e.1. women’s empowerment population s empowerment · empowerment in the economic and political...

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Statistical Yearbook for Asia and the Pacific 2013 • E. Women’s empowerment

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The concept of women’s empowerment broadlyrefers to a process that increases women’s“options, choices, control and power” throughwomen’s own agency.1 Women’s empowermentis recognized as a right in itself as well asa transformative tool with a multiplier effectfor achieving progress in all other areas ofsocial and economic development.2 It is wellestablished that women’s empowerment playsa pivotal role in attaining gender equality,poverty reduction and other internationallyagreed development goals.

Women’s empowerment leads to a transformationof the structural factors, social determinants andunequal power relations that underpinwidespread and persistent gender inequalities thatresult in women’s unequal access to opportunitiesand resources across all areas of political,economic, social and cultural life. As women’sempowerment is a context-specific, dynamicprocess with diverse intersecting variables, itremains a latent and unobservable phenomenon.

The present topic provides a snapshot analysis ofselected indicators and proxies that measureenabling factors for, and barriers to, women’sempowerment in the economic and politicalspheres. Violence against women will also bediscussed due to its far-reaching impact onwomen’s experience of empowerment across allspheres.

Despite economic growth in the Asianand Pacific region, the economicempowerment of women lags behind.Targeted policy measures facilitatingwomen’s economic empowerment mustbe adopted.

Although employment in Asia and the Pacifichas been increasing at an average annualrate of 1.3 per cent or more since 2002, femaleemployment as a proportion of maleemployment has not registered much increasesince the early 1990s.

E.1. Women’s empowerment

In order to measure women’s economicempowerment, several enabling factors can beconsidered as proxies. For instance, the gendergap in employment captures the status ofwomen’s labour force participation relative to thatof men’s, indicating the extent of gender equitableaccess to employment. As a proportion of maleemployment, female employment in the Asianand Pacific region has hovered at about 62 to65 per cent since the early 1990s, which mirrorsthe global average. Notable variations betweensubregions exist, with North and Central Asiahaving just above 90 females employed for every100 males, and South and South-West Asiacounting just above 36 females employed forevery 100 males.

Another indicator to consider is the employment-population ratio, consistently indicating lowerrates for women, which for the region stands at48.0 per cent for women compared with 76.0 percent for men. There are, however, great variationsbetween subregions, with the ratio for women inEast and North-East Asia standing at 62.7 percent and the ratio for women in South andSouth-West Asia at 29.4 per cent.

Data indicate that women are overrepresented insectors and positions that are vulnerable, poorlypaid and less secure. For instance, in the Asianand Pacific region in 2012, 42.0 per cent ofemployed females are in agricultural employmentcompared with 36.0 per cent of employedmales, and 28.9 per cent of females are engagedas contributing family workers compared with9.2 per cent of males.

A positive trend in the region is the reducedgender gap in employers, with an increase of8 per cent of female employers relative to maleemployers within 10 years (from 22.6 per centin 2002 to 30.5 per cent in 2012). This is agreater increase than the global average, whichstood at 23.5 per cent in 2002 and 28.5 per centin 2012. This reflects, among other things,women’s increased entrepreneurial activities.Women-owned small and medium-sized

1 Anju Malhotra, Sidney Schuler and Carol Boender, “Measuring women’s empowerment as a variable in international development”, backgroundpaper prepared for the World Bank Workshop on Poverty and Gender: New Perspectives (June 2002).2 UN System Task Team on the Post-2015 UN Development Agenda, Realizing the Future We Want for All: Report to the Secretary-General (New York,2012).

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E. Women’s empowerment • Statistical Yearbook for Asia and the Pacific 2013

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enterprises are growing at an annual rate of 10per cent in Malaysia.3 In 2006 in the Philippines,69 per cent of nascent business owners and51 per cent of new business owners were female,compared with 34 per cent of establishedbusiness owners.4 In spite of this progress,women-owned enterprises are consistently smallerand concentrated in less profitable sectors thanmen-owned equivalents.5 Although reasons forthis vary, women’s lower education levels, risk-averse investment behaviour, lower access to loansand collateral, and childcare and householdresponsibilities are contributing factors.

Women’s wages continue to remain lower thanmen’s.

or total hours worked for those in full-timeemployment; (b) men and women’s choices andcapabilities, or a lack thereof, due to structuralgender imbalances, in terms of accessingeducation and other forms of support thatprovide them with the skills required to achievedesired work outcomes; (c) occupationsegregation, that is, the tendency for women tobe underrepresented in managerial or high-paying professions; (d) gendered discriminatorypractices and barriers (for instance in recruitmentprocedures and selection criteria, promotion,training and skill development) that hamperwomen’s advancement; and (e) women’s lowerremuneration for the same or comparable taskswithin and across occupational groups andindustries. Measuring the impact of thesedeterminants on the gender wage gap continuesto be challenging. In Australia, which has apersistently high gender wage gap, researchidentified that “simply being a woman” accountedfor a 60 per cent difference between men’sand women’s incomes. Other causal factorswere industrial segregation (25 per cent),underrepresentation of women with vocationalqualifications (5 per cent) and underrepresentationof women in large firms (3 per cent).6

In terms of regional trajectories, some countriesof the Asian and Pacific region have experienceda considerable reduction in the gender wage gap,while others have witnessed an increase. It isimportant to note that a narrowing of the genderwage gap may be due less to a rise in women’swages than to a decrease in men’s wages,especially in the light of the recent economiccrisis.7 Furthermore, due to the underlyingcomplexities contributing to the gender wagegap, the assumption that the gap would narrowand be eliminated with increased economic andsocial development does not hold true.8 Labourmarkets do not operate gender neutrally, that is,

Figure E.1-1Gender wage gap for selected Asian and Pacificcountries and areas, 2010

3 Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation, Access to Trade and Growth of Women’s SMEs in APEC Developing Economies (2013), p. 7.4 Imelda Madarang and Cielito Habito, Global Entrepreneurship Monitor: Philippine Report 2006-2007 (Philippine Center for Entrepreneurship, 2007),p. 20.5 Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation, Access to Trade and Growth of Women’s SMEs in APEC Developing Economies (2013).6 R. Cassells and others, The Impact of a Sustained Gender Wage Gap on the Australian Economy: Report to the Office for Women, Department of Families,Community Services, Housing and Indigenous Affairs (Australia, 2009), pp. v and 25.7 International Labour Organization, Global Wage Report 2012/13: Wages and Equitable Growth (Geneva, 2013), pp. 4-7.8 World Bank, Toward Gender Equality in East Asia and the Pacific: A Companion to the World Development Report – World Bank East Asia and PacificRegional Report (Washington, D.C., 2012), p. 110.

