterature# RV:::) *here he chronologically belongs# but as a forerunnerof romanticism in the 19th century he must also be mentioned here# %la&eLs 'iolent re'ulsionfrom rationalism# his repeatedly proclaimed belief in intuition and inspiration as the only paths totrue *isdom# his idealistic and mystic conceptions of humanity and its mysterious *ays *erethen ;uite original imilar ideas *ere later ta&en up by many poets *ho did not &no* of his*or&# as in his o*n life.time he published but one of his boo&s of poetry The rest of hisnumerous lyrics and epics ne'er reached the public of his days :n his portrayal of a gigantic

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*orld in the "rophetic Lays %la&e precedes the %yron ofCain and Hea#en and Earth$ thehelley of "rometheus %n!ound&

Though bitterly disappointed in the do*nfall of the Drench $e'olution# for reasons that *ere personal as *ell as public# %la&e ne'er *a'ered in his de'otion to the cause of freedom# in hishatred of oppression and ine;uality :n this he difPfered from his younger contemporariesAilliam Aords*orth and amuel Taylor =oleridge %oth began as *arm admirers of the$e'olution# so much so that AordsP*orth e'en tra'elled to Drance to *itness the great liberationof man&ind %ut after their hopes *ere baffled *hen a rapacious bourgeois cli;ue came to po*erin 179 # *hen the Drench republic started aggressi'e *ars against its neighbours# both poetsarri'ed at the conclusion that they had been un*ise in e"pecting any good to come of politicalchange# in placing too much trust in the capacity of reason to create a self.sufficient and *ell.regulated society of e;uals%oth poets resol'ed to *ithdra* from the e'ils of big industrial# cities and to de'ote themsel'esto see&ing truth and beauty in the ;uiet of country.life# in the grandeur and purity of nature#among unsophisticated and uncorrupted countryPfol& They dreamed of creating art that *ould be true to the best that is in man and help to bring it out by sheer force of poetry >i'ing in the>a&e country of Corthern 6ngland they *ere &no*n as the >a&istsTogether they composed and published a small 'olume of poems entitled Lyri'cal Ballads to*hich =oleridge contributed the gruesome tale of the Ancient Mariner and four more lyrics The bul& of the 'olume *as supplied by Aords*orth 5e called his ballads lyrical# because theftinterest did not lie in sub4ect.matter and plot but in mood and treatment# in ma&ing one feelingmodify and transform all other feelings and all the persons and e'ents described That treatment*as *hat AordsP*orth and =oleridge termed imaginati'e %y imagination they meant the mostessential faculty of a poet# the one that enables him to modify all images# to gi'e unity to 'arietyand see all things in one 1 NThis po*er re'eals itself in the balance or reconcilement ofopposite or discordant ;ualities? of sameness *ith difference? of the general *ith the concrete?

the idea *ith the image? the indi'idual *ith the representati'e? the sense of no'elty and freshness*ith old and familiar ob4ects? a more than usual state of emotion *ith more than usual order NThus the poetic imagination is a po*er of paramount importance to the creati'e artist :t is this po*er that helps Aords*orth to find beauty and significance in the simplest things pertaining tonature in the song of the cuc&oo# in the unadorned beauty of an early spring afternoon :n hisassertion of man 'ersus society# of religion 'ersus rationalism# of heart 'ersus intellect# of nature'ersus ci'ilisation .Aords*orth *as a romantic M no less so than =oleridge *ith his passionateinterest in mystical e"perience and the supernatural The latter is# for =oleridge# a symbol of thecomple"ity of human life# its painful contradictions# its dar& and unfathomable aspects Thus# thetragic @dyssey of the !ncient ariner# his fantastic ad'entures in the seas of e'erlasting ice andeternal tropics# his encounter *ith the spectreship and miraculous sal'ation are all symbols of

states of mind# of crime# punishment and e"piation through repentance# prayer and lo'e:n their later years# after the bul& of their *or& *as done# both poets became# increasinglyconser'ati'e in their religious and political 'ie*s and more rigid in their moral attitudes The political e'olution of the t*o poets *as closely paralleled by a mutual friend of theirs# $obertouthey 5is talent# at its best in simple ballads# *as decidedly inferior to both Aords*orthLs and=oleridgeLs :f he is at all remembered no* it is chiefly for his lifelong intimacy *ith them !stime *ent on outhey came to 'oice the official opinion of the Tory go'ernment

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The greatest romantic poet of the elder generation *as Aalter cott Though personally friendlyto the >a&ists# he ne'er ;uite shared their literary tastes and affinities The author of a number ofstylised imitations of old 6nglish and cottish ballads and original epic poems dealing *ith thefeudal past of his nati'e cotland# it is as a no'elist and disco'erer of a ne* pro'ince of *ritingthat Aalter cott *on his *orld reno*n 5is claim to a high ran& among the romantics mainly

depends on his profound sense of history 5e *as one of the first to realise the dialectical natureof the relationship bet*een indi'idual and public life# of the interdependence of great historicalcharacters and popular mo'ements and interests? *ith unerring acumen did he trace indi'idualand social psychology# no less than the influence of social facts and circumstances upon theactions of the rulers and the ruled 5is no'els struc& the reader (and still do so) *ith their epic;uality# *ith his analysis of Nthe forces that go to ma&e a situation and lead indi'iduals to act asthey do N N cottLs Nromanticism#N <ettle proceeds to say# Nlies in his re4ection of the 18th century polite tradition and his attempt to *rite of and for far broader sections of the people N 5is art *assteeped in fol&lore# in ancient balladry# in the robust realism of Dielding and mollett# in thegrandeur of ha&espeareLs historical chronicles Ahile dra*ing largely on a 'ast store of boo&.learning and pre'ious literary e"perience he inaugurated a ne* era in the history of the 6nglish

no'el!mong the romantic poets of the younger generation cott preferred %yron They *ere dra*ntogether by mutual admiration# personal and artistic ali&e# byS their concept of literature asha'ing a straight message to gi'e humanity# and teach it a moral and political lesson >i&e cott#%yron had a distinct feeling of the mo'ement of 5istory# of unceasing de'elopment# of hugeforces shaping human li'esnli&e cott# ho*e'er# *ho shared the >a&e poetsL distrust of political reorgani ation of societyand their disappro'al of re'olutionary methods# %yron# though sometimes sceptical about theresults of a future re'olution# entertained no doubt *hate'er both about the ine'itability ofre'olution and the moral and political necessity for any man to fight for it to the best of hisabilities 5e too *as disappointed in the social aftermath of 1789 but he al*ays realised itsliberating effect and its role in the future of man&ind%yronLs romanticism *as coloured by grief at sight of the corrupting and debasing influence ofreaction and absolute po*er M and hopes of future regeneration? by adherence to the ideals of thegreat men of the age of $eason M and a sense that their theories *ere too single.minded# toofacile to cope *ith the tragic conflicts of his o*n time Ket ne'er did %yron go so far as the elder poets in his negation of the theories of the 6nlightenment# and only ;uestioned the possibility of putting them soon into practice Ceither did he agree *ith the senior romanticsL disparagement ofclassicism# one of the leading literary styles of the !ge of 6nlightenment 5e bro&e most of itsrules# but to the last he proclaimed it as the only path to truth# 'irtue and poetical e"cellence=lassicism *as to %yron# along *ith the ethical and political concepts of the 6nlightenment# an

ideal that he 'ainly endea'oured to li'e up to himself and induce others to follo*>i&e all the romantics# %yron *as 'ery 'ersatile in his literary *or& :n poetry he tried e'ery possible genre# most unclassically Ndestroying the proper di'isions and barriers bet*een them5e created lyric and epic poems (shot through and through *ith lyrical feeling)# dramas# bothclassical and romantic# political satires# 'erse tales# and# in prose# specimens of flaming oratoryand fine epistolary art# as in his letters and 4ournals%yronLs hatred of social in4ustice# of e'ery type of oppression# his indignation at the sufferinginflicted by man upon man# his sense of the conflicting *ishes# interests and passions tearing the

