POLYMER DATA
Christian CHARLIER HELMo-Gramme Institute
Annex I : Main polymers with characteristics .............................................................. 1
A1.1. PolyEthylene ............................................................................................ 3
A1.2. PolyPropylene.......................................................................................... 5
A1.3. PolyIsoButylene ....................................................................................... 7
A1.4. PolyButadiene.......................................................................................... 8
A1.5. PolyStyrene............................................................................................ 10
A1.6. Copolymer of Styrene and Butadiene .................................................... 12
A1.7. PolyVinylChloride................................................................................... 14
A1.8. PolyVinylACetate ................................................................................... 16
A1.9. PolyVinylButyrale ................................................................................... 18
A1.10. PolyMethylMethAcrylate....................................................................... 19
A1.11. PolyMethylAcrylate............................................................................... 21
A1.12. PolyAcryloNitrile ................................................................................... 23
A1.13. PolyCyanoAcrylate............................................................................... 24
A1.14. Copolymer of Styrene and Butadiene and of Styrene .......................... 25
A1.15. PolyTetraFluoroEthylene...................................................................... 27
A1.16. PolyOxyMethylene ............................................................................... 28
A1.17. PolyEthyleneTerephtalate .................................................................... 30
A1.18. PolyButyleneTerephtalate .................................................................... 32
A1.19. PolyGlycolicAcid................................................................................... 34
A1.20. PolyLacticAcid...................................................................................... 35
A1.21. Unsaturated Polyester.......................................................................... 36
A1.22. PolyAmide 66....................................................................................... 38
A1.23. PolyAmide 6......................................................................................... 40
A1.24. PolyCarbonate ..................................................................................... 41
A1.25. PolySUlfone ......................................................................................... 42
A1.26. PolyPhenylene Ether............................................................................ 44
A1.27. PolyPhenylene Sulfide ......................................................................... 45
A1.28. PolyURethanes .................................................................................... 46
A1.29. PolyUreas ............................................................................................ 48
A1.30. Phenoplaste ......................................................................................... 50
A1.31. Aminoplaste ......................................................................................... 52
A1.32. Epoxy or phenoxy resin........................................................................ 54
A1.33. Polysiloxane or Silicone ....................................................................... 56
A1.34. Polysaccharides or Cellulosic polymers ............................................... 58
Study Of Materials Polymers
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Annex I : Main polymers with characteristics
The few examples given hereafter (and even before) cannot exhaust the topic. We do not
have to be surprised to find other uses and/or other examples in the vast literature about
polymers, which remains anyway, one of the truly absolutely necessary reference.
The presented characteristics on polymers are limited to the following headings :
Structure of the monomer(s) (names of the substance or substances)
Developed chemical formula of the basic component(s) to point out the future motif and the
reagent part(s).
Structure of the polymer : Usual Abbreviation
MER or MOTIF or REPEAT UNIT is usually close of the chemical formula of the basic
component(s) and it is regularly repeated in the macromolecule. "n" is the number of motifs
also called degree of polymerization.
Technical classification (with the limit temperature of use)
The polymers belong either to thermoplastics or to thermosets or still even elastomers.
Most important usual properties
Remarkable properties which are generally linked to the uses.
Usual values of some chosen properties (pure polymer)
!
kg dm-3 Specific mass
"
MPa1/2 Solubility parameter
#r
MPa
Tensile strength
Fracture strength
E
MPa
Young Modulus
Tensile Modulus
Tg
C Glass point
Tm
C Melting point
For the polymers, values are clearly influenced by the molar mass and values can be
different due to the methods of measurement.
Uses : most common applications
Examples of commercial names : usual names of the polymer as the manufacturing
companies call them. Those names are copyright or trade mark as well as the involved
processes. Main important companies in the production of polymers are BASF, ATO
Chem, HOECHST, CDF Chimie, DUPONT NEMOURS, ICI, DOW Chemicals, BAYER,
joint ventures of oil companies, …, SOLVAY, and so on.
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Manufacturing processes : used methods to achieve the reaction of polymerization.
Main manufacturers : some important companies (varying according to the market).
Remark(s) : additional information.
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A1.1. PolyEthylene
Structure of the monomer (ethylene or ethene) :
C
H
H
C
H
H
Structure of the polymer : PE
CH2 CH2( )
n
Thermoplastic (usable until 80-100 C)
Excellent electrical properties, good resistance to impacts, easy colorability (translucent if
thick), good resistance to chemical aggressions (problems with oxidizing acids).
!
kg dm-3
0.92 to 0.96
L.D.P.E. – H.D.P.E.
"
MPa1/2
15 to 16.5 (18)
L.D.P.E. – H.D.P.E
#r
MPa
5 to 50
L.D.P.E. – H.D.P.E
E
MPa
100 to 300
L.D.P.E. – H.D.P.E
Tg
C
-130 (-110)
and -120 (-90)
L.D.P.E. – H.D.P.E.
Tm
C
110 and 135
L.D.P.E. – H.D.P.E
Values are linked to molar mass. Glass points are usually difficult to determine for both
polymers.
Uses : films (L.D.), packaging (L.D.), flexible bottles (H.D.), molding (H.D.), insulation of
electrical wires (H.D.).
Examples of commercial names : alkatene, hostalen, lupolen, eltex, lacqtene, dowlex,
escorene, marlex, stamylan, flexomer, and so on.
Manufacturing processes
Polyethylene is made under high or low pressure, which gives it different properties. The
high pressure polyethylene has a low density (radicalar reactions in a bulk process, it gives
L.D.P.E. or LDPE) and in the low pressure process, that is the opposite (coordination
complex in a suspension or even solution process, catalyst ZIEGLER or NATTA, it gives
H.D.P.E. or HDPE).
Main manufacturers : Arco, Total, Dow, BASF, Hoechst, Paxon, Philips, Solvay, and so on.
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Remarks
Since 1980, polyethylene similar to L.D.P.E. has appeared. It is so called Linear Low
Density Polyethylene or L.L.D.P.E. (rather suspension process), properties are close to the
L.D.P.E but process is less difficult to manage.
The last born PE is the U.H.M.W.P.E. which is a polyethylene with Ultra High Molecular
Weight. It is used in fibers, gears, screws, and so on.