Figure E.1-1 shows that, across the region,women continue to earn less than men. Factorscontributing to the wage gap reflect: (a) women’sinterrupted work lives, periods of part-time work,

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with equal opportunities and equitable outcomesfor men and women. Rather, they are shaped byprevailing social norms and customary divisionsof work.

Women still bear the burden of unremuneratedproductive work.

Another barrier to women’s economicempowerment is their time spent on

unremunerated productive work. Figures indicatethat women continue to shoulder the major shareof unremunerated household management andcaregiving responsibilities. For instance, inPakistan, women spend 5.5 hours on houseworkand 1.2 hours on childcare daily, while menspend 2.5 hours on housework and 0.2 hours onchildcare. In Cambodia, women spend 4.4 hourson housework and 0.9 hours on childcare,

A study carried out by the Organisation for EconomicCo-operation and Development (OECD) found that thegender wage gap increased with age. Thus, the gendergap in mean earnings for full-time employees in theRepublic of Korea for 25-29 years of age was 10 per centcompared with 47 per cent for employees aged 40-44years. Similarly, the 1970-1974 cohort had an 11 percent gap in 1998, which had increased to 33 per centfor the same cohort by 2008. The study also measured

Box E.1-1Gender wage gap widens with age and motherhood

the cost of motherhood, noting that the gender gap inmedian earnings varied starkly depending on thepresence of at least one child. Thus, for Korean womenwithout children, the gender wage gap stood at 13 percent compared with 46 per cent for women withchildren. For Japan, the figures were 23.5 per cent and60.9 per cent respectively, and for Australia -3 per centand 19 per cent, respectively.

Source: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, Closing the Gender Gap: Act Now (2012).

Women’s economic empowerment is not only aboutgenerating an adequate and fair wage – it is equallyimportant that women control income, assets and otherresources. For instance, in 2010, in terms of landownership, individual land titles held by womenaccounted for about 5 per cent of land ownership inBangladesh, 13 per cent in Kyrgyzstan and 28 per centin Thailand.a As part of the land reform process that wasstarted in Viet Nam in 1998, when collectively heldlong-term use rights to land were reconfigured asindividually held long-term use rights, women receivedonly 10 per cent of the redistributed land rights, due tothe low number of women registered as heads ofhouseholds.b An additional subset of women in theregion are registered as secondary land right holdersthrough male family members, leaving them inprecarious situations in cases of violence and abuse bymale family members, divorce, widowhood or malefamily members’ migration.

Box E.1-2Women’s access to and control over land

In Pacific island developing economies, almost all landis customarily owned and transferred through traditionalcultural systems, whereby women and men access landthrough customary arrangements and not throughpurchase. This is the case for over 90 per cent of the landin the Cook Islands, the Marshall Islands, Nauru, Niue,Papua New Guinea, Tuvalu and Vanuatu. Women donot have a right to own land independent of a malerelative, but only as an extension of socially constructedgendered roles as daughters, wives or mothers. Thisincreases women’s economic dependence on men,discourages them from investing in land as a productiveresource beyond subsistence farming, and denies womendecision-making rights based on informed consent overland usage, investments and formal agreements on landrights.c

a United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization, “Gender and land rights: understanding complexities; adjusting policies”, Economic andSocial Perspectives Policy Brief, No. 8 (March 2010).b Ibid.c Australian Agency for International Development, Making Land Work: Volume One – Reconciling Customary Land and Development in the Pacific(2008), pp. 4, 81-86.

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whereas men spend 3.3 hours and 0.1 hours,respectively.9 In Japan, women spend 3 hours and19 minutes more than their male counterparts onunpaid work, while this figure rises to 4 hoursand 26 minutes for India.10 OECD estimatesbased on national time-use surveys show thatwomen spend between 100 and 200 minutesmore per day on unremunerated productive workthan men in Australia, China, New Zealand andthe Republic of Korea, while Turkish womenspend on average 4.3 hours more each day onunremunerated productive work than men.11

Rapidly ageing populations in the Asian andPacific region add to women’s already stretchedcare burden.

Women’s unremunerated productive work servesas an unaccounted for and often unrecognizedcontribution to social protection, and acts asa subsidy to State provisioning by bridginginfrastructural gaps in social protection andinsurance coverage.12 In times of economichardship, women increase their domesticactivities to compensate for falling householdincome or increased expenditures. Women’sinterrupted and at times precarious links toincome-generating work, especially formal decentemployment, result in women’s lower access tocontributory social security measures, such as oldage pensions, unemployment benefits anddisability allowances.13

More data are therefore needed to understandwomen’s and men’s differentiated use of time overthe course of their life cycles, as well as possiblepublic measures that could ease women’s timecrunch. Otherwise, women’s unremuneratedproductive work will continue to limit their fulleconomic participation, which results in theirgreater uptake of part-time or seasonal work.Currently, national household or labour forcesurveys show women’s share of part-time

Women continue to be under-represented at every level of politicalparticipation and decision-making.

Women’s participation in the political arena andin decision-making is of key importance as itallows women to influence the social, economicand political conditions that affect their dailylives. The numerical presence of women acrossa broad range of decision-making forums aloneprovides only a proxy indicator of the actualinfluence of female decision makers. Theirinfluence depends on whether and how theyrepresent issues of strategic importance towomen. Nevertheless, evidence indicates that thepresence of more women in parliaments and civilservice and on company boards brings resultsabove those that could have been achieved hadwomen not been represented.14

9 World Bank, World Development Report 2012: Gender Equality and Development (2012), p. 19.10 R. Antonopolous, “The unpaid care work – paid work connection”, ILO Working Paper, No. 86 (International Labour Organization, 2009), p. 3.11 V. Miranda, “Cooking, caring and volunteering: unpaid work around the world”, OECD Social, Employment and Migration Working Paper,No. 116 (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, 2011), pp. 11 and 12.12 R. Antonopolous, “The unpaid care work”, pp. 8 and 9.13 ESCAP, The Promise of Protection: Social Protection and Development in Asia and the Pacific (United Nations publication, Sales No. E.11.II.F.5),pp. 12-15.14 R. Chattopadhyay and E. Duflo, “Women as policy makers: evidence from a randomized policy experiment in India”, Econometrica, vol. 72, No. 5(September 2004), pp. 1409-1443; and Grant Thornton International, Women in Senior Management: Setting the Stage for Growth – Grant ThorntonInternational Business Report 2013 (2013), p. 4.

Figure E.1-2Women’s share of part-time employment,selected Asian and Pacific countries, 2011

Source: United Nations Statistics Division: Statistics and Indicators onWomen and men, Table 5b available at http://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/products/indwm/

employment out of total part-time employmentto be between 55.5 per cent in Hong Kong,China and 73 per cent in New Zealand.