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*orld asunder# the intensity of his satirical gift along *ith an ardent belief in self.sacrifice andheroism as the only *ay to pull man&ind out of all its troubles# the great philosophic ;uestions heraised though ne'er ga'e a final ans*er to# ma&ing his reader follo* him in his daring search fortruth only to realise the impossibility of elementary dogmatic reading of the *orldLs riddles M allthis ma&es of %yron the most forceful embodiment of that spirit of criticism# doubt and rebellion

that characterises the romantic period of literature!nother great rebel among the romantics *as %yronLs friend helley Aith him hatred of theabominations of a cruel and selfish class society reaches its clima" 5is denunciations of theruthlessness of employers and the condition of the 6nglish *or&ing class# as for instance in(ueen Ma!$ ha'e an almost modern ring >i&e the other romantics# he *as fully a*are of thetragedy of the Drench $e'olution# but li&e %yron# he de'oted his life and poetry to the re'olutionof the future that *ould not repeat the errors of 1789# and *ould culminate in a triumph ofuni'ersal gladness and lo'e helley *as the only romantic to realise that liberty could not be*on *ithout the enthusiasm of the *or&ing men of 6ngland# and he called upon them to riseagainst their oppressorshelleyLs outloo& *as# not unli&e =oleridgeLs# strongly influenced by contemporary idealisticthought and by his early assimilation of the philosophy of lato# the great idealist of ancientEreece :dealism *as# as <arl ar" pointed out# a natural stage in the de'elopment of modern philosophy on its *ay from mechanical# metaphysical systems created in the 18th century M todialectical materialism helleyLs idealism *as inconsistently blended *ith materialistictendencies inherited from the philosophers of the 6nlightenment *hom he ne'er ceased toadmire 5e *ished to assert the predominance and acti'ity of the spirit so as to emphasise the paramount importance of ideas in the great struggle for the liberation of humanity 5e pinned hishopes on persuasion# education and altruism as the great instruments of good but ad'ocated thenecessity of putting up a fight for the right causehelley *as romantic in his resolute brea& *ith literary tradition# in creating ne* imagery and

rhythms# in dra*ing the inner *orld of man as part of the infinity of the ni'erse 5is poeticstyle is highly metaphorical# often symbolical# in an effort to render daring 'isions of greatcatastrophes and great 'ictories# of a glorious future for man&ind The comple"ity and no'elty ofhis imagery *ere so much ahead of his time that he *as understood by 'ery fe* readers :n thishe *as a&in to his younger contemporary Iohn <eats# *hose poetry *as a po*erful embodimentof the romantic idea of freedom# lo'e and beauty as opposed to the 'ulgarity and prosiness of bourgeois ci'ilisation>i&e helley# <eats li'ed in a poetic *orld of his o*n imagination# but though he hated tyrannyand oppression# both of =hurch and Eo'ernment# he seldom let his politics interfere *ith his poetry 5is ambition *as to influence men solely by the po*er of beauty# not by a direct appealto their 'ie*s <eatsLs often repeated speculations on beauty as the true source of happiness and

moral freedom no less than the sub4ect.matter of his poems dealing *ith mythological ormedie'al themes# his detachment from the burning issues of the day resulted in his poetry beinginPterpreted as# the e"pression of a &ind of aestheticism :t *as only about a hundred years afterhis death that his *or& came to be understood as part of the humanitarian romantic protestagainst the sordidness of contemporary society# against the shallo*.ness and tri'iality ofaccepted art N: find there is no *orthy pursuit but the idea of doing some good for the *orld#N<eats *rote in one of his letters# Nthere is but one *ay for me M the *ay lies through application#

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study and thought N : am ne'er alone *ithout re4oicing that there is such a thing as death M*ithout placing my ultimate in the glory of dying for a great human purpose Nhelley and <eats *ere not recognised in their o*n times They *ere considered inferior notonly to %yron and cott but also to a far lesser poet# Thomas oore# the author of the musicaland intensely emotional Irish Melodies bearing upon the national misfortunes of oppressed:reland :n his romantic poems on the 6ast# in his satirical )a!les oore too& up some of themost popular topics of his day The easy flo* of his 'erse# his pleasing sentimentality and the'i'idness of the colouring he thre* on all he described and particularly his musicality charmedthe general reader and *on him many admirersThe prose of 6nglish romanticism is to be studied in the *or&s of the essayists Thomas eQuincey# =harles >amb# Ailliam 5a litt# >eigh 5unt Ahile differing in politics# religion and philosophy# all of them in their 'arious *ays contributed to*ards the birth and gro*th of thelyrical romantic essay *hose main function *as neither informati'e nor ob4ecti'ely descripti'e but rather a sub4ecti'e re'elation of the authorsL state of mind# their attitudes and idiosyncrasies6motional and imaginati'e interpretation of facts (and not facts for their o*n sa&e) *as the chief purPpose of the romantic essayists Thomas e Quincey# a *arm admirer and close assoPciate ofthe >a&e poets# also *rote his *orld.famous story Confessions of an En*lish pium+Eater *hichstruc& the reader by the persistent personal note of its a'o*al of *ea&ness# distress and of thetriumph of poetical inspiration o'er the miseries of actual e"istenceThe other essayists formed a more or less close group of friends doing 4oint *or& in publishingand *riting for critical and non.conformist literary periodicals :n their ardent championship ofradical political change (thence the term NradicalsN as opposed to the leading parliamentary parties Tories and Ahigs# after 183H =onser'ati'es and >iberals respecti'ely)# in their romantictheory of poetry as defying uni'ersally accepted social# ethical and aesthetical standards >amb#5a litt and 5unt *ere the immediate allies and# in a *ay# the mentors and instructors of Iohn<eats !ll of them *ere stigmati ed by Tory re'ie*ers as the =oc&ney (a =oc&ney is strictly

spea&ing anybody li'ing in the heart of >ondon *ithin the sound of the bells of the t ary.le.%o* =hurch :n a *ider sense a =oc&ney is an ignorant# uneducated person spea&ing *ith thespecific accent of lo*er.class >ondoners The re'ie*ers applied it to <eats and his friends as adisparaging term# intimating that they *ere not NgentlemenN either in life or letters) school of poetry and criticism :t *as a broad hint at their NplebeianN origins# at their literary radicalismscorning the rigid rules of classicism# at the Nlo*N sub4ects of their essays on life in >ondonThe essays of the =oc&neys# and those of e Quincey# constituted *hat the critics called theNprose form of 6nglish romanticismN !t the same time along *ith the high flo*ering ofromantic poetry and prose the older traditions of realism *ere ne'er discontinued Aith Eeorge=rabbe in poetry# *ith Danny %urney# aria 6dge*orth and Iane !usten in prose# realismsteadfastly stood its ground =rabbeLs narrati'e poems# Nthe annals of the poorN as he 4ustly called

them# ga'e a memorable presentation of the degradation of country fol& under the stress of *antand dreary hard *or&Aith the lady.no'elists mentioned abo'e literature mo'ed in more fashionable circles @f thesethe art of Iane !usten is the most consummate and therefore representati'e Through the 'erynarro* social milieu (land.o*ners# gentry# country clergy) that constitutes the theme of herno'els# Iane !usten succeeded in bringing home the essence of the social relationships of hertime Aith unfailing accuracy does she dra* a small *orld possessed by a yearning for money

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and high social standing# and depri'ed of either# *ish or capacity for using other criteria in their 4udgement o'er men and *omen but those of fortune and ran&Aith a touch at once delicate and sure !usten introduces a 'ast 'ariety of characters *hosementality is more or less distorted by false moral and social standards 5er irony and humour areomniscient and e'er at the ser'ice of her &een critical insight# of her shre*d utterlyunsentimental comprehension of the moti'es underlying the actions and feelings of a 'ain#selfish and mercenary society :t is the fe* persons *ho are comparati'ely unscathed by theseshallo* and ugly moti'es that !usten ma&es her heroines !lmost none of them are 4ust born*ise and 'irtuous The most con'incing of them are those *ho li&e 6mma Aoodhouse or !nne6lliott ha'e to pass through a moral ordeal before they find that the only thing that really mattersis the true *orth of man and *oman# his or her gift for disinterested affection# loyalty andgenerosityIane !ustenLs ethics are high and strict but they are ne'er obtruded upon the reader 5er methodsare mostly indirect The authorial 'oice is disguised by ob4ecti'e presentation of dialogue# innermonologue (reported speech)# as *ell as of the charactersL actions and reactions The NinimitableIaneN is *armly admired and much studied in t*entieth century 6ngland and !merica!lthough !usten stands aloof from the romantic trends of her o*n time and moc&s some of theirmore ob'ious and salient characteristics# although she is a follo*er of 18th century realistictraditions# yet her artistic detachment and her dispassionate sur'ey of her contemporaries couldonly ha'e been born out of the same critical and humanitarian spirit and the same historicism thatga'e birth to the romantic mo'ement! sort of reduced and imitati'e romanticism is to be detected in the *or& of 6d*ard %ul*er>ytton 5e modelled his early *or&s on %yronLs and cottLs and later on the realistic no'els ofthe Lforties and Lfifties 5ardly e'er original# %ul*er >ytton *as a true and refined mirror ofsucceeding literary and philosophical fashionsTo%ards the end of the &'()*s the conc$usion of the industria$ re+o$ution a$on, %ith itsnatura$ i-.$ications the rise of a .o%erfu$ -anufacturin, and tradin, c$ass and at thesa-e ti-e the radica$ a,itation for .o$itica$ chan,e cu$-inated in the Par$ia-entar/refor- of &'0(1 It %as carried in the teeth of a stout opposition on the part of the Tory party :tseffect *as a far better representation of the middle class in arliament The lo*er classes#ho*e'er# *ere still &ept out of arliament by a high property ;ualification for membersThe political 'ictory of the bourgeoisie brought no relief to the *or&ing class and e'entuallyconsiderably *ea&ened its condition Ce*ly gained political po*er enabled employers tointroduce ne* methods of e"ploitation Thus# *ith a 'ie* of enlarging the number of *or&ers atmills and factories and reducing the number of the poor *ho obtained relief *ithin their parishesand *ere under no immediate necessity to sell their labour to mill.o*ners ne* oor >a*s *ere

