Download - Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Chapter 9 Psychological Development This multimedia product and its contents are protected

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006

Chapter 9Chapter 9

Psychological Development

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• ISBN: 0-131-73180-7


Developmental PsychologyDevelopmental Psychology

Developmental psychology –The study of how organisms change over time as the result of biological and environmental influences


How Do PsychologistsHow Do PsychologistsExplain Development?Explain Development?

Development is a process of growth and change brought about by an interaction of

heredity and the environment


The Nature-NurtureThe Nature-NurtureInteractionInteraction

Nature-nurture issue –Long-standing discussion over relative importance of nature (heredity) and nurture (environment) in their influence on behavior and mental processes…people usually ask, is it one or the other…psychologists are more interested in how they work together



Twin studies – Developmental investigations in which twins, (especially identical twins raised in different environments…adoption), are compared in the search for genetic and environmental effects. Since twins separated at birth are difficult to find, identical twins and fraternal twins are compared (fraternal twins act as the control group; they are about 50% genetically similar)



Identical twins– A pair who started life as a single fertilized egg which later split into two distinct individuals (genes are 100% the same)

Fraternal twins– A pair who started life as two separate fertilized eggs that happened to share the same womb



Adoption studies – Studies in which the adopted child’s characteristics are compared to those of the biological family and the adoptive family


Gradual versus Abrupt ChangeGradual versus Abrupt Change

Continuity view vs. Discontinuity view

Age

Per

form

ance Continuity view

Discontinuity view


Gradual versus Abrupt ChangeGradual versus Abrupt Change

Developmental stages – Periods of life initiated by significant transitions or changes in physical or psychological functioning…people go through the same stages in the same order, but not necessarily at the same rate


Psychological Traits in Your GenesPsychological Traits in Your Genes

While psychological traits are formed by interaction of heredity and the environment, many traits have a strong genetic influence:

• General intelligence

• Sexual orientation

• Thrill seeking

• Basic temperament/personality

• Depression

• Schizophrenia

• Fear/anxiety

• Personality disorders

• Tourette’s syndrome

• Alzheimer’s disease

• Environment=not only learning from experiences, but also physical factors such as nutrition and stress


What Capabilities Does theWhat Capabilities Does theChild Possess?Child Possess?

Newborns have innate abilities for finding

nourishment, interacting with others, and avoiding harmful

situations; the developing abilities of infants and

children rely on learning


Prenatal DevelopmentPrenatal Development

Prenatal period –The developmental period before birth• Zygote…fertilized egg/cell divisions/implants• Embryo…10 days after zygote/differentiation• Fetus…8 weeks (half a foot long)

Placenta –An organ that developsbetween the embryo/fetusand the mother…screens some substances

Teratogens –Toxic substances that can damage the developing organism…drugs/viruses


Neonatal PeriodNeonatal Period(from birth to one month)(from birth to one month)

Neonate means newborn…

Sensory abilities—can look for a

source of food automatically, can smile, nearsighted,

but can look at faces, make eye contact

Motor abilitiesPostural reflex

Grasping reflex


Infancy—refers to speechInfancy—refers to speech(from one month to about 18 months)(from one month to about 18 months)

Babies learn through classical conditioning

Brain shifts attention from new cells to more connections between neurons…synaptic pruning

Attachment/imprinting in birds…

Humans apparently have an inborn need for attachment • Secure attachment=feel safe, willing to explore• Anxious-ambivalent attachment=fear and anger• Avoidant attachment=unconcerned


Contact ComfortContact Comfort

Harry and Margaret Harlow theorized that infants seek more than just food

An experiment was conducted with orphaned monkeys: two surrogate mothers were presented…one was just for feeding, the other with a cloth like fur.

The monkeys preferred the surrogate

with the fur; contact was important!


InfancyInfancy(from one month to about 18 months)(from one month to about 18 months)

Maturation –The unfolding of genetically programmed processes of growth and development over time


Maturation Timetable for Motor ControlMaturation Timetable for Motor Control

BirthBirth



Responds to soundResponds to sound

Becomes quiet when picked upBecomes quiet when picked up

Vocalizes occasionallyVocalizes occasionally

Birth 1 mo.1 mo.



Smiles sociallySmiles socially

Recognizes motherRecognizes mother

Rolls from side to backRolls from side to back

Lifts head and holds it straight and Lifts head and holds it straight and steadysteady

Birth 1 mo. 2 mo.2 mo.