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At the Fourth World Conference on Women,Member States agreed to set “specific targets andimplementing measures to substantially increasethe number of women with a view to achievingequal representation of women and men, ifnecessary through positive action, in allgovernmental and public administrationpositions.”15 Currently, only three countries inthe Asian and Pacific region have attained thecritical mass of 30 per cent female representation,which by international consensus is consideredsignificant to ensure meaningful change. These

are Nepal (33.2 per cent), Timor-Leste (32.3 percent) and New Zealand (32.2 per cent). Somecountries, such as Afghanistan (27.7 per cent),the Lao People’s Democratic Republic (25.0 percent), Australia (24.7 per cent), Viet Nam (24.4per cent) and Kazakhstan (24.3 per cent), areapproaching the target. This is partly a result ofquotas and reserved seats for women inparliament. Women’s representation in the Pacificlags significantly behind both other Asian andPacific subregions and the world average. Amongthe 13 countries in the Pacific for which data

15 Report of the Fourth World Conference on Women, Beijing, 4-15 September 1995 (United Nations publication, Sales No. 96.IV.13),p. 81.

Figure E.1-3Women’s participation in national parliaments,Asia and the Pacific, 2012

Figure E.1-4Women’s share in ministerial positions, Asiaand the Pacific (reflecting appointments up to1 January 2012)

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cent), Kiribati (20.0 per cent), the Philippines(18.2 per cent), and Georgia, Kazakhstan and theRussian Federation with 15.8 per cent each. Atthe low end are Cambodia (4.9 per cent), Turkey(4.0 per cent) and Azerbaijan (2.9 per cent).Seven Asian and Pacific countries have no femaleministers, namely Bhutan, Brunei Darussalam,Nauru, Papua New Guinea, Singapore, SolomonIslands and Vanuatu.16

were available, 9 have either no women or lessthan 5 per cent of seats held by women in thenational parliament.

With respect to women in ministerial levelpositions, New Zealand is ranked highest in theregion, with 28.6 per cent female ministers. It isfollowed by Timor-Leste (23.1 per cent), theFederated States of Micronesia (22.2 per cent),Maldives (21.4 per cent), Australia (20.7 per

Research on the largest 100 domestic companies bymarket capitalization in Australia; China; Hong Kong,China; India; Malaysia; New Zealand and Singaporefound that only Australia had more than 10 per centfemale board directors, with 11.2 per cent. Hong Kong,China ranked second (8.6 per cent), followed by China(8.1 per cent), Malaysia (7.8 per cent), New Zealand(7.5 per cent), Singapore (6.4 per cent) and India(4.7 per cent)a Moreover, half of the 700 boardsexamined had no female directors at all.b A similar studyfound that Japanese and Korean boards had 2 per centand 1 per cent women’s representation, respectively.c

Box E.1-3Private sector board and managerial level positions held by women

Countries in the Asian and Pacific region hold 10 of thetop 20 positions in global rankings for the highestpercentage of women in senior management, withsignificant variations across the region. China is theglobal leader with a 51 per cent share of managerial levelpositions held by women, followed by the Philippinesand Georgia with 37 per cent, Thailand and Viet Namwith 36 per cent and 33 per cent, respectively, and theRussian Federation with 31 per cent. At the lower endare Australia with 22 per cent of managerial levelpositions held by women, India with 19 per cent andJapan with 7 per cent.d

a A. Yi, “Mind the gap: half of Asia’s boards have no women, a risky position for governance and growth” (Korn/Ferry Institute, 2011), p. 2.b Ibid., p. 3.c McKinsey and Company, “Women matter: an Asian perspective – harnessing female talent to raise corporate performance” (June 2012), p. 2.d Grant Thornton International, Women in Senior Management: Setting the Stage for Growth – Grant Thornton International Business Report2013 (2013), pp. 3 and 7.

16 United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women, and Inter-Parliamentary Union, Women in Politics: 2012. Availablefrom www.ipu.org/pdf/publications/wmnmap12_en.pdf.17 Forms of violence against women include “any act of gender-based violence that results in, or is likely to result in, physical, sexual or psychologicalharm or suffering to women, including threats of such acts, coercion or arbitrary deprivation of liberty, whether occurring in public or private life.” SeeReport of the Fourth World Conference on Women, Beijing, 4-15 September 1995 (United Nations publication, Sales No. 96.IV.13).

Violence against women (VAW), aserious human rights violation affectingevery country, culture and context acrossthe Asian and Pacific region, impedeswomen’s empowerment.

VAW specifically refers to all forms of violencethat primarily, and most of the time exclusively,targets women because of their gender.17 Inaddition to intimate and non-intimate physical,sexual and psychological abuse, other forms ofVAW, such as human trafficking, early and forcedmarriage, son preference, acid attacks, “honourcrimes,” and dowry deaths, are prominent in

some contexts in Asia and the Pacific. VAW inconflict and post-conflict settings, in particularsexual violence, is an ongoing atrocity.

A variety of indicators and data sources have beenused to measure VAW. Administrative records,such as police, court and health sector records,are not a sufficient source of statistics formeasurement. Reasons for this include both lowreporting rates and unreliable public recordkeeping. If at all, formal records can provide onlyestimates of the number of survivors who havesought out specific services, not the prevalenceor incidence rate of violence.

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Efforts are underway to produce reliable andcomparable global statistical indicators formeasuring VAW. In its resolution 61/143 of19 December 2006, the General Assembly ofthe United Nations requested the StatisticalCommission to develop methodologies ofdata collection and a core set of internationalindicators to support Member States in assessingthe scope, prevalence and incidence of VAW.Attention to ethical and safety considerations isrequired when generating data on VAW as theprocess can potentially identify and expose bothvictims as well as perpetrators to their familiesand communities. To this date, a set of guidelinesfor producing statistics on VAW and nine coreindicators have been developed.