passed by arliament !ccording to these relief *as granted to the poor only in special*or&houses *here they *ere sub4ected to harsh treatment# practically little better than in prison#and *ere made to *or& for their foodThe disappointment of the *or&ing class in reform# and acute social distress led to the organisedmo'ement &no*n under the name of =hartism The oppressed classes demanded a further andmore democratic reform of arliament They entertained the hope that ade;uately represented#they could radically impro'e their o*n condition =hartist agitation# mass meetings# stri&es and

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uprisings *ent on# intermittently# for more than ten years# from the later thirties all through theNhungry fortiesNThe mo'ement subsided after an impro'ement in economic condition and after the 6nglish bourgeoisie *isely decided to a'oid re'olution by conceding the most urgent demands of the=hartists=hartism had important literary results in the de'elopment of popular poetry Cot only did the=hartists re'i'e the re'olutionary poems of %yron and helley (*hose Son* to the Men of

En*land became a =hartist marching.song) but *ithin a short time a ne* poetry sprang up'oicing the aspiration of those *ho had as yet not succeeded in ma&ing themsel'es heard%esides a considerable amount of anonymous songs and poems# there *ere poets of distinctionamong the organised fighters for *or&ersL rights @f these Eerald assey# Thomas =ooper#Ailliam Iames >inton and especially 6rnest Iones probably ran&ed highest ! militant spirit ofresistance# sarcasm and irony# pathos and rhetorics# strong rhythms and sonorous rhymes gotogether to gi'e the =hartist poetry a peculiar 'igour The =hartists also *rote a fe* good no'els(6rnest Iones# Thomas artin Aheeler) and published some literary criticism de'oted to thosethey loo&ed upon as the early prophets of re'olution The *or& of =hartist poets *as deliberatelyneglected by bourgeois scholars? the =hartist periodicals (e g #The ,orthern Star- *herein mostof that *or& *as published ha'e long been out of print and ha'e been properly studied only inthis countryThe =hartistsL passionate concern for the cause of the suffering 6nglish people inspired poets*ho *ere not in any direct *ay associated *ith =hartism 6li abeth %arrett %ro*ningLs muchanthologi ed Cry of Children$ Thomas 5oodLs no less famousSon* of the Shirt and The Brid*eof Si*hs plead for human &indness and altruism# for sympathy *ith the hardships of the poorU:t *as in the period of political strife# *hen social problems came to the fore and re'ealed their prosaic# material nature# that ne* trends *ere born in literature reoccupation *ith public life# asense of the paramount importance of things social# of the necessity of loo&ing into the *aythings are and to describe them faithfully so as to redress or at least palliate the e'ils of a cruelindustrial system *ere the forces that stimulated the gro*th of realism $omanticism no*seemed too abstract# too aloof# too much relying upon symbolic or fantastic presentation ofactuality :t had done its *or& and played its role? the time had come *hen the mysterious po*ers ruling the ne* era that the romantics had anticipated stood much more clearly re'ealed! direct and straightfor*ard consideration of e'eryday life became an imperati'e necessity !tfirst realistic prose too& the shape of short essays# more ob4ecti'e# informati'e and descripti'ethan the romantic essay had been# and yet certainly bearing some affinities *ith it Cor *as thisthe only debt mid.nineteenth century realism o*ed to its romantic predecessors Aithout theirshattering social criticism (e'en if couched in some*hat abstract terms and imagery)# *ithouttheir repudiation of classicist regulations of literature# *ithout their minute attenPtion to the

indi'idual and particular# *ithout their psychological disco'eries and insight into the inner life ofman# realism could not ha'e come into beingThe greatest realist of 6ngland =harles ic&ens certainly learned much from romantic *riters :nhis early essays the influence of the >ondon essays of =harles >amb and >eigh 5unt can easily be traced# though ic&ens is more true to the typical detail# to social fact# to ob4ecti'eobser'ation of the habits and customs of the poor inhabitants of 6uropeLs richest capital

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:n each of his earlier no'els *ritten in the thirties ic&ens de'oted his efforts to stri&ing at someob'ious social e'il and helping to remo'e it :n the "ic./ic. "apers$ e g # he laughed to scorn theclumsy comedy of arliamentary elections# of the 6nglish court of la* and the ini;uities of>ondonLs prisons (a sub4ect he *as later to ta&e up on a much *ider scale in Blea. House-& :nli#er T/ist he treated the burning issues of the day M the horrors of *or&houses and of crime?

in ,icholas ,ic.le!y M the conditions of Kor&shire boarding schools# etc

:n these early no'els it is plain that ic&ens *as yet ;uite hopeful about the future of his countryand confidently loo&ed for*ard to happier days The *rongs he stigmati ed are but episodes inhis no'els and do not become central in their plotting The Lforties *ere a sort of transitional period in his career To*ards the end he emerged as a mature artist *ith such fine generalisationsof the mental attiPtudes of the bourgeois as in 0om!ey and Son and in the partlyautobiographical 0a#id Copperfield&

ic&ensLs greatest masterpieces# the sad and *ise no'els of the fifties# differed from his earlier'entures in scope and structure:n Little 0orrit and in Blea. House the no'elistLs satire rises abo'e the parPticular and incidental

and is transformed into a s*eeping indictment of the *hole system# of the 'ery foundations6nglish society rests.upon :n Blea. House the 6nglish la* is no longer an episode as in the "ic./ic. "apers but dominates the *hole strucPture of the epic? so does the criticism ofgo'ernment in Little 0orrit *hen compared *ith similar pieces of criticism in the earlier no'elsocial satire does not e"ist apart from the plot (as# say# in li#er T/ist- but permeates the *holeatmosphere of the no'el# shapes the plot and the relationship bet*een the characters# ma4or andminor ali&e ! sense of tragic unity underlies the 'ast concept of these boo&s %ut by the end ofthe Lfifties ic&ensLs inspiration had 'ery nearly e"hausted itself espite some 'ery fine pages ofdescription and character.dra*ing his last no'els lac& the rich humour and fancy of his earlier*or&sic&ens is not remar&able for circumstantial moti'ation of his heroesL actions %ut he e"cels inthe art of catching their more ob'ious social characteristics and gi'ing them an infinite 'ariety ofindi'idual shapes and forms that *ere 4oyously acclaimed as recognisable and memorable typesTo the end of his days ic&ens li&ed no literary compliments better than that or the other readerLsadmission he or she had &no*n somebody *ho *as the spit of one of the no'elistLs charactersThrough grotes;ue and comical e"aggeration the fundamental realism of ic&PensLs 'ie*point*as e'ery*here apparent The authorLs o*n attitude stands clearly# re'ealed 5e hates e'eryspecies of oppression and in4ustice# e'ery 'estige of fraudulent misrepresentation and hypocrisy#e'ery sight of manLs cruelty to man# and lo'es all *ho suffer and still do not lose heart and &eepon doing their best by all around them ic&ensLs lo'e of humanity and his penetrati'e portrayalof *hat is best and noblest about it# no less than of its foibles# his persistent championPship ofthe inherent goodness of common man e'er opposed to the stiffness and class egoism of thehigher classes ma&e him a central figure in the democratic literature of 6ngland5is stature can be properly appreciated *hen his *or& is compared to that of such minor *ritersas =harles <ingsley# the author of popular no'els on the conPdition and dramatic struggle of the=hartist *or&ers 12east$ Alton Loc.e-& ic&ensLs *or&s contain a *ider 'ie* of man and his problems# a broader and more humane outloo& and the art of hitting off types that alternately setall 6ngland laughing and sobbing 5e also compares *ell *ith his friend Ail&ie =ollins# theauthor of famous semi.detecti'e# semi.social no'els such as The 3oman in 3hite$ ,o ,ame$