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A1.2. PolyPropylene
Structure of the monomer (propylene or propene) :
C
H
H CH3
C
H
Structure of the polymer : PP
CH CH2( )n
CH3
Thermoplastic (usable until 100-120 C)
The lowest density of all the plastics, excellent resistance to impacts, very great colorability
(translucent if thick), good resistance to the chemical aggressions (problems with strong
acids), good stiffness.
!
kg dm-3 0.91
"
MPa1/2 17-18
#r
MPa 30 to 40
E
MPa 3800
Tg
C -15
Tm
C 165
Uses : not very different from polyethylene H.D. but used where better mechanical
properties are necessary. Plenty of molded articles as luggage shells, bumpers, pipes,
caps, films for packaging, and so on.
Examples of commercial names : propathene, novolen, hostalen PP, napryl, lacqtene P,
eltex P, moplen stamylan P, appryl, olevac, and so on.
Manufacturing processes
Suspension or even solution process with catalyst ZIEGLER or NATTA (coordination
complex).
Main manufacturers : Amoco, Total, Dow, BASF, Hoechst, and so on.
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Remark
Polypropylene is a rather recent plastic (around 1956-1957) whose uses and applications
have quickly increased when the process has been mastered. Indeed the useful
polypropylene is isotactic.
It exists copolymers of PP and PE in order to improve impact properties.
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A1.3. PolyIsoButylene
Structure of the monomer (isobutylene or 2,2 methyl propene) :
C
H
H CH3
C
CH3
Structure of the polymer : PIB
CH3
C
CH3
CH2( )n
Elastomer thermoplastic (usable until 100 C)
Good resistance to abrasion, to tear, to shear and to leaks. Good thermal behavior.
!
kg dm-3 0.92
"
MPa1/2 16.5
#r
MPa 0.5 to 50
E
MPa 0.5 - 50
Tg
C -70
Tm
C Not well defined
Melting point can be measured at 2 C.
Uses : tubes for hot transport of fluids, insulation of electrical wires, inner tubes as
copolymer with butadiene or isoprene (butyl rubber)
Examples of commercial names : napvis, oppanol, vistanex.
Manufacturing processes
Solution process (cationic at low temperature, $ -70 C) or possible in a low pressure
emulsion process with ZIEGLER-NATTA catalyst.
Main manufacturers : Exxon Mobil, Bestone chemical.
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A1.4. PolyButadiene
Structure of the monomer (butadiene or 1,3 butadiene) :
C
H
H
C
H
C
H
C
H
H
Structure of the polymer : PB or BR
HC CH
2)n
CH( CH2
Elastomer thermoplastic (usable until 100 C)
Good resistance to abrasion, to impacts. Fairly good chemical resistance (problems with
hydrocarbons, chlorinated or aromatized HC, ozone). Some properties can be improved if
an H atom on C2 of the monomer is replaced (see remarks) by CH3 (increase resistant to
abrasion) or Cl (increases resistance to weather conditions, to shear, to stress, to
temperature).
!
kg dm-3 0.94
"
MPa1/2 15-17
#r
MPa 14 to 17
E
MPa 2-10
Tg
C -90
Tm
C Not well defined
Some experiments indicate Tm = 2 C for cis (H atoms on the same side of the double link))
not reticulated and 145 C for trans (H atoms not on the same side of the double link) not
reticulated (values have been extrapolated as well).
Uses : tires, uses in association with others as copolymers (with styrene to form SBR
and/or with acrylonitrile to form NBR).
Examples of commercial names : alcryn, hypalon, hytrel, nordel
Manufacturing processes
Solution process or emulsion process
Main manufacturers : Bayer, Union Chemical, A.Z. Chemicals. Also tire companies.
Remarks
Polybutadiene is a complicate polymer as the structure can be cis or trans configuration.
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If a H atom of the monomer is replaced by :
- CH3, it becomes isoprene, the PolyIsoPrene (natural or synthetic rubber, NR or IR or
PIP) is used for tires, tubes, gaskets, pipes, and so on.
IR or artificial PIP is made by solution process.
! = 0.93 kg dm-3, #r = 17-20 MPa, Tg = -73 C, Tm = 28 C (cis, 78 C for trans)
- Cl, it becomes chloroprene, the PolyChLoroprene (PCL) is used for pipes, gaskets,
soles, adhesives, and so on.
! = 1.23 kg dm-3, #r = 20-25 MPa, Tg = -50 C, Tm = 80 C.
PCL is made by emulsion process.
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A1.5. PolyStyrene
Structure of the monomer (styrene or 1 benzene ethene) :
C
H
H
C
H
Structure of the polymer : PS
CH2
( )n
CH
Thermoplastic (usable until 80 C)
Excellent colorability, the polystyrene is transparent, good stiffness and tridimensionnal
stability, good electrical properties, easy and fast to mold, fair chemical resistance
(problems with strong acids).
!
kg dm-3 1.05
"
MPa1/2 15-21
#r
MPa 40-60
E
MPa 3300
Tg
C 90 (100)
Tm
C (180-280)
Some experiments indicate Tm = 240 C but the value is rather theoretical and not really
well defined.
Uses : above all in molding, records, rigid foams (for packaging), beads, insulation
(expensed PS or EPS), in copolymers with butadiene and/or acrylonitrile.
Examples of commercial names : styron, hostyren, polystyrol, lacqrene, edistir, vestyron,
and so on. For EPS, it is styropor, hostapor, vestypor, and so on.
Manufacturing processes
All kinds of polymerization processes, bulk or suspension or emulsion process and also in
solution.
Some copolymers of styrene are made by the solution process (styrene and butadiene)
and by the bulk or suspension process (styrene and acrylonitrile).
Main manufacturers : BASF, Hoechst, Dow, Arco, Novacor.
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Remark
Expanded (expansive) PS or EPS has a very low volumic mass (15 to 80 kg m-3), it is
waterproof and insulating. Generally the Expansible PS is processed during the
polymerization phase by adding a blowing agent (such as pentane) and it leads to
Expanded PS after a further physical process.