Many studies measuring the prevalence of VAWfocus on domestic violence, or intimate partnerviolence, as it is the most pervasive formof VAW.18 Women are typically the mainrespondents to these types of surveys. The datagenerated indicate consistently high levels ofVAW, ranging from about 20 per cent to 60 percent of ever-partnered or ever-married women in

18 United Nations Secretary-General’s Campaign to End Violence against Women, “Violence against Women” (November 2009). Available fromwww.un.org/en/events/endviolenceday/pdf/UNiTE_TheSituation_EN.pdf.19 Claudia Garcia-Moreno and others, WHO Multi-country Study on Women’s Health and Domestic Violence against Women: Initial Results on Prevalence,Health Outcomes and Women’s Responses (World Health Organization, 2005); Viet Nam and United Nations, Keeping Silent is Dying: Results from theNational Study on Domestic Violence against Women in Viet Nam (2010); and Maldives, Ministry of Gender and Family, The Maldives Study on Women’sHealth and Life Experiences: Initial Results on Prevalence, Health Outcomes and Women’s Responses to Violence (2006).20 N. de Mel, P. Peiris and S. Gomez, Broadening Gender: Why Masculinities Matter – Attitudes, Practices and Gender-based Violence in Four Districts inSri Lanka (CARE International Sri Lanka, 2013), pp. 36-38.21 R.T. Naved and others, Men’s Attitudes and Practices Regarding Gender and Violence against Women in Bangladesh: Preliminary Findings (icddr,b, 2011),pp. 17-18.

Box E.1-4Costing of violence against women

Beyond the debilitating physical and emotional toll onwomen, their families and communities, VAW has aneconomic price tag. The full cost is immense, in termsof costs to the health system, the justice system and otherservice providers; lost wages and productivity of survivorsas well as perpetrators; and the intergenerational costof children missing out on education and otheropportunities. A costing study in Australia on domesticviolence estimated a total annual cost of $A 8.1 billion

a Access Economics, The Cost of Domestic Violence to the Australian Economy: Part I (Australia, 2004), pp. vii and viii.b Nata Duvvury, Nguyen Huu Minh and Patricia Carney, Estimating the Cost of Domestic Violence against Women in Viet Nam (UN-Women,2012).

for 2002-2003, and a total lifetime cost of $A 224,470per survivor of domestic violence.a Another studyestimated the cost of domestic violence in Viet Nam tobe nearly 1.4 per cent of GDP for 2010 as a result ofout-of-pocket expenditures and lost earnings. The studyalso found that women experiencing violence earned35 per cent less than those not abused, and the overalllost productivity was estimated at 1.8 per cent of GDPin 2010.b

both rural and urban settings across the Asianand Pacific region.19

To understand the perpetration of VAW, morestudies have been conducted recently with menas the main respondents. A study in four districtsin Sri Lanka found that, of ever-partnered men,36 per cent reported committing physical orsexual violence against an intimate partner intheir lifetime, 40.7 per cent admitted to havingemotionally abused their intimate partners and18 per cent admitted to having committed aneconomically abusive act against their intimatepartners.20 In Bangladesh, a survey in one urbanarea and one rural area showed that 55 per centof urban and 57 per cent rural male respondentsreported to having used physical or sexualviolence against an intimate partner, 52 per centof urban and 46 per cent of rural malerespondents admitted to having committedemotional abuse against an intimate partner,and 16 per cent of urban and 18 per cent of ruralmale respondents admitted to having perpetratedeconomic violence against an intimate partner.21

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Technical notes

Women’s empowerment defined

The United Nations Population Divisionidentifies five components of women’sempowerment: women’s sense of self-worth; theright of choice; the right of access toopportunities and resources; the right to have thepower to control their own lives (in and outsidethe home); and the ability to influence thedirection of social change to create a more justsocial and economic order, nationally andinternationally. Women’s empowerment isillustrated to some degree through the indicatorsin the present topic, but it is also linked to manyindicators in the Yearbook, such as those in thesections on health, education and knowledge,poverty and insecurity, and economy.

Employment-sex ratio: overall and non-agricultural employment (employed femalesper 100 employed males)

The ratio of employed women to employed men.The overall ratio includes all employment sectors;non-agricultural employment includes all sectorsother than agriculture. Indicator calculations:Employed females divided by employed males.Aggregate calculations: The Employment

Trends Unit of the International LabourOrganization (ILO) calculates aggregateemployed women and employed men for eacheconomic, regional and subregional group. Theaggregate sex ratio is calculated as aggregateemployed women to aggregate employed men.

Employer-sex ratio (female employers per 100male employers)

The ratio of female employers to male employers.Indicator calculations: Female employersdivided by male employers. Aggregatecalculations: The ILO Employment Trends Unitcalculates aggregate female employers and maleemployers for each economic, regional andsubregional group. The aggregate sex ratio iscalculated as aggregate female employers toaggregate male employers.

Agriculture, industry and services employment:female and male (percentage of employedfemales or males)

Agriculture: Employment in agriculture,hunting, forestry and fishing in totalemployment. Industry: Employment in miningand quarrying, manufacturing, construction,electricity and gas, and water in totalemployment. Services: Employment in wholesale

Further reading

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. The State of Food and Agriculture: Womenin Agriculture – Closing the Gender Gap for Development. Rome, 2011. Available from www.fao.org/docrep/013/i2050e/i2050e.pdf.

Report of the Secretary-General on gender statistics. E/CN.3/2013/10. Available from http://unstats.un.org/unsd/statcom/doc13/2013-10-GenderStats-E.pdf.

United Nations. The World’s Women 2010: Trends and Statistics. Sales No. E.10.XVII.11. Availablefrom http://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/products/Worldswomen/WW_full%20report_color.pdf.

United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women. Progress of theWorld’s Women 2011-2012: In Pursuit of Justice. 2011. Available from http://progress.unwomen.org/pdfs/EN-Report-Progress.pdf.

World Bank. World Development Report 2012: Gender Equality and Development. Washington DC,2011. Available from http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTWDR2012/Resources/7778105-1299699968583/7786210-1315936222006/Complete-Report.pdf.

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and retail trade, restaurants and hotels, transport,storage and communications, finance, insurance,real estate and business services, and community,social and personal services, in total employment.Aggregate calculations: ILO EmploymentTrends Unit.

Employees, employers, own account workersand contributing family workers: female andmale (percentage of employed females ormales)

Employees: Those workers who hold the type ofjobs defined as “paid employment jobs,” wherethe incumbents hold explicit (written or oral) orimplicit employment contracts that give thema basic remuneration that is not directlydependent upon the revenue of the unit forwhich they work. Employers: Those workersworking on their own account or with one ora few partners, hold the type of jobs defined as“self-employment jobs” (that is, jobs where theremuneration is directly dependent upon theprofits derived from the goods and servicesproduced), and, in this capacity, have engaged ona continuous basis one or more persons to workfor them as employee(s). Own account workers:Those workers who, working on their ownaccount or with one or more partners, hold thetype of jobs defined as “self-employment jobs”,and have not engaged on a continuous basis anyemployees to work for them. Contributingfamily workers: Those workers who hold“self-employment jobs” as own account workersin a market-oriented establishment operated bya relative living in the same household. Aggregatecalculations: ILO Employment Trends Unit.