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The Moonstone$ etc Though ic&ens# too# introduced elements of the detecti'e story into hislater *or& he al*ays submitted the suspense and thrill of the plot to the message of his no'elAith =ollins specific detecti'e interest often came firstic&ensLs closest follo*er and admirer *as 6li abeth Eas&ell :n his turn he *as delighted *ithher boo&s and published them in the literary maga ines that he directed Mary Barton$ a simpleand artless story of the misery and stout resistance of 6nglish =hartist *or&ers appealed toic&ens both for its strict 'eracity and for its sentimental and idealistic sermon of lo'e as theonly remedy in a society endanPgered by the cancer of economic egoism and cynicalindifference Quite different in style and treatment is the gay comedy of pro'incial life in thecountry.to*n of =ranford Eas&ellLs humour is delicate# sensiti'e# and gently ridicules the pettysnobbery and pre4udices of superannuated middle.class ladies 5er latest boo&s deal *ith serious problems of domestic life and are fine studies of the mentality of *omen rs Eas&ell is alsothe author of a subtle biography of three lady.*riters of her o*n time# the sisters =harlotte#6mily# and !nne %ronte# all of *hom died of consumption *hen still young !nne *as the leastremar&able of the three? =harlotte *on the greatest recognition# but it *as 6mily *hose talent both for poetry and prose *as the most po*erful and original 5er only no'el 3utherin* Hei*hts

*as published posthumously and is an e"traordinary blend of %yronic romantic indi'idualismand realistic moti'ation The tragedy of t*o lo'ers torn asunder by difference in pecuniary andsocial standing and complicated by ambition and 'anity is dra*n against a perfectly real *orld ofsordid po'erty and greed The *ithering influence of trampled lo'e distorts the characters bothof hero and heroine# turning the one into a demonic sadist and the other into a capricious spoiled*oman The drama of lo'e and death gains in intensity by being rendered through the eyes of acasual obser'er and a minor character# M an old ser'ant# only indirectly particiPpating in thee'ents she narrates The blea& colouring of the story is heightPened by the natural bac&ground M'ast moors# *ind.blo*n hills and stone.grey s&ies ! note of mysticism also rings in the no'el#indicati'e of 6mily %ronteLs religious feeling and her interest in the irrational aspects of life6mily died at the age of thirty# and =harlotte sur'i'ed her but for a fe* years 5er art had moreob'ious ties *ith ordinary life and easier reached the audience M and a *ider one# at that Themost popular by far *as Jane Eyre$ the story of a poor go'erness *ho by sheer force of personality *on a decisi'e 'ictory in the fierce battle she had to fight for lo'e and happiness Thedar& %yronic nature of IaneLs Ndemon lo'erN# the gruesome mystery of his house# the finalcatastrophe are all depicted in the star& melodramatic tones peculiar to the late 18th centuryEothic no'el %ut borro*ed romantic and preromantic motifs are de'eloped along *ith entirelyorigiPnal realistic delineation of the radical in4ustice of a life dominated by all that is notessential# as money and high connections# and lea'ing out and crushing all that is fundamental Mtrue moral *orth# loyalty and intellect%ronteLs horror.struc& realisation of the inhumanity of the relationship bet*een employers and

employed appears to the greatest ad'antage in Shirley *here scenes introducing star'ing *or&ers*ho brea& the machinery that threatens to supplant their labour mingle *ith a fine social and psychological analysis of the plight of Aomen in a men.ruled *orld :n all of =harlotte %ronteLsno'els there is a note ofU true# uncon'entional passion (and a penetrati'e analysis of that passion)that shoc&ed the hypocritical morality of the Victorian bourgeoisie (NVictorianN *as a much used M and abused M term denoting the self.satisfied priggish and smug mentality of the upper andmiddle classes during the greater part of the reign of Queen VictoPria M 1837M1901)

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=harlotte %ronte *as in some *ays a disciple of ic&ensLs greatest ri'al# AilPliam a&epeaceThac&eray 5e set out courageously to teach the 6nglish a harsh lesson in self.appraisal 5e letthem see themsel'es *ith se'erely critical eyes# and not through the rose.coloured glasses ofcomplacency ! parallel has often been dra*n bet*een ic&ens and Thac&eray# sometimes tothe ad'antage of the one# sometimes of the other They are# indeed# 'ery different in outloo& and

artistic method# in education and bac&groundThe essential thing they ha'e in common# ho*e'er# is their fundamental honesty in carrying out*hat they concei'e to be their moral obligation to*ards their fello*.men They both sa*themsel'es as in duty bound to tell their readers the unpalatable truth about the social *rongs*ringing the body of society# about its narro* and shallo* standards# about the hypocriticalgreed and ruthlessness of the higher classes Thac&eray mostly used the *eapon of sharp irony?in describing the 'ices of the 'ery high he hardly e'er had recourse to ic&ensLs grotes;uee"aggeration# to his humourous presentation of 'ariously coloured and comically indi'idualisedfigures Thac&eray *as an e"cellent caricaturist (he illustrated some of his o*n *or&s)# but hiscaricatures are less particularised and more generalised than ic&ensLs The latter *as ob'iously;uite 4udicious in re4ecting Thac&erayLs offer to supply pictures to the "ic./ic. "apers M their*ays *ere too different This *as distinctly felt by both *riters Thac&eray thought that ic&ens*as too much gi'en to melodrama and pathos# that his characters *ere too often angels or de'ils#*ith 'ery fe* lin&s bet*een them Thac&erayLs literary apprenticeship *as as long and painsta&ing as ic&ensLs had been short and brilliant >i&e ic&ens# he *ent to school toeighteenth century masters# especially Dielding ( ic&ensLs fa'ourite *as mollett)# but unli&eic&ens# he *as also influenced by 6uropean *riters %al acLs Human Comedy$ in particular#taught him the de'ice of introducPing the same characters in different no'els and thus gi'ingthem time for gro*th and de'elopment@f Thac&erayLs earlier *or& the most important *as# probably# a collection of s&etches entitledThe Boo. of Sno!s& 5e deri'ed the *ord NsnobN from studentsW slang and it is through him that itac;uired first a national and then an internationPal significance Thac&erayLs definition of it *asthat Na snob is one *ho meanly loo&s up to things meanN ! snob fa*ns upon his social superiorsand is contemptuPously haughty to inferiors ! snob# finally# is one *ho has no criteria to 4udgeof others but the degree of their *ealth and ran& 5a'ing classified the snobs of 6nglandaccording to their profession and social standing# ha'ing made it clear that at court# church#shops# uni'ersities and in the *al&s of art snobs *ere e'er essentially the same# Thac&eray *asready to *rite his greatest *or& 4anity )air& The title *as an allusion# ;uite familiar in thosedays# to the city of >ondon *hich had been described as Vanity Dair in the famous 17th centuryreligious allegory of Iohn %unyan 1The "il*rim5s "ro*ress$ 1278) %y referring thus to the heartof 6ngland Thac&eray also played on the ine'itable association *ith the boo& of the %ible called6cclesiastes *hose memorable and often reiterated *ords areO !ll is 'anity# sayeth the reacher

The no'el follo*s the fates of t*o middle.class girls @ne of them# !melia edley# the daughterof a *ealthy merchant# goes do*n in the *orld as her father is ruined in the course of the Drench*ars %y the end of the boo& she is restored to respectaPbility by a second marriage and a timelylegacy The other# $ebecca or %ec&y harp# is a cle'er ad'enturess# a genteel 19th century ollDlanders The ups and do*ns of her career and final defeat are handled *ith ironical scorn#lashing not so much at %ec&yLs tireless ruses and stratagems as at the society that encourages herand ma&es it possible for her to *in many 'ictories before she has to accept her do*nfall AithThac&eray neither of the t*o heroines is painted in blac& and *hite 5e has a sort of amused

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sympathy *ith the 'icissitudes of %ec&yLs life and much pity and little respect for !meliaLssentimental silliness5is main sub4ect is the false heartless *ays and the resourceful hypocrisy of society# the silentmisery of simple souls Thac&eray satirises the 'ictims of ine;ualPity and snobbishness Thestory of a gifted young man 'ery nearly corrupted by the *orld of fashion and sa'ed at theele'enth hour from disgrace and crime is told in The History of "endennis& :ts se;uel The

