v/stol aircraft implementation
TRANSCRIPT
AEROSPACE REPORT NO.ATR-73(7303)-1. VOL II
NASA REPORT NO.CR-1 14518
,,///jsA4L1 720 7n1 4/EG
AlT/'s5 ./i 7-7;
Study ofV/STOL Aircraft Implementation
Volume II: Appendices
Prepared byA. ANDROSKY, S. C. MILLER, J. A. NEISS,
W. J. PORTENIER, and: H. M. WEBBAir Transportation Group
November 1972
Prepared for ADVANCED CONCEPTS AND MISSIONS DIVI NATIONAL AE:RONAUTICS AND SPAC8E ADMINI:STRATION
Moffet Field, California 94035
Contract No. NAS 2-6473
Civil Programs Div:ision
THE AEROSPACE CORPORATION
NASA-C R-11451 8 ) STUDY OF V/STOL N73-1 009IRCRAFT IMPLEMENTATION. VOLUME 2: '3-160PPENDICES (Aerospace Corp., El Sequndo,
alif.) 315 p HC $17.75 CSCL 01B Unclas
G3/02 542-31
Aerospace Report No.ATR-73(7303)-1, Vol II
NASA Report No. CR-114518
STUDY OF
V/STOL AIRCRAFT IMPLEMENTATIONVOLUME II: APPENDICES
Prepared by
A. Androsky, S. C. Miller, J. A. Neiss,W. J. Portenier and H. M. Webb
Air Transportation Group
Civil Programs Division
THE AEROSPACE CORPORATION
November 1972
Distribution of this report is provided in the interest ofinformation exchange. Responsibility for the contentsresides in the author or organization that prepared it.
Prepared under Contract No. NAS 2-6473 by
THE AEROSPACE CORPORATION
El Segundo, California
Prepared for Advanced Concepts and Missions Division
NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION
Moffett Field, California
I
PRECEDING PAGE BLANK NOT FILMED
STUDY OF
V/STOL AIRCRAFT IMPLEMENTATIONVOLUME II: APPENDICES
Approved by
Earl R. Hinz Associate Group DirectorAir Transportation GroupCivil Programs Division
. Programs DivisionGendral Mana gerCivil Programs Division
Preceding page blank
iii
PRECEDING PAGE BLANK N(OT FIL
FOREWORD
This report on the study of V/STOL aircraft implementation is
published in two volumes. Volume I presents a summary of the findings
in eight areas:
* Introduction
* Summary of Study Results
* Short Haul Transportation Needs
· Aircraft Technology
* Aircraft Production Estimates
* Airport and Air Traffic Control Requirements
* Implementation Costs and Funding
* Implementation Action
The present document, Volume II, is an appendix containing the
essential supporting reference data and methodology.
Preceding page blankV
APPENDIX A
SHORT HAUL AIR TRANSPORTATION REQUIREMENTS
iq- [II
CONTENTS
A. 1 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE EXISTING HIGH DENSITYSHORT HAUL MARKET ................ A-1
A. 2 PREDICTION OF THE HIGH DENSITY SHORT HAULMARKET IN 1980 AND 1990 .............. A-6
REFERENCES ... .......... A-63
FIGURES
A-1. Distribution of High Density O&D Passengers by Distance . A-11
A-2. Distribution of High Density City Pairs by Distance . A-12
A-3. Percent of Total Air O&D Passengers in FY 1970Versus Distance Between City Pairs ........ . . A-13
A-4. U. S. Total Seats Available by Air Carrier for all 87 HighDensity Short Haul City Pairs ..... ........ A-14
A. 5 U. S. Total Seats Available by Aircraft for all 87 HighDensity Short Haul City Pairs . .... ........ A-15
A-6. Total Direct Operating Cost by Stage Length ... A-16
A-7. Indirect Operating Expense for Aircraft Traffic & ServiceExpense vs Number of Airports Served .... A-17
A-8. Intercity Travel Demand Model Application. . ... A-18
A-9. Air Modal Split - West Region .. ...... A-19
A-10. Air Modal Split - Northeast Region .......... A-20
A- 1. Air Modal Split - South Region ............. A-21
A-12. Air Modal Split - North Central Region. ...... . A-22
A-13. Air Modal Splits .............. ....... A-23
A-14. Comparison of VTOL & STOL Market Shares,Los Angeles-San Francisco. .. . . . . . . . . .. A-24
A-i .A
FIGURES (Continued)
A-15. Comparison of VTOL & STOL Market Shares,Chicago-Cleveland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-25
A-16. Comparison of VTOL & STOL Market Shares,Chicago-Detroit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-26
TABLES
A-1. United States Domestic Air Passengers O&D for 1970. . A-27
A-2. United States Domestic City Pair Air Passengers O&D for1970, for all City Pairs Less Than 500 Statute Miles Apart(Arranged in Descending Order of Passenger Traffic). . A-28
A-3. 1970 Geographical Region Summary of United StatesDomestic O&D City Pair Air Passengers for all City Pairswith 100, 000 or Greater O&D Air Passengers and CityPairs Separated Less than 500 Statute Miles . .. A-34
A-4. Geographical Region Tabulation of United States DomesticCity Pair 100, 000 or Greater Air Passengers SeparatedLess than 500 Statute Miles .... A-35
A-5. United States Domestic City Pair Air Passengers, Origin& Destination for 1970, for All City Pairs Less than 500Statute Miles Apart with 100,000 or More Passengers (CityPairs Arranged in Ascending Order of Non-Stop Mileage. A-47
A-6. Mix and Type of Aircraft and Air Carrier in Service bySeats Available on All 87 High Density Short Haul Routes(by Air Hub for Cities with Two or More High DensityShort Haul Routes) ..... A-52
A-7. Comparison of Operating, Traffic, and Financial Statisticsfor Airlines with Approximately 5 Million Passengers inYear Ending 31 December 1970. A-53
A-ii
TABLES (Continued)
A-8. Comparison of Operating Expenses for Airlines withApproximately 5 Million Passengers in Year Ending31 December 1970 ................ A-54
A-9. Indirect Operating Costs for Single Class Service. A-55
A-10. Indirect Operating Cost (IOC) Comparison A-56
A-ll. Initial Indirect Operating Cost Analysis, PSA-CY 1970. A-57
A-12. Revised Indirect Operating Cost Analysis per DepartureIOC Derivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-58
A-13. Trunk System Load Factors ............ A-59
A- 14. Populations . . . . . . . . . . A- 60
A-15. Predicted Travel Demand . A-61
A-iii
APPENDIX A
SHORT HAUL AIR TRANSPORTATION REQUIREMENTS
This appendix comprises two sections, the first characterizing the
existing high density short haul market and the second the predicted market
in 1980 and 1990. Each section contains supporting discussion, detailed data
and figures judged to be too voluminous for inclusion in Volume I, the sum-
mary report.
