A History ofModern PsychologyEighth Edition
Duane P. SchultzUniversity of South Florida
Sydney Ellen Schultz
THOMSON*J
WADSWORTH Australia • Canada • Mexico • Singapore • SpainUnited Kingdom • United States
Preface xvi
Chapter 1
THE STUDY OF THE HISTORYOF PSYCHOLOGY 1
The Development of Modern Psychology 1The Relevance of the Past for the Present 2The Data of History: ReconstructingPsychology's Past 5
Historiography: How We Study History 5Lost or Suppressed Data 7Data Distorted in Translation 8Self-Serving Data 9
Contextual Forces in Psychology 10
Economic Opportunity 11War 12
Prejudice and Discrimination 12Conceptions of Scientific History 18
The Personalistic Theory 18The Naturalistic Theory 18
Schools of Thought in the Evolution ofModern Psychology 21Plan of the Book 23DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 24SUGGESTED READINGS 24
People as Machines 32The Calculating Engine 33
The Beginnings of Modern Science 36Rene Descartes (1596-1650) 37
The Contributions of Descartes: Mechanismand the Mind-Body Problem 39
The Nature of the Body 40The Mind-Body Interaction 42The Doctrine of Ideas 42
Philosophical Foundations of the NewPsychology: Positivism, Materialism,and Empiricism 44
Auguste Comte (1798 -1857) 44John Locke (1632-1704) 45In Their Own Words: Original SourceMaterial on Empiricism from An EssayConcerning Human Understanding(1690), by John Locke 47
George Berkeley (1685 -1753) 51David Hume (1711-1776) 53David Hartley (1705-1757) 55James Mill (1773-1836) 56John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) 5 7
Contributions of Empiricismto Psychology 59DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 59SUGGESTED READINGS 60
Chapter 2
PHILOSOPHICAL INFLUENCESON PSYCHOLOGY 26
The Spirit of Mechanism 26The Clockwork Universe 28
Determinism and ReductionismAutomata 29
29
Chapter 3
PHYSIOLOGICAL INFLUENCESON PSYCHOLOGY 62
The Importance of the Human Observer 62Developments in Early Physiology 64
Research on Brain Functions: Mapping fromthe Inside 65 vjj
viii CONTENTS
Research on Brain Functions: Mapping fromthe Outside 66Research on the Nervous System 69The Mechanistic Spirit 70
The Beginnings of ExperimentalPsychology 70
Why Germany? 71Hermann von Helmholtz (1821-1894) 73
Helmholtz's Life 73Helmholtz's Contributions: The NeuralImpulse, Vision, and Audition 74
Ernst Weber (1795-1878) 76Two-Point Thresholds 76Just Noticeable Differences 76
Gustav Theodor Fechner (1801-1887) 77Fechner's Life 78Mind and Body: A QuantitativeRelationship 79Methods of Psychophysics 81In Their Own Words: Original SourceMaterial on Psychophysics fromElements of Psychophysics (1860),by Gustav Fechner 82
The Formal Founding of Psychology 84DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 85SUGGESTED READINGS 85
Chapter 4
THE NEW PSYCHOLOGY 87
The Founding Father of ModernPsychology 87Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920) 88
Wundt's Life 88The Leipzig Years 90Cultural Psychology 91The Shidy of Conscious Experience 93The Method of Introspection 95Elements of Conscious Experience 96
Organizing the Elements of ConsciousExperience 98In Their Own Words: Original SourceMaterial on the Law of Psychic Resultantsand the Principle of Creative Synthesisfrom Outline of Psychology (1896),by Wilhelm Wundt 98
The Fate of Wundt's Psychologyin Germany 100Criticisms ofWundtian Psychology 100Wundt's Legacy 101
Other Developments in GermanPsychology 102Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850-1909) 103
Ebbinghaus's Life 103Research on Learning 104Research with Nonsense Syllables 105
Ebbinghaus's Other Contributionsto Psychology 107
Franz Brentano (1838-1917) 108The Study of Mental Acts 109
Carl Stumpf (1848-1936) 110Phenomenology 111
Oswald Kiilpe (1862-1915) 111
Ktilpe's Differences with Wundt 112Systematic Experimental Introspection 112Imageless Thought 113Research Topics of the WurzburgLaboratory 114