,e/comes$ a chronicle of a fe* generations of a rich upper middle.class family# is narrated by asadder and *iser endennis# no* firm on the path of 'irtue# authorship and domestic felicityThac&erayLs hisPtorical no'els# particularly Henry Esmond *here the action is laid at the end ofthe 17th and the beginning of the 18th century# are realistic boo&s that do not treat history as thestory of &ings# generals and courtiers but as the history of a *hole people# *ith an eye to culture#literature# morality and general condition of the nation Aars are not described as glamorous#heroic and *orthy of enthusiastic admiration They are dra*n in all the ugliness of hatred# ofatrocities inflicted in cold blood and resulting in unheard.of suffering for thousands uponthousands of innocent people Thac&eray distinctly says he cares nothing for big *igs# but onlyfor the small fry ! historical no'el# he maintained# should content itself *ith findPing out ho*great e'ents affect ordinary people (in 4anity )air$ too# he had described the battle of Aaterlooonly in so far as it *rec&ed the life of his heroine)The staunch realism of ic&ens and Thac&eray# of Eas&ell and the %ronte.sisters did a great dealto e"plain their times and to e"plode the myth of Victorian prosperity that bourgeois historiansli&e X Y acaulay had done their best to perPpetuate%y the Lfifties and Lsi"ties the *orst period in the e'olution of classical capiPtalism in 6ngland*as o'er This is not to say# ho*e'er# that progress *as as uniP'ersal as official opinion had itThe condition of the *or&ing.men *as still prePcarious# a hand.to.mouth e"istence being the lotof the ma4ority# *ith only the minority of ;ualified *or&ers finding themsel'es comparati'ely*ell off T*o more parliamentary reforms *ere needed before the labouring classes *ere at all

represented in the 5ouse of =ommons 6nglish industry and trade and 6nglish finance *ere themost po*erful in the *orld and the bourgeoisie *as cautious enough to see to it that theeconomic status of those *ho made them rich should not sin& to the star'ation *ages of the18 0Ls %ut the disproportion bet*een the situation of the classes *as more glaring than e'er :t*as in the fifties that ic&ens *rote the boo&s that *ere most seriously critical of the *holeorder of thingsO it *as in the fifties that scientists and scholars began to ;uestion religiousdogmas and ready.made ethical formulae 1 The rapid de'elopment of natural sciences (geology# biology# embryology# psychology)# ar*inLs epoch.ma&ingri*in of Species undermined thecurrent bePliefs and pa'ed the ground to scepticism and non.conformism The ad'anced men ofthe L20Ls and 70Ls called themsel'es free.thin&ers They rebelled against the narro* bourgeoisideology# they moc&ed the ne* spirit of militant national pride gro*ing along *ith 6nglandLs

colonial e"pansion# they *ere full of concern for a ne* and efficient rationalisation of public and pri'ate life:n philosophy they supported rather mechanistic materialistic ideas? they dre* crude parallels bet*een biological and social processes? they preached a ne* moralPity *hose foundation nolonger *as religious but utilitarian# i e the concept of Nthe greatest happiness for the greatestnumber of peopleN (This concept *as# ho*Pe'er# gi'en an entirely bourgeois interpretation#since the Ngreatest happinessN implied uninterrupted de'elopment of capitalist production ) Themost important ideologist of this ne* trend *as 5erbert pencer 5e endea'oured to create an

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all.embracing system of sociology# philosophy and psychology and to ta&e care that it shouldrest only on positi'e &no*ledge and facts and disregard all abstract speculation ( osiPti'ism isthe name fre;uently gi'en to that school of thought M a term borro*ed from the Drench philosophy of !uguste =omte *ho e"ercised a great influence on his later 6nglish colleagues)ositi'ist *ays of thin&ing left a profound impression on the *or& of Eeorge 6liot ! lady ofgreat learning# she *as deeply read in 6uropean philosophy and in the latest critical *ritings heearly stood up against orthodo" religiosity he admired and translated Deuerbach# *as friendly*ith 5erbert pencer and other scholars and scientists of his group @n the one hand# positi'e philosophy *as of some use in gi'ing theoretical support to 6liotLs notions both of society and ofits ideas? on the other hand# it narro*ed her 'ision and scope and fre;uently led to the *riterLsincorporating her doctrines in no'els# generally to the lettersL detriment Eeorge 6liot *as asocial no'elist and one *ho too& her duties to her readers seriously he lac&ed ic&ensLs senseof the dramatic contrast bet*een rich and poor# she *as rather inclined to accept them in a positi'ist spirit# as something that should be ta&en for granted and only sub4ected to cautiousreform There is no defiPance# no open rebellion in her boo&s !nd yet their true and honest taleof the drab monotony and in4ustice of life# of the daily crime of indifference of man to man is inits *ay enough to ma&e her readers realise a great many things they had preP'iously leftunnoticed:n *riting# as 6liot mostly did# about humble country fol&# and setting them far higher than theirNelders and bettersN# the no'elist added her mite to*ards educating public opinion and securingthe democratic rights of those she glorified in her boo&s# as Adam Bede$ the 4oiner# orSilas

Marner$ the *ea'er ( ic&ens himself# fine as his popular characters *ere# did not call his no'elsSamuel 3elter or Mar. Tapley$ but the "ic./ic. "apers and Martin Chu66le/it& Ahate'er hedid# the hero had to be a gentleman)6liotLs best &no*n no'el is The Mill on the )loss& >argely autobiographical# it is a searchinganalysis of the heroineLs inner life# of the forces that 4oined to ma&e her an outcast in the petty.

bourgeois community she belonged to The no'elistLs portrayal of the selfishness and callousnessof self.satisfied mediocrity has a lasting 'alue This is also true of Eeorge 6liotLs most ambitious boo& Middlemarch Ma bold endea'our of ta&ing the *hole of a typical 6nglish pro'incial to*nfor her sub4ect and depicting its representati'e figures so as to achie'e a sort of a cross.section ofthe most important elements of the pre'alent social psychology# of the influence of en'ironmentand heredity on the shaping of the indi'idual mind The political problems of 6ngland are treatedin )elix Holt the 7adical$ an early specimen of *hat later in the H0th century came to be calledNa no'el of ideasN :n some of 6liotLs no'els (partly e'en in The Mill on the )loss- the discussionof intellectual problems and the too ob'ious embodiment of abstract ideas into characters pro'esdetrimental to art and testifies to the un*holesome influence of preconcei'ed phiPlosophicalnotions

This criticism also applies to the *or& of Eeorge eredith# a poet and no'elist *hose boo&smar&ed an important stage in the de'elopment of the psychological no'el in the late 19thcentury 5is art is comple"# being an imperfect blend of subtle psychologism shot through andthrough by the critical and scientific tendPencies of the period and of a some*hat laboured ando'er.ornamented impressionism in style and language ! consistent upholder of e'olution as thecentral la* domiPnating nature no less than society# eredith regarded the destiny of man asfollo*Ping and illustrating uni'ersal la*s 5is first no'el of importance# The rdeal of 7ichard

)e#erel$ considers life as a painful process of gradual maturing of intellect and emotion# the

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heroLs natural de'elopment being th*arted by the artificial and snobbish system of educationintroduced by his aristocratic father :nterference *ith natural la* has disastrous conse;uencesfor the life and happiness of $ichard and those he holds dear The pre4udices and narro*.mindedarrogance of the pri'iPleged is ironically laid bare in eredithLs best &no*n no'el The E*oist&!scientiPfically refined psychological interpretation of ir Ailloughby atterneLs feelings e"poses

to ridicule and scorn his upper class belief in his o*n impeccability and in the absolute moral'alue of his o*n 4udgement The contrast bet*een the immenPsity of pretension and the actuallac& of anything to 4ustify it is at once comical and instructi'e%y ma&ing the egoist Ailloughby undergo a humiliating defeat at the hands of an ine"periencedgirl# strong.minded enough to defend the right to dispose of her o*n self in lo'e and marriage#eredith moc&s the o'er*eening pride of the upper class and lets the reader see it in its true

proportions ! radical in his political 'ie*s# he traced *ith *arm sympathy the thorny progressof a rebel against a false and hollo* society in Beauchamp5s Career&