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A1.6. Copolymer of Styrene and Butadiene
Structure of the monomers (styrene and butadiene) :
C
H
H
C
C C
H
H
H + C
H
H
C
H
H
Structure of the polymer (alternated) : SB or SBR
HC CH2
)n
CHCH2
( CH CH2
Elastomer thermoplastic (usable until 110 C)
Excellent stiffness and tridimensionnal stability, facility of fast molding, good resistance to
impacts and easy colorability. Fairly good chemical resistance (problems with
hydrocarbons, chlorinated or aromatized HC, ozone).
!
kg dm-3 0.93
"
MPa1/2 17-18
#r
MPa 1.5 to 3
E
MPa 1 to 2
Tg
C -35
Tm
C Not well defined
#r = 20 MPa if reinforced (for 25 wt % styrene),
Tg = relationship (%weight and Tg), Tm = relationship (Tm and Tg).
Examples of commercial names : generally the same names as PS often completed by
SB, so lacqrene, edistir, polystyrol, styron, hostyren, and so on.
Uses : particularly in molding, packaging, rubbers (tires, mechanical goods).
Manufacturing processes
Solution process (anionic for block copolymer), also emulsion process (random
copolymer).
Main manufacturers : Eastman, Sinopec Qilu, Union Carbide.
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Remark
SB polymers are also called High Impact PolyStyrene or HIPS if Styrene is the main
component and are as rubber if Butadiene is the main component.
Styrene is also associated with Acrylonitrile to make SAN copolymers (! = 1.08 kg dm-3, #r
= 70 MPa, Tg = 115 C, Tm = not well defined). with similar properties than ABS (see table
of contents).
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A1.7. PolyVinylChloride
Structure of the monomer (vinyl chloride or 1 chloro ethene) :
C
H
H
C
H
Cl
Structure of the polymer : PVC
CH CH2( )n
Cl
Thermoplastic (usable until 90 C)
Good electrical properties, resistant to flame, good resistance to impacts, good stiffness
but may become flexible with plastifiers, good resistance to chemical aggressions.
!
kg dm-3 1.3 to 1.4
"
MPa1/2 20
#r
MPa 15 to 50
E
MPa 1500 - 3000
Tg
C 85
Tm
C 175
Values of PVC enlarge on plastified (flexible) to rigid.
Uses : bottles, pipes, tubes, films, coatings, profiles. There are different kinds of PVC as
rigid, flexible, anti-impact, chlorinated, expensed, conductor.
Examples of commercial names : lacqvyl, lucovyl, solvic, corvic, darvic, welvic, vinoflex,
hostalit, vestolit, and so on.
Manufacturing processes
Suspension process or solution process or emulsion process but also possible in bulk
polymerization.
Main manufacturers : Solvin, Geon.
Remark
If the H atom on the carbon already linked to Cl is replaced by one Cl, we have a
PolyVinyliDene Chloride or PVDC which has good properties of resistance to chemical
aggressions (! = 1.77 kg dm-3, Tg = -20 C, Tm = 200 C.).
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Made by emulsion or suspension process (“saran”).
Lot of copolymers are obtained from VC and other vinyls or with propylene.
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A1.8. PolyVinylACetate
Structure of the monomer (vinyl acetate or acetic 2 methyl ethene ester) :
C
H
H
CH3
C
H
C
OO
Structure of the polymer : PVAC
CH3
C
H
CH2( )n
O C
O
Thermoplastic (usable until 100 C)
Good colorability, good resistance to the chemical aggressions (problems with strong
acids), to weathering.
!
kg dm-3 1.2
"
MPa1/2 18 - 20
#r
MPa 28 to 50
E
MPa 600
Tg
C 30
Tm
C 65 to 200
Molar mass influences a lot the values of fracture strength and melting point. Classical
value for melting point is around 100-105 C (not easy to fix), Polymer handbook
(Branderup and alia) gives also the value of 175 C.
Uses : glue, coating for cellophane, outdoor coatings (water-based latex), hydrolyzed to
give vinyl alcohol.
Examples of commercial names : rhodopas, hostaflex, mowilith, and so on.
Manufacturing processes
Emulsion or suspension process.
Main manufacturers : Kuraray, Sekisui Chemicals, Chinese companies.
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Remark
The acetate group CH3CO can be replaced by H by hydrolyzation so that the polymer
contains the function OH in the motif and it is so called PolyVinylALcohol or PVAL or
PVOH (! = 1.26 to 1.35 kg dm-3, Tg = 85 C, Tm = 265 C). That polymer is used for its
absorbent properties.
EVA is a copolymer based on ethylene and vinyl acetate monomers, it has good
properties of insulation and used in protection in electrical wiring.
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A1.9. PolyVinylButyrale
Structure of the monomer (vinyl acetate and butyraldehyde) :
Structure of the polymer : PVB
2CH
CHCH2
CH2
CH
O O
CH
2CH
3CH
n2
CH
Thermoplastic (usable until 100 C)
Good mechanical properties, good flexibility, optical clarity and excellent adhesion, used
as intermediate layers in safety glasses, it has an excellent coefficient of adhesion with the
glass. Good resistance to the ultraviolet ray.
!
kg dm-3 1.1
"
MPa1/2 10
#r
MPa 40
E
MPa 2
Tg
C 50
Tm
C > 170
Use : most in the safety glasses as safety glass middle layer and also as industrial
coatings, lacquers, primers, printing inks, adhesives, fiber binders, temporary binder for
ceramics.
Examples of commercial names : mowital, and so on.
Manufacturing processes
In three steps, polymerization of vinyl acetate through emulsion or suspension process,
followed by hydrolyzation to give polyvinylalcohol, finally followed by the condensation of
the polyvinylalcohol with butyraldehyde.
Main manufacturers : Eastman, BASF.
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A1.10. PolyMethylMethAcrylate
Structure of the monomer (methylmethacrylate or 2 methyl ethene methyl ester) :
C
H
H
CH3
C
C
O
O
CH3
Structure of the polymer : PMMA
CH3
C CH2( )n
O
C
O
CH3
Thermoplastic (usable until 100 C)
Excellent colorability, very good transparency, good stiffness, good tridimensionnal
stability, good resistance to impacts. Fairly good chemical resistance (problems with bases
and strong acids).
!
kg dm-3 1.2
"
MPa1/2 19
#r
MPa 50 to 70
E
MPa 3100
Tg
C 110
Tm
C (190-240)
Melting point is rather difficult to measure due to glassy state behavior.
