Download - Social Case Study
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SOCIAL CASE STUDYIntroduction
Social case work, a primary method of social work, is considered with the
adjustment and development of the individual towards more satisfying human
relations. Better family life, improved schools better housing, more hospitals and
medical care facilities, protected economic conditions and better relations
between religious groups help the individual in his adjustment and development.
But his adjustment and development depend on the use of these resources by
him. Sometimes due to certain factors, internal or external, he fails to avail
existing facilities. In such situations, social case worker helps him. Thus, social
case work is one to one relationship which works in helping the individual for
his adjustment and development.
DEFINITIONS
Social case work may be defined as the art of doing different things for
and with different people by cooperating with them to achieve at one and the
same time their own and society’s betterment.1
RICHMOND (1917)
Social case work is the art of bringing about the better adjustments in the
social relationship of individual men, or women or children.2
RICHMOND (1922)
Social case work means, “those processes which develop personality
through adjustment consciously affected, individual by individual between men
and their social environment”3
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JARRETT (1919)
Social case work is “the art of bringing an individual who is in a
condition of social disorder into the best possible relation with all parts of his
environment”4
TAFT (1920)
Social case work means “Social treatment of a maladjusted individual
involving an attempt to understand his personality, behaviour, and social
relationships, and to assist him in working out a better social and personal
adjustment.5
WATSON (1922)
Social case work is “the art of untangling and reconstructing the twisted
personality in such manner that the individual can adjust himself to his
environment.6
QUEEN (1922)
Social case work is “the art of adjusting personal relationship”.7
LEE (1923)
Social case work is the “art of changing human attitudes”.9
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TAYLOR (1926)
Social case work is ‘a process concerned with the understanding of
individuals as whole personalities and with the adjustment of these individuals to
socially healthy lives. 9
REYNOLDS (1932)
Social case work is the process of counseling with the client on a problem
which is essentially his own, involving some difficulty in his social relationship.
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REYNOLDS (1935)
Social case work is ‘that form of social work which assists the individual
which he struggles to relate himself to his family, his natural groups, his
community.11
KLEIN (1938)
Social case work is “a technical method in social work…. A way of
adjusting the client to his personal problems.12
SWIFT (1939)
Social case work is the art of assisting the individual in developing and
making use of his personal capacity to deal with problems which he faces in his
social environment’.13
DESCHWNINTIZ (1939)
Case work means ‘those processes involved in giving service, financial
assistance, or personal counsel to individual by representatives of social
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agencies, according to policies established and with consideration of individual
need.14
STRODE (1948)
Social case work is the process of assisting the individual to the best
possible social adjustment through the use of social case study, social resources,
and knowledge from relative fields of learning.15
TOWLE
Social case work is one method… by which certain special services are
made available in areas of unmet needs.16
BOWERS (1949)
Social case work is an art in which knowledge of the science of human
relations, and skill in relationship are used to mobilize capacities in the
individual and resources in the community appropriate for better adjustment
between the client and all or any parts of his total environment.17
HOLLIS (1956)
Social case work is a method employed by social workers to help
individuals find solution to problems of social adjustment which they are unable
to handle in a satisfactory way by their own efforts.18
HAMILTON (1956)
In social case work the client is stimulated to participle in the study of his
situation, to share plans, to make an active efforts to solve his problems, using
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his own resources and whatever community resources are available and
appropriate.19
HOLLIS (1957)
Social case work is a method employed by social workers to help
individual find solution to problems of social adjustment which they are unable
to handle in a satisfactory way by their own efforts.20
PERLMAN (1957)
Social case work is a process used by certain human welfare agencies to
help individuals to cope more effectively with their problems in social
functioning.21
The credit goes to Mary Richmond for defining the social case work
scientifically. In 1915 she said that social case work is an art through which help
is provided to people for their betterment as well as for the betterment of society.
It means that social case work is essential if any country wants to improve and
develop society and community. But this definition was not clear and therefore,
she defines again in 1917 in which she emphasized the specific purpose i.e.
better adjustment in the social relationships. Again in 1922 she told that social
case work is for change of the personality of he individual for proper social
adjustment. The position of social concerned, entered the definition of Jarrent.
The same was repeated by Taft.
Watson opposed the psycho- social model of treatment and emphasized
an ego psychology. Total personality appear on the scene of social case work for
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consideration to social workers. Porter Lee also emphasized that the goal of
social case work is to change human personality. Taylor stressed upon the need
for understanding the total personality of the individual for bringing healthy
adjustment in social life. A counseling function was introduced into the case
work definition by Reynolds 1932. Klein also suggested that the social case
work is for helping the client for adjustment. Swifts talks to developing the
strength and capacity in the individual to solve his problems himself. De
Schweinitz in 1939 advanced definitions containing the functional activity. She
linked the social case work with representatives of social agencies and
established policies. The work which is done through the social agencies by the
social case worker comes in the purview of social case work. Strode expresses
his view by saying that social case work uses social resources for helping the
individual to obtain adjustment in social life. Towle made very simple definition
by saying that case work is for unmet needs of the individual. Bowers told two
instruments of social case work, i.e knowledge of the science of human relations
and skill in relationship; which are used to strengthen his capacity for gaining
purposeful adjustment. Hollis talks to finding a solution to problems for the
individual client. According to Perlman, the case worker’s task is to restore or
reinforce the client’s ability to deal with problem rather than to deal with the
problem for or with him.
Perlman while defining the social case work process the indicated the four
essential components of social case work in their relationship to one another. A
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person with a problem comes to a place where social worker helps him through a
well defined process. The person is a men, women or child, anyone who finds
himself, or is found to be, in need of help in some aspect of his social emotional
living, whether the need be for tangible provisions or counsel. As he begins to
receive such help, he is called a client. 22 The problem arises from some need of
obstacle or accumulation of frustrations or maladjustments, and sometimes all of
these together, which threaten or has already attacked the adequacy of the
person’s living situation or the effectiveness of his efforts to deal with it. 23 The
place is a social service agency or a social service department of another kind of
human welfare agency. It is a particular kind of social problems at large but with
human beings who are experiencing such problems in the management of their
won personal lives. Its purpose is to help the individual with the particular social
handicaps which hamper good personal or family living and with the problems
created by faulty person to person, person to group, or person to situation
relationship.
The Process, named ‘social case work’ do denote its centre of attention
and its individualized aspect. is a progressive transaction between the
professional helper (the case worker) and the client. it consists of series of
problem - solving operations carried on within a meaningful relationships. the
end of this process is contained in its means to go influence the client - person
that he develops effectiveness in coping with his problem and / or to so
influence the problem as to resolve it or vitiate its effects. 25
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PURPOSE OF SOCIAL CASE WORK
The basic of social work is to enable the client to enjoy with some degree
of permanency, more satisfying, effective and acceptable experiences in the
social situation in which the finds himself. to achieve this goal efforts are made
to bring effective changes in the client’s environments or social living situation
through clarifying the client’s possibly distorted perception of its or
strengthening his capacities for coping with it. 26 Its essential task is the
facilitation of social relationship. According to Witmer ‘the chief aim of social
case work is that of helping people to mobilize their capacities for the solution of
the problems that brought them to attention of social agencies.27 the purpose of
social case work is not only to help those troubled in their immediate present but
to help in such a way that each client will, from the experience, be better able to
meet future difficulties with a more effectively, organized personal strength. 28
Most of the writers of social work like moffett. 30 have emphasized that one of
the main objectives of social case work is to bring about an adjustment between
the individual client and his situation of environment.
Towle31 has proposed both a remote and more proximate purpose of
social case work . According to her the ultimate and is the promotion of the
welfare of the individual in the interest of society, the proximate and is the
making available of certain special services in the areas of unmet needs.
Bowers32 Mentioned two basic objectives: better adjustment in the social
relationships of the individual, and the developments of individual personality.
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according to Perlman, within the boundaries of what the client’s wants, his
capacities, and the resources of skill and material means of the agency (and
community) the specific goal is to help him achieve his previous level of
functioning and / or to promote the most effective functioning of which he is
capable at this time.33
In general, the purpose of social case work is to help an individual client
to solve his psycho – social problems in such a way so that he finds himself
capable of dealing with these problems at present and also may solve in future if
such problems arise. thus social case work has the following objectives.
1. To understand and solve the internal problems to the individual.
2. To strengthen his ego power.
3. Remediation of problems in social functioning
4. Prevention of problems in social functioning
5. Development of resources to enhance social functioning.
CLIENT CASE WORKER RELATIONSHIP
The term ‘relationship’ in social case work was used for the first time by
Miss Virginia Robinson in her. Book ‘A Changing psychology in Social Case
Work in 1939. Relationship is the case worker’s responsible and disciplined use
of himself in working with a client. The relationship is the channel through
which the mobilization of the capacities of the client is made possible. The
relationship is the medium through which the client is enabled to state his
problem and through which attention can be focused on reality problems, which
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may be as full of conflict as emotional problems. 34 A case work relationship is
the professional meeting of two persons for the purpose of assisting one of
them, the client, to make a better, a more acceptable adjustment to a personal
problem. 35. Within the democratic frame of reference the professional
responsibilities, recognition of other’s rights, acceptable of difference, with the
goal, not of isolation, but of socialized attitudes and behaviour stimulating
growth though interaction.36 The essence of relationship has been called an
interplay, a mutual emotional exchange , an attitude , a dynamic interaction, a
medium, a connection between two persons, a professional meeting and a mutual
process.37
Hollis38 distinguishes two types of relationship, the basic and the special.
The worker brings to all relationship in his ability to help and function as a
worker. This type of relationship is similar in many ways with some social
relationships.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PROFESSIONAL AND SOCIAL
RELATIONSHIPS
There are five ways in which the professional relationship may differ
from customary social relationships. 39
1. Duration Open – ended Ends when the problem
is solved
Social Relationship Professional Relationship
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2. Time Not limited Limited, according to the
problem
3. Place Home, Club, Invitation, Office or institution
4. Focus Mutual satisfaction of Focus on client’s needs
range of needs emotional, problem solving work
social intellectual, aesthetics
etc
5. Role
Relationship Mutual Helper and helped
CHARACTERISTICS OF CASE WORKER – CLIENT RELATIONSHIP
Perlman 40 has described the following characteristics of case worker
client relationship.
1. Vital relationship between people arise out of shared and emotionally
situations
2. all growth producing relationships, of which the case work relationship is
one, contain elements of acceptable and expectation, support and
stimulation.
3. The identifying mark of professional relationship is its conscious
purposiveness growing out of the knowledge of what must go into
achieving the goal.
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4. The case worker, too, has relationship, and part of his professional skill in
their management.
ASSESSMENT OF THE RELATIONSHIP
Despite the general concern with relationship, we find great difficulty in
specifying just what is meant by the term ‘relationship. Rapport41 explains this
problem thus that ‘Relationship is rather fuzzy concept since we cannot state
with clarity what aspect of relationship, what kind, what symbolic value, what
degree of intensity and so on are essential ingredients of treatment. The pertinent
question is whether there are components of relationship that can be identified.
These components are accurate empathy, non – possessive warmth and
genuineness.
Accurate Empathy
If refers to the ability of the case worker to perceive and communicate
accurately and with sensitivity both feeling and experiences of client and their
meaning and significance. The worker should be sensitive to express feelings of
the client as well as that may only be hinted by voice, posture and content ones.
Non - Possessive Warmth
If refers to the workers communication of respect, acceptance, liking,
caring, and concern for the client in a non- dominating way. When this
component is at low level the worker evaluates the client and expresses likes,
dislikes, approval, disapproval in a highly conditional way. At high level, the
worker warmly accepts the client’s experience as a part of his personality.
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Genuineness
If refers to worker’s being himself, being real. He should be honest in his
approach, Whatever he reveals should be real aspect of himself.
These components can be measured and on that basis closeness of
relationship may be explored.
PURPOSE OF RELATIONSHIP
The case work relationship is the dynamic interaction of attitudes and
emotions between the case worker and the client, with the purpose of helping the
client achieve a better adjustment between himself and his environment.43 Thus
the purpose of establishing relationship is to help the client with his psycho –
social needs and problems. Other purposes are:
1. Better solution of clients problem
2. Exploitation of means for solving problem,
3. Stating reality and emotional problems.
4. Solution of the personal problem.
5. Development of personality.
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THE PRINCIPLES OF CASE WORK RELATIONSHIP
Biestek44 has described seven principles of case work relationship.
There are
1. Individualization
Individualization is the recognition and understanding of each client’s
unique qualities and the differential use of principles and methods in assisting
each toward a better adjustment. Individualization is based upon the right of
human beings to be individuals and to be treated not just as a human being but as
this human being with his personal differences.
2. Purposeful Expression of feelings
Purposeful expression of feelings is the recognition of the client’s need to
express his feelings freely, especially his negative feelings. The case worker
listens purposefully, neither discouraging nor condemning the expression of
these feelings, sometimes even actively stimulating and encouraging them when
they are therapeutically useful as a part of the case work service.
3. Controlled Emotional Involvement
The controlled emotional involvement is the case worker’s sensitively to
the client’s feelings, an understanding of their meaning, and purposeful,
appropriate response to the client’s feelings.
4. Acceptance
Acceptance is a principle of action where in the case worker perceives
and deals with the client as he really is including his strengths and weakness, his
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congenial and uncongenial qualities his positive and negative feelings, his
constructive and destructive attitudes and behaviour, maintaining all the while a
sense of the client’s innate dignity and personal worth… The purpose of
acceptance is therapeutic; to aid the case worker in understanding the client as he
really is thus making case work more effective, and to help the client free
himself undesirable defenses, so that he feels safe to reveal himself and look at
himself as he really is, and thus to deal with his problem and himself in a more
realistic way.
5. The non- Judgmental attitude
The non- judgmental attitude is a quality of the case work relationship. It
is based on a conviction that the case work function excludes assisting guilt on
innocence, or degree of client responsibility for causation of the problems or
needs, but does include making evaluative judgments about the attitudes,
standards, or action of the client. The attitude which involves both thought and
feelings elements is transmitted to the client.
6. Client self – Determination
The principle of client self – determination is the practical recognition of
the right and need of clients to freedom in making their own choice and
decisions in the work process. Case workers have a corresponding duty to
respect that right recognize that need, stimulate and help to activate that potential
for self direction by helping the client to see and use his own personality. The
client’s right to self – determination, however, is limited by the client’s capacity
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for positive and constructive decision making, by the framework of civil and
moral law, and by the function of eh agency.
7. Confidentially
Confidentially is the preservation of secret information concerning the
client which is disclosed in the professional relationship. Confidentially is based
upon a basic right of the client; it is an ethical obligation of the case worker and
is necessary for effective case work service. The client’s right, however, is not
absolute, Moreover, the client’s secret is often shared with other professional
persons within the agency and in other agencies, the obligation then binds all
equally.
a. Generic Principles
1. The principle of acceptance
2. The principle of communication
3. The principle of individualization
4. The principle of participation
5. The principle of client self – determination
6. The principle of confidentially
7. The principle of case worker self – awareness
1. Differential Principles
1. In a stressful situation, involving a client who presents evidence of
inadequacies in current role functions, whose current mode of adaptation to this
loss seems appropriate (not markedly regressive) and who demonstrated the
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possession of a clear perception of the problems and what may be needed for the
solution – which is an evidence of effective ego functioning – the goal and
techniques of environmental modification and ego support are applicable
2. In a successful situation, involving a client who presents evidence of
inadequacies in current role functions, and whose mode of adoption seems either
(a) appropriate (not markedly regressive) or else, at he other extreme,(b)
markedly inappropriate and regressive, and who demonstrates the possession of
either (a) a clear perception of the problems and what may be needed for their
solution evidence of effective ego – functioning or (b) markedly inaccurate or
distorted perception of the problems evidence of grossly ineffective ego-
functioning- the goals and techniques of environmental modification and ego-
support are applicable.