eredithLs o'er.elaborate and sometimes *ay*ard style *ith his resolute prePference for therarely used *ord and ;uaint metaphor made it ne"t to impossible for him to please the generalreader ubse;uent generations ha'e# so far# not re'ersed the 4udgment of the *riterLs o*ncontemporaries The some*hat hea'y intellectuPality# the abstract philosophising eredith oftenindulges in demanding a strain and an effort on the readersL part that only the literary minorityare prepared to ma&e The ma4ority decidedly preferred to s&ip the pages of Ail&ie =ollinsLssensational thrillers and !nthony TrollopeLs circumstantial comfortable tales of pro'incial life*ith commonplace people doing commonplace things and arri'ing at a timely happy endTrollopeLs *ere the most gifted and true.to.life of numerous Victorian bestPsellersThe greatest contributor to the literature *hose principal purpose *as to di'ert and amuse thereader *as !rthur =onan oyle 5is stories of the ad'entures of the master detecti'e herloc&5olmes fascinated 6ngland# and the name of the hero became a household *ordean*hile the more serious literary *or& of the period *as affected by modern schools ofthought The ideas of positi'e philosophy also found their *ay into poetry *here# ho*e'er# theycuriously and 'ariously combined *ith elements of the romantic tradition# ne'er ;uite e"tinct in6ngland until the close of the century :n this sense the art of Tennyson can be called transitional#in its endea'our to blend roPmantic soaring abo'e the commonplace and a romantic treatment ofthe commonPplace M *ith problems strictly belonging to the epoch and necessarily touched *ithits prose :n his first poetical 'entures Tennyson e"cells in *ord.painting# in melody andeuphony 5is themes are fre;uently borro*ed from an idealised past (comprisPing medie'al6ngland and classical anti;uity) and from present.day scenes :n his poem The "rincess$ fore"ample# a fantastic setting is used to inculcate modern ideas of female emancipation andlearningTennyson is at his best in lyrical poetry# e'er fresh *ith spontaneous feeling# *ith admirationand understanding of e'erything that is lo'ely in the life of nature and the heart nfortunately#Tennyson early began to entertain the belief that his *as the tas& of teaching his o*n generation#and those to follo*# a ne* outloo&# a ne* lesson of morality# and the didactic purpose he set tohimself# mostly rather specifically Victorian# too& a great deal a*ay from the immediate charmof his lyrical impulse Thus# the beautiful lyrics collected in In Memoriam are rather hea'ilyo'erlaid *ith platitudes of modern moral philosophy :n the poem of Maud there is an abrupt# poetically and logically uncalled for transition from a 'iolent curse of the modern oney.Eod#

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from glorification of true lo'e as the only thing untainted in a *orld of 'ulgar material interests M on to 4ubilant praise of *ar and con;uest in the final section of the poem:n TennysonLs Idylls of the 8in* the romance of the iddle !ges centered upon the legendary<ing !rthur and his $ound Table is pac&ed till bursting point *ith purely modern moralising#*ith intellectual problems peculiarly midnineteenth century :t has been aptly remar&ed by oneof the contemporary re'ie*ers that to associate these *ith the life of a rude age produces thesame effect as to combine a manLs head# a horseLs nec&# a *omanLs body# and a fishLs tail <ing!rthur is less of a true &night than a modern gentleman *hose *ildest deeds of daring are doneon the 6"change and *hose most deadly ;uarrels are settled in the =ourt of QueenLs %enchTennysonLs musical and pictorial art is sufficient for lyrics# most remembered for imaginati'esymbolic descriptions of states of mind# and sometimes also for his popular idylls M studies ofsimple hearts in the Aords*orthian tradition# M but it hardly e'er sees him through his longer poems necessitating a *ider and more philosophical thin&ingTennysonLs importance for the poetry of his age *as# for most of later 19th and H0th centurycritics# eclipsed by that of %ro*ning 6ndo*ed *ith a robust intellect and a solid education he

*as abreast of the ad'anced liberal thought of his time 5is interest in moral and political problems# in the freedom of peoples and indi'iduals# in passions and ideas characteristic of pastand present lent a bright open.eyed 'itality as *ell as a breadth and depth to his artistic 'isionthat Tennyson manifestly lac&s Ahile certainly not a rebel from the main body of Victorian beliefs %ro*ning ;uestioned enough of their assumptions to hold an indi'idualistic attitude that pro'ed his intellectual courageDrom modern biological theories %ro*ning dre* &no*ledge that helped him to attempt adetailed psychological moti'ation of his charactersL emotions Drom this point of 'ie* t*o of hisgreater *or&s are of the &eenest interest @ne is his early dramatic poem of "aracelsus$ a 17thcentury Daust# bent on disco'ering the secret spring of all &no*ledge and becoming a benefactorof man&ind The other is one of his final achie'ements# the poem of The 7in* and the Boo.& Thesame e'ent# the dastardly murder of a 17.year.old *oman by her highly connected husband is thesub4ect of t*el'e long narrati'es# analysing the comple" moti'es and reactions of all the participants# *itnesses# and 4udges of the drama %ro*ningLs most memoPrable contribution is probably his dramatic lyrics# a large number of 'arious monoPlogues that the poet puts on thelips of characters belonging each to a different epoch# country# class# culture# religion The art ofspea&ing for an astounding 'ariety of dramatic characters and ma&ing their speech sound psychologically true# has *on uni'ersal admiration %ro*ningLs style struc& the readers *ith its'igorous indePpendence of all set models and the rich comple"ity of 'ocabulary and imageryAhile criticising his age from the standpoint of humane and democratic ideals# %ro*ningne'ertheless *as a man of his o*n time and shared its social optimismTo*ards the mid.se'enties and more mar&edly so to*ards the Leighties a crisis of Victorian6ngland began to ma&e itself felt There *ere the first *arning symptoms of decay in 6nglisheconomics? there *as a general mo'e to*ards political reaction? a *a'e of chau'inisticimperialism rose high? %ritish colonial po*er *as greater than e'er# Queen Victoria *as proclaimed empress of :ndia# and the grandeur of the %ritish 6mpire became the &ey.phrase toofficial ideology !t the same time a steady resistance to the nationalistic and aggressi'e policyof the ruling classes rapidly gained in scope and intensity That resistance *as stimulated by thenonconPformist free thought of the pre'ious period and by pessimistic trends of Nfin de siecleNhilosophic systems# such as that of the Eerman scholar chopenhauer U 5e had *ritten his

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famous and contro'ersial boo& The 3orld as 3ill and Idea as early as 1819 but it only becameimportant by the end of the centuryThe beginning of the crisis of Victorianism# of the decay of the 6nglish countryPside is reflectedin the blea&ly pessimistic no'els of Thomas 5ardy The narro* 'illage.*orld he depicts acts as asort of microcosm through *hich an insight is obtained into the deepening gloom of the centuryLslast decades5ardyLs first boo& of indisputable artistic *orth isThe 7eturn of the ,ati#e *here# li&e 6liot in

Middlemarch$ he introduces a &ind of collecti'e hero in 6gdon 5eath# a small out of the *ay place inhabited by poor *ood.cutters and poorer farmers !ccording to 5ardy# it is preciselyamong common 'illagers de'oting themsel'es to a se'ere struggle for e"istence that genuine andspontaneous passions still li'e# as distinct from the artificial sophistications that pass for feelingamong city ladies and gentlemen# if is in these Eod.forsa&en 'illages# 5ardy claims# that dramasof truly ophoclean grandeur are enacted=lashes of *ills# beliefs# personalities# dramas of lo'e and death form the sub4ect.matter of mostof 5ardyLs no'els Those of his characters that adapt themsel'es *ell to their surroundings# that

become part of their nature and scenery mostly do *ell and ma&e good? those that rebel againstthem in one *ay or another are generPally destroyed or made hopelessly miserable ometimesthese rebels# these unclassed ones *ho attempt to rise abo'e their o*n sphere succeed in ruiningthose *ho . under any other circumstances *ere made for a simple and healthy life# a life full ofsuch *or& as is consistent *ith natureLs *ays and benefit This is *hat occurs in 3oodlanders*here the li'es of such true children of nature as Eiles Ainterbourne and arthey outh are*rec&ed by *ea&lings *ho ha'e se'ered their ties *ith their nati'eland UUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUU

UUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUU:n the no'els 5ardy *rote in his later years 1Tess of the d9%r!er#illes and Jude the !scure- hisfa'ourite characters fight a losing battle against the cruel social la* that is e'er ready to do do*n

those *ho by birth and education do not belong to the pri'ileged classes The inhumanity ofsociety causes the tragic death of 5ardyLs most attracti'e heroine Tess? Iude is thoroughly beatenin his ;uest for inner freedom# for &no*ledge# for uncon'entional lo'e N5appiness#N 5ardysadly remar&ed# Nis but an episode in the general drama of pain N :n his no'els 5ardy alsodisplayed some affinities *ith the scientific thought of his time M ideas of e'olution# of biological necessity and struggle for e"istence go together *ith someP*hat mystical notions offate blindly ruling the destiny of men and *omen and often ta&ing the shape of tragic irony

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!fter the hue and cry raised by critics and official opinion about the dreary pessimism of Judethe !scure 5ardy ga'e up no'els and de'oted himself to poetry *hich he had been steadily*riting since his youth but hardly e'er publishing :t 'aries much in nature and form# including philosophical lyrics# popular ballads and songs5ardyLs poetry has certain parallels *ith that of Iames Thomson# a philosophPical poet in 'iolentre'olt against Victorian moral and religious assumptions 5is symbolic poem The City of