Comment 114DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 115SUGGESTED READINGS 116
Chapter 5
STRUCTURALISM 117
Edward Bradford Titchener(1867-1927) 118
Titchener's Life 118
CONTENTS ix
Titchener's Experimentalists: No WomenAllowed! 120The Content of Conscious Experience 122In Their Own Words: Original SourceMaterial on Structuralism fromA Textbook of Psychology (1909),by E. B. Titchener 123
Introspection 125The Elements of Consciousness 127
Criticisms of Structuralism 130Criticisms of Introspection 130Additional Criticisms of Titchener's
System 133Contributions of Structuralism 133DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 134SUGGESTED READINGS 135
Chapter 6
FUNCTIONALISM:ANTECEDENT INFLUENCES 136
The Functionalist Protest 136Forerunners of Functionalism 137The Evolution Revolution: Charles Darwin(1809-1882) 137
Darwin's Life 140On the Origin of Species by Meansof Natural Selection 143The Finches' Beaks: Evolutionat Work 147The Evolution of Machines 148Darwin's Influence on Psychology 150In Their Own Words: Original SourceMaterial from The Autobiography ofCharles Darwin (1876) 151
Individual Differences: Francis Galton(1822-1911) 153
Galton's life 153Mental Inheritance 154
In Their Own Words: Original SourceMaterial from Hereditary Genius: AnInquiry Into Its Laws and Consequences(1869), by Francis Galton 156Statistical Methods 157Mental Tests 158The Association of Ideas 160Mental Imagery 161Arithmetic by Smell and Other Topics 161Comment 162
Animal Psychology and the Developmentof Functionalism 163
George John Romanes (1848-1894) 164C. Lloyd Morgan (1852-1936) 166Comment 168
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 168SUGGESTED READINGS 169
Chapter 7
FUNCTIONALISM: DEVELOPMENTAND FOUNDING 171
Evolution Comes to America 171Herbert Spencer (1820-1903) 171
Social Darwinism 172Synthetic Philosophy 17A
The Continuing Evolution ofMachines 174
Henry Hollerith and the Punched Cards 175William James (1842-1910): Anticipatorof Functional Psychology 175
James's Life 176The Principles of Psychology 182The Subject Matter of Psychology:A New Look at Consciousness 182In Their Own Words: Original SourceMaterial on Consciousness fromPsychology (Briefer Course) (1892),by William James 184
x CONTENTS
The Methods of Psychology 186Pragmatism 186The Theory of Emotions 186Habit 187
The Functional Inequality of Women 188Mary Whiton Calkins (1863-1930) 188Helen Bradford Thompson Woolley (1874-1947) 190Leta Stetter Hollingworth (1886-1939) 191
The Founding of Functionalism 192The Chicago School 193John Dewey (1859-1952) 194
The Reflex Arc 194Comment 195
James Rowland Angell (1869-1949) 196Angell's Life 196The Province of Functional Psychology 196Comment 197
Harvey A. Carr (1873-1954) 198Functionalism: The Final Form 198Functionalism at Columbia University 200Robert Sessions Woodworth(1869-1962) 200
Woodworth's Life 200Dynamic Psychology 201
Criticisms of Functionalism 202Contributions of Functionalism 204DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 204SUGGESTED READINGS 205
Chapter 8
APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY: THE LEGACYOF FUNCTIONALISM 207
Toward a Practical Psychology 207The Grpwth of American Psychology 208Economic Influences on AppliedPsychology 210
Granville Stanley Hall (1844 -1924) 211Hall's Life 212Evolution and the Recapitulation Theory ofDevelopment 216Comment 218
James McKeen Cattell (1860-1944) 218Cattell's Life 218Mental Testing 222Comment 223
The Psychological Testing Movement 224Binet, Terman, and the IQ Test 224World War I and Group Testing 226Ideas from Medicine and Engineering 229Racial Differences in Intelligence 229Contributions of Women to the TestingMovement 232
Lightner Witmer (1867-1956) 233Witmer's Life 234Clinics for Child Evaluation 236Comment 237
The Clinical Psychology Movement 237Walter Dill Scott (1869-1955) 239
Scott's Life 239Advertising and Human Suggestibility 241Employee Selection 241Comment 242