A. I CHARACTERISTICS OF THE EXISTING HIGH DENSITY
SHORT HAUL MARKET
a. Existing Travel Demand
The high density short haul market was defined as one in which air
traffic between all city pairs in 1970 satisfied two criteria: travel by 100, 000
or more annual origin and. destination (O&D) air passengers and intercity
air distances of less than 500 miles. In FY 1970 there were 193 city pairs
with 100,000 or more O&D passengers. The percent distribution of passen-
gers traveling between these city pairs as a function of trip distance is pre-
sented in Figure A-1. As shown, almost half (48%) of the O&D passengers
travel less than 500 miles, while an additional 21% travel 500 to 1,000 miles.
Figure A-2, which presents the distribution of city pairs as a function of dis-
tance, indicates there are 87 city pairs with intercity distances of less than
500 miles and 44 city pairs with distances of 500 to 1,000 miles between
them. The 87 city pairs less than 500 miles apart account for 45% of all
high density routes and are well representative of all geographical regions
of the United States. Figure A-3, which is a plot of the percent of total O&D
passengers in 50 mile increments, illustrates that the percent of O&D passen-
gers diminishes rapidly for routes beyond 500 miles.
Table A-I summarizes the high density short haul travel and total i
domestic air travel data by type of carrier while Table A-2 shows the FY 1970
A-i
ranking of the 87 city pairs that meet the high density short haul market
definition. Table A-3 tabulates and ranks this high density short haul travel
by geographical region, Table A-4 lists each of the city pairs by geographi-
cal region and, finally, Table A-5 ranks the 87 city pairs by intercity air
trip distance.
To understand the operations in the existing high density short haul
market an examination was made of each of the air hubs (cities with two or
more high density short haul routes) to determine the mix and type of air
carriers and the mix and type of aircraft in service on a seat available basis.
This data is given (with the hubs listed-alphabetically) in Table A-6 and the
hub summary is given in Figures A-4 and A-5.
b. Comparison of Airline Operating Statistics and Costs
Pacific Southwest Airlines (PSA) is a recognized efficiently run Cali-
fornia intrastate air carrier operating exclusively in the high density short
haul market. It was selected as a convenient standard for comparing operat-
ing data with other domestic airlines carrying a similar number of passengers.
In 1970, PSA--and three other airlines, Allegheny, Braniff and Continental--
carried approximately 5 million passengers.
A tabulation was made of the operating, traffic and financial statistics
for the four airlines. The PSA data was obtained from the PSA Financial
Statements for the 12 months ending December 31, 1 9 7 0 A- 2 and from the PSA
Annual Stockholder Report for 1 9 7 0 .A - 3 The information for the other three
airlines was obtained from the CAB Air Carrier Traffic Statistics for the
12 months ending December 31, 1970, A - 4 the CAB Air Carrier Financial
Statistics for the 12 months ending December 31, 1 9 7 0A - 5 and the Annual
Stockholders Report for Braniff, Continental and Allegheny for 1970.A - 6 , 7 , 8
These statistics are discussed in the following paragraphs.
(1) Operating Revenue
Line 13 of Table A-7 lists the fare per revenue passenger mile for
each of the airlines. The comparison shows that PSA, operating at fare
A-2
yields from 20% to 55% less than the other airlines, was able to earn an
operating profit of 5. 6% of total operating revenue. The review of the operat-
ing expenses that follows will identify the cost differentials that allow PSA to
operate profitably at this lower fare per revenue passenger mile.
(2) . Direct Operating Expense
The PSA direct operating cost matches the direct operating cost (for
PSA's average seating capacity and average stage length) calculated using the
ATA direct cost formula.A- 1 It was found, however, that the ATA direct
cost formula predicts a higher direct cost for the short stage lengths
(Allegheny) and a lower cost for the longer stage lengths (Braniff and Conti-
nental) than the airline's actual direct cost. The reason for this cost differ-
ence (10% to 30%) was not identified.
Line 26 of Table A-7 lists the total direct operating expense
expressed in percent of total operating revenue. This shows PSA with the
highest total direct expense of the four airlines, 53. 9% of total operating
revenue. An examination of the direct expense items on lines 22, 23, 24 and
25 of Table A-7 shows that PSA flight operations expense is equal to or lower
than that of the other three airlines, the PSA maintenance direct expense is
about equal to the maintenance direct expense of the other airlines and the
PSA maintenance indirect expense is less than that of the other airlines.
However, depreciation of flight equipment is a much higher expense for PSA.