0readful ,i*ht is a ghastly 'ision of contemporary >ondon and the Nlife.in.deathN e"istence ofits inhabitantsThe star& pessimism of the last decades *as strongest in the *or&s of Eeorge Eissing 5eemphasised his *ish to go on *here ic&ens had left off N: mean to bring home to people theghastly condition (material# mental# and moral) of our poor classes# to sho* the hideous in4usticeof our *hole system of society# to gi'e light on the plan of altering it N :n his first no'el3or.ers in the 0a/n Eissing may be said to ha'e stuc& to this program# for he e"posed thesordid realities underPlying capitalist ci'ilisation and discussed social reform %ut ;uite early inhis career he ga'e up all idea of altering the *orld 5e became increasingly hostile to socialismand to the *or&ing class 10emos-&EissingLs descriptions are naturalistic and con'ey a feeling ofdeadly disgust *ith all aspects of physical degradation 5e ne'er succeeds in creating con'incingflesh and blood characters of Nlo*N life and hardly e'er rises to see their essential humanity@n the *hole# 6nglish naturalism as represented by Eissing# !rthur orrison and# partly#Eeorge oore *as deri'ati'e :t is easily traced to Drench influence# and it ne'er assumed thestature and the originality it had in Drance This is not to say that it had no raison d5etre in6ngland *here it *as stimulated by the great progress of science and conse;uent desire toe"plore the interdependence ofUU physiology# psychology and sociology# to gi'e a scientifice"planation of man and society:f the no'el *as an immediate ans*er to the relentless demands of time# the ans*er gi'en by poetry *as more comple" and indirect art of it seemed utterly di'orced from the problems ofthe age :n 18 8 ante Eabriel $ossetti# 5olman 5unt and Iohn illais organised an e"hibitionof their pictures# all of them signed *ith the letters $ % M*hich stood for re.$aphaelite%rotherhood This implied that the artists *ere of the opinion that the decay of art had startede'er since $aphael# *ho# they proclaimed# had already been formal and uninspired U They calledfor a return to early :talian re.$aphaelite art (%otticelli) *here religious inspiration had led totrue and pure beauty They lo'ingly painted pictures on religious sub4ects and on sub4ects borro*ed from romantic poets# as for e"ample# <eats Their criticism of the soulless mechanicalmodernity assumed a purely aesthetic form? it deliberately refused to see& for uni'ersal acception and appealed to a small and sophisticated minority Ce'ertheless# *hate'er the limitations of the creed of the re.$aphaelites# their pictures and poetry *ere a protest against the prosperous bourgeois and against the emptiness of officialacademic art :t *as this protest that the *ell.&no*n critic and *riter Iohn $us&in *elcomed inhis famous pamphlet "re+7aphaelitism& 5e praised the young painters for their earnestness of purpose# for their lofty perception of the artistLs message to his public Ket his o*n concepts*ere much more profound and radical :n studying art $us&in came to the bitter conclusion thatits mission could not be fulfilled unless it helped to ma&e life more beautiful Co* in an age ofindustrial capitalism *ith all the ine'itable hideousness it brings in its *a&e art pro'ed incapableof carrying out its main function# because most people *ere too miserable and too uneducated toen4oy it Therefore it is the business of the artist not only to create beauty but to enable common

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people to feel that beauty This is ho* $us&in came to thin& of the artistLs duty in social terms5e preached his sermon of lo'e and mutual &indness to both higher and lo*er classes# nai'elyentreating them to fight the e'ils of capitalism togetherThese ideas of $us&inLs *ere also largely influenced by his senior contemporary Thomas=arlyle# *riter# historian and essayist# one of the first to utter a s*eeping denunciation of the'ictorious 6nglish bourgeoisie =arlyle# according to ar"# *as strong in his hatred of capitalismand in his understanding of all the suffering it stood for but *rong.headed in his apotheosis ofmedie'al old times as an e'erPlasting model of social and moral perfection $us&in *as at one*ith him in hisU abhorrence of the annihilating effect of industrialisation upon the naturalde'elopment of the ma4ority of people# but his attention *as focused on *hat *as needed toregenerate men so that their hearts should be open to the further 'i'ifying influence of art$us&inLs political and economic ideas *ere nai'e (as for instance in The "olitical Economy of

Arty or %nto This Last-$ but his &een sense of the fundamental *rongness of bourgeoisci'ilisation and passionate belief in the uplifting and restorati'e po*er of art had a far.reachingeffect appreciated e'en outside 6ngland# as for instance by > C Tolstoy The aesthetic *or&s of$us&in *ere *idely and an"iously read# ail the more so as his prose *as lucid and pure and easyto follo*. 5is *orship of art led his follo*ers to t*o different conclusions @ne of themamounted to de'elopPing $us&inLs cult of beauty into a doctrine of the supremacy of art M to thee"clusion of most other principles and interests The other *as focused on the social aspect of$us&inLs theories :ts upholders came to thin& of beauty mostly in the terms of its moral andsocial 'alue $us&in had 'oiced his indignant protest against the higher classes monopolising artand thus ma&ing it effete and anaemicAilliam orris# his disciple# *ent further than that 5e began by being an enthusiastic re.$aphaelite painter? he proceeded to *rite poems on sub4ects borro*ed from =lassical myth andmedie'al fol&lore and# seeing that poetry *as helpless to relie'e the dreary ugliness of Victorian6ngland# he started as decorator and artistic designer *ith the 'ie* of bringing some beauty into

e'eryday life nfortunately# the lo'ely *all.paper# carpets# stained glass he produced# usingnothing but the simplest looms# *ere so e"pensi'e that only the 'ery rich could afford to buythem !nd of course the readers of orrisLs poetry *ere not numerous either :t *as in hisdesperate attempt to ma&e art ser'e the ma4ority of the people that orris adopted the ideas ofsocialism as the only system that could pro'ide for the happiness of the greatest number of menand *omen This occurred at the beginning of the Leighties *hen the protest of *or&ing.class andsocialist agitation gre* in po*er# as the crisis of NclassicalN capitalism had begun to ma&e itselffelt in more *ays than one orris subsidised and contributed to se'eral socialist papers# becamean acti'e member of the ocialist >eague and *rote poetry intended to inspire and to enlightenthe *or&ing men of 6ngland so as to ma&e them turn their minds to socialism The Chants forSocialists$ The "oems !y the 3ay$ the 'erse narrati'e of The "il*rims of Hope called for

freedom# 4ustice and repeal of the selfish la*s of capitalismorrisLs dreams of the uni'ersal happiness to be realised after a *orld.*ide 'ictory of socialism*ere embodied in his prose tales A 0ream of John Ball and ,e/s from ,o/here& The land of thefuture as orris sees it# must primarily be beauPtiful# but in contradistinction to $us&in# orris perfectly realised that the *ay to the land of bliss did not lie through harmony and reconciliationof classes but through clashes bet*een them 5e *as but the most talented# 'ersatile and best&no*n of a fairly large number of re'olutionary poets of the Leighties (5enry alt# Iames Ioynesand others)

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The other literary group also supporting the doctrines of $us&in dre* mostly on their *ea&eraspects Thus# *ith ante Eabriel $ossetti the concept of the supreme influence of art becamemystically religious 5is poetry is o'erelaborate# refined and hea'ily ornate The beauty of itsimagery is marred by mannerisms# some of *hich are repetiti'e# and all of *hich are particularlyob'ious in comparison *ith the sources from *hich he dra*s his inspiration M the poetry of

ante# %la&e# <eats# and the popular ballad (as inSister Helen-& Aith $ossetti poetry mo'es intoa sphere that can hardly be accessible to anybody outside a small artistic elite :t seems safe tosay that $ossettiLs greatest achie'ement lay in paintingO his insistence on simplicity# onspirituality# his concentration on the inner instead of the out*ard life *ere a fine display ofindignation at official routine and mediocrity$ossetti e"ercised a po*erful influence upon !lgernon =harles *inburne *ho besides *ent toschool to Drench poets (5ugo# %audelaireZ and painters ( anet) 5is early poems# li&e the art ofthe re.$aphaelites# *ere an aesthetic protest against the pompous formality of Victorian art and poetry *inburneLs fran& eroticism shoc&ed the critics *ho raised a terrible outcry against theimmorality of the author Dor some time *inburne *as carried a*ay by the :talian mo'ementfor liberation ($isorgimento) and celebrated the cause of freedom in his masterpiece# a.collectionof poems called Son*s !efore Sunrise& %ut he soon ga'e up politics and *ent heart and soul intoa practical and theoretical defence of the idea of the supremacy of art# *hich# he maintained#should ha'e no purpose but beauty *inburneLs poems and tragedies *ere generally brilliantspecimens of e"cellent techni;ue# as far as *ord.painting and musical effects *ere concernedTheir 'irtuosity is e"traordinary but they are singularly 'oid of true depth# M in thought andfeeling ali&e:n his later years *inburne une"pectedly reconciled his republicanism and his sympathy *ithfreedom M *ith the most respectful admiration of Queen VictoPria# of %ritish colonial policy ande'en of the imperialist %oer AarThe formalistic aesthetic note that rang in the poetry# prose and critical essays of *inburne *as

still more clearly pronounced in the *or& of Aalter ater ! disPciple of Iohn $us&in# heresolutely detached the latterLs cult of beauty from moral and social purpose 5e saysO N>et usunderstand by poetry all literary production *hich attains the po*er of gi'ing pleasure by itsform as distinct from its matter N !estheticism goes hand in hand *ith e"treme sub4ecti'ism andagnosticism in the *hole of aterLs literary output :n his history of $enaissance painters# in thecolPlection of critical essays Appreciations ater definitely says he does not see his *ay to anymanner of ob4ecti'e interpretation ! critic can only ans*er one ;uestionO NAhat is this song or picture to me N This reduces the function of a critic to an impresPsionistic description of his o*nsensations in connection *ith art :mpressionism also characterises aterLs fiction 1Marius the