3. With a diagnosis of relatively strong ego- functioning, of some but not marked
regressive modes of adaptation, and of rather satisfying and effective
performance in key social roles, the case worker may engage himself with
clients in the goal and techniques of clarifying the effects and meaning of the
client’s behaviour.
4. When problems in role fulfillment are based primarily on intraspychic
hindrances and satisfying modes of adaptation and the client’s potential level of
ego- functioning is a high one, the goals and techniques of uncovering the
“forgotten causes” of behaviour are applicable.
SOCIAL CASE WORK PROCESS
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There are three phases of social case work practice: Social investigation or
psycho-social study, diagnosis and treatment or management.
SOCIAL INVESTIGATION (PSYCHO-SOCIAL STUDY)
Nothing happens on this earth without any reason. In other words, every
happening has definite cause. Definite cause does not exist in vaccum rather a
natural phenomenon. It is very interesting to note that today man is just
considered the creature, rather a creator as well. This particular change in the
status of man has tempted him to quench his thirst of knowledge not only about
the natural phenomena but today’s man is much interested to understand human
behaviours in a very scientific and precise way. Social case worker is also
interested in gaining this knowledge for its successful functioning.
Before conceiving the term “Social investigation,” Mary Richmon herself
toyed with such terms as “Social – evidence”, “learned seeking”, “Social
inquiry” and ultimately shifted her choice upon the term “Social investigation.”
Social investigation is the foundation upon which the various helping processes,
actions and treatment techniques are built. For every social work activity,
whether it is at individual level or family level or community and societal level,
the find out the social realities of the clients and their families, to identify the
problem area and to formulate treatment, rehabilitation and aftercare strategies.
It is rightly pointed out by Hamilton that social investigation is a psycho-
social process. It transcends much beyond the assessment of the individual client
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or family. The intra – psychic forces are inseparably linked with social forces.
To understand the individual as psycho – social entity, the analysis of his
relationship with others related with him is equally important.
CONTENTS OF THE SOCIAL INVESTIGATION
Perlman46 has given the following contents of the case work study in the
beginning phase:
1. The nature of the presenting problem,
2. The significance of this problem
3. The causes(s), onset and precipitants of the problem,
4. The efforts made to cope with problem- solving,
5. The nature of the solution or ends sought from the case work agency,
6. The actual nature of this agency and its problem solving means in
relation to the client and his problem.
Social case worker attempts to investigate the following facts:
1. Picture of the problem
He tries to know major complaints, beginning of the problems, the nature
of the problem, severity of the problem, implications of the problem, location of
the problem, causation of the problem, scope of the problem (who are other
affected persons) etc.
2. Client’s Feelings and Reactions
Case worker attempts to find out the attitude of the client towards his
problem, the analysis and interpretation made by him about his problem, the
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relationship between client and problem, capacities, competencies and
weaknesses of the client.
3. Client’s Efforts to Solve Problems
Social case worker acquires knowledge about the efforts made by the
client to deal with his problems, the help taken so far, help taking organization
and agencies, effects of help, client’s evaluation towards these help receiving
agencies, and the time spent in these agencies.
4. Social Conditions
He investigates the clear picture of family, its environment, and its impact
on the client. He also gains knowledge of schools and its effect on client. Apart
from these social agencies, he makes attempts to know the impact of neighbor,
working place and religious, economic and political institutions.
5. Psycho-social Development of the Client
In this area, the case worker gets information about the pre- and post-natal
care of the client, his early development, childhood, schooling, socialization
patterns, home environment, marital history, occupational history, habits,
relationship with others.
6. Personality of the client
For the proper diagnosis, the case worker gives much emphasis to gather
information regarding personality characteristics of the client i.e., knowledge,
feelings, wishes temperament, ego-strength, sensitivity, adaptability,
communication patterns, cooperation, sympathy, tolerance, responsibility,
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expression of emotions, devotion to work, motivational state, and level of
aspirations and weakness in his personality.
THE TECHNIQUES OF SOCIAL INVESTIGATION
There are two fundamental techniques of social investigations, i.e, (i) Interview
and (ii) Observation.
The process of social investigation is initiated and carried through by the
process of interview. Professional skill in this area requires not only theoretical
knowledge about the psychology of human behaviour but also considerable case
work experience in which the worker’s technique is repeatedly analysed. The
interview is used for securing information about the clients as well as his
problems including his relationship with other persons in his social and personal
environment. Through the interview situation, the case worker attempts to
inst4rcut and give both the client and others who play significant roles in his life
and attempts to manipulate the environment for the benefit of the client.
Observation is always coupled with interviewing. It makes possible to
record the behaviour of the client as it occurs. It yields clues as to the
pathological patterns of communication, pathogenic relation and defective role
playing and polarization of power and authority among the family members who
are of ehological significance.
Tools of Social Investigation
The following tools are used by social case worker in collecting the
relevant information for diagnosis and treatment:
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1. Interview guide and schedule
2. Life chart
3. Video recording of family interaction
4. Tape recorded interview
Format of Interview Guide/Schedule
I. History of Problem
1. Major complaints( Problems)
2. History of the problems
3. Treatment or helps taken so far.
II. Personal History
1. Early development
2. Process of socialization
3. Coping patterns of day-to-day stress
4. Schooling – likes, dislikes difficulties, academic achievement, extra –
curricular activities, model teachers’ behaviour, significant incidence.
5. Marital History –age at marriage, willingness for marriage, types of
marriage, consanguinity, age of the spouse, personality of the spouse,
expectations from marriage, relationship and compatibility with the
spouse, with the in- laws and the offspring, sexual gratification, birth of
the first child and its impact on the marital life.
Difficulties in communication, role playing, interaction, reinforcement, stress
managing patterns and social support system.
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Habits:
i. Drinking, gambling, smoking, addictions, etc.
ii. Reading, creative activities, music, writing, painting, etc.
iii. Social habits.
6. Occupational History: When and why started working, job satisfaction
in every work, relationship with the supervisors and colleagues,
promotion work environment, reasons of changing occupation/job.
7. Income: Income per month, level of satisfaction, needs and income,
spouse’s attitude towards your income earning, capacity, debt, other
problems.
8. Sex experience: Sexual perversion if any, failure in love, its effects, etc.
III. Family History
1. Family structure
2. Economic status in community
3. Educational History
4. Occupational History
5. Marital History
6. Ethical and moral standards
7. Family Habits
8. Personality Patterns
9. Interaction Patterns
10. Patterns of decision making
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11. Existing role structure in family
12. Patterns of managing problem
13. Social support system
14. Interaction of the family members with the client.
IV. Analysis and Social Diagnosis: Problematic Areas
V. Treatment Plan
SOCIAL DIAGNOSIS
Diagnosis like treatment begins with the first glance between the help giver and
help seeker.47 Social diagnosis is the attempt to arrive at an exact definition as
possible of the social situation and personality of a given client.48 It is a search
for the causes of the problem which brings the client to the worker for help.
Diagnosis is (i) an explanation formulated in the light of known facts ( both
tangible fact items and psychological fact items); (ii) an explanation made in the
knowledge of the other possible explanations; and (iii) subject to change or
revision whenever subsequent material warrants a different explanation.49
Diagnosis is, therefore, concerned with understanding both psychological or
personality factors which bear a casual relation to the client’s difficulty and the
social or environmental factors which tend to sustain it.50 The diagnostic process
consists of a critical scrutiny of a client – situation complex and the trouble
concerning which help is sought or needed for the purpose of understanding the
nature of the difficulty with increasing detail and accuracy.51
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Content of the Social Diagnosis
The content of the case work diagnosis falls into the triangular pattern. It
consists of
1. The nature of the problem brought and the goals sought by the client, in
their relationship to;
2. The nature of the person who bears the problem (his social and
psychological situation and functioning) and who seeks (or needs) help
with his problem, in relation to ;
3. The nature and purpose of the agency and the kind of help it can offer and
/ or make available.52
The Process of Making Diagnosis
A diagnosis has been broken up into a number of stages: gathering the
data, the diagnostic study, the diagnosis itself or the evaluation, and the
diagnostic product.
Gathering Data
Data are gathered of the interview of the client, reports agency’s records
reports, from other members of the team, other agencies, schools, relatives.
Home visit is also an important source of data collection. The accuracy of data
depends on worker’s skill of interviewing, individualization, acceptance,
communication and involvement.
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Diagnostic Study
The study attempt to identify the problem areas which are important for
social case work involvement.
Diagnosis or Evaluation
This means finding the nature of the problem, its organization and extent
and who is going to be affected. Factors responsible for the problem may be one
or more than one of the following:
i. Physical – Physical illness or disability, how the sufferer feels, how his
family and others feel. Effect of physical illness – dependent, tired,
irritable, depressed, self image lowering, distort relationship, disrupt
communication.
ii. Psychological – The assessment is made of the quality of libidinal
relationship, dependency, narcissistic tendencies, sexual identification,
quality of aggressiveness, channelization of aggressiveness, native of
super ego, consistency of ego and super ego, reality perception, self
analysis, self-criticism, judgment, defense used, degree used, degree of
discomfort the problem causes him, the nature of desire to change it, the
effect that change may have upon other members.
iii. Social – The following facets of social environment generally come
within the diagnosis:
1. Income level – High, low, consistent, uncertain, effect on the present
problem.
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2. Housing – Loan taken, rented, adjustment with landlord/tenant,
overcrowding, basic facilities lacking/sufficient.
3. Neighborhood – Tolerant/intolerant/supportive/conflict, views toward client
etc.
4. Employment – Job availability, prospects, remuneration, level, security,
status, condition of work, job satisfaction.
5. Religion – Beliefs in values, offering support – consolation, expressive
outlets, sublimation, reinforcing problems – guilt, tension.
6. Availability/quality/attitude and attitudes (client) to social organization and
services : medical facilities, courts, credit organization, legal advice centres,
Post – Office, social security.
7. Prejudice, tension etc.
8. Educational problems.
Diagnostic Product
After identification of the problem areas and the factors relating to them,
the attempts are made towards possible solution. But before determining solution
we need to think about the potential contribution to solutions of the client,
others, the agency and the worker. The client’s work ability (capacity and
motivation) is the base for further determining the treatment techniques and
procedures. Perlman53 discuses this capacity under three headings:
Emotional – Ability to relate others, ability to feel, experiencing,
contacting, etc.
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Social Intelligence Capacity - Perceptivity, attention, communication,
self- management technology, management of situations.
Physical capacity – How much the client has left over work on problem
solving.
Types of Diagnosis
Perlman 54 has described three types of diagnosis that is carried on in
social case work process. These are : dynamic diagnosis, clinical diagnosis and
etiological diagnosis.
1.Dynamic Diagnosis
Dynamic diagnosis gives an understanding of the current problem of the
client and the forces currently operating within the client, within social
environment and between him/his environment. It gives the answers of the
question – what is the trouble?, What psychological, physical and social factors
are contributing to it?, What solution is sought? What are the means available
within the client, his environment? What are organized services and resources by
which the problem may be affected? The nature of such diagnosis is changeable
because it is the beginning phase of social case work practice.
2.Clinical Diagnosis
Under clinical diagnosis, the case worker attempts to classify the client by
the nature of his sickness/problem. He identifies certain forms and qualities of
client’s personality maladaptation and malfunctioning in his behaviour. The
clinical diagnosis describes both the nature of the problem and its relation to the
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client and the helping means and goals. Such type of diagnosis is useful only
when it becomes apparent that a disorder of personality accompanies the social
disorder, creating and complicating it.
3.Etiological Diagnosis
Etiological diagnosis is concerned with the explanation of the beginnings
and life-history of problem of the client, basically that problem that lies in the
client’s personality make up or functioning. The history of his development as a
problem encountering, problem-solving human being may provide the case
worker with an understanding of what his client suffers from and what the
extend of his coping ability is like to be.55 Etiological diagnosis is more useful in
explaining or rigid reactions. When in spite of the fact that the client’s present
problems are in the centre of attention, the clients responses are not in
accordance with, the past history and its appraisal in the light of client’s current
capacities goals and problems are used for the treatment. This type of diagnosis
contributes to understanding the nature of the problem to be dealt with, the
person who has the problem, and the ways and means can be anticipated as
helpful.
Date for Diagnosis
The data for diagnosis can be collected by at lease three primary means:
1.Interviews
Interview guides are used for collecting information. There are a number
of standard guides prepared by psychologists but most recent guide is of
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Goldfried and Davison56 having the categories of information: Client’s
behaviour during the interview and physical description; presenting problem(s)
(nature of problems, historical setting, events, current situation determinants,
relevant organizmic variables, dimensions of the problem, consequences of the
problem): targets for modification; recommended treatment(s), motivation for
treatment; prognosis; priority for treatment; client expectations; other
information, comments, or observations.
2.Checklists and Inventories
The following inventories may be used: The Fear Survey Schedule (of
Wolpe)57, questionnaire on client’s perception of himself (Goldstein)58, family
functioning (Stuart and Stourt)59 marital functioning (Knox), sexual functioning
(Annon) and instruments for assessing environments (Moos).
3.Direct Observation
Observation in those situation in which the behavior actually occurs, e.g.,
home or place of work makes the work of diagnosing very easy.
Steps in Diagnosis
The following steps are taken while diagnosing a problem:
1. The worker begins to focus on problematic behaviors. He begins with the
survey of both functional and dysfunctional behaviors in his environment.
He classifies the various complaints and problems in terms of excesses
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and deficits. He evaluates client’s personal strength as well as of his
environment.
2. He specifies the target behaviors. This involves an attempt of breaking
down complex behaviors into their component parts, being as clear and
precise as possible about them.
3. Baseline date are collected to specify those events that appear to be
currently controlling the problematic behaviors.
4. The collected information is summarized in an attempt to anticipate any
and major problem in treatment and as a way of beginning to establish
objectives for treatment.
5. Selecting priorities for treatment as the final step of the diagnosis.
Concentration on one problem at one time makes treatment process more
manageable and allows both client and worker to channel their energies
into one area. It is the best of handling and proper use of available
resources.
SOCIAL TREATMENT
Social case work consists of those processes which develop personality
through adjustments consciously affected ----------between men and their social
environment.60 Generally, two types of efforts are required for social adjustment
– environmental modification and /or change in behavior and attitudes. Early
case work treatment was placed on modification through the environment. Later
on the development of ego psychology helped social case workers to use
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intensive and direct treatment techniques. Now the aim of social case work
treatment is to restore the individual to social functioning or to help him develop
this capacity in order that he may achieve at one and at the same time his own
and society’s betterment.61
According to Hamilton, treatment is the sum total of all activities and
services directed towards helping an individual with a problem. The focus is the
relieving of the immediate problem and, if feasible, modify any basic difficulties
which precipitated it.62
The objectives of social case work treatment are as follows:
1. To prevent social breakdown;
2. To conserve client’s strength;
3. To restore social functioning;
4. To provide happy experiences to the client;
5. To create opportunities for growth and development;
6. To Compensate psychological damage;
7. To increase capacity for self – direction;
8. To increase his social contribution.
Thus the objective of social case work treatment is to alleviate the client’s
distress and decrease the malfunctioning in the person- situation system. It is to
enhance the client’s comfort, satisfaction, and self – realization. This may
require enhancing the adaptive skills of his ego and the functioning of the
person- situation system.63
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Social Case Work Treatment Process
Social case work treatment process begins with the initial contact with the
client. The process of treatment passes through many phases, i.e.,(i) Initial
phase, (ii) Motivation and role induction, (iii) primary contract, (iv) diagnosis
and assessment, (v) establishing treatment goals, (vi) developing treatment plan,
(vii) preparation for actual treatment, (viii) treatment in practice (ix) monitoring
and evaluating the effects of treatment, and (x) planning of follow-up
termination of therapeutic relationship.