Gender wage gap (percentage)

The gender wage gap is the difference betweengross average nominal monthly wages of maleand those of female employees expressed asa percentage of gross average nominal monthlywages of male employees. Indicator calculations:Gender pay gap (%) = 100*(Em – Ew)/Emwhere Em is the gross average nominal monthlywages of men in any given population group andEw is the gross average nominal monthly wagesof women.

Women in parliament: single or lower house,senate or upper house (percentage of seats,number of seats)

Seats are usually won by candidates inparliamentary elections. Seats may also be filledby nomination, appointment, indirect election,rotation of members and by-election. Women inparliament figures are expressed as a proportionof all occupied seats in a single or lower houseof the national parliaments and of the senateor upper chamber or house of bicameralparliaments. Lower or single house: Women inthe single chamber of unicameral parliaments andlower chamber in bicameral parliaments. Senateor upper house: Women members in the senateor upper chambers of bicameral parliaments.

Women’s access to bank loans, land andproperty other than land (index)

Bank loans: Women’s access to bank loans isassessed at between 0=full and 1=impossible.Land: Women’s access to land ownership isassessed at between 0=full and 1=impossible.Property other than land: Women’s rights toown property other than land, especiallyimmovable property (that is, buildings, dwellingsor other property), is assessed at between 0=fulland 1=no.

Legislation on VAW (index)

Reflects the existence of laws against (a) domesticviolence, (b) sexual assault or rape, and (c) sexualharassment. The index is scored as follows: 0 ifspecific legislation is in place; 0.25 if legislationis in place but of a general nature; 0.50 if specificlegislation is being planned, drafted or reviewed;0.75 if planned legislation is of a general nature;1.00 if there is no legislation concerning VAW.Data are averaged across the three legal categories.

Sources

Source of employment data: ILO, Key Indicatorsof the Labour Market, 7th ed. (available fromwww.ilo.org/empelm/pubs/WCMS_114060/lang—en/index.htm). The ILO EmploymentTrends Unit has designed and maintains threeeconometric models that are used in estimating

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labour market indicators of the countries andyears for which no real data exist. Employmentratios and employment by sector: Informationwas derived from a variety of sources, includinghousehold or labour force surveys, officialestimates and censuses provided by countries toILO. In a very few cases, information was derivedfrom insurance records and establishmentsurveys. Ratio of employers and employmentby status: Most of the information for thisindicator was gathered from internationalrepositories of labour market data, including theILO Department of Statistics Yearbook of LabourStatistics (LABORSTA) database, Eurostat, andthe Latin America and Caribbean LabourInformation System (QUIPUSTAT), withadditions from websites of national statisticaloffices. Data obtained: 18 April 2013.

Source of gender wage gap: ILO, Global WageDatabase (available from www.ilo.org/travail/areasofwork/WCMS_142568/lang—en/index.htm). Data obtained: 1 May 2013.

Source of women in parliament: UnitedNations, Millennium Indicators Database; Inter-Parliamentary Union, Women in NationalParliaments (available from www.ipu.org/wmn-e/world.htm). National parliaments provide theInter-Parliamentary Union with official statistics.Data are not adjusted for internationalcomparability. Data obtained: 2 August 2012.

Source of legislation on VAW, and women’saccess to loans and property: OECDDevelopment Centre, Gender, Institutions andDevelopment Database. Based on two mainpremises that guarantee comparability acrosscountries and ensure the highest level of quality.Regional experts estimate data. All low-incomeand lower-middle-income economies witha population exceeding 1 million inhabitantswere selected. A university team of researchers ledthe external review and harmonization processes.Scoring of social institutions variables is finalizedby the OECD Development Centre. Dataobtained: 1 August 2012.