A review of reference materialA-3, 6 ,7,8 reveals that PSA has the newest and
most modern jet fleet which requires a larger depreciation expense.
Airlines sometimes express the direct operating cost in cents per
available seat mile versus stage length in miles to account for large cost
items such as fuel and crew salaries which vary both as a function of
distance flown and aircraft seating capacity. Therefore, the cost for each
airline in cents per available seat mile (Line 7, Table A-8) first was
normalized to reflect a single class of service with PSA density seating and
then was plotted (Figure A-6) against the average stage length flown (from
A-3
Line 11 Table A-7). The data points from the four airlines plot as a smooth
curve (Figure A-6) showing that the PSA direct operating cost is consistent
with the direct operating costs of the other airlines.
(3) Indirect Operating Expense
The total indirect operating expense for each of the four airlines is
given on Line 33, Table A-7. The PSA indirect operating expense is 33%
of the total operating revenue compared to 43-45% for each of the other air-
lines. Table A-8, Lines 8 through 12, itemizes the indirect operating
expenses for each of the airlines in terms of cost in cents per available seat
mile, cost in cents per revenue passenger mile, and cost in dollars per pas-
senger. Because each airline offers different classes of service and conse-
quently different seating densities the cost information in Table A-7 requires
normalization to a standard seating configuration. After normalization, to
a single class of service using PSA coach density seating, the indirect cost
is presented in Table A-9 in two forms: cost in cents per available seat
mile and cost in cents per revenue passenger mile. An item by item exam-
ination of these costs revealed the following:
o Depreciation, Other: (Line 6, Table A-9) shows consistency at=. 032 cents/available seat mile.
o General and Administrative: (Line 5, Table A-9) shows con-sistency at =. 30 cents/revenue passenger mile.
o Promotion and Sales: (Line 4, Table A-9) shows that Allegheny,Braniff and Continental agree at =. 30 cents/available seat milewhile PSA has a cost of .22 cents/available seat mile. This canbe explained as the difference in promotional sales and ticketcounter costs between a market spread over many cities (aver-age 39) over a large geographical area involving several statesand a market that is dense with only 8 cities all within one state.
o Passenger Service: (Line 2, Table A-9) shows that Allegheny,Braniff and Continental costs agree at =. 57 cents/revenue pas-senger mile while PSA spends only .35 cents. The cost of serv-ing meals could account for this cost differential. PSA is theonly airline of the four that does not serve meals.
o Aircraft Traffic and Service: (Line 3, Table A-9) shows a cor-relation when the costs are plotted against the number of airportsserved by each airline. This data is presented in Figure A-7.
A-4
These indirect cost parameters were then combined giving, the follow-
ing empirical formula for predicting the total indirect operating expense.
IOC = (.0063 + .0022 with meals) x RPM + (.0054 + .008 F + C) x ASM
where:
IOC: Indirect Cost in Dollars/One-Way All Coach Jet Trip
RPM: Revenue Passenger Miles = (Number of Passengers)(Stage Length)
F: I If not Dense Commuter Market0 Otherwise
C: Cost as a Function of Number of Airports in System;Value Read from Figure A-7
ASM: Available Seat Miles = (Aircraft Capacity) (Stage Length)
Table A-10 is a comparison of the indirect operating cost per aver-
age trip for PSA, Allegheny, Braniff and Continental. The IOCs were cal-
culated by: the initial IOC study based on the 1970 PSA data (Table A-11),
the empirical method developed in the preceding paragraph, and the airline
actual IOCs. Both the initial IOC and the empirical IOC agree for the aver-
age PSA trip. However, the initial IOCs are too high for stage lengths
shorter than the PSA average stage lengths. Hence, the initial IOC method
does not reflect sufficiently the variation of indirect operating cost with
stage length. An examination of the Aerospace Cost Allocation in the initial
IOC analysis (Table A-11) shows that all cost items circled with the broken
lines could be reapportioned to available seat miles and to revenue passenger
miles to reflect the variation of indirect operating costs with stage length.
In addition, most of the indirect cost items do not appear sensitive to vari-
ations in either revenue or load factor. This suggests that the indirect costs
should be apportioned to the system capacity (available seat miles) with a
smaller portion assigned to load factor (revenue passenger miles). The
indirect cost formula was revised with the new cost allocations shown in
Table A-12. The last line of Table A-O10 lists the revised IOCs calculated
for the average stage lengths and average seating capacities of each of the
A-5
four airlines. This revised IOC formula now gives good agreement as a
function of airline stage length.
A. 2 PREDICTION OF THE HIGH DENSITY SHORT HAUL MARKET
IN 1980 AND 1990
The methodology used to predict the short haul demand in 1980 and
1990 is described in the main body of the report. This section includes
detailed discussions of the models and data used in the prediction of demand.
a. The Intercity Travel Demand Model
The Intercity Travel Demand Model previously developed by
AerospaceA- 9 was used to predict total travel demand because it has proved
to be more accurate than the conventional gravity model.
Actual travel demand for cities in the California and Midwest Corri-
dors was plotted as a function of the associated population products. These
data are indicated in Figure A-8. According to the conventional gravity model
approach, for any given intercity distance, the slope of the line connecting
the city pair data should be a constant on a log-log plot. It is seen from the
data that the slope is not constant, but decreases as the population product
and the total number of daily person trips increase. This is quite reasonable
in that, as cities grow, the services available to any resident in his local area
tend to increase, and thus his need to travel to a distant city to satisfy his
needs is lessened, resulting in a reduced rate of growth in intercity trips.
It was determined that the slope of the data segments is a linear
function of the total daily person trips and, using this relationship, a series
of demand curves was constructed. These curves are shown together and
with the general equation for the curves in Figure A-8.