Uses : moldings, thick sheets, manufacturing of "glass" sheets, medical applications in
artificial lenses.
Examples of commercial names : perspex, diakon, lucite, oroglas, plexiglas, altuglas,
lucryl, macrynal, vedril, limacryl, vitroflex, and so on.
Manufacturing processes
Bulk process (between 2 glass sheets) or suspension process.
Main manufacturers : BASF.
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Remark
The widely used PMMA is atactic.
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A1.11. PolyMethylAcrylate
Structure of the monomer (methyl acrylate or ethene methyl ester) :
C
H
H
CH3
C
H
C
O
O
Structure of the polymer : PMA
CH3
C
H
CH2( )n
O
C
O
Thermoplastic (usable until 100 C)
Excellent colorability, good transparency, good stiffness, good tridimensionnal stability,
good resistance to impacts. Fairly good chemical resistance (problems with bases and
strong acids).
!
kg dm-3 1.1 to 1.2
"
MPa1/2 21
#r
MPa 7
E
MPa -
Tg
C 95
Tm
C Not defined
Uses : manufacturing of "glass" sheets of high impact resistance in association with
acrylonitrile.
Examples of commercial names : similar to PMMA
Manufacturing processes
Suspension process.
Main manufacturers : BASF, and so on.
Remark
PMA is very similar to PMMA, so chains are smoother and thinner than those of PMMA.
Esters of acrylic acid and methacrylic acid are also used to make acrylic coatings.
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Polymers of acrylic acids and its derivatives (as methacrylic and acrylamide) are soluble in
water.
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A1.12. PolyAcryloNitrile
Structure of the monomer (acrylonitrile) :
C
H
H
C
H
C N
Structure of the polymer : PAN
CH2
( CH )n
C
N
Thermoplastic (usable until 200 C)
Outstanding resistance to impacts, good resistance to chemical aggressions (problems
with concentrated acids and organic solvents), resistant to bad weather, sunlight.
!
kg dm-3 1.18
"
MPa1/2 31.5
#r
MPa 200
E
MPa -
Tg
C 60 to 80 and more
Tm
C 315 C
Molar mass influences a lot the values of glass transition. Classical value for glassy point
is around 105 C.
Uses : mainly fibers (also pyrolized to make carbon fibers) and in copolymers (A.B.S. for
instance).
Examples of commercial names : P.A.N. or PAN, orlon
Manufacturing processes
Emulsion process (with water).
Main manufacturers : mainly Chinese companies.
Remark : mainly used to produce carbon fibers.
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A1.13. PolyCyanoAcrylate
Structure of the monomer (methyl 2-cyanoacrylate) :
Structure of the polymer : PMCA
Thermoplastic (usable until 150 C)
Good transparency, good stiffness, good resistance to impacts. Water resistant. Non toxic.
!
kg dm-3 1.1 to 1.2
"
MPa1/2 -
#r
MPa 180000
E
MPa -
Tg
C variable (100-170)
Tm
C Not defined
Uses : manufacturing of super glues.
Examples of commercial names : loctite
Manufacturing processes
Bulk process (polymerization with water).
Main manufacturers : Eastman Kodak, Permabond, and so on.
Remark
Other cyanoacrylates can be obtained by replacing methyl by ethyl, butyl groups, both
used in glue applications.
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A1.14. Copolymer of Acrylonitrile, of Butadiene and of Styrene
Structure of the monomers (acrylonitrile, butadiene and styrene) :
C
H
H
C
H
C N
+ C
H
H
C
C C
H
H
H + C
H
H
C
H
H
Structure of the polymer (alternated) : ABS
C
H
CH2( )n
N
C
CH2 C C CH2
H H
H H
C
H
CH2
Thermoplastic (usable until 90 C)
Outstanding resistance to impacts, good resistance to chemical aggressions (problems
with concentrated acids and organic solvents), hardness.
!
kg dm-3 1.04
"
MPa1/2 -
#r
MPa 50
E
MPa -
Tg
C -40 to 100
Tm
C 220-280
The fracture strength is about 50 MPa for A.B.S. medium impact,
Tg = relationship (%weight and Tg), Tm = relationship (Tm and Tg).
Uses : pipes, moldings, extruded sheets, an so on according to following figure
Polystyrene
glassyPolybutadiene
elastic
NBR
Rubber
SAN
Molding Resins
SBR
Rubber
Fibers
RubbersPlastics
Acrylonitrile
crystalline
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Examples of commercial names : ugikral, cycolac, novodur, royalite, terluran, delta, denka,
toyolac, ronfalin, tufrex, ultrastyr, sinkral, and so on.
Manufacturing processes
Emulsion or even solution process of styrene and acrylonitrile in butadiene latex.
Main manufacturers : Dow, Nova Polymers, Bayer, BASF, EniChem, DSM and so on.
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A1.15. PolyTetraFluoroEthylene
Structure of the monomer (tetrafluoroethylene) :
C
F
F
C
F
F
Structure of the polymer : PTFE
( )
nCF2
CF2
Weakly thermoplastic (usable until 290 C)
Excellent resistance to chemical aggressions, good elasticity, low friction coefficient, stable
at high temperature as well as low. Generally high UV resistance.
!
kg dm-3 2.2
"
MPa1/2 13 (16)
#r
MPa 15 to 35
E
MPa 2000- 4000
Tg
C (120)
Tm
C 330
Uses : anticorrosion, antiadhesive material, electrical insulator, chemical-resistant filters,
waterproofness (gaskets, fittings, an so on), fibers, medical items, artificial limbs, and so
on.
Examples of commercial names : teflon, hostaflon, fluon, algoflon, foraflon, solef, lenzing,
rastex, gore-tex and so on.
Manufacturing processes
Emulsion or suspension process (in water as PVC).
Main manufacturers : Hoechst, Dupont, Allied Signal, Enflo, SinoSeal, SKF.
Remark
If two F atoms are replaced by 2 H, we have a PolyVinyliDene Fluoride or PVDF which
has good properties of resistance to UV, weathering aggressions and ageing
(! = 1.76 kg dm-3, #r = 50 MPa, Tg = -30 C, Tm = 175 C, " = 17 Mpa1/2, 23 by Hansen's
theory).