I.Initial Phase
The main task of social case worker in the initial phase is to examine how
the problem was brought to his attention. He would attempt to focus on various
aspects of the problem that seem fit to case work treatment. Here the decisions
of the worker are tentative. The initial phase of social case work treatment will
be thought to be completed when the case worker meets the following
conditions.
1. The issues have been sufficiently identified so as to substantiate that they
are appropriate to the purposes and goals of the service.
2. The participants understand the nature and meaning of the problem with
enough explicitness to permit engagement and participation.
3. The problem is appropriate to the programme, resources, and services of
the setting.
4. The problem fits the practitioner’s skill and capabilities.64
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Social case worker develops a preliminary understanding of the problem and
of the client. He also provides psychological support and help to the client and
engages him in a therapeutic relationship. It is quite possible that through this
initial process of treatment, client may learn that he really does not need further
help as the problem has been sufficiently clarified and explained. It is also
possible that the agency may not have concrete service to the client and the case
worker may become bound to refer the case to the particular agency. If the case
is to be continued with the case worker, he takes a decision whether to move
system oriented treatment or towards person centered treatment.
II. Motivation and Role Induction
One of the most important tasks of social case worker at the beginning of
the treatment process is to build and develop the therapeutic relationship
between himself and the client. Workers’s empathy, warmth and genuineness
feelings are high motivating force for the client to take part in the therapeutic
process. The objective of this phase is to the minimizing of premature
terminations and enhance motivation to continue the treatment. At this phase the
worker find the resistances of the client, and its genuineness. He explores
client’s perception of why he is involved in the treatment and how he feels about
being in the agency. He also encourages the client to specify his expectations of
treatment and feelings about seeking help. He attempts to clarify the roles and
responsibilities of both himself and the client. He also clarifies about the type of
services agency can offer and extends the boundaries to those services. These
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activities and role of social case worker help to engage the client in therapeutic
planning.
III. Primary Contract
The objective of this phase is to develop a preliminary contract with the
client. This contract may be oral or in writing. The case worker thus by making
psychological contract (relationship) sets the stage to move towards more formal
assessment.
IV. Diagnosis and Assessment
Diagnosis and assessment process are ongoing throughout the entire
treatment. Social case worker provides detailed information about the problem
situation that will help in establishing the treatment goal, a strategy of treatment
and selection of specific procedures of treatment. The case worker assesses the
client’s ego strength, skillfulness, capabilities and capacities in relation to his
problem. He classifies the excesses and the deficiencies in his behavior, and
selects the specific treatment procedures to be used to overcome the problem. He
assesses whether the client needs advice, counseling, behavior modification,
crisis intervention or consultancy services like teaching, consultation,
interpretation, supervision or provision of adult services i.e., material help,
resource location and referral.
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V. Establishing Treatment Goals
Social case worker after diagnosis and assessment of the problems of the
client establishes goals for the solution of the problem. He selects any one or
more goals of the following: (i) prevention of breakdown, (ii) ego strengthening,
(iii) restoration of social functioning, (iv)creation of opportunities for growth
and development, (v) self-direction experience, (vi) social participation
experience, (vii) change in the environment. Social case worker along with this
work, points out the negative and positive result that may come out due to
change in the behavior patterns of the client or due to environmental
manipulation. Though the client has the major say in deciding on goals the case
worker plays an important role by clarifying a variety of alternative goals for his
consideration.
Developing Treatment Plan
Treatment planning involves three major dimensions: formulating of a
strategy, selection of specific treatment procedures and developing a method for
evaluating the impact of the treatment programme. Social case worker decides
whether the primary thrust of the invention or treatment will be system –
centered, person – centered or both. He, then, makes a judgment as to which of
the key roles of case worker are most suited to the particular problem. The entire
process of formulating a treatment strategy may be depicted as.
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Preparation for Actual Treatment
Preparation for actual treatment phase involves several specific steps such
as collecting all possible information, formation of action system, preparation of
mediator (s) if needed, change of significant elements in the client’s environment
to increase the probability of getting desired result, make an attempt to make the
new behaviour acceptable to the client and to provide high level of close
relationship with the client.
Application of Treatment Methods
In order to achieve the goals set by the case worker, conventionally the
following method of social treatment have been mentioned
1. Administration of practical service
2. Indirect treatment (environmental manipulation)
3. Direct treatment.
1. Administration
The client is extended help to choose and use the social resources
afforded by the community. Porter Lee66 was the first social worker. Who
emphasized and classified such resources into executive and leadership.
Administration of practical service means to help the client in such a way that he
could select and use the resource available in the community. Social case
worker, helps he client for an adequate knowledge of available resources through
the techniques of discussion information. Clarification and direction. The use of
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services is essential to solve any kind of problem and if the problem is of social
nature, then it becomes more essential for the worker to help the client in this
direction. These services take the form of treatment as they satisfy his needs and
give satisfaction. The client knows the type of services he need but he does not
know how to reach these services. It is the job of case worker to take the client to
the resources. Money, medical care, nursery schools, scholarships, foster homes,
legal aid, recreational facilities, etc., are such type of services that any person
may nee in order to resolve a given problem in his daily living.
Indirect Treatment (Environmental Manipulation)
Environmental manipulation means to bring change in the social
conditions of the client so that he may be relived from excessive stresses and
strains. The case worker suggests as to what steps may or may not help the client
to cope better with hi problems. He plans with him a to his emotional,
professional and recreational activities. He gives an appropriate advice to
members of his environment and modifies their attitudes favorably. Through
interview is used in this method but the man emphasis is laid to change in his
conditions. When social resources and systematized social conditions are used as
main sources for the solution of the problem, it becomes social treatment. Home
services, camps, group experience activities, training and employment for
livelihood and other activities of adjust mental nature are such type of
programmes. The purpose of such activities is always to minimize the load of
tension in the client.
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Social case worker organizes such type of activities through which the
client’s experiences help in his personality growth and adjustment in the society.
Through practical services are also made available but eh focus is always on
change in conditions. Attempts are also make to change and modify the attitude
of parents, teaches, spouse, employer, friends and relatives in accordance with
the needs of the client.
In general, environmental modification (manipulation) is undertaken by
the case worker only when environmental pressures upon the client are beyond
the latter’s control but can be modified by the case worker. 67
3. Direct Treatment
Perlman sees direct treatment a the provision of a systematic but flexible
way in which the client can work over his problem, his relation to it and possible
solutions. Here case worker exerts his influence directly on the client. Direct
treatment techniques are used where the clients needs direction because of his
ignorance, anxiety, and weaken of his ego strengths. The degree of influence, the
case worker I able to exert, may depend on the relationship between himself and
the client.
Direct treatment is given through counseling, therapeutic interviewing,
clarification and interpretation leading to an insight. Supportive treatment for the
direct benefit of the client I provided through guidance, externalization of
interests, re – assurance suggestion, persuasion and advice.
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Counseling: is a personal help directed toward the solution of a problem which
a person finds that he cannot solve himself and on which he, therefore, seeks the
help of a skilled person whose knowledge, experience and general orientation
can be brought into play in an attempt to solve the problem. It is a psychological
help in which information and clarification are used for making the client aware
about the problem. It is always used for some particular purpose like marriage
counseling, occupational counseling, family counseling, school counseling, etc.
Therapeutic Interviewing: Therapeutic interviewing is used where intra –
psychic conflict is projected to the environmental or neuroses or behaviour
disorders are acted out. The purpose of such interviewing is that of
psychotherapy which aims towards personality growth in the direction of
maturing, competence and self – actualization. For the analysis of the
unconscious, social case worker applies the techniques of free association, dream
interpretation, analysis of resistance and transference. For behaviour
modification, social case worker makes use of the techniques of positive
enforcement, negative enforcement, positive punishment, negative punishment,
systematic desensitization and covert desensitization.
Sometimes faulty communication, faulty interaction play basic role in
developing maladaptive behaviour. For the improvement case interpersonal
relations an correct communication social case worker practices martial and
family therapy techniques and transactional analysis.
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Clarification: it is also a kind of counseling through which clarification of
clients himself, his environment and the public with whom he is associated is
made. Social case worker gives such an understanding to the client that he
becomes capable of understanding himself, his environment and his social
network. Clarification my consist of giving the client information about the
environment or people in the environment, which he does not posses and without
which he cannot see clearly what steps he ought to take. 68
Interpretation and Insight
Sometimes conflicting feelings and strong emotions lead the individual to
distort reality so seriously or react to it so inappropriately that understanding is
impossible without the deeper perception. Social case worker interprets the
factors of the problem, related fact, attitude of client and unconscious feelings in
relation to the reality situation. He helps the client to an awareness of his strong
projection of his inner needs and his subjective responses upon the outer world.
69 Insight development is always accompanied by some degree of clarification
and psychological support.
Psychological Support:
Psychological support is useful in decreasing tension and guilt, increasing
self – confidence, encouraging healthy functioning or a way of functioning that
maintains the client’s equilibrium and in helping him to build up compensatory
strengths and satisfaction. 70 The following help is provided to the client. He I
encouraged to express his feelings. Case worker accepts him and his feelings,
42
and shows keen interest in him. He clarifies the problem and encourages him to
take his own decision. Social case worker, though psychological support does
not develop understanding in the client but applies reinforcement for his ego
strength through the technique of guidance, reassurance, suggestion, persuasion
and advice.
Monitoring and Evaluation
Monitoring provides the crucial feedback to case worker and the client
regarding whether the treatment programme is succeeding a desired, whether
established goals have been achieved, whether modifications in the programme
are necessary and whether the client is being helped in real sense. Social case
worker evaluates the content of the programme and its effectiveness inner
strength gained by the client and success of himself in helping the client.
Planning Follow – Up And The Termination Of Therapeutic Relationship
It is neither wise nor necessary for the termination to be an abrupt one.
The frequency and amount of contacts should be gradually decreased.
Particularly, the follow- up should be planned on a progressively demising basis,
first, perhaps alter two weeks, then a month hence then three months, six month
and a year following the termination of the formal programme.71
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BASIC CONCEPTS OF SOCIAL CASE WORK
The goal of social case work is to solve client’s problems by developing
his capacities and capabilities so that he may realize satisfaction and happiness.
To achieve this goal, case worker studies social and psychological conditions of
each client. The problems generally arise when an individual fails to fulfill his
role in a particular situation or hi ego is not performing its obligations
satisfactory. Both the situation make the process of adaptation difficult for the
individual. Thus, the case worker studies social roles of the clients’ adaptation
level and ego functioning to put clear diagnosis for proper treatment. These
concepts, are discussed here.
THE CONCEPT OF SOCIAL ROLE
The term role is used to designate the sum total of the cultural patterns
associated with a particular status. It thus includes the attitudes, values and
behaviour ascribed by the society to any and all persons occupying this status…
in so far as it represents overt behaviour.
A person’s role is a pattern or type of social behavior which seems
situationally appropriate to him in terms of the demands and expectations of
those in his group. When a number of interrelated behavioural patterns are
clustered around a function, we call this combination a social role.
Social rolemay be defined as the institutional group expectation as to
behaviour, attitudes and other attributes for the occupant of a given position in a
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social system. 75 Every society is composed of familial, educational, economic,
political, religious, etc, institutions of ensure the adequate development of each
and every member of society. the ensue proper and continuous functioning of
these institutions every individual is assigned to fulfill certain obligation.
Expectations vary according to the position the individual occupies in a family, a
work situation, in a school or in other institutions. Expectation are also being
changed according to the changing social system. Normally balance is
maintained between the changing expectation of the society an the changing
values and capacities of an individual.
When there are period of sharp transition either in individual’s life cycle
as he enters in another role expectations, or modification and sudden changes
happen in the social system, a critical imbalance develop between person –
social equilibrium. In such a situation he is bewildered and confused in
understanding his role. If he find position and status in society otherwise he will
no longer enjoy the same position is the social system. And because of lowering
of social position, he suffer from stresses and strains. When this kind of problem
occurs social work may provide services which enable the person to reassume
productive membership in the institutionalized group of his society. 76
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BEHAVIOUR AND SOCIAL ROLE
The person’ ‘being and becoming’ bahviour is both shaped and judged
by the expectations he and his culture have invested in the status and the major
social roles he carries. Every person occupies some position or status in a
society. he has status in lieu of certain major functions which he fulfils. Every
status is associated with certain expectations. For example, a man in the role of
further is supposed to act in a certain way toward his children, a women in the
role of wife to behave in certain ways towards her husband. Such types of
behaviour in the form of roles an individual learns through the process of
socialization. In the social transaction if he fails to perform his roles as expected,
he feels shy and shame, mental stress and strains.
ROLE CONFLICT
In complex society the individual needs high level of adaptability to
fulfill the numerous roles. He is supposed to perform different type of roles
every day. He may feel difficulty in doing so because of the lack of training or
knowledge or skill and thus conflict occurs within the person himself. On other
occasions conflict occurs when there is refusal or inability to conform to the
expectation inherent in status and role. Conflict may also arise when a person
has not adequate opportunity to learn the roles. Sudden new situations also bring
conflict in the performance of the roles.
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When a person’s feelings and ideal of himself are compatible with each
other and with the social reality, and when he is clear about permissions and
obligations, his role is a source of gratification and of expansion of his
personality. 7 If he feels satisfaction in performing a major role as of father/
mother/ husband, it becomes possible for him to learn or struggle with
frustration in other aspects of his life. But when he fails or feels disturbance and
barriers in the social outlets, some degree of frustration is experienced by him
resulting in self – devaluation.
CONCEPT OF SOCIAL ROLE TO SOCIAL CASE WORK PRACTICE
The person who is in trouble approaches the social case work agency for
help. He needs help because he is unable to carry on one or more of his roles
with satisfaction. This maladjustment or be either because as to what,
realistically, the role’s requirements are, its firm requisites, and the range of
variations permissible within it. Then, within this objective frame of reference,
the individual client’s behaviour must be viewed and assessed as to the nature of
the maladaptation whether it stems from conflict between what he wants and
what he can be or between what he wants and what he must be, from some
unrealistic interpretation of what his role embraces, from some lack of
preparation to engage in the necessary behaviours, or from the loss of external
supports. 78
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THE CONCEPT OF EGO
The forces of the human personality are combined in three major
functions: (1) the life emerges that seek satisfactory outlets;(2) the check system,
automatic or voluntary, that halts, modifies, or rechannels those drives to make
their ends acceptable to their owner and his environment; and (3) the organizing
and governing operations that control the negotiations and balance within the
person himself, as between himself and his physical and social environment the
names Freud gave to these are the ‘Id’, ego’, the super – ego.