Vocalizes to the smiles and talk Vocalizes to the smiles and talk of an adultof an adult

Searches for source of soundSearches for source of sound

Sits with support, head steadySits with support, head steady

Birth 1 mo. 2 mo. 3 mo.3 mo.



Gaze follows dangling ring, vanishing Gaze follows dangling ring, vanishing spoon, and ball moved across tablespoon, and ball moved across table

Sits with slight supportSits with slight support

Birth 1 mo. 2 mo. 3 mo. 4 mo.4 mo.



Discriminates strangers from familiar Discriminates strangers from familiar personspersons

Turns from back to sideTurns from back to side

Makes distinctive vocalizationsMakes distinctive vocalizations

Birth 1 mo. 2 mo. 3 mo. 4 mo. 5 mo.5 mo.



Lifts cup and bangs itLifts cup and bangs it

Smiles at mirror imageSmiles at mirror image

Reaches for small objectReaches for small object

Birth 1 mo. 2 mo. 3 mo. 4 mo. 5 mo. 6 mo.6 mo.



Makes playful responses to Makes playful responses to mirrormirror

Sits alone steadilySits alone steadily

CrawlsCrawls

Birth 1 mo. 2 mo. 3 mo. 4 mo. 5 mo. 6 mo.

7 mo.7 mo.



Vocalizes up to four different Vocalizes up to four different syllablessyllables

Listens selectively to familiar Listens selectively to familiar wordswords

Pulls to standing positionPulls to standing position


7 mo. 8 mo.8 mo.




7 mo. 8 mo. 9 mo.9 mo.



Plays pat-a-cakePlays pat-a-cake


7 mo. 8 mo. 9 mo. 10 mo.10 mo.



Stands aloneStands alone


7 mo. 8 mo. 9 mo. 10 mo. 11 mo.11 mo.



Walks aloneWalks alone


7 mo. 8 mo. 9 mo. 10 mo. 11 mo. 1 year1 year


What Are theWhat Are theDevelopmental Tasks ofDevelopmental Tasks ofInfancy and Childhood?Infancy and Childhood?

Infants and children face especially important

developmental tasks in the areas of cognition and social

relationships – tasks that lay a foundation for further growth in

adolescence and adulthood


Cognitive DevelopmentCognitive Development

Cognitive development –The process by which thinking changes over time

Schemas –Mental structures orprograms that guide adeveloping child’s thoughts

Assimilation/accomodation…


Accommodation –Mental process thatrestructures existingschemes so that newinformation is better understood

Cognitive DevelopmentCognitive Development

Assimilation – Mental process that modifies new information to fit it into existingschemes


Jean Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Jean Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive DevelopmentDevelopment

SensorimotorSensorimotor

PreoperationalPreoperational

Concrete Concrete OperationalOperational

Formal Formal OperationalOperational


Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive DevelopmentDevelopment

SensorimotorSensorimotor

Preoperational

Concrete Operational

Formal Operational

• Birth to about age 2

• Child relies heavily on innate motor responses to stimuli

• Sensorimotor intelligence

• Mental representations

• Object permanence



Sensorimotor

PreoperationalPreoperational


Formal Operational

• About age 2 to age 6 or 7

• Marked by well-developed mental representation and the use of language

• Egocentrism

• Animistic thinking

• Centration



Sensorimotor

Preoperational

Concrete Concrete OperationalOperational

Formal Operational

• About age 7 to about age 11

• Child understands conservation but is incapable of abstract thought

• Conservation

• Mental operations



Sensorimotor

Preoperational


Formal Formal OperationalOperational

• From about age 12 on

• Abstract thought appears


Social and Emotional DevelopmentSocial and Emotional Development

Theory of Mind –An awareness that other people’s behavior may be influenced by beliefs, desires, and emotions that differ from one’s own

Temperament –An individual’s characteristic manner of behavior or reaction…strong genetic influence (Jerome Kagan believes some are “born bold” or “born shy”)



Zone of proximal development –The difference between what a child can do with help and what the child can do without any help or guidance

Socialization –The lifelong process of shaping an individual’s behavior patterns, values, standards, skills, attitudes and motives to conform to those regarded as desirable in a particular society