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A1.16. PolyOxyMethylene
Structure of the monomer (formol or formaldehyde or methanal) :
C
H
H
O
Structure of the polymer : POM
C
H
O( )n
H
Thermoplastic (usable until 120 C)
Good resistance to abrasion and to stresses. Good resistance to creeping and to flexing.
Good chemical resistance problems with bases and strong acids.
!
kg dm-3 1.4
"
MPa1/2 21-22
#r
MPa 50 to 70
E
MPa 3100
Tg
C -50 (-70)
Tm
C 175
Uses : molding of little pieces (clips, springs, an so on).
Examples of commercial names : ultraform, hostaform, delrin, ertacetal, sniatal, tenac, and
so on.
Manufacturing processes
Solution polymerization (cationic).
Main manufacturers : BASF, Mitsubishi, Ashai, DSM.
Remark
Ethylene oxide, propylene oxide, epichlorohydrin, tetrahydrofuran give also other
oxypolymers. This class of polymers is called polyethers and can include the epoxy and
phenoxy resins (see epoxy and phenoxy), PolyPhenylene Oxide (from 2,6
dimethylphenol), PolySUlfone (from bisphenol and dichlorophenylsulfone) and
Study Of Materials Polymers
- 29 -
PolyPhenylene Sulfide (from dichlorobenzene and sulfur sodium), depending on the
combinations between monomers.
Polyoxymethylene is also called polyacetal.
If methanal is replaced by ethanal, it leads to PolyOxyEthylene or POE.
Poly Ether Ether Ketone or PEEK (from diphenol or hydroquinone and 4,4'
difluorodiphenyl ketone) as well as Poly Ether Ketone (from chloro hydroxy
benzophenone) or PEK, are recent aromatic polymers with high thermal resistance and
good flexibility.
PEEK
!
kg dm-3 1.26 to 1.45
"
MPa1/2 21.5
#r
MPa 90
E
MPa 3560
Tg
C 143
Tm
C 334
PEK
!
kg dm-3 1.27 to 1.43
"
MPa1/2 20
#r
MPa 100
E
MPa 3190
Tg
C 154
Tm
C 360
Study Of Materials Polymers
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A1.17. PolyEthyleneTerephtalate
Structure of the monomers (ethane diol and terephtalic acid) :
HOC
O
OHO
C
C
H
H
C
H
H
HO OH +
Structure of the polymer : PET (PETE or PETP)
CH O2
C
O
n
C
O
2OCH
Thermoplastic (usable to 100 C)
Outstanding robustness and good resistance to shear as films. Good resistance to
pressurized gases. It is common linear polyester.
!
kg dm-3 1.34
"
MPa1/2 20-22
#r
MPa 80
E
MPa 1700
Tg
C 70
Tm
C 260
Uses : films (bottles for fizzy drinks), fibers.
Examples of commercial names : arnite, melinex, hostaphan, lurex, tenite, terphane,
dacron, tergal, and so on.
Manufacturing processes
Solution process.
Main manufacturers : Eastman chemical, Dupont.
Study Of Materials Polymers
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Remark
Stretching increases mechanical properties of PET by orientation.
This polymer belongs to the polyester family.
Study Of Materials Polymers
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A1.18. PolyButyleneTerephtalate
Structure of the monomers (butane diol and terephtalic acid) :
Structure of the polymer : PBT (PBTE or PBTP)
Thermoplastic (usable to 100 C)
Excellent moldability, excellent mechanical, electrical and thermal properties, good
chemical resistance. It is common linear polyester.
!
kg dm-3 1.32
"
MPa1/2 21
#r
MPa 55 to 60
E
MPa 2600
Tg
C 60
Tm
C 225
Uses : electric and electronic components, little parts in household appliances.
Examples of commercial names : orgater, ultradur, pocan, crastin, vestodur, techster,
lupox, topex, and so on.
Manufacturing processes
Solution process.
Main manufacturers : Hoechst, G.E., BASF, Toray Industries.
Study Of Materials Polymers
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Remark
This polymer belongs to the polyester family.
Study Of Materials Polymers
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A1.19. PolyGlycolicAcid
Structure of the monomer (glycolide) :
Structure of the polymer : PGA
Thermoplastic (usable to 150 C)
Good biocompatibility, biodegradable, good physical and mechanical properties as for the
polyester family.
!
kg dm-3 1.53
"
MPa1/2 22-23
#r
MPa 340
E
MPa 6000
Tg
C 35-40
Tm
C 225-230
Uses : biodegradable suture material and other applications in medicine.
Examples of commercial names : PGA, dexon, vycril, resomer, and so on
Manufacturing processes
Suspension process.
Main manufacturers : Davis and Geck, Chinese companies.
Remark
This polymer is considered as a biopolymer and it belongs to the polyester family.
Study Of Materials Polymers
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A1.20. PolyLacticAcid
Structure of the monomers (Lactide from lactic acid HOOC-CCH3-OH) :
Structure of the polymer : PLA
Thermoplastic (usable to 150 C)
Good biocompatibility, biodegradable by hydrolysis, good processability, good physical
and mechanical properties as for the polyester family.
!
kg dm-3 1.25 to 1.30
"
MPa1/2 21-22
#r
MPa 30-50
E
MPa 2700-16000
Tg
C 55-65
Tm
C 173-178
Uses : films, fibers (high tensile strength), films, woven shirts, microwaveable trays,
medical applications (suture, dentistry, orthopedics).
Examples of commercial names : loopla
Manufacturing processes
Suspension process.
Main manufacturers : DOW, NatureWorks, PURAC biomaterials, Galactic.
Remark
This polymer is considered as a biopolymer and it belongs to the polyester family.
Study Of Materials Polymers
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A1.21. Unsaturated Polyester
Structure of the monomers :
Unsaturated acids with at least two acid functions
(maleic anhydride or other polyacids with unsaturated link)
C
H
C
C
O O
H
C
O
Alcohols with at least two alcohol functions
(diol = glycol, ethylene glycol, an so on, but also polyols)
C
H
H
C
H
H
C
H
H
HO OH
m
Vinyl monomers as curing agents
(styrene, methyl methacrylate, vinyl acetate)
Structure of the polymer : tridimensionnal UP
Thermosetting (usable to 130 C)
Wide range of properties, suit well for the composites, good resistance to the chemical
aggressions (except strong acids), good stiffness, good insulator.