Ego is the sum total of the integrating efforts of the personality, the sum
total of all the mechanisms of dealing with conflicts. The functions of ego are
four fold; perception of internal subjective wants and needs; perception of
external and relevant reality demands and opportunities, integration mediation
operations between the two sets of perception towards selection an choosing of
means for gratification by the ‘reality principle’, planning and/ or management
of conscious, voluntary behaviour. From the very beginning of birth to the
moment of death every human being is continuously engaged in problem –
solving work in order to maintain hi stability, and effectiveness to achieve higher
status in society. that process of ego functioning by which a person perceives
inner or outer reality, reads it mean, an variously adapts, defends, protects,
copes, accommodates, treats, renounces, compromises, chooses, grapples and
engages himself with his reality that process is the way by which a person feels
with his encountered problems, whether those problems are in the nature of
48
pleasure to be gained or unpleasantness to be avoided. 80 Ego qualities are many;
among them are abilities of perception (accurate/ distorted), judgment (rational/
irrational, considered/hasty), reality testing (working at things as they are, or,
resorting to fantasy), self – image (realistic, inflated / denigrated), impulse
control (too little, too much), and executants ability ( can they do things organize
themselves to achieve, persist). In persons with ‘weak’ or under – developed
ego, these functions may not be fulfilled satisfactorily and the person may feel
incapability in problem solving. The job of the case worker is to deal whose ego
functions either are undeveloped or are under the excessive anxiety, strains and
conflict.
The problem under great stress and strains due to failure of ego –
functioning uses defense mechanisms consciously or unconsciously to protect
the ego. These defenses may be rational or irrational. Irrational defenses are
unstable techniques for adjustment as they create more problem. Social case
worker analyses other defences and tries to know how the client perceives his
current situation, utilizes knowledge gained in past experiences and how he tries
to solve his problems. He thus, by studying functioning of the ego, obtains the
knowledge of client’ inner strength, thought process and perceptional insight. On
the basis of this knowledge he prepares plan for his treatment or help.
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THE CONCEPT OF ADAPTATION
When a person faces new adjective demand he receives it in the form of
particular problem based on its similarities to and differences from previous
ones. If he faces a stress situation for which existing categories are inadequate,
he is forced to examine it as a unique situation and tries to discern its key
dimensions. If the individual evaluates the stress situation as non – threatening
or only mildly menacing, he is likely to deal with it in terms of old patterns that
require little thought or effort. On the other hand, if he anxiety and to interrupt
other ongoing activities and focus on coping with it. The individual’s threat
appraisal may be in error. He may perceive danger where none exists, fails to
perceive it where it does exist or exaggerate, or minimize the threat.
If he feels competent to handle a stress situation, his behaviour tends to be
task oriented i.e., aimed primarily at dealing with the requirements of the
adjustive demand. He offers the bet channel for using and coordinating resources
in constructive action, but if he faces severe stress and feels incapable of meeting
the demand he uses mechanism such as denial of reality, fantasy, repression,
rationalization, projection, reaction formation, displacement, withdrawal, etc.
thus its is quite clear that adaptation to stressful situation is made basically on
three different levels:
1. Use of well known practiced method of adaptation.
2. Simple defensive mechanism like pairing, flight, withdrawal, etc.
3. Destructive defenses like severe regression, severe withdrawal, adathy,
and other mental disorders symptoms.
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The first level of adaptation gives satisfaction and new energy to the
person but others two are harmful for he proper growth an development.
In a stressful situation, involving a client who presents evidence of
inadequacies in current role functions, and whose mode of adaptation seems
either (a) appropriate (not markedly regressive), or else, at the other extreme. (b)
markedly inappropriate and regressive, and who demonstrates the possession of
either (a) a clear perception of the problems and what may be needs for their
solution – evidence of effective ego functioning or (b) markedly inaccurate or
distorted perception of the problems - evidence of grossly ineffective ego
functioning, the goals and techniques of environmental modification and ego
support are applicable. 81 With a diagnosis of relatively strong ego functioning,
of some but not marked regressive modes of adaptation, and of rather satisfying
and effective performance in key social roles, the case worker may engage with
clients in the goals and techniques of clarifying the effects and meaning of the
client’ behavious. 82
DIAGNOSTIC AND FUNCTIONAL SCHOOLS OF SOCIAL CASE
WORK
The diagnostic school is basically founded on the Frudian Theory of
Psycho - analysis. The credit for giving shape to these thoughts in the form of a
school goes to Mary Richmond who wrote a first book on social case work i.e.,
“Social Diagnosis’ in 1917. however, the approach changed drastically as it wa
51
influenced by the happening of the world and growth of personality and social
therapy.
The contributors of this school were Marion Kenworthy (New York
School of Social work). Betsey Libbey ( Family Society of Philadelphia),
Gordon Hamilton, a teacher and writer, others were Bertha Reynolds, Charlotte
Towle, Florence Day, Lucille Austin, and Annette Garrett who contributed by
their writings and practices.
The Diagnostic School is based on the following main foundations.
1. Principles of Diagnosis
Social case work help is based on the understanding of each client
individually and his problem. It is essential because it gives a realistic basis for
differentiation and gives a base for the improvement of the client’s social
situation and personal satisfaction and adjustment. In 1922 Marry Richmond 83
pointed out that the case work involved two types of insights, one into the
individually and another into the social environment, and two types of action,
one through direct action of mind upon mind and another through indirect action
in the social environment. The diagnosis is based on the following principles:
1. The diagnostic process consists of a critical scrutiny of a client situation
complex and the trouble concerning which help is sought or needed for
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the purpose of understanding the nature of the difficulty with increasing
details and accuracy.
2. Diagnosis is based on the knowledge of the worker about the interplay of
social and psychological factors effecting the clients
3. The knowledge of interaction between inner and outer forces influencing
the client makes the process of diagnosis helpful and therapeutic.
4. Every problem of the individual should be understood in the light of
multiple factors theory.
5. In the initial stage also, relieving of pressure of stresses and strains on the
client, helps the case worker to arrive at a proper diagnosis.
6. The initial appraisal of personality and motivations and their significance
in the development of client’s problem, provides the basis for planning
the treatment of the client’s problem.
7. For the solution of the problem of the client, it is of utmost importance to
gain some knowledge of his current capacity to work and to recognize the
motivating forces in his behaviour
8. The understanding of the psycho – dynamics and the pathological
symptoms of the personality of the client provides the basis of
determining the kind of help that can be appropriately offered.
2. Principles of Treatment
The main objective of the treatment is of alleviating the client’s distress
and decreasing the malfunctioning in the person – situation system. The above
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objective is achieved by enhancing the adaptive skills of his ego and functioning
of the person – situation system. It is based on certain principles:
1. The focus of the discussion in the interview is centered on the problem
and ways of resolving it attention is paid to know the obstacles (both
situational and behavioral) that stand in the way of solution.
2. Nature and extent of both the social and psychological factors differ in
each situation, treatment goals and techniques are planned after the
careful study of the particular need of the client.
3. The success of the treatment programme is based on the utilization of the
relationship purposefully.
4. Change in the client is brought largely through a correctional emotional
experience in the relationship an through stimulating growth experiences
in the social reality.
5. Social therapy and psycho – therapy are the two broad classifications of
social case work treatment
3. Use of Techniques
The treatment objectives determine the use of techniques. They include,
within the framework of relationship, encouraging, emotional, discharge,
reassurance, support, suggestion guidance and direction, provision of new
experiences, clarification interpretation, and so forth.84
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4. Use of Relationship
The relationship is the medium of treatment through which client is
enabled to find new ways to perceiving his problems and of handling himself. It
gives the client a sense of being listened, being given importance. The case
worker’s understanding of the dynamics of the relationship makes it possible to
provide some gratification, protection, an guidance to the client when his ego
need support, and at the same time to help the client marshal strength to meet his
life situation. 85
FUNCTIONAL SCHOOL
The ‘functional approach’ to social work practice was developed by the
faculty members of the School of Social Work of the University of Pennylvania.
This approach is based on the personality theory of Otto Rank. According to
Functional School social case work is a method for engaging a client through a
relationship process, essentially one to one, in the use of a social service toward
his own and the general social welfare. 86 Function case work is a method of
helping people through special services given by social agencies, in such a way
that the constructive. 87 Thus the functional approach of social case work has two
inseparable aspects,
1. Potentials for help to a person is inherent in the existence of service. In
spite of the differences in the clients, an ways of using of agency’s
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services, the kind of service an agency gives and its purpose remain the
same.
2. The use of agency services gives psychological experience that differs
from the form of another kind of service regardless of the similarity of
problem in the people using the two services.
Diagnosis
That diagnosis is most effective which is related to the use of some
specific service an which is developed in the course of giving the service. This
school does not recognize the significance to understand total situation of the
client. The worker bring his own understanding through a process of
professional education and experience.
Functional diagnosis recognizes that people cannot be categorized and a
plan with a specific kind of service or plan on the basis of firm diagnosis by
category of clients, may deny potential growth and change. In establishing a
diagnosis each individual makes his own diagnosis of himself and revises that
diagnosis, as he in fact becomes different. Diagnosis is a way of engaging in a
human relationship process which frees the help seeker to determine his own
goal for himself. He himself is the cantre for change capable of continuous
growth and development.
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Treatment
Functional School
A patient’s transference to the analyst is only that part of the patient’s
reaction to the analyst which repeats the patient’s reactions to a person who has,
at some previous time, played an important role in the patient’ life.93
When a patient recounts free associations, he soon speaks of events or
fanatics of vital interest to himself, and when these are told, the listener is
gradually invested with some of the emotions which accompany them. The
patient gradually begins to feel that the sympathetic listener is loved or hated, a
friend or an enemy, one who is nice to him or one who frustrates his needs and
punishes him. The feelings toward the listener becomes more and more like
those felt toward the specific people the patient is talking about, or, more
exactly, those his unconscious “is talking about”. This special of object
displacement during psycho – analysis is called transference. 94
TRANSFERENCE IN SOCIAL WORK
‘Transfer’ was introduced into social work literature by Jessie Taft in
1924 who described it as “an emotional relationship to the client”. Hamilton
defines transference as a carrying over of irrational elements from other,
relationships, particularly in the past, displaced on to the social worker,
reflecting unconscious motivation. 96 All relationships are based on previous
experiences with people however, the psycho – analytic term ‘ transference’
refereeing to specific irrational responses of the client to the worker, as though
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the worker was some person in the client’s previous experience, is frequently
used to refer any positive or negative feelings of the client for the worker. In this
sense, the therapeutic relationships would be viewed as a transference
relationship, as opposed to a real relationship, thus permitting the worker to
insulate himself or herself from any true reactions and personally meaningful
interactions with the client. 97 A from a home where his father was an arrogant
and domineering person. As a man the client has never been able to get along
with his boss or any other figure of authority. In the case work situation, he
transfers to the case worker hostile feelings of the type of he originally felt
toward hi father and accuse the case worker of the same arrogant treatment at the
hands of his father.
TYPES OF TRANSFERENCE
Transference is of two types: positive and negative. If the parents of the
client have been friendly an helpful, even though imperfectly or unsuccessfully
but with the child’s (client) interest at heart, he will transfer a desire for help,
friendship, guidance, emotional support and interest. It is positive transference.
If during client’s early development the parents had not shown interest in him
and were indifferent, then the client will transfer feeling of unfriendliness,
suspicion and distrust it is negative transference. If the transference is positive,
help can be given more quickly and easily. When the transference is negative,
then part of the work of the case worker is to help the client understand the
origin of he negative feelings and work toward making them more positive.
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COUNTER TRANSFERENCE
Relationship is a two way process. Social case worker has also
unconscious tendency to transfer out the client. As in the case of transference,
these counter transference feelings, both positive an negative, are unconscious
but operate with force. Therefore, it is the job of case worker to recognize his
feelings and must control them.
USE OF TRANSFERENCE
There are three stages in dealing and using transference in social case
work. these stages are:
1. Understanding the Transference.
2. Utilizing the transference,
3. Interpreting the transference. 98 Understanding of the transference is
essential for the worker as it helps to understand the behaviour of the
client and to recognize its significance in his development process. It also
explains the present unconscious needs of the client. Understanding of the
transference of factors i.e. the present behaviour and problem, the
environmental forces, the past experiences and earlier relationships.
Utilization of the transference depends on the understanding of the social
case worker of the phenomena. It explains many cures or treatments of
emotional disturbance by life situations and by fortune relationships with other
problems. The recognition of a transference need permits the establishment of a
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relationship between a case worker and a client which allows for the utilization
of such techniques a suggestion, advice, counseling, and education. 99
The interpretation of the transference, that is, confronting the individual with
the awareness that his behaviour is the repetition of a specific unconscious
infantile is definitely part of psycho – analytical therapy and requires is
preparation of the individual by the careful analysis of his unconscious
defense.100
Use of transference in Diagnosis
The person who comes for help, knows external factors of hi problem and
has little resistance discussing them. In such case a positive reality relationship is
sufficient for diagnosis. When the emotional factors are involved in the problem,
the client will not like to disclose them easily and most of the time will avoid on
that particular issue. In such cases transference becomes necessary because apart
from the resistance due to personal reasons due to personal reasons involved in
the problem, he is not fully aware about its existence in him. Transference
diminishes these resistance to some extent and thus helps him to talk more freely
and friendly. It is the transference which gives clues by which social gives an
insight into the client’s personality and helps in identifying his weakness as well
as his strengths an ego functioning. On the basis of the understanding of the ego
strength, social case worker prepares treatment plan for the client.
Use of transference in Treatment
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In case work, transference is developed in terms of psycho – social
interaction to reveal specific relationship and situations rather than being held
within the worker client focus, as such. 101 Transference is designed to free the
patient sufficiently so that he may think and feel more realistically about his
behaviour and relationships, to support him in great feelings of adequacy and
confidence, and to mobilize him to express his powers creatively in social
situation. 102 Transference promotes a feeling on the part of the client that his
problem is being shared and case worker is genuinely interested in his welfare.
This feeling of the client makes him easy, calm, less burdened with anxiety and
opens the road for fruitful solution.
The feeling of sharing of the client is his identification with the worker
who develops transference. Thus the transference helps in treatment in a number
of ways.
1. The mature ego strengths of the worker serve to reinforce the weak ego
strengths of the client.
2. The client feels relaxed.
3. The client starts abandoning resistances.
4. He perceives the problem situation more realistically.
5. The worker , when he does not respond neurotically, helps the client to
see and bear the reality.
6. Identification with the worker gradually helps the client to strengthen his
ego power and capacity for reality testing and problem solving.
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The effects of transference are many but it is the leaven of treatment, not
treatment itself. 103
COUNSELING
Counseling is social case work was started by Bertha Reynolds in 1932.
counseling is a personal help directed toward the solution of a problem which a
person finds the cannot solve himself and on which he therefore. Seeks the help
of a skilled person whose knowledge, experience an general orientation can be
brought into play in an attempt to solve problem. 104
Counseling is essentially a process in which the counselor assists the
counselee to make interpretations of facts relating to a choice, plan or adjustment
which he needs to make 105 it is face to face situation in which by reason of
training, skill or confidence vested in him by the other, one person helps the
second person to face, perceive, clarify, solve, and resole adjustment problem.
107 The process by which the structure of the self is relaxed in the safety of the
relationship with the therapist, and previously denied experiences are perceived
and then integrated into an altered self is called counseling. 107 It is a warm,
permissive, safe, understanding, but limited social relationship within which
therapist and patient discuss the effective behaviour of the latter, including his
ways of dealing with his emotionally toned needs and the situations that give
rise to them. 108
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Counseling aims at enabling individuals to solve present problems to
prepare themselves for future tasks, to attain higher standards of efficiency and
well – being and to develop personal resources for growth 109
The Committee on Definition of Division 17 of the American
Psychological Association describes the objectives of counseling by stating that
the counseling psychologist contributes to the following.