157


E.1.1 Women’s participation in the labour market

Overall employment Non-agriculturalEmployers sex ratio Gender wage gap

Percentage

1991 2000 2012 1991 2000 2012 1991 2000 2010 1995 2000 2010

East and North-East Asia 80.6 81.4 80.7 56.3 63.4 74.9 16.8 27.2 42.5

China 82.3 82.9 81.4

DPR Korea 92.9 91.8 92.3

Hong Kong, China 59.5 73.2 86.8 60.1 73.0 16.8 24.1 7.5

Japan 69.0 68.8 73.2 67.4 68.4 22.1 22.1 36.5 32.3

Macao, China 69.2 87.0 96.1 69.5 89.3 13.8 29.3

Mongolia 86.1 87.7 86.7 101.8 38.9 7.6 15.1

Republic of Korea 65.8 69.0 71.1 65.1 68.6 22.0 40.4 37.5

South-East Asia 73.3 72.6 73.3 68.5 69.2 75.3 16.2 20.4 25.8

Brunei Darussalam 48.6 69.0 72.6 47.9 18.1

Cambodia 109.8 104.7 98.5 98.1 11.7

Indonesia 61.1 59.9 60.7 60.3 59.4

Lao PDR 99.8 100.2 98.8

Malaysia 51.8 53.1 56.1 49.6 57.6 25.8 11.1 18.1

Myanmar 93.6 93.3 95.2 -53.9

Philippines 55.6 59.8 63.7 86.5 82.6 24.9 -1.5

Singapore 63.7 68.1 73.2 66.3 18.6 33.8 26.5 28.1 26.7

Thailand 87.7 85.6 84.7 82.8 85.4 22.6 30.3 33.5 3.4

Timor-Leste 48.6 47.8 49.8 -1.7

Viet Nam 97.8 96.5 93.6 93.2 55.4 13.9

South and South-West Asia 38.2 38.5 36.5 20.0 20.5 21.3 9.2 12.4 12.5

Afghanistan 16.4 14.7 17.6

Bangladesh 65.4 59.9 66.6 17.1 30.6 12.8

Bhutan 57.9 64.7 72.5 100.0

India 38.0 38.7 33.7 22.0 14.1 11.4

Iran (Islamic Rep. of) 11.1 17.1 20.3

Maldives 22.7 43.6 61.4 44.0 12.5

Nepal 89.6 96.8 97.5 25.8

Pakistan 13.2 16.1 25.3 8.9 7.9 2.1 22.6 39.5 35.4

Sri Lanka 40.0 46.4 46.0 12.5 12.2

Turkey 44.0 37.1 41.0 15.1 19.9 4.0 7.4 -0.6

North and Central Asia 89.7 89.9 90.7 95.2 93.9 90.8 16.3 33.6 50.8

Armenia 77.9 84.6 79.3 48.1 35.9

Azerbaijan 83.5 87.4 94.5 77.3 54.2 45.2

Georgia 87.7 86.6 90.5 75.1 13.6 45.7 42.6

Kazakhstan 85.7 91.4 95.4 61.4 34.1

Kyrgyzstan 83.2 79.5 73.9 74.7

Russian Federation 94.0 94.4 96.3 99.9 40.3

Tajikistan 80.0 79.1 83.3

Turkmenistan 66.6 68.8 64.8

Uzbekistan 67.2 68.5 66.1

Pacific 74.2 80.1 84.1 72.9 78.9 83.3 42.3 45.7 46.1

American Samoa 47.0

Australia 71.6 78.3 83.3 74.6 81.0 47.7 50.0 34.4 33.7 35.2

Cook Islands 17.6

Fiji 34.8 47.2 47.1

French Polynesia 198.4

Guam 130.5

Kiribati 71.0 63.3

Marshall Islands 47.3

Micronesia (F.S.) 96.3

Nauru 9.2

New Caledonia 168.5

New Zealand 78.1 82.7 87.8 84.2 88.1 37.0 41.1 33.2 30.1

Niue 2.3

Northern Mariana Islands 44.0

Palau 15.1

Papua New Guinea 92.6 93.7 93.1

Samoa 162.9

Solomon Islands 64.2 63.0 62.8

Tonga 95.2

Tuvalu 9.0

Vanuatu 146.6

Asia and the Pacific 64.7 64.1 62.0 49.1 51.9 56.2 14.3 22.5 30.0

Developed countries 69.4 70.2 75.1 68.6 70.0 75.8 25.9 27.3 25.0

Developing countries 64.5 63.8 61.5 47.2 50.5 55.1 13.5 22.1 30.3

LLDC 73.1 72.8 72.4 63.0 58.8 59.2 41.0 55.5 60.0

LDC 72.8 69.2 72.7 26.6 38.0 29.0 41.1 50.8 65.4

ASEAN 73.4 72.7 73.3 68.5 69.2 75.3 16.2 20.4 25.8

ECO 30.7 30.4 35.0 21.9 22.1 25.3 3.6 4.6 7.8

SAARC 39.0 39.3 37.0 21.0 20.9 21.0 11.6 17.0 15.1

Central Asia 78.7 79.8 79.7 76.6 73.1 74.2 22.3 27.2 35.1

Pacific island dev. econ.

Low income econ. 75.0 71.3 74.1 44.1 49.5 37.9 42.7 49.5 65.6

Lower middle income econ. 43.6 44.4 41.9 32.5 32.4 34.8 11.7 15.8 16.5

Upper middle income econ. 80.2 80.1 78.8 56.8 63.0 73.0 12.9 24.5 38.5

High income econ. 68.3 70.0 74.5 67.1 69.5 75.0 22.8 24.6 27.7

Africa 65.2 69.7 72.4 46.7 56.7 64.4 9.0 14.9 15.9

Europe 73.3 77.8 83.9 72.2 78.5 85.5 28.6 30.8 32.7

Latin America and Carib. 50.6 59.8 69.2 61.4 69.9 79.9 14.9 23.9 30.6

North America 81.7 84.4 86.6 84.2 86.3 88.0 29.9 29.8 29.3

World 64.9 66.0 65.9 56.2 59.8 63.6 17.4 23.4 27.5

Employment sex ratio

Employed females per 100employed males

Employed females per 100employed males

Female employers per 100male employers

158


E.1.2 Female and male employment by sector

Female Male Female Male Female Male

1991 2010 1991 2010 1991 2010 1991 2010 1991 2010 1991 2010

East and North-East Asia 62.0 37.4 45.5 29.5 20.2 25.0 26.8 32.0 17.8 37.6 27.7 38.6

China

DPR Korea

Hong Kong, China 0.6 0.9 29.5 38.1 69.9 61.0

Japan 7.8 3.7 6.0 3.8 27.6 14.7 39.1 33.1 64.2 80.4 54.4 61.9

Macao, China 0.1 0.1 50.5 36.9 49.2 63.6

Mongolia

Republic of Korea 18.5 6.9 14.9 6.4 29.8 12.5 40.1 20.2 51.7 80.6 45.0 73.4

South-East Asia 60.1 42.3 57.3 40.9 11.5 15.3 15.2 21.1 28.4 42.4 27.4 38.0

Brunei Darussalam 1.6 2.2 8.9 31.4 89.5 66.3

Cambodia 55.4 52.9 15.5 17.0 29.1 30.1

Indonesia 54.5 53.5 12.8 15.6 32.4 30.7

Lao PDR

Malaysia 22.2 8.5 26.8 16.0 28.1 21.0 25.6 31.3 44.8 70.5 43.2 52.8

Myanmar

Philippines 30.1 53.9 13.9 17.3 56.1 28.7

Singapore 0.1 0.4 32.9 36.7 67.0 62.9

Thailand 60.8 36.0 59.9 40.1 13.7 18.2 16.9 22.7 25.4 45.7 23.2 37.1

Timor-Leste

Viet Nam

South and South-West Asia 76.0 67.3 54.2 42.9 12.5 15.2 18.0 23.4 11.5 17.5 27.8 33.7

Afghanistan

Bangladesh 84.9 54.4 8.8 15.7 2.1 25.3

Bhutan 65.3 54.0 6.7 6.8 28.0 39.2

India 65.3 46.1 17.8 24.0 17.0 29.9

Iran (Islamic Rep. of)

Maldives

Nepal 90.5 74.9 1.3 3.7 7.5 19.6

Pakistan 66.0 44.8 14.7 20.6 19.3 34.6

Sri Lanka 37.8 30.2 24.8 23.9 27.2 28.3

Turkey 77.4 39.3 35.0 17.5 8.3 15.9 25.3 30.3 14.4 44.7 39.7 52.2

North and Central Asia 18.6 17.6 23.3 20.9 25.6 18.3 40.5 29.7 55.8 64.1 36.2 49.5

Armenia

Azerbaijan 44.5 32.3 6.1 20.9 49.4 46.8

Georgia

Kazakhstan

Kyrgyzstan

Russian Federation

Tajikistan

Turkmenistan

Uzbekistan

Pacific 18.7 17.9 17.2 16.5 10.8 8.0 27.8 26.1 70.5 74.1 55.0 57.4

American Samoa

Australia 3.9 6.6 12.3 32.2 83.8 61.2

Cook Islands

Fiji

French Polynesia

Guam

Kiribati

Marshall Islands

Micronesia (F.S.)