!
kg dm-3 1.2 to 1.3
"
MPa1/2 -
#r
MPa 15 to 80
E
MPa 2100 - 4400
Tg
C Not defined
Tm
C Not defined
Values enlarge on soft to rigid polyesters
Uses : stratified plates used in the aviation or in the navy, shells, contact moldings,
varnishes, concrete resins, and so on. Very wide uses for its resistance.
Examples of commercial names : norsoix, stratyl, scotchpack, palatal, and so on.
Manufacturing processes
Study Of Materials Polymers
- 37 -
Great variety of polyesters and processing in two phases, prepolymerization between the
unsaturated acid and the polyol, curing with vinyl monomer.
Main manufacturers : BASF.
Study Of Materials Polymers
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A1.22. PolyAmide 66
Structure of the monomers (hexamethylene diamine and adipic acid) :
Structure of the polymer : PA 66
HN
(CH ) C2 4
6(CH )2
O
n
C
NH
O
Thermoplastic (usable until 150 C)
Excellent resistance to the wear, to the strains and to the impacts, low friction coefficient,
high temperature of deformation, autoextinguishing. Good chemical resistance (problems
with strong acids).
!
kg dm-3 1.13
"
MPa1/2 25
#r
MPa 80-120
E
MPa 3000
Tg
C (50)
Tm
C 270
Uses : molded goods (pieces for rotation, pipes, gearing, hinges, handles, an so on),
fibers, tire cords.
Examples of commercial names : Nylon 66, ultramid A, sustamid 6.6, ertalon 6.6, nytralon
A, technyl, and so on.
Manufacturing processes
Solution process with precipitation (also called interfacial process).
Main manufacturers : Dupont, DSM, Rhone-Poulenc, Mitsubishi.
Remark
PA is the PolyAmid family and other polymers as PA 4-6, PA 6-10 and PA 6-12 are also
used in specific application of chemistry using polyamids.
Study Of Materials Polymers
- 39 -
If some aromatic rings are directly attached to amide linkages (at least 85%), we have
manufactured fibers of very high resistance which are called aramids or polyaramids.
KEVLAR fibers are of that type and give fibers as strong as steel.
PolyImids are also a kind of polyamides based on aromatic rings present in the diamine
and in a dianhydride benzene. Used to produce films for very low and very high
temperatures.
Values for Polyamide Imid (trade names PAL, orlon, vespel, kaplon)
!
kg dm-3 1.38
"
MPa1/2 -
#r
MPa 120 to 200
E
MPa 4900 to 5200
Tg
C Very high
Tm
C Very high
Amid bloc with ethers can form a copolymer such as PEBA that has properties of rigidity
and elasticity as well as perspiring properties interesting in the confection of some wearing
clothes.
Study Of Materials Polymers
- 40 -
A1.23. PolyAmide 6
Structure of the monomer (caprolactame) :
C CH H
C C
NOH
C C
HH
H
H
H
H
H
H
Structure of the polymer : PA 6
(CH2)5n
NHC
O
Thermoplastic (usable until 120 C)
Similar properties to the nylon 66 or PA 66 but less good thermal properties.
!
kg dm-3 1.15
"
MPa1/2 20
#r
MPa 80
E
MPa 3000
Tg
C (50-60)
Tm
C 220
Uses : see polyamide 66.
Examples of commercial names : perlon, ultramid B, sustamid, ertalon, nytralon, orgamide,
capron, and so on.
Manufacturing processes
Solution process with precipitation or bulk process.
Main manufacturers : Dupont, Bayer, Allied Signal.
Remark
Other PA (PolyAmid family) as PA 11 and PA 12 are also used in soles, coating, and so
on.
Study Of Materials Polymers
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A1.24. PolyCarbonate
Structure of the monomers (bisphenol and phosgene or carbonate) :
Instead of phosgene (also called methylene chloride), diphenyl carbonate (C6H5-O-CO-O-
C6H5) can be used (phenol is by-product instead of HCl)
Structure of the polymer : PC
CH
3
C
CH3
O O C
O
n
Thermoplastic (usable until 120 C)
Good electrical properties, excellent resistance to the impacts, good tridimensionnal
stability at high temperature, easy colorability, autoextinguishing. Good chemical
resistance (problems with bases and strong acids).
!
kg dm-3 1.2
"
MPa1/2 20
#r
MPa 65
E
MPa 2400
Tg
C 145
Tm
C 230
Uses : sheets for insulation, CD records, unbreakable windows, peaks for helmets,
sunglasses, bottles, household appliances.
Examples of commercial names : makrolon, verafil, sinvet, lexan, apec, trirex, and so on.
Manufacturing processes
Solvent process with precipitation.
Main manufacturers : Bayer, Lucky, Sam Yang.
Study Of Materials Polymers
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A1.25. PolySUlfone
Structure of the monomers (bisphenol-A and dichlorophenylsulfone) :
Structure of the polymer : PSU
Thermoplastic (usable until 150-180 C)
Good mechanical properties, outstanding thermal resistance (autoextinguishing), good
dimensional stability, good electrical insulator.
!
kg dm-3 1.24
"
MPa1/2 20
#r
MPa 70
E
MPa 2500
Tg
C 190
Tm
C 320-360
Uses : applications that require thermal and electrical resistances, household parts (for
microwave ovens).
Examples of commercial names : udel, radel, mindel, ultrason, and so on.
Manufacturing processes
Solvent process.
Main manufacturers : 3M, Amoco, BASF, PolyOne.
Study Of Materials Polymers
- 43 -
Remark
PolyPhenylSUlfone or PPSU and PolyEtherSUlfone or PESU can be considered in the
same family of ether sulfone based. PPSU is obtained from the polymerization between
dichlorophenylsulfone and diphenyle (or its salt) and PESU is obtained from the
polymerization between dichlorophenylsulfone and diphenol. Usual trade names are Radel
(PPSU) and vitrex (PESU). Properties have some differences.