(a) The client’s realistic acceptance of his own capacities, motivations and
self – attitude
(b) The client’s achievement of a reasonable harmony with his social,
economic and vocational environmental, and
(c) Society’s acceptance of individual differences and their implications for
community, employment, and marriage relations.
Classification is the most important technique of counseling. It is a tool
through the client becomes aware of certain attitudes, feelings, reality versus
subjective concept and permits him to see himself and his environment in a more
objective manner which allows better control of the himself an of situations.
Counseling may include the giving of information, explaining a regime and
analyzing its issue, and analyzing the steps involved in a course of action.
COUNSELING IN CASE WORK
Social case worker not only offers financial relief, help in getting work,
medical and the like to his clients but in addition to these he also provides
counseling help. While the term counseling is used very little in case work
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circles. It is used here precisely to emphasize the fact that in giving the client an
opportunity to release his feelings, to find new solutions to his adjustment
problems. The case worker is utilizing the same process a the one used by the
other professional individual described.11 Social case worker in all settings gives
much emphasis on the process of counseling for realizing services are burden
i.e., anxiety and strains. Mostly counseling services are rendered, sanatoria,
prisons, welfare agencies of different types, family welfare centres, etc,
Counseling is provided to the clients under the following conditions:
1. The individual is under a degree of tension, arising from incompatible
describe or from the conflict of social and environmental demands with
individual needs. The tension and stress so created are greater than the
stress involved in expressing his feelings about his problems.
2. The individual has some capacity to cope with life. He possesses
adequate ability and stability to exercise some control over the element
of hi situation. The circumstances with which he is faced are not so
adverse or so unchangeable as to make it impossible for him to control or
alter them.
3. There is opportunity for the individual to express his conflicting tensions
in planned contacts with the counselor.
4. He is able to express these tensions and conflicts either verbally or
through other media. A conscious desire for help is advantageous, but not
entirely necessary.
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5. He is reasonably independent either emotionally or spatially, of close
family control.
6. He is reasonably free from excessive instabilities, particularly of an
organic nature.
7. He possess an adequate intelligence for coping with his life situations,
with an intelligence rating of dull, normal or above.
8. He is of suitable age – old enough of deal somewhat independently with
life, young enough to retain some elastically of adjustment. In terms of
chronological age this might mean roughly from ten to sixty.
SIMILARITIES BETWEEN CASE WORK AND COUNSELLING
Counselling is one technique of a social case work which is used to
prepare the client to participate in the treatment plan. These are:
1. Both have the same objective.
The purpose of social case work is to help an individual client to solve his
psycho- social problems in such a way so that he finds himself capable of
dealing with these problems at present and also may solve in future if such
problems arise. Counseling aims at enabling individuals to solve the present
problems, to prepare themselves for future tasks and to attain a higher degree of
efficiency in dealing with his problems.
2. Both deals with the same Type of Clients
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The ‘client’ is a man, woman, or child, anyone who finds himself, or is
found to be, in need of helping some aspect of his social – emotional living,
whether the need be for tangible provisions or council.
3. Both deals with the Same Type of Problems
The problems within the purview of social case work are those which
vitally affect or are affected by person’s social functioning. The client of the case
worker sees his problems as lying in some interacting relationship between himself an
some other persons or between himself and his environment. Help is provided to the
client for some readjustment of the self in relation to the demands and expectations of
the social role he plays. Help is also directed to the readjustment of some parts of his
social environment. If the client finds that his inner problems exert such pressure over
his problems of social functioning, he may need counseling.
4. The effectiveness of Both Depends on ‘Relationship’
The relationship is the medium in case work as well as in counseling
through which help is provided to the client. It is the channel of the entire case
work process and counseling process through which the mobilization of the
capacities of the client becomes possible. It plans throughout in interviewing,
study, diagnosis and treatment.
5. Both believe in worth and dignity of the individual
Case work and counseling treat the client as an individual who has right
to get help and reorganize as a person of worth and dignity. He has every right to
make hi choice and decisions himself.
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6. Both have common Principles
Social case work and counseling, both believe in the individualization of
all clients irrespective of their similarities in the problems. Both accept the client
as he is and provide opportunities for self – expression. Case worker and
counselor do not give their own judgment to the clients. Client has every right to
determine his own path for his easy recovery from malfunctioning.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CASE WORK AND CONSOLING
1. In counseling, help is provided to the client without social service
whereas the main base of help in social case work is social service.
2. Agency is not essentially required in counseling but social case work is
always practiced in an agency.
3. Concrete help is not provided in counseling. Counselor and client talk
together on the problem but in social case work concrete services is
rendered along with oral discussion.
4. Counselor is concerned most of the time with one type of problem as
there as various counseling agencies but in case work client is studied and
understood as a whole.
5. Social case work gives an emphasis on activity but in counseling, the
client is enabled to understand his problems.
6. In counseling, an emphasis is laid on the problem, not the person
concerned but in social case work the emphasis is basically on client an
the type of service to be provided.
7. Counseling is self – dependent in his counseling but case work services
are provided through agency.
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HISTORY AND GROWTH OF SOCIAL GROUP WORK
Just as the charity Organization Movement is the parent of social case
work, the club and recreation movements of the nineteenth century and early
twentieth are direct forebears of social group work. 13
THE YMCA AND YWCA MOVEMENTS
Social group work, has developed as a method from two sources, the
Young Men’s Christian Association and Young Women’s Christian Association
and Settlements. YMCA was established by George William in 1844 with the
objectives of giving social and religious welfare and companionship. It was
realized that women and girls were in need of opportunities for recreation,
instruction and Christian companionship. In 1877, Mrs. Kinnird and Miss
Roberts decided to bring two organizations – prayer Union and Coneral training
Institute, together under the name of YWCA.
In America, the first YWCA was formed in Boston in 1866 with the
objective of the temporal, moral, and religious welfare of young women who
were dependent on their own exertions for their support.
2. SETTLEMENT MOVEMENT
Jane Addams was one of the founders of settlements for the purpose of
formation of clubs through the residents of the area could share the cultural
resources of more fortunate segments of the population. The identification of
settlement workers with the life of the area, and the responsibility of the same
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group for social reform.14 These objectives were based on the philosophical
tenets. Of (i) the advantages to those who have not the sharing experiences, (ii)
the desirability of strengthening and perpetuating many racial and cultural
characteristics, (iii) the wisdom of providing an opportunity to practice the
Christian way of life, or in other than religious language, the opportunity to
practice democratic and humanitarian principles. 15
3. PLAY GROUND AND RECREATIONAL MOVEMENTS
In 1885, Mariezakrzewska, who had visited Berlin where she had seen
children playing in sand piles in public parks, opened a sand garden in Boston.
The movement was first confined to the summer months but later on it become a
regular activity. The support of schools and of social agencies greatly
contributed to the rapid development of the playground movement. The school
saw them as a means of supplementing classroom instruction by providing a
form of socialized experience in harmony with the newer theories of progressive
education. Social agencies, including settlements, saw them as an outlet for
youthful and as a means of forestalling delinquency. 16
The War Camp Community Service organized during World War I,
helped greatly to accelerate the recreation movement.
Recreation activities such as playground, sports, athletics, pageants,
parades, Community music, dancing, handicrafts, discussion, debates, etc.
provide the opportunity for self expression and from them derive pleasure and
relaxation.
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4. INFLUENCE OF EDUCATION
John Deway and William H. Kilpatrick of Columbia University used
group process for educational achievements, Kilpatrick profounded certain
principles as listed below for education and these principles, formed a
foundation for social group work.
1. Life is itself a positive good …. Not something to be denied or reduced or
simply to be postponed.
2. Personality as such is to be cherished in all men, and as far as possible, on
terms of equality.
3. Change is inherent in human affairs.
4. The free play of intelligence is our final resource to tell us what to think
and to do in all human affairs.
5. Society can no longer run itself on the individidualistic basis of each man
for himself alone.
6. the conscious improving of our culture should be a chief determining,
goal of both social and educational Endeavour. 17
5. INFLUENCE OF SOCIOLOGY
Grace Coyle in ‘Social Process in Organized Groups’ Edward Lindeman
in social Discovery, Mary P. Follett in ‘the New State’ and other writers study
human conduct in society, especially in relation to groups. Their thesis is that for
the preservation of democracy and civilization, we must have education system
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based on principles derived by Kilpatrick and social Organizations through
group associations. It is the human association through which development of
integrated personalities is possible and desired social change can be achieved.
7. INFLUENCE OF MENTAL HYGIENE
The theories of psychology especially of mental hygiene have become an
integral part of social group – work, S.R. Slavson in ‘An Introduction to Group
Therapy’ writes: “In group therapy we work with children who are directly
rejected by parents, family, schools, street gang, and community centre, or
whose powers and personalities are indirectly rejected by pampering and
coddling, as a result of which they are unable to get on with their contemporaries
an with adults. These children are actively hostile and destructive or reject the
world by withdrawing from it. They are either excessively aggressive or
excessively withdrawn; obsessed with great fears on guilt, they overcompensate
for them by non – social or antisocial behaviour. 18
III. BASIC ASSUMPTION OF SOCIAL GROUP WORK
Dougias has mentioned the following basic assumptions upon which
group work practice is founded.
1. That group experience is universal and an essential upon of human
existence.
2. That group can be used to affect changes in the attitudes, and behaviour
of individuals.
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3. That groups provide experience which can be monitored or selected in
some way for beneficial ends. Life outside the group is in no way
neglected the ‘here and now’ situation within the group.
4. That groups offer experiences shared with others so that all can come to
have something in common with the sense of belonging of growing
together.
5. That groups produce change which is more permanent, that can be
achieved by other methods and change which is obtained more quickly
also.
6. That groups assist in the removal or diminution of difficulties created by
previous exposure to the process of learning.
7. That groups as instruments of helping others may be economical in the
use of scarce resources, e.g. skilled workers, time etc.,
8. That a group can examine its own behaviour and in so doing learn about
the general patterns of group behaviour (process). 19
Coyle has narrate the following basic assumptions of group work. 20
1. A firm conviction of the value leisure time educational and recreational
activities can yield both to the individual and to society.
2. The group worker brings an insight to his job. The group worker always
is aware of two simultaneous streams of activity within the groups. One
the one hand, he sees the programme activities and their progress, games
discussion, business meetings, dramatics or ceramics as the case may be.
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On the other hand, he sees an interplay of social relationships which make
the group.
3. The programme must be viewed always in terms of its effect of
individual. This involves, in the first place, keeping his relation to the
group person centered and not activity centered.
4. The group worker is aware of the emotional, social as well as physical
and intellectual aspects of the lives of those with whom he works as well
as their leisure time pursuits related to their work situations, their family
relations and their community attitudes.
5. If group workers are to help individuals seeking recreation and education
to find them in the most fruitful forms they need to understand behaviour.
In general, social group work is based on the following basic assumptions
1. Man is a Group animal,
2. Social interaction is the result of group life,
3. Man’s achievements can be increased, changed and developed through
group experiences.
4. The capacity to solve problems may be increased through group
experiences.
5. Group experiences change the level of individual’s aspirations and
desires.
6. Group recreational activities are beneficial to both individual and society.
7. Group experiences have permanent impact on individuals.
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8. Group work always focuses its attention on two types of activities-
programme and social relationships in the group.
9. Social group work believes in the principle of ‘whole man’
10. Evaluation of programme activities is done on the basis of its effects on
group members.
11. Individual member may be fully understood and helped in group
activities.
12. Knowledge of social sciences is essential for working with the group.
13. Professional knowledge and skills are essential for working with the
group.
IV. OBJECTIVES OF SOCIAL GROUP WORK
When we use the word ‘objectives’ we refer to what we are trying to
accomplish. Here our objectives are statements or formulations of what we are
trying to do in group work.21 Objectives are not merely goals; they are
motivating forces for action, and we move toward them or retreat by concerted
action. 22 The objectives should be clear because they help the worker in the
determination of the kinds of programmes need for the fulfillment of the group
goals. They provide the guidance through which the group worker proceeds in
his mission. The utilization of skills, techniques, resources, financing,
equipments and other physical necessities are based on the objectives.
The group worker enables various types of groups to function in such a
way that both group interaction and programme activities contribute to the
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growth of the individual, and the achievement of desirable social goals.23
According to Wilson and Ryland, social group work has two objectives: (1) to
help individuals use groups to further their development into emotionally
balanced, intellectually free and physically fit persons, (2) to help groups
achieve ends desirable in the economic, political and social democracy. 24
Trecker’s view is that the purpose of social group work is to bring about the
highest possible development of human personality, dedicated and devoted to
the democratic ideals. Specht thinks that social group work brings change in
internal personality; encourages to accept new roles; brings closeness in
interrelations among group members; improves the conditions of systems and
also in communication process.26 In short, it can be said that it enables groups to
achieve personally enriching and socially productive goals. 27
Konopka 28 has mentioned the following objectives of group work method.
1. Individualization – It helps the individual to free himself while being
helped to interact with his fellowmen.
2. Development of sense of belonging.
3. A basic development of the capacity to participate.
4. Increase of the capacity to contribute to decisions on grounds of rational
thinking and through group deliberation.
5. Increased respect for differences among people.
6. Development of warm and accepting social climate.
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Heap 29 has mentioned different objectives on the basis of the type of groups.
1. Some social work groups aim primarily at alleviating social isolation.
Such groups have the preventive function of reducing the debilitating
effects of isolation, as well as more creative purposes of life enrichment
and increasing self esteem. This is a common aim of work with the aged
and infirm, handicapped and psychiatric patients.
2. Another aim is that of orientating and preparing people for new
experiences which may arouse uncertainty, disorientation, or fear, such
cases are the predischarge group prison inmates, or psychiatric patients,
intake groups in mental hospitals and children’s hospitals.
3. Other groups are mainly intended to contribute to the social learning and
maturation of people who encounter obstacles to normal social growth
and development. This kind of social group work is most often found in
the youth service and maladjustment children.
4. Another aim of social work with groups is that of solving problems.
5. It aims at solving specific environmental problems which affect the group
members i.e. helping slum dwellers for the improvement of the
environment.
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In general social group work fulfills the following needs of the human being.
1. Social group work fulfills human needs such as need of love, affection,
feeling security, to have enjoyment, etc.
2. Social group work is a technique means of solving isolation problems
especially in urban areas where man lives among thousands but feels
alone.
3. Self – reliance is developed through group activities. Maladjusted
children are treated through group programmes.
4. The feeling of being accepted is satisfied with the help of group work
activities. Evidences have proved that in the becomes either a mental case
or antisocial case. Social group work provides the opportunity to each of
its members to feel creative and honoured member of the group.
5. Social group work helps in developing self – confidence. Every member
is given the responsibility to carry his role independently in relation to
other role. Thus, the essential element of life is again re-charged in group
members.
6. Social group work helps in solving adjustmental problems. One fails to
adjust in family and community because of certain reasons. These reasons
may be: his authoritarian attitude, aggressive tendencies, inactivity, not
realizing his roles, tendency of dependency, denial of others’ authority,
misutilization of group resources or fantasy, Group experience is the best
remedy for all these abnormal behaviour symptoms.
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7. Sometimes due to physical injury or congenital deformities, one becomes
totally or partially dependent on others. In such situations the sufferer
feels disgusted, isolated and helpless creature. Social group work gives an
opportunity to realize and accept his dependency and encourages to adopt
a new way of life that makes his life pleasurable.
8. Relations are made real and productive through group experience.
9. Psychosocial problems are solved and managed through the group work
services.