Nauru

New Caledonia

New Zealand 7.8 13.2 13.7 31.6 78.4 54.8

Niue

Northern Mariana Islands

Palau

Papua New Guinea

Samoa

Solomon Islands

Tonga

Tuvalu

Vanuatu

Asia and the Pacific 61.1 43.7 48.8 36.0 17.6 20.5 22.9 26.8 21.2 35.8 28.3 37.1

Developed countries 7.4 3.7 6.3 4.3 25.7 14.1 38.4 34.1 66.9 82.2 55.4 61.5

Developing countries 64.0 45.6 50.9 37.2 17.2 20.8 22.1 26.6 18.8 33.7 27.0 36.2

LLDC 58.5 56.8 51.9 46.4 9.3 9.1 19.4 19.9 32.2 34.1 28.7 33.7

LDC 85.6 77.7 60.6 46.9 7.3 7.5 13.8 15.9 7.2 14.8 25.6 37.2

ASEAN 60.1 42.2 57.3 40.9 11.5 15.3 15.2 21.1 28.4 42.4 27.4 38.0

ECO 56.9 51.1 39.6 31.5 11.7 13.5 23.3 24.7 31.5 35.3 37.1 43.8

SAARC 76.3 69.3 56.1 44.9 12.6 15.0 17.3 22.7 11.0 15.7 26.6 32.4

Central Asia 42.0 40.5 40.4 34.7 11.5 10.4 24.9 25.6 46.5 49.0 34.8 39.7


Low income econ. 73.1 69.8 54.3 43.3 19.4 14.8 19.5 19.1 7.5 15.4 26.2 37.6

Lower middle income econ. 67.4 55.7 56.1 44.1 12.6 16.4 17.0 23.0 20.0 27.9 26.9 32.9

Upper middle income econ. 62.8 37.9 47.5 30.5 18.6 24.2 26.1 31.1 18.6 37.9 26.4 38.3

High income econ. 9.3 4.2 7.7 4.6 26.8 13.8 38.7 33.0 64.0 82.0 53.6 62.5

Africa 69.0 60.2 56.7 53.4 6.6 7.1 13.4 14.2 24.5 32.7 29.9 32.4

Europe 14.6 5.7 13.2 7.5 21.0 13.1 41.2 35.5 64.4 81.2 45.6 57.0

Latin America and Carib. 13.4 8.9 28.6 21.1 15.4 13.2 26.9 27.7 71.2 77.9 44.4 51.2

North America 1.5 0.9 4.4 2.4 14.2 7.4 34.4 25.9 84.3 91.7 61.2 71.7

World 49.1 36.1 41.3 32.4 16.7 16.6 25.0 26.1 34.2 47.3 33.7 41.5

Agriculture employment Industry employment Services employment

% of employedfemales


% of employedmales


% of employedmales

% of employedmales

159


E.1.3 Female and male employment by status

Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male

females males females males females males females males

1991 2010 1991 2010 1991 2010 1991 2010 1991 2010 1991 2010 1991 2010 1991 2010

East and North-East Asia 29.3 46.2 40.3 52.4 0.6 1.2 3.1 2.3 22.3 22.5 35.0 36.0 47.8 30.1 21.7 9.3

China

DPR Korea

Hong Kong, China 94.8 86.0 1.4 5.3 3.1 8.6 0.7 0.1

Japan 74.0 88.2 81.7 86.7 1.3 4.1 8.9 11.6 15.5 5.9 2.3 0.9

Macao, China 95.5 88.8 1.4 4.7 2.1 6.2 1.0 0.3

Mongolia

Republic of Korea 57.5 72.9 63.5 70.0 18.9 34.3 23.7 10.9 2.2 1.3

South-East Asia 25.0 33.0 32.6 38.1 0.8 1.1 3.7 3.2 25.7 30.3 45.0 46.7 48.5 35.6 18.7 12.0

Brunei Darussalam 96.1 94.4 0.5 1.2 2.8 4.1 0.6 0.4

Cambodia 24.3 35.4 0.2 0.2 56.0 44.7 19.3 19.5

Indonesia

Lao PDR

Malaysia 70.8 78.4 64.1 72.0 2.0 1.7 3.6 5.2 16.7 12.1 28.3 20.1 8.1 7.8 2.4 2.6

Myanmar

Philippines

Singapore 91.4 90.4 82.2 81.7 2.3 3.1 7.5 7.0 3.9 5.7 9.8 10.9 2.4 0.8 0.4 0.4

Thailand 28.0 43.2 33.0 45.5 0.8 1.5 3.2 3.8 18.0 26.2 39.0 36.4 53.2 29.0 24.8 14.2

Timor-Leste

Viet Nam

South and South-West Asia 11.3 17.6 21.3 24.8 0.7 0.6 2.9 1.7 48.6 43.2 61.6 62.5 39.4 38.7 14.2 11.1

Afghanistan

Bangladesh

Bhutan 23.1 38.5 0.1 0.1 28.1 26.5 48.6 34.8

India 14.5 19.4 0.4 1.3 51.1 68.3 33.9 11.0

Iran (Islamic Rep. of)

Maldives

Nepal

Pakistan

Sri Lanka 54.3 56.1 0.8 3.5 22.6 35.9 22.4 4.4

Turkey 20.1 50.7 45.8 64.9 1.3 6.9 8.6 12.8 39.2 23.1 71.3 35.2 15.0 5.1

North and Central Asia 89.0 82.5 85.1 80.8 0.1 1.0 0.6 1.9 8.0 13.9 12.6 15.5 2.8 2.6 1.8 1.8

Armenia

Azerbaijan

Georgia

Kazakhstan 65.4 67.9 1.6 2.4 31.9 28.5 0.9 0.8

Kyrgyzstan

Russian Federation

Tajikistan

Turkmenistan

Uzbekistan

Pacific 73.9 74.9 71.8 73.1 3.0 1.8 5.3 3.3 11.0 11.9 17.9 17.1 12.1 11.4 5.0 6.5

American Samoa

Australia 87.4 91.1 82.1 86.1 3.5 5.4 7.8 11.8 1.2 0.3 0.7 0.2

Cook Islands

Fiji

French Polynesia

Guam

Kiribati

Marshall Islands

Micronesia (F.S.)