Using the calibration constants shown, the fit of the Aerospace model
to the California data was considerably better than that of the conventional
gravity model, with errors generally under 10 percent for any city pair.
Unlike the gravity model, the Aerospace model requires a single survey
A-6
data point for each city pair which effectively takes into account non-
population travel demand factors for that pair. City pairs which generate
a large demand would be expected to have a calibration point on one of the
upper curves while those with relatively less attractiveness would yield a
calibration point on one of the lower curves.
Using the Aerospace model, potential demand for a future time period
can be calculated from only the city pair population product and demand for
a given year, and the forecast population product for the desired year. Total
travel demand for 1980 and 1990 was calculated in this way for each of the
87 city pairs comprising the high density short haul market.
b. Prediction of Modal Splits
(1) Current Air Modal Splits
Current air modal splits as a function of intercity distances are
presented in Figures A-9 to A-12 for each of the four standard census
regions. These were derived from the 1967 Census of Transportation data
tape and used to calculate the current air modal split for each of the 87 city
pairs in the short haul market.
(2) Load Factor Considerations
Recent air carrier and CAB statistics were used to determine the load
factors obtainable in competition and non-competition markets. The domestic
trunks which typically serve long haul high density markets had a five year
adjusted load factor of 55% in 1969 as shown in Table A-13. PSA achieved a
system load factor of 50. 2% in 1970, when overcapacity existed throughout
the airline industry. Taken together, these facts indicate that a 55% load
factor is both reasonable and achievable in a short haul high density market.
The load factor achievable in a non-competition market was determined by
considering the 1967 load factor of 62% experienced on routes served by one
carrier. Assuming optimum scheduling, a 65% load factor was chosen as
characteristic of the non-competition market.
A-7
(3) Potential Air Modal Split Growth
Minimum and maximum short haul markets in 1980 and 1990 were
estimated based on potential air passenger capture (air modal split) possible
through improved air service. The minimum passenger growth case is
derived from the Pacific Southwest Region (California Corridor), one of the
regions in the U.S. that currently has excellent short haul air service. This
region has many air service paths between cities, high frequency of service,
high density aircraft seating, and low existing air fares. Thus, it will be more
difficult to offer an improved service that can increase the percent of the total
travel demand that will travel by air. The North Central Region (Midwest
Triangle) was chosen to be indicative of a market with maximum growth
potential. This region has few service paths between cities, low density
aircraft seating and relatively high (CAB) fare levels. Here, there is an
opportunity to select more convenient airport locations, add service paths
and increase seating density so as reduce fares and create a large increase
in air passenger demand.
In addition, both types of market growth (minimum and maximum)
were examined to determine the impact on air passenger demand if fares were
established to reflect the costs of operating at either the 55% or 65% average
passenger load factor noted above as being representative of competitive and
non-competitive markets. The 55% load factor is representative of two or
more airlines operating in competition on a route, while the 65% load factor
is representative of a single airline operating on a route (non-competition
market).
The range of air modal splits resulting from these four types of short
haul air market growth is shown in Figure A-13. Curve ( represents the
maximum potential air passenger demand created by a maximum growth
market achieved with the lower fare obtained by operating at a 65% (non-
competitive) load factor. The next highest demand, represented by curve (,is again that in a maximum growth market with the airlines operating at a
higher fare based on the increase in costs associated with operating at a 55%
A-8
(competitive) load factor. Curves Q and ( represent the minimum growth
market air passenger demand again obtained by utilizing fare levels based on
costs of operating at 55% and 65% load factors, respectively.
(4) Potential V/STOL Demand
Table A- 14 contains the current and predicted populations for the
cities comprising the 87 city pairs. The predicted travel demand is pre-
sented in Table A- 15 for all modes of transportation and for air service
for each of the city pairs.
(5) V/STOL Market Shares in 1990
A comparison was made of VTOL and STOL market shares for three
additional city pairs simulated by the modal split program. The market
shares for each of the intercity modes of transportation (air, bus and rail,
auto) are shown for Los Angeles-San Francisco, Chicago-Cleveland, and
Chicago-Detroit in Figures A-14, A-15 and A-16, respectively.
The left-hand side of Figure A- 14 shows the calibration data for Los
Angeles-San Francisco for 1970 where an existing 13 service path CTOL sys-
tem charges a fare of $16.50. The figure shows that 42% of the travel is by
air, 3% by bus and rail, and 55% by auto.
The center of Figure A-14 illustrates the Los Angeles-San Francisco
percentages of travel by each travel mode in 1980 with the addition of a six-
path non-CBD STOL service. The CTOL fare remains $16.50 (dotted line)
while the STOL fare is varied between $14 and $22. At a fare of $22, STOL
service captures only 13% of the total travel demand while at a fare of $14 it
captures 47%. At the lower fare, most of the additional travel demand is
captured from the CTOL service.
The right-hand side of Figure A-14 depicts the Los Angeles-San
Francisco travel in 1990 with the CTOL and STOL service the same as in 1980
but with the addition of a single path CBD to CBD VTOL system. With STOL
and CTOL fares fixed at $16.50 the VTOL fare was varied. At a fare of $22,
A-9
VTOL captures only 4% of the total travel demand while at a fare of $16.50
it captures 18% of the total demand leaving 8% of the travel by CTOL, 22%
by STOL, 50% by car and the balance (3%) by bus and rail.
Figures A-15 and A-16 show the same analysis for Chicago-Cleveland
and Chicago-Detroit.
A-10
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~~~~~~~:.. i.·.: .·.... ' .. _. . . _. :r..