PPSU
!
kg dm-3 1.29
"
MPa1/2 20
#r
MPa 70
E
MPa 2480
Tg
C 220
Tm
C 320-360
PESU
!
kg dm-3 1.37
"
MPa1/2 23
#r
MPa 80
E
MPa 2400
Tg
C 225
Tm
C 340-380
Study Of Materials Polymers
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A1.26. PolyPhenylene Ether
Structure of the monomers (2-6 xylenol) :
Structure of the polymer : PPE (PPO)
n
O
CH3
CH3
Thermoplastic (usable until 120 C)
Good mechanical properties, good thermal resistance (autoextinguishing), good
dimensional stability, good chemical resistance (sensitive to hydrocarbons).
!
kg dm-3 1.3
"
MPa1/2 -
#r
MPa 50
E
MPa -
Tg
C 190
Tm
C 260
Uses : thermal-resistant parts, uses in computer parts.
Examples of commercial names : noryl, prevex.
Manufacturing processes
Solvent process (oxypolymerization with Cu+).
Main manufacturers : G.E., Mitsubishi.
Remark
PolyPhenylene Oxide or PPO is an old name.
Study Of Materials Polymers
- 45 -
A1.27. PolyPhenylene Sulfide
Structure of the monomers (paradichlorobenzene and sodium sulfur) :
ClCl + Na S Na
Structure of the polymer : PPS
n
S
Thermoplastic (usable until 170 C)
High mechanical properties, high strength modulus, one of the less incombustible,
generally good chemical resistance (except for amines chlorinated solvents), good
electrical insulator.
!
kg dm-3 1.44
"
MPa1/2 20-21
#r
MPa 65
E
MPa 3000
Tg
C 85
Tm
C 280
Uses : thermal-resistant electrical parts, parts for motoring, equipment for chemical
industry.
Examples of commercial names : supec, fortron, primef, techtron, ryton, and so on.
Manufacturing processes
Emulsion or solvent process.
Main manufacturers : Phillips, G.E., Solvay, Hoechst.
Study Of Materials Polymers
- 46 -
A1.28. PolyURethanes
Structure of the monomers (for example : toluene diisocyanate and diol) :
Structure of the polymer : PUR
NH C
O
O
CH3
CH2
( )m
CH2
CH2
NH
O
C
O
n
Thermoplastic (if linear) to thermosetting (usable until 120 C)
Good resistance to the wear, good resistance to the chemical aggressions (a few problems
with acids) and good thermal, acoustic and electrical insulator.
!
kg dm-3 1.25
"
MPa1/2 27
#r
MPa 10 to 20
E
MPa -
Tg
C -40 to 130
Tm
C ! 180
! = 0.03-0.04, 0.1-1.0 kg dm-3 for the insulating foam to the rigid foam.
If thermosets, Tg and Tm do not exist, polymers are destroyed before transition.
Uses : foams (commercial bottles of prepolymers), insulation, coatings, soles, covering,
filling, used in I.P.N. (Interpenetrated Polymer Network).
Examples of commercial names : syntodur, suprasec, glendion, caradate, fomrez, voranol,
baydur, bayfill, baytex, and so on.
Manufacturing processes
Bulk or solution process for the prepolymerization, then curing with diamines or polyols.
Main manufacturers : B.F. Goodrich.
Study Of Materials Polymers
- 47 -
Remark
The polyurethane is also a big family of polymers as the polyamids or the polyesters.
So for instance, other polyurethanes are made with 4,4" diisocyanate diphenylmethane
instead of toluene disocyanate.
Study Of Materials Polymers
- 48 -
A1.29. PolyUreas
Structure of the monomers (for example : toluene diisocyanate and diamine) :
Structure of the polymer : PU or PUA
Thermoplastic if linear (usable until 150 C)
Good resistance to the wear, good dyeability, good resistance to the chemical aggressions
and good resistance to water and blood compatibility.
!
kg dm-3 1.2 to 1.7
"
MPa1/2 20 to 25
#r
MPa 9 to 22
E
MPa -
Tg
C -2 to 60
Tm
C 170 to 280
Uses : automobile parts, high impact body panels, microporous films, ultrathin
membranes, lubricant grease, medical equipment (organic organs), wall materials,
coatings, fibers.
Examples of commercial names : spandex or elastane.
Manufacturing processes
Bulk or solution process for the prepolymerization, then curing with diamines or
polyamines (or polyurethanes).
Main manufacturers : BASF, GAMA, Huntsman LLC.
Study Of Materials Polymers
- 49 -
Remark
Polyurea can also be made from the polyisocyanate with urea through similar reactions of
polymerization (in such polymers the O links are replaced by NH links).
Study Of Materials Polymers
- 50 -
A1.30. Phenoplaste
Structure of the monomers (phenol and formol) :
OH
+ C
H
H
O
Structure of the polymer : PF
OH
CH2
n (tridimensionnal)
Thermosetting (usable until 175 C)
Good electrical properties, good resistance to impacts, to abrasion and to strains, excellent
resistance to the heat, very difficult to color. Fairly good chemical resistance (problems
with strong bases and acids)
!
kg dm-3 1.4
"
MPa1/2 -
#r
MPa 35 to 60
E
MPa -
Tg
C Not defined
Tm
C Not defined
Tg and Tm do not exist, polymers are destroyed before any transition (typical themoset).
Uses : moldings in the electrical industry or in the decoration (stratified), handles,
varnishes for the electrical, thermal insulation, impregnation of materials (waterproof
panels, formica, an so on).
Examples of commercial names : Bakelite, hostaset, norsophen, phenodur, synresine, and
so on.
Manufacturing processes
Rather bulk or solution process for the prepolymerization, under pressure and high
temperature in the mold for the final polymerization (see also aminoplastes).
Main manufacturers : DSM, Accurate Plastics.
Study Of Materials Polymers
- 51 -
Remark
The most famous phenoplaste is well known as Bakelite, one of the first synthesized
polymers. It is also a phenolic resin.
Study Of Materials Polymers
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A1.31. Aminoplaste
Structure of the monomers (melamine and formol) :
C O
H
H
NH
+N
2
N
N
NH2H N
2
Structure of the polymer : MF
NH
N
N
N
HN
n
NH
CH2
CH2
(tridimensionnal)
Thermosetting (usable until 120 C)
Excellent electrical properties, good resistance to creeping, excellent resistance to the heat
(incombustible). Fair chemical resistance (problems with bases and strong acids).