10. Democratic values equality, opportunity, liberty and development, are
developed through group experience.
11. Social group work is the best method for proper development of
personality.
12. Social group work provides recreation.
V. BASIC SKILLS OF SOCIAL GROUP WORK
In a general sense, skill means the capacity to perform. 30 The Webster
dictionary defines it as “Knowledge of, and expertness in, execution and
performance”. Virginia Robinson refers as “the capacity in such a way that the
change that take place in the material is affected with the greatest degree of
consideration for and utilization of the quality and capacity of the material.31
Trecker defines method and skill: “Method means the purposeful use of insights
and understandings based upon a body of knowledge and principles. Skill is the
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capacity to apply knowledge and understanding to given situation. 32 Method is
the use of process; skill is capacity to use it.
To become more productive, a group worker needs to develop the
following abilities and skills in the group
1. To exchange ideas among the members freely and clearly, using language
understood by everyone and with no fears of starting arguments or
hurting feelings.
2. To examine objectively how well the group and its members are working.
3. To share the leadership jobs among the group members and to become
sensitive to the feelings of all.
4. To accept new ideas and new members into the group without irreparable
conflict, and to discipline itself to work toward long range objectives, and
to profit from failures.
5. To think clearly about its own problems, finding causes and working
through to some solutions.
6. To adjust its procedures and plans to meet the feelings and the desires of
the members.
7. To create new jobs or committees as needed and to terminate them, or the
group itself, when the need is passed. 33 Trecker34 has listed the following
basic skills of social group work.
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1. SKILL ESTABLISHING PURPOSEFUL RELATIONSHIP
(a) The group worker must be skillful in gaining the acceptance of the group and
in relating himself to the group on a positive professional basis.
(b) The group worker must be skillful in helping individuals in the group to
accept one another to join with the group in common pursuits.
2. SKILL IN ANALYSING THE GROUP SITUATION
a) The worker must be skilful in judging the developmental level of the
group to determine what the level is, what the group needs, and how
quickly the group can be expected to move. This calls for skill in direct
observation of groups as a basis of analysis and judgment.
b) The group worker must be skilful in helping the group to express ideas,
work out objectives, clarify immediate goals and see both its potentialities
and limitation as a group.
3. SKILL IN PARTICIPATION WITH THE GROUP
a) The group worker must be skilful in determining, interpreting, assuming,
and modifying his own role with the group.
b) The group worker must be skilful in helping group members to
participate, to located among themselves, and to take responsibility for
their own activities.
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4. SKILL IN DEALING WITH THE GROUP FEELINGS
a) The group worker must be skilful in controlling his own feelings about
the group study each new situation with a high degree of objectively.
b) The group worker must be skilful in helping groups to release their own
feelings, both positive and negative. He must be skilful in helping groups
to analyse situations as a part of the working through group or intergroup
conflicts.
5. SKILL IN PROGRAMME DEVELOPMENT
a) The group worker must be skillful in guiding thinking so that interests
and needs will be revealed and understood.
b) The group worker must be skilful in helping groups to develop
programmes which they want as a means through which their needs may
be met.
6. SKILL IN USING AGENCY AND COMMUNITY RESOURCES
a) The group worker must have skill in recording the development processes
that are going on as he works with the group.
b) The group worker must be skilful in using his records and in helping the
group to review its experiences as a means of improvement.
Phillips25 has enumerated the following skills of social group work:
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1. Skill in using agency function
The skillful worker carries the function in himself, not needing to protest
it by words but directing all of his efforts consistency toward what the agency is
in the community to do, and contributing to the doing of it.
1. The Intake process
The worker who meets the applicant, while carrying out the agency’s
procedures for intake, will discuss with him what he particularly wants from the
agency as well as what is available there for him to consider both the privileges
and responsibilities of agency memberships.
2. Connecting the group with the agency
The worker relates the group more firmly to the agency by helping it to
understand what the agency stands for and what kind of responsible behaviour is
expected of them as well as of other groups.
3. Serving the individual through the group work process
Since the function of the agency includes helping group units to develop
in socially useful ways, as well as helping individuals, the worker’s attention
must simultaneously be on the development of the group as whole, and each
individual’s use of the group.
4. Working with the individual outside the group meetings
Although the worker’s help toward fulfilling the purpose is offered
primarily within the group process, part of that help may be given through
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individual contacts with members, to the end that they may make better use of
the group experience.
5. The referral process
An important part of the group work agency’s service is to work with
members and their parents in a process of considering the use of other
community services for help with problems that cannot be dealt within the group
work agency, possibly eventuating in a referral.
II. Skill in Communication of Feelings
1. The Worker’s Feelings
High among the qualities essential to a social worker’s skill is the
capacity to feel the others.
2. The group Members feelings
The worker must be skilful in helping the group members to know,
accept, express and be responsible for their feelings
3. Group feelings
The interaction of each member to the others and to the worker produces
some group feelings. This worker helps the groups in understanding their
feelings and its meanings
III Skill in using the Reality of the present
1. Utilizing the Group’s Current Interest for purposeful Activity
2. Helping the group to responsible decision.
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IV skill in stimulating and using Group Relations
1. Group relations as the focus for social group work process. Social
group work has focused its efforts on understanding and using the
worker’s activity in a process that enables each group member to find
and take his part in the whole, in relationship with other members.
2. The use of programme to strengthen group relations.
3. Containment of an essential quality in the worker.
4. Group relation in crisis: The group worker controls the process of
group relations but not the members, by enabling them to take their
active and appropriate part in it.
VI PRINCIPLES OF SOCIAL GROUP WORK
Douglas36 has described fourteen principles of social group works:
1. Recognition and subsequent action in relation to the unique
difference of each individual
2. Recognition and subsequent action in relation to the wide variety
of groups as groups.
3. Genuine acceptance of each individuals with his unique strengths
and weaknesses.
4. Establishment of a purposeful relationship between group worker
and group member
5. Encouragement and enabling of help and cooperative relationships
between members.
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6. Appropriate modification of the group process.
7. Encouragement of each member to participate according to the
state of his capacity and enabling him to become more capable.
8. Enabling members to involve themselves in the process of problem
solving.
9. Enabling group members to experience increasingly satisfactory
forms of working through conflicts.
10. Provision of opportunities for new and differing experience in
relationships and accomplishments.
11. Judicious uses of limitations related to the diagnostic assessment of
each individual and the total situation.
12. Purposeful and differential use of programme according to
diagnostic evaluation of individual members, group purpose, and
appropriate social goals.
13. Ongoing evaluation of individual and group progress.
14. Warm human and disciplined use of self on the part of the group
worker
Terence J. Cooke37 has derived the following principles to use as a guide in
applying the philosophy of St. Thomas
1. All individual have common human needs which they seek to satisfy in
groups.
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2. The primary objective of social group work is the development of the
individual by means of the group in which some of these needs are
satisfied and/or the primary objective of group work is the development
of the individual and the group.
3. In social group work, the group work process, the dynamic interaction
among the members of the group and the worker and the group is the
primary means of personality growth, change and development.
(i) Group Programme
The programme is a means or tool of individual and group development
which should be derived from the basic needs an interests of the group.
(ii) Voluntary Attendance
Voluntary attendance of group members at meetings is essential to good
group work.
4. Since social group work operates in a controlled agency setting, the
group worker is essential to the group work process and he is necessarily one
who has knowledge, understanding and skill in the art of helping people related
to and work with each other.
Friedlander38 has mentioned the following basic principles of social group work:
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1. The function of the social group worker is a helping or enabling one. This
means that his goal is to help the members of the group and the group as whole
to move toward greater independence and capacity for self – help.
2. In Determining his way of life, the group workers uses the scientific method –
fact finding (observation), analysis, diagnosis in relation to the individual, the
group, and the social environment
3. The group work method requires the worker to form purposeful relationship to
group members and the group. This includes conscious focusing on the purpose
the sponsoring agency, and as implied in the members’ behaviour. It is
differentiated from causal unfocused relationships.
4. One of the main tools in achieving such a relationship is the conscious use of
self – this includes self – knowledge and self – discipline in relationships
without the loss of warmth and spontaneity..
5. Acceptance of people without accepting all their behaviour: this includes a
basaic respect and love for people, a warmth relating to their strength as well as
to their weakness. It is not sentimentality and is enhanced by understanding of
individual needs and social demands.
6. Starting where the group is. The capacity to let groups develop from their own
point of departure without imposing immediately outside demands.
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7. The constructive use of limitations: They must be used judiciously in relation
to individual and group needs and agency function. The forms will vary greatly.
The group worker will mainly use himself, programme materials, interaction of
the group, and awakening of insight in the group members.
8. Individualization
9. Use of the interacting process.
10. The understanding and conscious use of non-verbal programme as well as
verbal material.
Tracker 39 has explained the following principles:
1. The Principle of Planned Group Formation – In social group work, the
group is the basic unit through which service is provided to the
individual, consequently, the agency and worker responsible for the
formation of groups or the acceptance into the agency of already –formed
groups must be aware of the factors inherent in the group situation that
make the given group a positive potential for individual growth and for
meeting recognizable needs.
2. The Principle of Specific objectives – In social group work, specific
objectives of individual and group development must be consciously
formulated by the worker in harmony with group wishes and capacities
and in keeping with agency function.
3. The Principle of Purposeful Worker of Purposeful Worker Group
Relationship- In social group work, a consciously purposeful relationship
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must be established between the worker and the group members based on
the worker’s acceptance of the group members as they are and upon the
groups willingness to accept help from the worker because of the
confidence the members have in him and in the agency.
4. The Principle of Continuous Individualization – In Social group work, it
is recognized that groups are different and that individuals utilize group
experience in a variety of ways to meet their differing needs;
consequently, continuous individualization must be practiced by the
worker. Groups and the individuals in the groups must be understood as
developing and changing.
5. The Principle of Guided Group Interaction – In social group work, the
primary source of energy which propels the group and influences the
individuals to change are the interaction or reciprocal responses of the
members. The group worker influence this interaction by the type and
quality of his participation.
6. The Principle of Democratic Group Self- determination – In social group
work, the group must be helped to make its own determine its own
activities, taking the maximum amount of responsibility in line with its
capacity and ability. The primary source of control over the group is the
group itself.
7. The Principle of Flexible Functional Organization- In social group work,
the process through which the worker guides the group in setting up
formal organization is just as important as the actual structure details of
that organization. Formal organization, should be flexible and should be
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encouraged only as it meets a felt need, is understood by the members and
can function accordingly. The formal organizational of the group should
be adaptive and should change as the group changes.
8. The Principle of Progressive Programme Experiences – In social group
work, the programme experience in which the group engages should
begin at the level of member interest, need, experience, and competence
and should progress in relation to the developing capacity on the group.
9. The Principle of Resource Utilization – In Social group work, the total
environment of agency and community possess resources which should
be utilized to enrich the content of the group experience for individuals
and for the group as a whole.
10. The Principle of Evaluation – In social group work, continuous evaluation
of process and programmes in terms of outcomes is essential. Worker,
group and agency share in this procedure as a means of guaranteeing this
greatest possible self-fulfillment for all.
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VII. DEFINITION OF THE FUNCTIONS OF THE GROUP
WORKER
A National Committee of the American Association of Group Workers60
formulated the following definition of the functions of the group worker:
The group worker enables various types of groups to function in such as
way that both group’s interaction and programme activities contribute to the
growth of the individual, and the achievement of desirable social goals.
The objectives of group worker include provision for personal growth
according to individual capacity and need, the adjustment of the individual to
other persons, to groups and to society, and the motivation of the individual
toward the improvement of society, the recognition by the individual of his own
rights, limitations and abilities as well as his acceptance of the rights, abilities,
and differences of others.
Through his participation the group worker aims to affect the group
process so that decisions come about as a result of knowledge and a sharing and
integration of ideas, experiences and knowledge rather than as a result of
domination from within or without the group.
Through experience he aims to produce these relations with other groups
and the wider community which contributes to responsible citizenship, mutual
understanding between cultural, religious, economic or social groupings in the
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community and a participation in the constant improvement of our society
toward democratic goals.
The guiding purpose behind such leadership rests upon the common
assumptions of a democratic society, namely, the opportunity for each individual
of fulfill his capacities in freedom, to respect and appreciate others and to
assume his social responsibility in maintaining and constantly improving the
democratic society.
Underlying the practice of group work is a knowledge of individual and
group behavior and of social conditions and community relations which are
based on the modern social sciences.
On the basis of this knowledge the group worker contributes to the group
with whom he works skill in leadership which enables the members to use their
capacities to the full and to create socially constructive group activities.
He is aware of both of programme activities and interplay of personalities
within the group and between the groups and its surrounding community.
According to the interests and needs of each, he assists them to get from
the group experience and satisfactions provided by the programme activities, the
enjoyment and personal growth available through the social relations and the
opportunity to participate as a responsible citizen.
The group worker makes conscious use of his relation to the group, his
knowledge of programme as a tool, and his understanding of the individual and
of the group process and recognizes his responsibilities to individuals and groups
with whom he works and to the larger social vales he represents.
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In general, Social group worker performs the following activities:
ACTIVITIES RELATING TO GROUP
1. Group Formation
Worker studies individual’s attitudes, interests, needs and desires and
unite them on the basis of certain principles. He forms the group according to the
motives and the needs of the agency. He after the interview of the members,
brings out such accepted terms and conditions which unite them together. In the
group formation process, the group worker desires (i) nature of group activities –
recreational, educational, social treatment or mixed; (ii) working methodology,
play, drama, role playing, discussion, work experience, etc; (iii) place of
activities; (iv) frequency of the group meeting; and its meeting time; (v) process
of communications; (vi) selection procedure of the group members ( age, sex,
member, educational, cultural background, etc); (vii) need of the community
resources.
2. Programme Planning
Though group members plan and organize activities for themselves but
the worker is the key factor in making these activities lively. He guides and
directs the group so that the maximum creative effects may come out room these
activities and group may avail full benefit out of these activities. He is more
involved in children’s activities. If he works with socially handicapped or
mentally retarded people, he dicides himself most of the activities.
The worker keeps his eyes on the interaction process of the group. If may
member is not taking interest or not participating as he is desired, the worker
helps him. He resolves group conflicts and directs them for healthy interaction.
3. Development of Responsible Participation
Social group work believes that when members of the group behave in a
responsible manner, the group has conductive with more effect on its members.
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The following conditions show the nature of belongingness; member accepts the
objectives of the group, interprets them and shows interest in achieving them. He
fulfils his roles and helps others in doing so. He believes in healthy criticism.
The social group worker accomplishes the following activities to gain
responsible participation: He selects only those individuals who want to avail the
facilities in a real sense. He provides them full information above the
programme, facilities in the agency and working methodology. He directs the
group activities keeping in view the needs and desires of each member. He
develops leadership qualities in them so that they take leadership in their hands
and direct their activities. He does not allow any member to dominate the group
and individualizes each member regularly.
4. Direction to the Interaction Process
The basic function of social group worker is to direct the interaction process of
the group. He watches the activities and behaviour of every member of the group. He
keeps his eyes on member’s participation, its frequency, time, duration, order of
participation, interaction level and is direction, contents of interaction and meaning of
activities to the groups members. Generally disorganized interaction appears in he
forms of conflict and apathy. Group work resolves such problems with the help of his
professional skills.
5. Development of Leadership
Group members differ in their talents and abilities. Some are more capable in
the realm of leadership than others. Groups worker’s job is to locate those individuals
who show signs of being able to assume leadership responsibilities thus, the worker on
one hand, finds it necessary to work with these members who are carrying on
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leadership duties, and on the other hand helps every member to try our his specific
strengths.