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.Jl ~ ~ ~ ~ s
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; : ' ~ .' ..... [_I.._ C ontine nta[ Ratio-- 130/1-58.
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A-16
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REFERENCES
A-1 Standard Method of Estimating Comparative Direct Operating Costs
of Turbine Powered Transport Airplanes, Air Transport Associationof America, December 1967.
A-2 Pacific Southwest Airlines Financial Statement for the 12 MonthsEnding 31 December 1970, as filed with California Public UtilitiesCommission.
A-3 Pacific Southwest Airlines Annual Report for 1970.
A-4 Air Carrier Financial Statistics, Civil Aeronautics Board,December 1970, Volume XVIII-4.
A-5 Air Carrier Traffic Statistics, Civil Aeronautics Board,December 1970, Volume XVI-12.
A-6 Braniff Airways, Incorporated Annual Report, 1970.
A-7 Continental Airlines 1970 Annual Report.
A-8 Allegheny Airlines, Inc. 1970 Annual Report.
A-63
APPENDIX B
AVAILABLE AIRCRAFT TECHNOLOGY
CONTENTS
Page
B. 1 Aircraft Definition.
B. 1. a Design Selection.
B. 1. b 1980 Externally Blown Flap STOL.
B. 1. c 1990 Augmentor Wing STOL . . .
B. 1. d 1990 Lift-Fan VTOL.
B. 2 Aircraft Noise Definition .
B. 2. a 1980 EBF-STOL.
B. 2. b 1990 AW-STOL .
B. 2. c 1990 Lift-Fan VTOL . . . . .
References .
... . . . . . . . . . B-2
... . . . . . . . . . B -2
... . ... .... . . B-3
... . . . . . . . . . B-5
... . . . . . . . . . B-5
... . . . . . . . . . B -6
... . . . . . . . . . B -6
... . . . . . . . . . B -9
... . . . . . . . . . B -9
... . . . . . . . . . B-47
FIGURES
Propulsive Lift Concept.
1980 Externally Blown Flap STOL.
1980 STOL Externally Blown FlapWeight and Thrust Versus Passenger Capacity ....
Takeoff Gross Weight Summary. ..........
1990 Augmentor Wing STOL . . . . . . . .. .
Mission Performance Profiles - 150-Passenger STOL.
1990 Lift Fan VTOL Aircraft .
Mission Performance Profiles - Baseline Lift Fan100-Passenger.
Principal Internal and External Noise Sources .
Comparison of Aircraft Noise Levels Relative to FAA-FAR 36 ......... .........
Externally Blown Flap Noise . . . . . . . . .
Estimated 1980 EBF Takeoff and Landing Noise ....
. . . B-11
. . B-12
B-13
* . . B-14
* . . B-15
B-16
. . B-17
* . . B-18
. . B-19
· . . B-20
* . . B-21
B-22
B-i
B-1.
B-2.
B-3.
B-4.
B-5.
B-6.
B-7.
B-8.
B-9.
B-10.
B-11.
B-12.
FIGURES (Contined)
Page
NASA EBF Noise Estimates .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . B- 23
Estimated 1980 STOL Noise ............... B-24
Conversion of PNL at 500 ft to EPNL vs Distance . . B-25
1980 EBF Takeoff and Landing Noise Levels .. . .... B-26
1980 EBF Sideline Noise Levels . ........... B-27
1980 STOL EBF Desired Noise Levels . . . . . . .... B- 28
1980 Augmentor Wing Takeoff and Landing Noise Levels . . B-29
1980 Augmentor Wing Sideline Noise Levels . . ..... B- 30
Augmentor Wing Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-31
1990 STOL Takeoff and Landing Noise Levels . . . . . . . B-32
1990 STOL Sideline Noise Levels ......... 8... B-33
1990 STOL-AW Desired Noise Levels ...... .. B-34
1990 VTOL Approach, Takeoff and Sideline Noise Levels .. B-35
1990 Lift Fan VTOL Desired Noise Levels .. . . .. . B-36
TABLES
EBF STOL Aircraft Geometry .
1980 STOL Aircraft Characteristics Summary.
1980 EBF-STOL Block Performance.
1990 Augmentor Wing STOL Aircraft Geometry
1990 STOL Aircraft Characteristics Summary
1990 Augmentor Wing STOL Block Performance
1990 Lift Fan VTOL Aircraft Geometry.
1990 VTOL Aircraft Characteristics Summary
1990 Lift Fan VTOL Aricraft Block Performance
... . B-37
.... B-38
.B-39
.... B-40
... . B-41
... . B-42
. ... B-43
... . B-44
... . B-45
B-ii
B-13.
B-14.
B-15.
B-16.
B-17.
B-18.
B-19.
B-20.
B-21.
B-22.
B-23.
B-24.
B-25.
B-26.
B-1.
B-2.
B-3.
B-4.
B-5.
B-6.
B-7.
B-8.
B-9.
APPENDIX B
AVAILABLE AIRCRAFT TECHNOLOGY
Any study of the economic viability of short haul air transportation
and its environmental impact requires the definition of aircraft compatible
with the projected time of introduction of the service and the transportation
objectives. The pertinent considerations for this study were: a 1980 initial
operating capability (IOC) and an advanced system for 1990, the use of exist-
ing airfields where possible, and the minimization of noise impact. These
considerations have a significant effect upon the requirements for aircraft
technology. There are a number of potential options in aircraft design to
be considered. These include the powered lift STOL systems such as the
externally blown flap or the augmentor wing concepts, and the VTOL systems
such as the lift fan concepts. In addition to the aircraft design concept,
there are the type and degree of sound suppression, the engine technology and
the structures technology.