The Industrial-OrganizationalPsychology Movement 243
The Impact of the World Wars 243The Hawthorne Studies and OrganizationalIssues 243Contributions of Women to Industrial-Organizational Psychology 245
Hugo Munsterberg (1863-1916) 246Milnsterberg's Life 247Forensic Psychology and EyewitnessTestimony 249Psychotherapy 250
CONTENTS xi
Industrial Psychology 251Comment 252
Applied Psychology in the United States:A National Mania 252Comment 254DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 255SUGGESTED READINGS 256
Chapter 9
BEHAVIORISM: ANTECEDENTINFLUENCES 258
Toward a Science of Behavior 258The Influence of Animal Psychologyon Behaviorism 260
Jacques Loeb (1859-1924) 260Rats, Ants, and the Animal Mind 261Clever Hans, the Clever Horse 264
Edward Lee Thorndike (1874 -1949) 267Thorndike's Life 268Connectionism 269The Puzzle Box 270Laws of Learning 271Comment 272
Ivan Petrovitch Pavlov (1849-1936) 273
Pavlov's Life 273Conditioned Reflexes 276In Their Own Words: Original SourceMaterial from Conditioned Reflexes(1927), by Ivan Pavlov 279A Note on E. B. Twitmyer 280Comment 281
Vladimir M. Bekhterev (1857-1927) 282Associated Reflexes 283
Animal Psychology and the Animal RightsMovement 284The Influence of Functional Psychologyon Behaviorism 285
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 287
SUGGESTED READINGS 287
Chapter 10
BEHAVIORISM: THE BEGINNINGS 289
John B. Watson (1878-1958) 289Watson's Life 289In Their Own Words: Original SourceMaterial on Behaviorism from Psychologyas the Behaviorist Views It (1913), byJohn B. Watson 297
The Reaction to Watson's Program 300The Methods of Behaviorism 301The Subject Matter of Behaviorism 303
Instincts 304Emotions 305Thought Processes 307
Behaviorism's Popular Appeal 308An Outbreak of Psychology 311
Watson and the Animal RightsMovement 312Karl Lashley (1890-1958) 313Criticisms of Watson's Behaviorism 314
William McDougall (1871-1938) 314Contributions of Watson's Behaviorism 316DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 317SUGGESTED READINGS 318
Chapter 11
BEHAVIORISM: AFTER THEFOUNDING 320
Three Stages of Behaviorism 320Operationism 321Edward Chace Tolman (1886-1959) 322
Purposive Behaviorism 323Intervening Variables 323
xii CONTENTS
Learning Theory 324Comment 325
Clark Leonard Hull (1884-1952) 326Hull's Life 326The Spirit of Mechanism 327Objective Methodology andQuantification 328Drives 328Learning 329Comment 330
B.F. Skinner (1904-1990) 330Skinner's Life 331Skinner's Behaviorism 333In Their Own Words: Original SourceMaterial from Science and HumanBehavior (1953), by B. F. Skinner 334Operant Conditioning 336Schedules of Reinforcement 337Verbal Behavior 338Aircribs, Teaching Machines, and Pigeon-Guided Missiles 339Walden Two—A Behaviorist Society 340Behavior Modification 341Applied Animal Psychology: The IQ Zoo 342Criticisms of Skinner's Behaviorism 343Contributions of Skinner's Behaviorism 344
Sociobehaviorism: The CognitiveChallenge 345Albert Bandura (1925 - ) 345
Social Cognitive Theory 345Self-Efficacy 347Behavior Modification 348Comment 349
Julian Rotter (1916-) 349
Cognitive Processes 350Locus of Control 351Comment 353
The Fate of Behaviorism 354
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 354
SUGGESTED READINGS 355
Chapter 12
GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY 357
The Gestalt Revolt 357More to Perception than Meets the Eye 358
Antecedent Influences on GestaltPsychology 360The Changing Zeitgeist in Physics 361The Phi Phenomenon: A Challengeto Wundtian Psychology 362Max Wertheimer (1880-1943) 363Kurt Koffka (1886-1941) 365Wolfgang Kohler (1887-1967) 367The Nature of the Gestalt Revolt 369
Gestalt Principles of PerceptualOrganization 370Gestalt Studies of Learning: Insight andthe Mentality of Apes 3 73
In Their Own Words: Original SourceMaterial on Gestalt Psychology fromThe Mentality of Apes (1927), byWolfgang Kohler 374
Comment 377Productive Thinking in Humans 378Isomorphism 379The Spread of Gestalt Psychology 380