Epicurean-&

ater profoundly *or&ed on the literary theory of the poet and critic !rthur ymons# of the

painter and prose *riter !udrey %eardsley and e'en more so on that of @scar Ailde# *ho in the*ords of a later historian# Npushed his masterLs sober and academic doctrine to an e"cessi'e andcynical displayN Cot only did he support aterLs idea on the di'orce bet*een art and morality Mhe *ent so far as to maintain that perfect art *as perfectly consistent *ith perfect immoralityThis is the sub4ect of the essay "en$ "encil and "oison& :n his o*n art# ho*e'er (fairy.tales# plays# no'els# poetry)# Ailde *as 'ery often a moralist :n The Happy "rince and ther Stories:in his no'el The "icture of 0orian Gray$ in dramas li&eThe Ideal Hus!and the moral is that ofaltruism# &indness and honesty This contradiction bet*een theory and practice is partly the

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result of AildeLs desire to shoc& bourgeois public opinion# to ta&e rs ErundyLs breath a*ay*ith the sharpness of his parado"es These *ere really AildeLs *ay of protest against the'ulgarity and flatness of offiPcial *ays of thin&ing arado"es find their *ay into all his dramasand no'els ali&e and are mostly a simple and effecti'e argument against the pretentious futilityof recei'ed opinion AildeLs *or& *as certainly not so immoral as AildeLs theory proclaimed

Thus# in The "icture of 0orian Gray$ despite the emphatic statement of the preface# theconclusion the author arri'es at is that immorality mars beauty M at least in a society that is notyet ready to gi'e full scope to persons *ho see& for L unfettered e"pression of their ego#regardless of other peopleLs sentiments AildeLs most passionate plea for humanity is his Balladof 7eadin* Gaol&

! similar#U though essentiallyU different conflict bet*een theoretical indifferPence to all moral purpose in art and practical preoccupation *ith moral problems #UU is ob'iousU inU allU the*ritings ofU $obert >ouis te'enson 5is art has curious affinities *ith 'ery nearly all of themost important aspects of contemporary literaPture To begin *ith# it has tangible associations*ith the aesthetic school *hose Nart for artN precepts te'enson often repeats? he is ne"t closelyassociated *ith the no'el of ad'enture that flourished in the last decades of the century# thedifference being L that *ith te'enson narrati'e is also psychological# *ritten in a style that is amodel of purity# simplicity and descripti'e felicity? this brings te'enson into close contact *iththe psychological no'el# dominated by the influence of Drench translations of ostoeys&yLs boo&s te'enson# finally# is the bearer of romantic traditions in 6nglish literature U 5is poetry*as stimulated by =oleridgeLs and Aords*orthLs # interpretation of fol&lore# by the latterLse"ploration of a childLs mentality? some of his no'els are historical# after the manner of cott(e g #;;8idnapped-& te'ensonLs poetry *ith his little readers# *ith their range of interest and'ision te'ensonLs later no'els are dramatic and they considerably gain in depth and subtlety5is is a tranPsitional and mi"ed art that has all the charm of profound sincerity# of an"ioussearchPing for truth and beautyThe refinement of the aesthetic school# no less than the pessimistic tendencies of later 19thcentury social thought# *ere criticised as decadent and effete by poets li&e Ailliam 5enley and$udyard <ipling The latter alternately adopted a natuPralistic and imitati'e pseudo.romantictechni;ue !n enthusiastic supporter of the %ritish 6mpire *hose mission# <ipling belie'ed# *asto be a sa'iour of all nations# <ipling glorified simple men of action# builders of the 6mpire#sacrificing health# *ealth and their 'ery li'es for *hat they felt to be their patriotic duty Theyform the sub4ect matter of <iplingLs poetry (as in Barrac. 7oom Ballads or The Se#en Seas- andof his prose (as in Soldiers Three-& !s <ipling mostly describes common men M soldiers# sailors#mechanics and petty colonial ser'ants M his descriptions of their self.sacrifice and heroicendea'our generally do not stri&e us as false :t is only *hen <ipling lauds the great men of the6mpire and the Ahite anLs burPden that he departs from truth and art simultaneously

<iplingLs no'el The Li*ht That )ailed is the story of a painter *ho disco'ers his 'ocation in painting scenes of *ar# colonial *ar# in all its na&ed ugliness and cruelty and yet con'eying thefeeling that all suffering is *orth *hile for the sa&e of %ritainLs greatness<ipling is at his best in *or&s for children *here reactionary politics interfere least *ith hisnarrati'e and descripti'e art 5e *as also a great master of the short story# of stri&ingdescription# particularly of :ndian sceneryThe political and moral 'alues <ipling stood for *ere not palatable to his more ad'anced andsensiti'e contemporaries Their spo&esman *as the poet and critic atthe* !rnold The all.

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embracing criticism of Victorian ci'ilisation 'oiced in his essays found numerous admirers 5eendea'oured to ma&e his poetry se'erely classical so as to stri&e a contrast to the shoddysentimentality that *as so much in 'ogue *ith the general publicisgust *ith the spirit of Victorianism culminated in amuel %utlerLs The 3ay of All )lesh& Theauthor# a scholar and scientist# *as at one and the same time profoundly influenced by the ne* biological theories# by the disco'eries of ar*in# and repelled by their mechanisticinterpretation The no'el is a history of se'eral generations of the middle.class family of theontife"es %utlerLs chief attention is gi'en to their youngest off.spring 6rnest 5is life is 'erynearly *rec&ed by the false and hypocritical upbringing he has en4oyed in the thoroughly smughome of his clerical father and his *ea& and sentimental mother chool and ni'ersity do their best to depri'e him of the capacity for independent thought (in an earlier satire on the fantasticland of Ere/hon$ a parody of contemporary 6nglish life# %utler had called them =olleges ofnreason *hose main function *as to cause atrophy pf opinion) :t is only after 6rnestLs publicdisgrace and imprisonment that the scales fall from his eyes and he starts thin&ing for himself@n finally realising the nature of the humbug and the pious frauds Victorian ideology rests upon#6rnest does e"actly *hat the author himself didO he practically becomes a recluse re4ecting allsocial aWid domestic ties and de'otes himself to science and fiction# ta&ing e'ery precaution notto mi" freely *ith the leading literati of his time%utlerLs style conforms as little to recei'ed notions as his ideas :t is concise# terse# dry andironical? it entirely dispenses *ith the sentimental 'ocabulary of emotion and *ith rhetoricalflourishes The author dissects and analyses# he moc&s the fashionable stylistic tags and is carefulto appeal to reason and logic rather than to feeling and imagination 5is 'ery imagery (fre;uentlyderi'ed from the authorLs biological studies) is more informati'e and businessli&e than emotionaland suggesti'e The ;uiet# subdued matter.of.factness of his tone ma&es his indictPment ofcontemporary bourgeois *ays of thin&ing all the more formidable%utler *as *ise not to ha'e published in his o*n life.time a boo& that *ould certainly ha'e

made him the butt of sa'age critical attac&s :t therefore *as brought to public attention posthumously and constitutes one of the stimulating influences in the history of the ad'ancedno'el in the first decades of the H0th centuryThe ne* flo*ering of critical and social realism associated *ith the names of ha*# Eals*orthy#Aells# =onrad# %ennett# though inaugurated in the later years of the 19th century# belongs ratherto the H0th and *ill# accordingly# be treated in the last 'olume of the present series

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