Since the first opportunity to phase in a STOL system would be as a
replacement for and supplement to present CTOL aircraft used on the short
haul routes, the 1980 time period is of interest, for at this time a part of the
CTOL fleet will be approaching the end of normal service life. Therefore,
a set of four STOL aircraft of varying passenger capacity was defined for each
design type. The aircraft represent a minimum technological advancement
for the 1980 IOC having the capability to use shorter runways and reduce
noise significantly. The 1990 IOC allows for the consideration of a more
advanced STOL technology, and the inclusion of a VTOL capability. Again,
a set of four aircraft of varying passenger capacity was defined for each
design type. The aerodynamic, structural and propulsion technology was
defined for each aircraft and the block performance determined as a function
of range to permit an economic evaluation.
B-i
The noise impact was evaluated for nominal operational paths and
airport categories and capacities. These noise data were generated in the
form of NEF contours for relative comparison and determination of the
impacted area. The resulting designs provide for a relative assessment of
technology for STOL/VTOL service introduction and implementation.
B. I AIRCRAFT DEFINITION
a. Design Selection
In view of the number of options in aircraft design and operations
that are possible for the 1980 and 1990 time periods, it was decided to
define a single type of STOL design that would represent a reasonable
aircraft to be anticipated for 1980, and to define a more advanced STOL
and a VTOL for 1990. The most salient characteristics selected were:
1980 STOL
Field Length 3, 000 ft.
Powered Lift System Externally Blown Flap (EBF)
Passenger Size 1500Primary
Range
Structures
Noise
Mcr
1990 STOL
Field Length
Powered Lift System
50, 100, 200 - Secondary
500 smi.
Aluminum Technology
Suppression to provide
95 EPNdB @ 500 ft. desired
0. 8 @ 30, 000 ft.
2, 000 ft.
Augmentor Wing (AW)
B-2
Passenger Size
Range
Structure
Noise
M cr
1990 VTOL
Field Length
Powered Lift System
Passenger Size
Range
Structure
Noise
M cr
150 - Primary
50, 100, 200- Secondary
500 smi.
All primary and secondary
structures are composite material
Suppression .to provide
85 EPNdB @ 500 ft. desired
0. 9 @ 30, 000 ft.
1, 000 ft. (set by terminal, apron,
etc. requirements)
Lift Fan (LF), (fan-in-wing type)
150 - Primary
50, 100, 200 - Secondary
500 smi.
All primary and secondary
structures are composite material
Suppression to provide
90 EPNdB @ 500 ft. desired
0. 9 @ 30, 000 ft.
These characteristics were then translated into aircraft designs
by the use of standard design procedures for the 1980 aircraft and the use
of the V/STOL Aircraft Sizing and Performance Computer Program
(VASCOMP II) by ACMD for the 1990 STOL and VTOL designs. The power
lift concepts used for the three designs are illustrated in Figure B-1.
b. 1980 Externally Blown Flap STOL
The basic aircraft design is illustrated in Figure B-2. The
propulsion system used is. based on the P & W STF-344 engine design
B-3
study. This engine is typical of current "paper" engines and could be
available for 1980, but additional noise suppression would have to be
incorporated into the design to approach the desired noise levels.
Reference to the section on airport requirements and capacities
(Appendix D) will indicate that there is no requirement for a field length
capability of less than 3000 ft. where available airports, traffic require-
ments and passenger convenience are considered. This field length tends
to reduce the aircraft design problem in terms of weight, wing loading
and power requirements. The aircraft geometry and mission characteristics
are summarized in Table B-l. The weight and propulsion characteristics
are summarized in Table B-2 which also shows a complete weight statement
for the 150 passenger basic design airplane. The empty weight, engine weight
and thrust of aircraft with other passenger capacities are listed in Figure B-3
and the variations as a function of passenger capacity are also shown.
A comparison of the takeoff gross weight as a function of passenger
capacity is shown in Figure B-4 for 1980 EBF-STOL relative to other
V/STOL design aircraft and the other aircraft of this study. A simplistic
check was made of the impact of range, cruise altitude and fuel reserves by
considering the additional fuel in terms of equivalent passengers. A nomi-
nal increase in TOGW of approximately 20, 000 lb for the 1980 EBF STOL
150-passenger aircraft results from an increase in design range from 500
smi to 500 nmi, an increase in reserves from 100 nmi at 30, 000 ft to 200
nmi at 20, 000 ft, plus 15 min at 10,000 ft and cruise at 0.76 M at 20, 000 ft
instead of 0. 8 M at 30, 000 ft. Considering the differences in aircraft design
range, field length requirement, fuel reserves, cruise altitude, and mate-
rial technology, a reasonable level and variation relative to the other studies
are shown for the basic 1980 EBF STOL.
The block performance for the 1980 EBF-STOL is shown in Table
B-3 for stage lengths from 50 to 500 statute miles. These data were used
in the determination of operating costs.
B-4
c. 1990 Augmentor Wing STOL
A conceptual illustration of the basic aircraft design is shown in
Figure B-5. The geometry and design mission are summarized in Table
B-4. The primary changes from the 1980 EBF-STOL are in the engine con-
figuration and the wing and tail surfaces geometry. The weight and engine
characteristics are summarized in Table B-5. The use of composites in
the structure and a more advanced engine technology result in a lower weight
than for the 1980 EBF-STOL even though a 2000 ft field length capability is
specified in place of the 3000 ft for the 1980 case.