1. Authoritarian parents—cold and rigid, demanding and punishing, make most decisions

2. Authoritative parents—warm and attentive, reasonable with explanations, listens to child’s viewpoint

3. Permissive parents—warm but spoils, little demands, allows decisions

4. Uninvolved parents—detached, little demands or interest, indifferent


Parenting Styles…



Other factors influencing a child’s development may include:• Effects of day care• School influences• Leisure influences• Gender differences in socialization


Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial StagesErik Erikson’s Psychosocial StagesAgeAge Principal ChallengePrincipal Challenge

0 to 1 1/2 years0 to 1 1/2 years Trust vs. mistrust

1 1/2 to 3 years1 1/2 to 3 years Autonomy vs. self doubt

3 to 6 years3 to 6 years Initiative vs. guilt

6 years to puberty6 years to puberty Competence vs. inferiority

AdolescenceAdolescence Identity vs. role confusion

Early adulthoodEarly adulthood Intimacy vs. isolation

Middle adulthoodMiddle adulthood Generativity vs. stagnation

Late adulthoodLate adulthood Ego-integrity vs. despair


What Changes Mark theWhat Changes Mark theTransition of Adolescence?Transition of Adolescence?

Adolescence offers new developmental challenges

growing out of physical changes, cognitive changes, and socioemotional changes


The Transitions of AdolescenceThe Transitions of Adolescence

Adolescence – Developmental period beginning at puberty and ending at adulthood

Rites of passage – Social rituals that mark the transition between developmental stages, especially between childhood and adulthood


Physical Maturation in AdolescencePhysical Maturation in Adolescence

Puberty – Onset of sexual maturity

Around puberty, boys and girls become more aware of their physical attractiveness and others’ attractiveness


Cognitive Development in Cognitive Development in AdolescenceAdolescence

Formal operational stage – Piaget’s final stage of cognitive growth (abstract and complex thought)

Hormones rise to high levels

The frontal lobes undergo a “remodel”

This leads to sensation seeking and risk taking, and preoccupation with body image and sex


The increasing influence of peers

Delinquency…although there are no experiments that are done regarding this topic, correlational studies suggest there is a link between a family being fatherless and serious issues developing in a small number of teenagers during this stage in life

Social Identity in AdolescenceSocial Identity in Adolescence

Identity crisis


Moral Dilemma ExampleMoral Dilemma Example

In Europe a woman was near death from a very special kind of cancer. There was one drug that the doctors thought might save her. It was a form of radium that a druggist in the same town had recently discovered. The drug was expensive to make, but the druggist was charging ten times what the drug cost to make. He paid $200 for the radium and charged ten times that much for a small dose. The sick woman’s husband went to everyone he knew to borrow the money, but he could only get together $1000, which is half of what it cost. He told the druggist his wife was dying, and asked to pay what he could and the rest later. The druggist said that he discovered it and was going to make money from it. So the man got desperate and broke into the store to steal the drug for his wife. Should he have done this?


Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral ReasoningReasoning

I. Preconventional moralityStage 1: Pleasure/pain orientation…there is

thinking only regarding consequences

Stage 2: Cost/benefit orientation; reciprocity…you scratch my back, I scratch yours


II. Conventional morality


• Stage 3: “Good child” orientation…how would everyone view the person?

• Stage 4: Law-and-order orientation…following rules and procedures because they maintain social order


III. Postconventional (principled) morality


• Stage 5: Social contract orientation…laws can be edited by a group of individuals, fairness should be emphasized

• Stage 6: Ethical principle orientation…broad thinking that touches on human conscience protecting worth and dignity


What DevelopmentalWhat DevelopmentalChallenges Do Adults Face?Challenges Do Adults Face?

Nature and nurture continue to produce changes throughout life, but in

adulthood these changes include both growth and

decline


The Developmental Challenges of The Developmental Challenges of AdulthoodAdulthood

Love and workIntimacy versus isolation

Generativity versus stagnation

Generativity –A process of making a commitment beyond oneself to family, work, society, or future generations


The Last Developmental Problems The Last Developmental Problems You Will FaceYou Will Face

Ego-identity –The ability to look back on life without regrets and to enjoy a sense of wholeness

According to Erikson, the final crisis involves ego-identity vs. despair


The Last Developmental Problems The Last Developmental Problems You Will FaceYou Will Face

Some of the most obvious changes that occur with age affect physical abilities such as• Vision• Hearing• Thinking, learning, and problem solving• Memory• Sexual functioning• Social interaction• Emotions


End of Chapter 9End of Chapter 9

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