Nauru

New Caledonia

New Zealand 85.2 88.0 74.3 80.1 4.8 10.2 7.7 14.2 1.9 1.4 0.8 0.8

Niue


Palau

Papua New Guinea

Samoa

Solomon Islands

Tonga

Tuvalu

Vanuatu

Asia and the Pacific 29.7 40.0 35.1 40.7 0.7 1.0 3.0 2.1 27.3 28.0 44.6 47.1 42.4 31.0 17.4 10.0

Developed countries 75.9 88.7 81.8 86.1 1.6 1.3 4.4 3.8 8.8 5.2 11.7 9.3 13.7 4.9 2.1 0.8

Developing countries 27.2 37.8 32.8 39.0 0.6 1.0 2.9 2.1 28.3 29.0 46.2 48.6 44.0 32.2 18.1 10.4

LLDC 39.6 39.0 40.1 45.3 0.9 1.8 1.6 2.2 45.2 44.4 47.6 44.1 14.3 14.8 10.6 8.5

LDC 10.8 12.4 14.0 19.4 0.5 0.7 0.9 0.7 41.2 34.2 65.2 66.1 47.5 52.7 19.9 13.9

ASEAN 25.0 33.0 32.6 38.1 0.8 1.1 3.7 3.2 25.7 30.3 45.0 46.7 48.5 35.6 18.7 12.0

ECO 38.7 43.4 39.5 49.1 0.5 0.7 4.3 3.0 20.9 22.0 41.0 35.9 39.9 33.9 15.2 12.0

SAARC 10.8 15.6 19.7 22.0 0.7 0.5 2.3 1.3 50.9 44.8 63.9 65.1 37.7 39.1 14.0 11.6

Central Asia 57.8 56.5 51.1 58.2 0.4 0.9 1.4 2.0 30.7 34.0 41.6 34.6 11.1 8.6 6.0 5.2


Low income econ. 17.5 18.3 18.9 23.2 0.7 0.9 1.2 1.0 37.8 32.6 62.2 63.0 44.0 48.3 17.7 12.8

Lower middle income econ. 16.7 23.3 23.6 26.2 0.8 0.7 2.9 1.8 42.6 41.1 59.1 60.5 39.9 34.9 14.4 11.5

Upper middle income econ. 32.0 47.0 40.9 53.0 0.5 1.1 2.9 2.3 21.1 22.7 34.4 35.5 46.4 29.1 21.8 9.2

High income econ. 72.8 85.1 77.2 81.9 1.8 1.8 5.3 4.8 10.4 7.3 15.5 12.4 15.0 5.8 2.0 0.9

Africa 12.4 15.7 26.7 32.7 0.5 0.9 3.4 4.1 37.9 45.5 37.9 46.2 49.1 37.8 32.0 17.1

Europe 84.4 86.1 80.1 79.4 2.4 2.2 6.1 5.7 9.1 9.4 12.1 13.9 4.2 2.4 1.7 1.1

Latin America and Carib. 62.1 64.9 59.4 62.4 1.8 2.7 6.2 5.9 25.6 24.2 28.1 27.6 10.5 8.2 6.2 4.1

North America 90.9 92.3 83.2 86.4 2.1 1.6 5.8 4.6 6.5 6.0 10.8 8.9 0.5 0.1 0.1 0.1

World 40.8 47.2 44.0 47.5 1.0 1.3 3.8 3.2 24.5 26.5 37.0 40.3 33.6 24.9 15.1 9.0

Employees Employers Own account workers Contributing family workers

% of employed % of employed % of employed % of employed

160


E.1.4 Women in national parliaments, women’s access and legislation

Seats held by women

% of seats Number of seats

1990 2000 2012 1990 2000 2012 2009 2009 2009 2009

East and North-East Asia

China 21 22 21 2 978 2 979 2 978 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.6

DPR Korea 21 20 16 655 687 687 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.0

Hong Kong, China 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

Japan 1 5 11 512 500 480 19 (10) 242 (10)

Macao, China

Mongolia 25 8 4 370 76 76 0.0 0.5 0.0 0.6

Republic of Korea 2 4 15 299 299 299

South-East Asia

Brunei Darussalam

Cambodia 8 20 122 123 14 (12) 59 (12) 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.6

Indonesia 12 18 500 500 560 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.7

Lao PDR 6 21 25 79 99 132 0.0 0.5 0.0 0.4

Malaysia 5 10 177 192 221 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.4

Myanmar 4 395 2 (10) 224 (10) 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.8

Philippines 9 12 23 220 217 284 13 (10) 23 (10) 0.5 0.0 0.0 0.2

Singapore 5 4 22 82 93 90 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.5

Thailand 3 6 16 357 393 500 15 (11) 149 (11) 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.3

Timor-Leste 32 65 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.8

Viet Nam 18 26 24 496 450 500 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.8

South and South-West Asia

Afghanistan 4 28 189 249 28 (11) 102 (11) 0.5 0.5 1.0 1.0

Bangladesh 10 9 20 330 330 350 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.1

Bhutan 2 2 9 150 150 47 24 (07) 25 (07) 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.7

India 5 9 11 521 543 545 10 (12) 238 (12) 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.3

Iran (Islamic Rep. of) 2 5 3 270 266 290 0.5 0.5 0.5 1.0

Maldives 6 7 48 50 77

Nepal 6 6 33 132 205 594 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.6

Pakistan 10 23 237 342 16 (12) 104 (12) 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5

Sri Lanka 5 5 6 224 225 225 0.0 0.5 0.5 0.3

Turkey 1 4 14 450 550 550

North and Central Asia

Armenia 36 3 8 340 131 131 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.8

Azerbaijan 12 16 125 125 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.8

Georgia 7 7 235 137 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.8

Kazakhstan 10 24 77 107 4 (11) 47 (11) 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.3

Kyrgyzstan 1 23 70 120 0.0 0.0 0.5 0.6

Russian Federation 8 14 441 450 5 (07) 169 (07) 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.3

Tajikistan 3 19 181 63 15 (10) 34 (10) 0.0 0.5 0.0 0.5

Turkmenistan 26 26 17 50 50 125 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.8

Uzbekistan 7 22 250 150 15 (10) 100 (10) 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.8

Pacific

American Samoa

Australia 6 22 25 148 147 150 38 (10) 76 (10)

Cook Islands

Fiji 11 71 0.0 0.5 0.5 0.8

French Polynesia

Guam

Kiribati 0 5 9 41 41 46

Marshall Islands 3 33 33

Micronesia (F.S.) 0 0 14 14

Nauru 6 0 0 18 18 18

New Caledonia

New Zealand 14 29 32 97 120 121

Niue


Palau 0 0 16 16 15 (08) 13 (08)

Papua New Guinea 0 2 1 109 109 109 0.0 0.5 1.0 0.8

Samoa 0 8 4 47 49 49

Solomon Islands 0 2 0 37 49 50

Tonga 0 4 29 30 28

Tuvalu 8 0 7 13 12 15

Vanuatu 4 0 2 46 52 52

Asia and the Pacific

Developed countries

Developing countries

LLDC

LDC

ASEAN

ECO

SAARC

Central Asia


Low income econ.

Lower middle income econ.

Upper middle income econ.

High income econ.

Africa

Europe

Latin America and Carib.

North America

World

Numberof seats

% ofseats

Seats in the lower orsingle house

Seats in the upperhouse or senate

Index of women’s access to Legislation

on violence

against

women

Bankloans

LandProperty

otherthan land

e.1. women’s empowerment population s empowerment · empowerment in the economic and political...

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