!
kg dm-3 1.5
"
MPa1/2 -
#r
MPa 40 to 90
E
MPa -
Tg
C Not defined
Tm
C Not defined
Tg and Tm do not exist, polymers are destroyed before any transition.
Uses : adhesive with hardener, plastic dishes or cutlery, formica, marine plywood,
laminated.
Examples of commercial names : cibadoine, cegecol, melogas, and so on.
Manufacturing processes
Rather bulk or solution process (polymerization in two steps, see also phenoplastes).
Main manufacturers : Hagemann, SudWest Chemie.
Study Of Materials Polymers
- 53 -
Remark
Melamine can be replaced by urea to give UF aminoplaste.
Study Of Materials Polymers
- 54 -
A1.32. EPoxy and phenoxy resin
Structure of the monomers (bisphenol and epichlorohydryn) :
CH
3
C
CH3
HO OH C C
O
H
H
ClC
H H H
+
Structure of the polymer : EP or EPOXY
CH
3
C
CH3
O O CH2
CH
OH
2CH
n
If the number of motifs is 1 to 10, it is epoxy resin and phenoxy resin when that number is
around 100.
Thermoplastic (usable until 90-130 C) or thermosetting (as adhesives)
Excellent adhesive properties on metal, good resistance to chemical aggressions even
outdoor (problems with strong acids), may have a good resistance to impacts, good
resistance to the heat (autoextinguishing), good electrical insulator.
!
kg dm-3 1.1 to 1.5
"
MPa1/2 22-24
#r
MPa 40 to 90
E
MPa 3000 - 5000
Tg
C Not defined
Tm
C Not defined
Tg = 90 C for phenoxy (n > 100)
Tg and Tm do not exist if they are thermosets, polymers are destroyed before any
transition.
Uses : surface coatings (particularly outside), adhesives, largely used in composites.
Examples of commercial names : araldite, beckopox, eporex, lekutherm, and so on.
Manufacturing processes
Solvent process (with water).
Main manufacturers : Spolchemie, DSM.
Study Of Materials Polymers
- 55 -
Remark
The reinforced epoxy glass fibers has its tenacity properties largely increased (until 150
MPa).
Hardeners as amines or anhydride acids are used to cure the polymer chains by reaction
on the OH groups.
Study Of Materials Polymers
- 56 -
A1.33. PolySiloxane or Silicone
Structure of the monomer (dimethyl or dibenzoyl dichloride silicone but Cl can be replaced
by OH, it is so called a silanol) :
CH3
Si
Cl
Cl CH3
Si,
Cl
Cl
Structure of the polymer (CH3 can be replaced by C6H5) : PDMS (PDPS)
Si
CH3
CH3
O
n
Polymer is obtained by hydrolysis (reaction with water).
Elastomer (usable until 200 C)
Excellent resistance to the heat (incombustible), good resistance to the chemical
aggressions, good electrical insulator, good behavior to the cold (-70°C), good resistance
to weathering.
Values for PDMS or PolyDiMethylSiloxane
!
kg dm-3 0.95 to 1.25
"
MPa1/2 15
#r
MPa 2 to10
E
MPa -
Tg
C -125
Tm
C Not well defined
Melting point is linked to the molar mass and can vary in a large range (from temperature
lower than ambient temperature to higher values). Some are around -50 C.
For thermosetting silicones, Tg and Tm do not exist, polymers are destroyed before any
transition.
Uses : electrical insulator, varnishes, adhesives, filler, putty, medical material, waterproof
products, rubber molds, sealants and gaskets, greases, hydraulic fluids, used as additives
in many products (lubricants, anti-foam, anti-corrosion, shock absorber, an so on).
Examples of commercial names : silopren, rhodorsil, polyurax, and so on.
Study Of Materials Polymers
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Manufacturing processes
Solution process (need of water).
Main manufacturers : Silicone Manufacturers, Dow Corning, Wacker.
Remark
Such polymers usually called silicone are also recognized as polysiloxanes and it
constitutes a wide family of polymers with a large range of different molar masses. If the
molar mass is enough great, they belong to the elastomers.
Values for PDPS or PolyDiPhenylSiloxane (used as component, not as polymer)
!
kg dm-3 1.25
"
MPa1/2 -
#r
MPa -
E
MPa -
Tg
C 40
Tm
C 270
The silanes or polysilanes have the same structure than the previous silicones or
polysiloxanes but without the oxygen in the motif.
Study Of Materials Polymers
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A1.34. Polysaccharides or Cellulosic polymers
General structure of the monomers (glucose if R = H) :
C
C O
C
C C
H
H
OR
H
CH OR
H
OR
H
2
HO
OH
General structure of the polymers (cellulose if R = H) :
C
C O
C
C C
H
H
OR
H
CH OR
H
OR
HO
O
C
C O
C
C C
H
H
OR
H
CH OR
H
OR
H
O
2
2
n
R is a radical that can be :
- the acetate radical (CH3CO-), CA
- the butyrate radical (C3H7CO-), CB
- the nitro or nitrate radical (-NO2), CN
- the ethyl radical (CH3CH2-) EC
Thermoplastic generally (usable until 100 C)
Good resistance to the impacts, transparency, easy colorability, stable to weathering, low
autoextinguishing. Good chemical resistance (problems with bases and strong acids).
Properties for cellulose (R = H)
!
kg dm-3 1.55
"
MPa1/2 32
#r
MPa 200-900
E
MPa 70000
Tg
C 230
Tm
C Not well defined
Uses : photo films, packaging, boxes, pipes, fibers, glues, coatings, cigarettes filters (CA)
inks (CN) and so on.
Study Of Materials Polymers
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Examples of commercial names : rayon, cellophane, celluloid (CN), rhodoid (CA), cellidor,
and so on.
Manufacturing processes
No real synthetic process but rather biosynthesis (plant or animal) or fermentation for
making cellulose, followed by treatment to set radicals.
Main manufacturers : GreenStone, Eastman kodacs, Hercules, Chinese companies.
Remark
Cellulose is mainly used in the paper fabrication.
Properties for cellulose nitrate (R = NO2)
!
kg dm-3 2.2
"
MPa1/2 22
#r
MPa 60-100
E
MPa 1400
Tg
C 55
Tm
C Not well defined