The block performance for the 1990 AW-STOL is summarized in
Table B-6. The block performance mission flight profiles are shown in
Figure B-6. The higher cruise Mach number for the 1990 STOL results
in reduced block times, as might be expected. The reduced field length
capability will result in a reduced noise impact area, but is not required
for the available fields selected for STOL operations. Where a new STOL-
port might be considered, the necessary size is reduced.
d. 1990 Lift-Fan VTOL
A conceptual illustration of the basic aircraft design is shown in
Figure B-7. The geometry and design mission are summarized in Table
B-7. The wing geometry has been altered to accommodate the lift-fan
engines, and the cruise engines have been placed in a single nacelle because
of the reduced wing span. The weight and engine characteristics are
summarized in Table B-8. The use of composites and advanced engine
technology results in a lower weight for this aircraft also. This aircraft
has a vertical takeoff capability, but a reasonable ground area is required
for aircraft parking, taxiing and turning.
The block performance of the 1990 LF-VTOL is summarized in
Table B-9. The block performance mission flight profiles are shown in
Figure B-8. The block times are further reduced from those for the 1990
B-5
AW-STOL. The VTOL capability allows the implementation of a CBD
VTOLport with minimum land acquisition requirements.
B. 2 AIRCRAFT NOISE DEFINITION
A potential benefit to be derived from the introduction of V/STOL
aircraft is the significant reduction in noise impact on the area surrounding
the airport. Partial benefits result from the reduced field length require-
ments with steeper approach and departure flight path angles. The full poten-
tial for noise reduction, however, requires the maximum use of noise sup-
pression techniques on the V/STOL aircraft. The combination of V/STOL
operations and full realization of noise suppression would permit the use of
municipal and general aviation airports where CTOL aircraft are not welcome
or are not permitted.
The definition of noise levels and of noise suppression methods is
currently receiving considerable attention and study by government
agencies and industry. The principal internal and external noise sources
for a turbofan engine are illustrated in Figure B-9. A nominal comparison
of current aircraft noise levels relative to FAA-FAR 36 is illustrated in
Figure B-10. In general, most of the current aircraft are above the FAR 36
level, and are far above the desired noise level of 95 EPNdB for the 150-
passenger 1980 V/STOL aircraft, 85 EPNdB for the 1990 STOL and 90 EPNdB
for the 1990 VTOL. While these were the designated desired noise levels for
this study and provided the basis for the NEF impact, a buildup of predicted
noise level was constructed for each of the aircraft designs to provide an
assessment of the R&D technology requirements.
a. 1980 EBF-STOL
The externally blown flap concept was selected for the 1980 STOL
design, as indicated in the aircraft section. The noise sources for this
B-6
concept are illustrated in Figure B-il. In addition, current EBF programs
are indicated, the requirements to reach the desired noise level are sum-
marized, and some new research areas to improve noise alleviation are
noted. A noise buildup was made for the current study using available engine
data and NASA noise test results. The noise estimate assumptions for this
case were:
* Engine exhaust velocity characteristics of the P&W STF-344design used for the aircraft.
* Flap interaction noise based on NASA research results.
* Attenuation with distance based on spherical radiation.
· Atmospheric absorption of 1 dB per 100 ft.
* No tone corrections required.
* Duration correction based on scaled CTOL data.
Considering the assumptions above and the available data, there
were two possible approaches to the noise derivation:
(1) Use the NASA research data to predict the PNL at 500 ft.
(2) Use the P&W engine noise prediction and scale up for flapeffects to predict PNL at 500 ft.
It was decided to derive the noise using both approaches and compare the
results. In applying approach (1) a core velocity of 935 fps was used to
yield 114 PNdB at 500 ft. for takeoff and a core velocity of 750 fps yielded
114 PNdB at 500 ft for landing. It was decided to use the same curve for
takeoff and landing. In approach (2) a P&W estimate of 94 PNdB at 500 ft
for a single engine at takeoff thrust and 90 KIAS provided the initial print.
A 6 PNdB increment was added for four engines. A 10 PNdB increment
was added for flap interaction and reflection effects. The result is a 114
PNdB noise level for approach (i) and a 110 PNdb noise level for approach
(2), both for the 150-passenger size aircraft. The noise levels as a func-
tion of passenger size for the two approaches are compared in Figure B-12.
A NASA EBF noise estimate from Reference B-1 is shown in Figure B-13 for
B-7
the same class of engine. Since this reference was the basis for approach
(1) the results are comparable. However, the results for both approaches
are well above the desired goal.
In addition to the EBF-STOL, an evaluation was made of the AW-
STOL concept for 1980. The 1980 AW-STOL did not include the sonic inlet
noise suppression option as this was considered questionable for the 1980
operational capability. The resulting noise level is compared with the EBF
design in Figure B-14. While a reduction in noise level is realized, it is
well above the desired level. It was not considered sufficient to alter the
basic 1980 aircraft design selection. The evaluation and RDT&E costing of
the 1980 EBF-STOL have included factors to account for the necessary
technology in the appropriate time period (i. e. , 1980 IOC). Current studies
indicate that in the 1980 time period the desired noise levels are more
likely to be obtained with an AW design than with the EBF. However, it is
felt that the choice of propulsive lift concept would not significantly affect
the costing and modal split study. The PNdB data developed were converted
to EPNdB by application of distance and atmospheric attenuation and dura-
tion corrections. These corrections are illustrated in Figure B-15. The
resulting predicted takeoff and landing and sideline EPNdB variations with
distance and aircraft size are shown in Figures B-i6 and B-17 for the 1980
EBF-STOL. This represents a normal development for the EBF, but the
noise level is above the NASA quiet STOL desired goal of 95 EPNdB at 500 ft.
An EPNdB variation with distance and aircraft size (both takeoff and landing
and sideline) that matches the design goal is shown in Figure B-18. Prog-
ress toward this goal would require accelerated RDT&E effort. The desired
EPNdB noise level was used to determine noise impact, and allowance for
RDT&E acceleration was made in the cost study.