The Battle with Behaviorism 381Gestalt Psychology in Nazi Germany 382
Field Theory: Kurt Lewin (1890-1947) 382Lewin's Life 383The Life Space 384Motivation and the Zeigarnik Effect 385Social Psychology 386
Criticisms of Gestalt Psychology 387Contributions of Gestalt Psychology 388
CONTENTS xiii
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 388SUGGESTED READINGS 389
Chapter 13
PSYCHOANALYSIS: THE BEGINNINGS 391
The Development of Psychoanalysis 391Antecedent Influences onPsychoanalysis 393
Theories of the Unconscious Mind 393Early Ideas about Psychopathology 394The Influence of Charles Darwin 399Additional Influences 400
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) and theDevelopment of Psychoanalysis 401
The Case of Anna O. 403The Sexual Basis of Neurosis 405Studies on Hysteria 406The Childhood Seduction Controversy 407Dream Analysis 410The Pinnacle of Success 410In Their Own Words: Original SourceMaterial on Hysteria from SigmundFreud's First Lecture at Clark University,September 9, 1909 414
Psychoanalysis as a Method ofTreatment 417Psychoanalysis as a System ofPersonality 420
Instincts 420Levels of Personality 421Anxiety 423Psychosexual Stages of PersonalityDevelopment 423
Mechanism and Determinismin Freud's System 426Relations between Psychoanalysisand Psychology 426The Scientific Validation of PsychoanalyticConcepts 428
Criticisms of Psychoanalysis 430Contributions of Psychoanalysis 432DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 433SUGGESTED READINGS 434
Chapter 14
PSYCHOANALYSIS:AFTER THE FOUNDING 436
Competing Factions 436The Neo-Freudians and EgoPsychology 437Anna Freud (1895-1982) 437
Child Analysis 438Comment 439
Object Relations Theories 440
Melanie Klein (1882-1960) 440Heinz Kohut (1913-1981) 441
Carl Jung (1875-1961) 441
Jung's Life 442Analytical Psychology 444The Collective Unconscious 445Archetypes 445Introversion and Extroversion 447Psychological Types: The Functions andAttitudes 447Comment 447
Social Psychological Theories:The Zeitgeist Strikes Again 449Alfred Adler (1870-1937) 449
Adler's Life 449Individual Psychology 451Inferiority Feelings 451Style of Life 452The Creative Power of the Self 452Birth Order 452Comment 453
xiv CONTENTS
Karen Horney (1885-1952) 455Homey's Life 455Disagreements with Freud 456Basic Anxiety 456Neurotic Needs 457The Idealized Self-Image 458Comment 458
The Evolution of Personality Theory:Humanistic Psychology 459
Antecedent Influences on HumanisticPsychology 460The Nature of Humanistic Psychology 461
Abraham Maslow (1908^1970) 461Maslow's Life 462Self-Actualization 463
In Their Own Words: Original SourceMaterial on Humanistic Psychology fromMotivation and Personality (1970),by Abraham Maslow 464
Comment 466Carl Rogers (1902-1987) 467
Rogers'sLife 468Self-Actualization 468Comment 469
The Fate of Humanistic Psychology 470Positive Psychology 471The Psychoanalytic Tradition inHistory 473DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 474 'SUGGESTED READINGS 475
Chapter 15
CONTEMPORARY DEVELOPMENTSIN PSYCHOLOGY 477
Schools of Thought in Perspective 477The Cognitive Movementin Psychology 480
Antecedent Influences on CognitivePsychology 481The Changing Zeitgeist in Physics 482The Founding of Cognitive Psychology 483
George Miller (1920-) 484The Center for Cognitive Studies 485
UlricNeisser(1928-) 486The Computer Metaphor 488
The Development of the ModernComputer 489
Artificial Intelligence 489The Nature of Cognitive Psychology 492
Cognitive Neuroscience 493The Role of Introspection 493Unconscious Cognition 494Animal Cognition 495Current Status 497
Evolutionary Psychology 499
Antecedent Influences on EvolutionaryPsychology 500The Influence of Sociobiology 501Current Status of EvolutionaryPsychology 502Comment 503
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 504SUGGESTED READINGS 504
Glossary 506References 510Name Index 526Subject Index 531