6. Study and Help of each Individual Member
The group worker works with individual member following ways:
1. He makes aware each member about the aims, objectives, resources, facilities of
the agency.
2. He gains knowledge of attitudes, interest needs and problems of each
individualization. He introduces each member to the group.
3. He advises each member to fulfil his responsibilities and helps in his tasks.
4. When any member fails to fulfil his responsibilities and feels difficulty, the
worker develops an insight and brings the factors to lights which are responsible
for his failure.
5. When any member shows aggressive tendencies or shows of sign f withdrawal,
the worker helps in changing his behaviour.
7. Evaluation
Evaluation is an important task of the worker. Trecker14 has suggested the
following activities under evaluation:
Social Group Work
1. Formulations of objectives for groups and individuals in terms of agency
purposes.
2. Identification of criteria for judging growth and development of individual and
group.
3. Provisions of programme experiences designed to foster. Growth and changes.
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4. Keeping of full records of individual and group behaviour.
5. Analysis of records by applying criteria of growth and development.
6. Interpretation of analytical data to determine whether objective are being
reached.
7. Review of programme content and method.
8. Modification of objectives, continuation of evaluation.
ACTIVITIES RELATING TO THE AGENCY
Group worker is an employee of the agency and therefore, he uses his knowledge and
skill as a representative of the agency. He must have the following knowledge about the
agency.
1. Aims and objectives of the agency.
2. Changing nature of the agency.
3. Geographical, social, psychological, and other factors of the agency.
4. Condition and facilities of the agency.
5. Internal and external policies of the agency.
6. The worker tries to change the group according to the policies of the agency.
7. He helps in the every meeting of the agency.
8. He helps in the growth and development of the agency’s resources.
VIII. Group Diagnosis
How to Diagnosis group Problems
Three most common group problems are:
1. Conflict or night
2. Apathy and non-participation
3. Inadequate decision-making 42
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1. Problem of Conflict or Fight in the Group
We find the following group behaviour expressions in conflicting and fighting
situations:
1. Members are impatient with one another,
2. Ideas are attacked before they are completely expressed,
3. Members take sides and refuse to compromise,
4. Members disagree to plans or suggestions,
5. Comments and suggestions are made with a great deal of vehemence,
6. Members attack one another on a personal level in subtle ways,
7. Members feel that the group does not have the know-how or experience to get
anywhere,
8. Members feel that the group cannot go ahead it is too large or too small,
9. Members disagree to the leader’s suggestions,
10. Members accuse one another of not understanding the real point, of issue
11. Members bear distorted fragments of other member’s contributions.
Symptoms Possible diagnosis
1 Every suggestion made seems impossible for
practical reasons
The group may have been
given an impossible job
and members are frustrated
because they feel unable to
meet the demands made of
them.
2 Some members feel the group is too small
3 Everyone seems to feel pushed for time
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4 Members are impatient with one another
5 Members insist the group does not have the know
– how or experience to get anywhere.
6 Each member has a different idea of what the
group is supposed to do
7 Whenever a suggestion is made, at least one
member feels it won’t satisfy the large
organization.
1 Ideas are attacked before they are completely
expressed
The main concern of
members is to find status in
the group
2 Members take sides and refuse to compromise
3 There is no movement towards a solution of the
problem
4 The group keeps getting struck on in consequential
points
5 Members attack one another on a personal level in
subtle ways
6 There are subtle attacks on the leadership
7 There is much clique formation.
S.
No
Symptoms Possible Diagnosis
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1 The goal is stated in very general, non-operational
terms
Members are loyal to
outside groups of
conflicting interests.
2 Members take sides and refuse to compromise
3 Each member is pushing his own plan
4 Suggestions are not built on previous suggestions
5 Each member appearing to start again from the
beginning
6 Members disagree to plans or suggestions
7 Members don’t listen to one another, each waiting
or a change to say something.
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Symptoms Possible diagnosis
1. There is a goal which members
understand and agree to;
2. 2. Most of the comments are
relevant to the problem;
3. Members frequently disagree to
one-another’s suggestions;
4. Comments and suggestions are
made with a great deal of
vehemence;
5. There are occasional expressions
of warmth;
6. Members are frequently impatient
with one another;
7. There is general movement
towards some solution of the
problem.
The fight being expressed is constructive,
members feel involved and are working
hard on a problem.
2. Apathy
Apathy may be expressed in the form of the indifference to the group task, lack
of genuine enthusiasm for the job, lack of persistence, satisfaction with poor work, etc.
The following symptoms are generally seen: frequent yawns, dozing off, no point of
discussion, low level of participation, conversation drags, members coming late and
frequently absent, slouching and restlessness, overquick decisions, failure to follow
through decision, ready suggestions for adjournment, failure to consider necessary
arrangement for the next meeting, reluctance to assume any further responsibility.
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Symptoms Possible diagnosis
1. Questions may be raised about:
- What is their job?
- What do they want us to
do?
2. Members fail to follow through
decision;
3. There is no expectation that
members will contribute
responsibility;
4. Confused irrelevant statements are
allowed to go without question;
5. Members wonder about the reason
for working on this problem;
6. Suggestions are made that we
work on something else;
7. The attitude is expressed that we
should just decide on anything;
8. The decision does not really
matter;
9. Members are inattentive seem to
get lost and not to have heard parts
of the proceeding discussion;
10. Suggestions frequently plopped are
tot taken up and built on y others;
11. No one will volunteer for
additional work.
1. Point are made over and over;
2. Appears to be unable to develop
adequate summaries;
3. Little evaluation of the process;
Inadequate problem solving procedure.
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4. Little attention to fact finding or
use of special resources;
5. Complaints are made that the
groups’ job is an impossible one;
6. Subgroups are formed;
7. No follow-through on decisions or
disagreement or what the decisions
really were;
8. Always demand for leader’s
decision.
1. Two or three members dominate
all over the discussion, but never
agree;
2. Conflict between strong members
comes out no matter what is
discussed, dominant members
occasionally appeal to other’s for
support, but otherwise control
conversation.
3. Decisions are made by only two or
three members.
Conflict among few members is creating
apathy in others.
3. Inadequate decision-making
Symptoms Possible diagnosis
1. The group swings between making
too rapid decisions and having
difficulty in deciding anything;
2. The group almost makes the
decision but at the last minute
retreats;
3. Group members call for definition
and redefinition of minute points.
Decision is too difficult or group is low in
cohesiveness and lacking faith in itself.
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1. There are long delays in getting
started much irrelevant preliminary
conversation;
2. Embarrassment or reluctance in
discussion the problem at hand;
3. Members emphasize the
consequences of making wrong
decisions, imagine dire
consequences which has little
reference to ascertainable facts;
4. Members make suggestions
apologetically;
5. Members are over-tentative and
hedge their contributions with
may, if’s and but’s;
6. Solutions proposed are frequently
attacked as unrealistic;
7. Suggestions are made that
someone else ought to make the
decision – the leader, an outside
expert, or some qualified person
outside the group;
8. Members insist that they have not
enough information or ability to
make a decision and appear to
demand an unrealistically high
level of competence;
9. Humorous alternative proposals
are suggested, with the group
completely unable to select among
them.
Though goal is important but members
fear working toward the group-goal.
1. No one is able to suggest the first
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step in getting started toward the
goal.
2. Members seem to be unable to stay
on a given point and each person
seems to start on a new track;
3. Members appear to talk of the past
to misunderstand one another and
the same;
4. Discussion wanders into
abstraction.
1. Lack of clarity about decision;
2. Disagreement as to where
consensus is;
3. A decision is apparently made but
challenged at the end;
4. Group members refuse
responsibility;
5. There is continued effort to leave
decision-making to leader,
subgroup or outside source.
Decision may be threatening because of
unclear consequences, fear or of reaction
of others or fear of failure for the
individuals.
IX. GROUP WORK TREATMENT
Social group work is a professional service which aims to work generally with
the normal people to develop and strength their abilities to establish and maintain
positive relationships with others. Treatment in group work means management of
group situation ship and problems with a view to satisfy the group needs and achieves
satisfying group participation and growth. Persons poorly adjusted in a group are simly
those with poor adjustment in their social life. They have not learned to capitalize
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suitably their own potentials. They are relatively static in the face of obstacles or retreat
from pressures instead of meeting the demands of reality.
When group work is used as a therapy, its objectives are different. It is mostly
used dealing with functional illnesses which aims at (1) to relieve tensions and
anxieties in the patients, (2) to help patients resolve some of their conflicts, (3) to assist
patients in arriving at a clear understanding of some of their trouble, and (4) to enable
patients to depend upon their personnel resources in substituting methods of behaviour
which have been chiefly which are satisfying and acceptable for those which have
chiefly defensive.
TREATMENT METHODS
No specific method have been developed in social group work because its main
objective is to strengthen normal personality and socialization process. Group
members avail of this opportunity if they find the atmosphere of the group congenial
and interest promoting. Group worker’s success depends on the degree of rapport he
has built with group members.
In general, the following methods are used in social group work.
1. Empathy, warm Genuineness
Empathy means to perform the role of others or to realize other’s problems as it
own. The job of the works is to study the group members and mobilize them in
such a away so that they may develop members mobilize them in such a way so
that they may develop an insight of the problem. The worker express this
feeling by touching members, showing favourable facial expression and acting
accordingly. This helps in creating worker’s acceptance by the group members.
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Genuineness means the appropriate methods and media for the group activities
to attain its objectives.
2. Self - Discloser
The worker express his own experiences before the group members. It helps
them in understating their problems and learn members. It helps them in
understanding their problems and learn to ease from tension and anxiety. The
time, content and nature of self-disclosure one important and the worker must
keep in accordance with group situation.
3. Disclosure of Confronting behaviour
Sometimes the behaviour of a member of the group is different than what he
says. For example, he says that he is not angry with anybody in the group but is
voice and word expression show that he is angry. They job of the worker is to
clarify these situations and warn members not to allow to happen such
situations.
4. Investigation
The group worker prepares an interview schedule for the group members in
order to know the internal and external and feelings of the members. This helps
the worker to diagnose the problem of the group.
5. Support
It is a psychological strategy which is used to strengthen or restructure ego
power in the members of the group. The worker provides an opportunity to the
group to express its feelings and clarifies the positive and negative aspects of
these feelings. He takes interest in group activities and helps at the time of need.
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He enables the group to take its own decision for the programme and its
implementation.
6. Cognitive Restructuring
Cognitive restructuring refers to complex strategy for changing perceptions of
emotional sets, which seem to impede the group member’s abilities to changes.
Sometimes group fails to arrive at a such help so that it may perceive the reality.
It is the work of group worker to provider such help.
7. Role Playing
Role playing is such a method through which group members gain knowledge
of their roles and other’s roles. Through role playing a member expresses his
feelings, thoughts and action in reference to others. This method is used to
know the reality of life conditions.
8. Partialization
Group worker divides the whole problem into many parts and takes up one for
its solution. He directs the groups to organize activities accordingly. Thus he
enables the group to work in such a way so that it does not have unnecessary
tension. This process helps the group to understand that the problem can be
solved.
X. TOOLS OF SOCIAL GROUP WORK
The major tools the social group worker are:
1. The conscious and disciplined use of himself.
2. The verbal interaction between himself and between members.
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3. The discriminate use of programme activities related to the needs of the
individual and the group members themselves.
4. Interaction among the group members themselves.
The worker must have necessary knowledge of human and group behaviour, skills,
techniques, and problem solving capacity. The success of the group work depends on
him. If he is skilled, the group will certainly achieves its objectives. He contributes
especially in the following areas.
1. Establishes purposeful relationship with group, agency and the community and
always tries to make it more effective and purposeful.
2. Participates in the activities f the group, agency and approach and evaluates
himself according to the need of the group.
3. Uses his knowledge and relationship timely.
4. Develops self control, patience, tolerance in himself and works with group in
healthy atmosphere. The basic need for relationship is contact. Group members
and the worker have emotional and psychological variety of tools. They affect
another due to contact interaction. The interaction process donated the fact that
the worker’s reaction, gesture, words or abstracts, bodily movement stimulate
members and they in their turn act toward the worker and group. Stability of
relationship is dependent on the reactions of the participant and “interaction
among the group members themselves.” The worker must be skillful in
directing the interaction process.
The members reveal their personally patterns through the away in which they are
engaged in activities. Knowledge of the potentialities of programme media makes it
possible for the worker to understand the needs so expressed and to help the members
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meet these needs through the programme to the group if it is possible to do so. There
are many programme media which are used according to the need of the group. There
are games, play, dance, music, story, telling, drama, arts, crafts, etc.
Growth and development in the group are the result of natural interaction among group
members. In the beginning phase of the group activities, group shows the
characteristics of collection of individuals and group consciousness is of fellow level.
Members take interest in their talks. The social group worker develops a common wish
or desire and increased later on. In general, group interaction has six stages.
1. Members collect together but each interest in him self.
2. Group feeling is developed, from of organization is determined and
programmes are organized.
3. Rules, regulations, and conditions are framed, closeness is increased.
4. High level of group feelings are found and objective are achieved.
5. Members start taking less interest, low level of interaction gradually appears.
6. Group is dissolved.
XI. Democratic Group Process
Process are the ways of dong things, the approaches one takes and the steps are
followed to reach one’s goals. Democratic group process occurs when there is a
permissive, democratic, experimental atmosphere as opposed to a punitive, hostile,
competitive, autocratic climate. The following characteristics are found in democratic
group process:
1. Everyone participates voluntarily.
2. All action is cooperative.
3. Regular interaction occurs among group members.
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4. The group formulate goals.
5. Every group member is a ‘change agent’.
6. Group morale discipline are ‘we-centred’.
7. Leadership is a functional of the group.
Analysis of Group Process
To achieve maximum effectiveness with democratic group process, a needs group
thinking, group discussion, group planning, group decision, group, group action and
group evaluation.
GROUP THINKING
It means group intelligence in working process. It shows the ability to work out means
for their accomplishment.
GROUP DISCUSSION
When there is an effective discussion, members participate freely, and the
atmosphere of the group is cooperative. Leadership is assumed by various members of
the group and passes from one to another. Questions stimulate group thinking.
The following techniques should be used to achieve group thinking and
discussion: (1) each person should express his views, (2) no debate but cooperative
talk,
3.Group action should develop intolerance of group pathologies such as inability to
arrive at a decision, failure to use member potential, inability to use resources, inability
to evaluate success or failure of group processes, rigidity of organization, prevention of
assimilation of new members, rigidity of role structure etc.
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GROUP EVALUATION
Group evaluation techniques are concerned with the following aspects of evaluation.
1. Evaluation of leadership,
2. Evaluation of the group process,
3. Evaluation of the outcomes or changes brought about in members, and
4. Evaluation of group action in terms of group goals.
XII. EVALUATION
By evaluation we mean appraisal or judgement of worth and effectiveness of all
the processes of social group work designed to meet the objectives of the group. It is
essentially the study and review of past operating experience. According to Trecker,
“Evaluation is that part of social group’s experience in relation to the objectives and
function of the agency. Evaluation may be centred upon individual growth, programme
content, on worker performance.49 Evaluation is essential because it enables the worker
to discover to what extent group has achieved its objectives. Evaluation enables the
group to see both strengths and weaknesses and is enabled to discover points at which
group members need to alter their procedures. Well planned evaluation help to
formulate new objectives and to renew unsuited objectives. It further directs the worker
to adjust and modernize his methods of working with group. Evaluation can be
stimulation to greater professional growth. It can be an extension of the learning
process because its very nature is scientific and its aim is educational.50
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CONTENT OF EVALUATION
Group worker evaluates the following:
1. Evaluation of Individual Growth
Group is composed of individuals. They become the member of the group
because of certain needs and desire. Therefore, the main objective of social group work
is to fulfil these needs and desires in accordance with the prescribed rules and
procedures. But how can the worker be able to know the level of fulfillment of their
needs without evaluating their growth process. The worker evaluates the presence of
each member. He evaluates their level of participation in the group activities.
Sometimes it happens, that the member because of difficulty in adjusting himself in the
group, remains usually absent giving one or the other reason. The worker evaluates the
growth of skills, methods of problems solving, behavior techniques or knowledge
gained by the member through the group experience. The chart (A) has been prepared
for the evaluation of the individual member growth.
(A) Chart for Evaluation
Individual qualities and
parts
Nature of growth and change
Regression as usual Slight
progress
Major
Progress
1 2 3 4
1. Attendance
2. frequency of participation
3.Contact with group
4.Self- esteem
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5.Reliability
6.Emotional control
7.Contact with reality
8.Frequency of responses
9.Behavioral dynamism
10.Tolerance
11.Leadership qualities
12.Sensitivity
13.Sympathy for group
14.Loyalty for group
15.Capacity of problem
solving
16.Discussion and
conversation
17.Ways of performing task
18.New Knowledge
19.Status in group
20.Breakdown prejudices
Douglas51 has proposed the following capacities to be evaluated for measuring
individual growth. These are : (1) encourages, (2) agrees, (3) arbitrates, (4) proposes
action, (5) asks suggestions, (6) gives opinion, (7) asks opinion , (8) gives information,
(9) seeks information. (10) Poses Problem, (11) defines position, (12) asks position,
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(13) routine direction. (14) depreciates self, (15) autocratic manner, (16) disagrees, (17)
self – assertion, (18) active aggression, (19) passive aggression.
2. Evaluation of the group
Group is the medium for achieving individual’s objectives and individual
personality development. Therefore, it is essential for a worker to evaluate the effects
and growth of group as a whole. The group worker evaluates the group organization, a
social responsibility fulfilled by the group, maturity that has achieved, skillfulness, and
expertness has developed, the techniques of problem solving have been learned and
mutual understanding and cooperation have developed among group members.
Bernstein 52 has developed the chart (B) for evaluation of the progress in the group.
(B) Chart for Evaluation
Group Criteria Trends
Regression Static Slight
Progress
Great
Progress
1 2 3 4 5
1. Attendance
2.Group Organization
3.Group Standards
4.Wider Horizons
5.Social responsibility :
(a) To each other
(b) To agency
(c) To community
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6.Enriched Interests
7.Handling conflicts
8.Leadership and
participation
9.Cooperating planning
10.Group thinking
11.Group loyalty and morale
12.Acceptance of differences
13.Decreasing need of leader
Douglas53 has prepared the following yardstick for measuring the growth of a group.
1.How clear are the group goals:
1. No apparent goals
2. Goal confusion, uncertainty or conflict
3. Average goal clarity
4. Goals mostly clear
5. Goals very clear
2.How much trust and openness in the group?
1. Distrust, a closed group
2. Little trust, defensiveness
3. Average trust and openness
4. Considerable trust and openness
5. Remarkable trust and openness
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3.How sensitive and perceptive are group members?
No awareness or listening in the group
Most members self- absorbed
Average sensitivity and listening
Better than usual listening
Outstanding sensitivity to others
4.How much attention was paid to process? (The way group was working)
1. No attention to process
2. Little attention to process
3. Some concern with group process
4. A fair balance between content and process
5. Very concerned with process
5. How were group leadership needs met?
1. Not me, drifting
2. Leadership concentrated in one person
3. Some leadership sharing
4. Leadership functions distributed
5. Leadership needs met creatively and flexibly
6. How were group decisions made?
1. No decisions could be reached
2. Made by a few
3. Majority vote
4. Attempts at integrating minority vote
5. Full participation and tested consensus
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7. How well were group resources used?
1. One or two contributed but deviants silent
2. Several tried to contributed but more discouraged
3. About average use of group resources
4. Group resources well used and encouraged
5. Group resources fully and effectively used
8. How much loyalty and sense o belonging to the group?
1. Members has no group loyalty or sense of belonging
2. Members not close but some friendly relations
3. About average sense of belonging
4. Some warm sense of belonging
5. Strong sense of belonging among members
3. Evaluation of the Member’s Group Contribution
The focus here is on the contribution of the member to the development of the
group, not on his total personality. This calls for an assessment at the end of each
meeting. Bernstein has prepared the chart (C) for this purpose.
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(C) Chart for Evaluation of Member’s Group Contribution
Constructive participation Name of member
1. Good attention and interest but no outstanding
participation
2. Minor contributions, such as helping to arrange
chairs, getting equipment, etc.
3. More important contribution, e.g. thoughtful
consideration of new members.
4. A good job handling a committee assignment or
of something comparable.
5. An outstanding contribution, such as helping to
resolve confects, unusual effort in relation to
responsibilities, etc.
Destructive Participation
1. Inattentiveness and tack of interest and
participation.
2. Giggling, restlessness, and similar behavior.
3. Openly opposing and thwarting the plans and
activities of the group.
4. Name calling and other arts which tend to
stimulate aggressive and negative responses.
5. Violently destructive behaviour which makes it
impossible for the group to continue normally for a
time.
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XIII. IMPORTANCE OF SOCIAL GROUP WORK
IN MODERN TIMES
1. Man is a group animal. He lives in the group for the purposes of
protections, education, exploration of adventure, treatment, promotion,
advisement, administration coordination, intergradations and planning.54
He has on existence far from group life. In modern times group life has
been adversely affected due to development of technological and
materialistic outlook. Man, though lives among thousands yet feels alone.
He now thinks himself as a machine. Values of happy life such as love,
affection, sympathy, friendliness, etc. are becoming rare values may be of
great help to the modern man.
2. Urbanization has increased the problem of isolation and separation. The
feeling of separation is gradually increasing. Man is considering himself
as a helpless creature and is limiting mental discarders. Social group work
attempts to deal with the problem of isolation.
3. Every human being has the basic desire of having importance, worth,
respect and a place in the society. Social group work keeps the members
busy by providing them worth, dignity, place keeps the members busy by
providing them worth, dignity, place, role, creative participation.
4. Modern age is affecting our adaptation abilities. Old techniques are not as
suited as those were in the times. Man has to learn new techniques of
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behaviour for the proper adjustment in the various fields of life. Social
group work provides theis knowledge.
5. Self dependency is a basic characteristic for the personality growth and
development. In social group work, each member plays his role and thus
learns to fulfil his obligations of life without taking help from others.
Group also makes people economically self-dependent by organizing
training in small-scale industries and crafts.
6. Social group a new hope to the physically handicapped disable and aged
persons.
7. Social group work helps to achieve democratic goals such as liberty,
equality, fraternity and social justice.
8. It provides recreation, the most valuable medicine for keeping oneself
mentally healthy.
9. Human capacities and abilities are strengthened through the group work.
10. Social group work helps in solving psychocial problem.
XIV. RECORD WRTTING IN GROUP WORK
MEANING OF PECORD WRITING
Writing record generally accepted as necessary practice in social group work.
For the worker to keep an accurate, honest and thou ghtful account of the
processes which are occurring within the group, it is of utmost importance as no
worker is able to keep the variations of behaviour of a group in his mind.
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Recording extends and supplements or memory recall, thus increasing the
volume of usable memory we have at our command.
Recording in group work means writing the description of the
individual’s activities, his relationship with the group. Social group worker
writes about the individual members and their responses to one another, their
behavioural pattern, type and extent of participation, movement, growth and
change in individual and group and his own role in the group processes.
IMPORTANCE OF RECORD WRITING
Preparing records is essential because (i) records help the group work to
understand individuals in the group; (ii) help the worker to understand the group
as whole; (iii) provide cvidences of growth and change in the members and in
the group worker himself; (iv) help the worker to do more effective job with his
groups; (v) the worker can see merging and changing interests of individual
members; (vii) he gain knowledge of secial problems in the group; (viii) he
knows the emergence of group consciousness; (ix) he record provide content for
supervisory conference (x ) they are the source of future planning; (xi) they are
source of information for other workers; and (xii) the records provide a
permanents and continuous register of facts for the agency.
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CONTENTS OF RECORD
1. Identifying information of the group:
1) Name of the group.
2) Time of meeting.
3) Place of meeting.
4) Name of the present, absent members.
5) New members (if any).
6) Settings of the agency.
7) Important observations.
2. Member’s participation by name:
1) Role perfumed.
2) Conversation did
3) Talks began.
4) Expressed his views
5) Sequence of participation in activities.
6) Special contribution made.
7) Interaction type, level, duration, and creativeness, took place.
8) Emotional quality of participation.
3. Description of the group as a whole:
1) General atmosphere in the group – formal informal competitive,
cooperative, hostile, supportive, permissive.
2) Quantity and quality of work accomplished by the group.
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3) Participation of group members – mostly all/few members talk and
participates, supported others, took sides/dominated group, etc.
4) Positive and negative responses.
5) Members feelings about their group
6) Group’s status in the agency.
4. Description of the group problems.
1) Conflict or fight-nature, type, reason, involvement, level.
2) Apathy – nature, level and possible causes.
3) Inadequate decision making.
5. The relationship and the role of the group worker:
1) Material provided by the workers.
2) Arrangement made.
3) Agents help taken.
4) Suggestion given.
5) Technique, used for problem solving.
6) Worker’s participation in group processes
6. Special assistance given:
1) Member’s name.
2) Problem.
3) Nature of assistance .
7. Evaluation:
1) Evaluation of programme activities.
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2) Evaluation of the group member’s participation.
3) Evaluation of the workers role.
BASIC PRINCIPLE OF RECORDING
Lindsay55 has suggested the following basic principles of recording:
1. The principle of flexibility
The acceptance of this principle means that the group worker recorder as
a disciplined professional. As the nature and objectives of the agency and the
group change, the worker records accordingly and gives emphasis on the other
aspects.
2. The principal of selection
Everything should not be recorded in the group work recording. The
worker records significant observations about individuals and their interactions.
He selects from the movement of the group, behavioural patterns of individual,
his own enabling contributions and skills and techniques applied in the group
processes.
3. The Principle of Readability
The most important aspect is to keep the record as simple as possible in
form, in language, in length. Records, must have face sheet, presenting a brief
outline of the factual data. If records are detailed, brief summaries should be
prepared. In describing individuals, verbatim quotations should be written.
Records should be written systematically.
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4. The Principle of Confidentiality
One of the basic principles of recording in all social work is that records
are written on the premise that they will be held in confidence. If records are
used for other purpose such as training all names and other identifying
information need to be carefully obscured, with fictitious ones substituted.
Records should be kept in lockup.
5. The principle of Worker Acceptance
The worker should take up this responsibility as one of his important
assignment. He should realize that this work is as much important as other
responsibilities.
6. Group Member Should Plan Their own Programme.
7. All Decisions Are Subject To Revision As A Result Of Taking Action.
If the decisions are not suited for action, the process of changing
decisions plays an important and costive role in group work programming.
8. There Should be Definite Rules and Regulations, of Group Activities.
9. Group Should be Found on the Basic of Schismatic Measures, On
Mutuality Of Interests, And Needs Of The Individual.
PROGRAME MEDIA
Programme media are tools which are used within the group setting to
help individuals and the group as a whole achieves desirable personal and social
goals. Many media such as games, social recreation, dances, music, story telling,
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dramas, arts and crafts, drastic arts of cooking, sewing, photography, discussion,
educational activities etc. are used.
PRINCIPLE ELEMENTS IN PROGRAMMING PROCESS
There are the elements of programming process, the members, the social
group working and the programme content. The members join the group having
their special interest, needs, abilities relationship and desire to advancement.
The worker has his norms, values, working methodology, and its variety of rule,
regulations, require a change in behaviour patterns. The interaction of these three
is essential in programme planning for successful functioning of the group.
ROLE OF GROUP WORKER IN PEROGRAMME PLANNING
Wiilson and Ryland59 have narrated the following role of the group
worker in progrmme planning.
1. Helping the Member Plan the Programme.
The social group worker help the group member to plan their own
programme. He enable them to engage constructively in the prograamme
panning process. He does this by the following ways:
(a) Observing, Listening Acting
The social group worker observes the actions and words of the members
as they make use of programme media, reveal their needs and interests. He is
sensitive no only to the actual words but to the way in which they are spoken.
The worker picks up conversations in the midst of activates and helps the
members to verbalize their troubled thoughts.
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(b) Analyzing and Recoating
The workers makes ‘on the spot’ analysis which change his procedures
with the group. Through the records, he remembers and sees the events of the
meeting and the members’ reactions in a little different light and finds new leads
for programme related to the needs of the members and the group as a whole.
(c) Vesting and Counseliing
By another way the worker discovers needs and interests is through his
contacts with the family, the school and the community resources. He counsels
them to plan the activities according to their needs.
(d) Teaching and Leading
Sometimes the worker leads the activities when it is urgently needed in
such a way that the members enjoy participating in them. The worker his focus
on the group experience and on the members. He is catalytic agent between
people, programme, ideas, materials, and the facilities.
2. Discovering and Arousing Interests
(a) Assumed Interests
Because of his general knowledge of the growth and developmental needs
of individuals at various age levels, the worker can assume that a group
composed of members having the ordinary development for a certain age will
have certain interests.
(b) Expressed Interests.
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Various devices are used to empress their interests. It is worker’s
responsibility to see what needs lie behind the expressed interests.
(c) Implied Interests
Many interest are implied or insinuated rather than expressed directly in
words. Group worker analyses these interests and brings them on conscious level
of the group.
3. Using the Environment
The worker makes an extensive use of the environment simulate new
programme actives. He uses agency’s facilities such as gymnasium, swimming
pool, game room, record player, library, kitchen, craft, shop, etc. to enrich the
activities
4. Using Limitations.
Social group worker imposes limitations on the activities on the basis of
available materials, rules and procedures, resources and facilities. He also limits
the activities within the realm of the possibility of a successful accomplishments.
In groups in which some or all of the members are handicapped. The worker’s
responsibility is to help the handicapped person to function to the best of his
ability within the limitation of his disability.
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REFERENCE
1) Phillips. 11.U:Essential of Social Group Work, Association Press, New
York, 1957, P.2.
2) Montageu, A:On Being Haman, Henry Sehuman, New York, 1950.p.30.
3) Kulckhohn, C.Murray A.,Schneider, D.M: Personality, Society and
Cultrue, Knopf, New York, 1953,p.64.
4) Newsletter, W.I:What is Social Group Work? Proceedings of the National
Conference of Social Work, Ixii, 1935,p.151.
5) Coyle, Grace: Social Group Work Social Work Year Book, National
Association of Social Workers, New York, 1937,p.461.
6) Wilson, G.and Ryland, G:Social Group Work practice, Houghton Miffin,
Boson.1947.p.61.
7) Hamilton,G. op.cit.p.19.
8) Coyle, C:’Social Group Work Social Work Year Book, AASW, New
York, 1954.p.480.
9) Treckre, H.B: Social Group Work’ Principal ad practices Association
press, New York, 1955,o.5.
10)Konopka, G:Social Work: A Helping process, Prentice Hall, Englewood
Ciffs, 1963.p.29.
11)Trecker. H.B.op.cit.p.3.