The 1980 augmentor wing estimates developed for comparison are
shown in Figures B-19 and B-20. These predictions do not include the sonic
inlet effect. These data are for information only since the 1980 EBF-STOL
was used in the study.
B-8
b. 1990 AW-STOL
The augmentor wing concept was selected for the 1990 STOL. An
augmentor wing installation is illustrated in Figure B-21. Noise sources
are indicated on the illustration. In addition, listed in the figure are areas
of research, engine requirements and augmentor requirements for reduced
noise levels. On the basis of the data available at the time of the prediction,
it was determined that a 95 EPNdB level at 500 ft could be realized. These
data are sufficiently promising to indicate that this noise level might be avail-
able well before 1990. On this basis, a desired noise level of 85 EPNdB was
selected for the 1990 AW-STOL. The EPNdB variation with aircraft size and.
distance is shown in Figures B-22 and B-23 for the initial prediction of 95
EPNdB at 500 ft for the 150-passenger aircraft. The EPNdB variation for
the desired level of 85 EPNdB at 500 ft is shown in Figure B-24. The
desired level was used for the noise impact analysis.
c. 1990 Lift-Fan VTOL
The lift-fan VTOL concept utilizes four low BPR turbofan cruise
engines and four lift fan-in-wing installations. The sound suppression tech-
niques for the cruise engines will be the same as for CTOL or EBF turbofan
engines. The lift-fans will use the standard techniques for the gas genera-
tors, but the fans will require special attention. The predicted noise levels
are shown as EPNdB as a function of aircraft size and distance in Figure
B-25. The desired noise levels for the LF-VTOL are shown in Figure B-26.
As previously indicated, the desired noise levels have been used to
determine noise impact relative to current CTOL operations. This provides
an index of what might be achieved in terms of relative noise reduction.
Achievement of the desired noise levels will require favorable development
of the current and future noise suppression studies. There may be changes
in engine and aircraft weight and performance characteristics that will result
from such things as the reduction of exhaust velocities to the 550 fps level.
These changes have not been estimated here, nor has any allowance been
made for such effects in the aircraft and engine performance or weights.
B-9
PREC
EDIN
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Figure B-3. 1980 STOL Externally Blown FlapWeight and Thrust Versus Passenger Capacity
B-13
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Figure B-4. Takeoff Gross Weight Summary
1. Douglas 1980 EBF DesignCondition A, M = 0. 7
2. Aerospace 1980 EBF Design (modified)
Condition A, M = 0. 76
3. Lockheed 1980 EBF DesignCondition A, Mcr = 0. 8
4. Aerospace 1980 EBF Design
Condition B, Mcr = 0.8
5. ACMD/Aerospace 1990 VTOL DesignCondition C, M = 0. 9
cr
6. ACMD/Aerospace 1990 AW Design
Condition D, M = 0. 9cr
Condition A - 500 nmi Range; 200 nmi at h + 15 min at
10000 ft Reserves; h = 200rft.cr
Condition B - 500 smi Range; 100 nm at h Reservesh = 30000 ft.
crCondition C - 500 smi Range; 0. 5 hr at S. L. Reserves
h = 30000 ft.cr
Condition D - 500 smi Range; 1. 25 hr. at 10000 ft Reserves
h = 30000 ft.cr
B-14
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PRECEDING PAGE BLANS NOT F-.LMET
REFERENCES
B. 1 Robert G. Dorsch, Eugene A. Krejsa and William A. Olsen,Blown Flap Noise Research, AIAA-SAE Paper 71-745, NASALewis Research Center, 7th Propulsion Joint Special Conference,Salt Lake City, Utah.
Preceding page blank]
B-47
APPENDIX C
AIRCRAFT PRODUCTION REQUIREMENTS
CONTENTS
Page
C. 1 V/STOL Replacement Potential..
C. 2 Demand Sensitivity and Operating Costs.
C. 3 International Demand for STOL.
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
......... .C-1
......... .C-2
........ . C-4
......... .C-17
FIGURES
Page
U. S. Airline Jet Aircraft .......
Methodology for Estimating System FleetRequirements.
. . . C-7
. I . C-8
TABLES
Table C-1
Table C-2
Table C-3
Table C-4
Table C-5
Table C-6
Table C-7
Table C-8
Introduction of Aircraft-U. S. Carrier FleetPressurized Aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C-9
U. S. Carrier Fleet - Available for Service1964-1971, CAB Certificated, Supplemental andCalifornia Intrastate Air Carriers Two and ThreeJet Aircraft ................... . C-10
Forecast Replacement Schedule, CAB Certificated,Supplemental and California Intrastate AirCarriers Two and Three Engine Turbine Aircraft C-ll
Domestic Jet Aircraft Ownership by AirCarrier (1971) .................. C-12
1980 STOL Fleet Requirements ... . . ... C-13
1990 STOL Fleet Requirements. . . .... . . . . C-14
1990 VTOL Fleet Requirements ........... C-15
World Fleet - Turbine Powered Aircraft . . . . . . C-16
C-iil
Figure C-1
Figure C-2
APPENDIX C
POTENTIAL AIRCRAFT PRODUCTION REQUIREMENTS
The potential STOL and V/STOL production for the 1980 and 1990
time periods is presented in Volume I, Section V as a summary of replace-
ment potential, demand sensitivity and costs, high density short haul fleet
requirements and possible international demand. The high density short
haul market demand and load factor determination are discussed in Appen-
dix A.2. The determination of indirect and direct operating costs is dis-
cussed in Appendix F. This appendix provides additional background and
supporting data on the replacement potential, sensitivity and potential inter-
national demand in combination with the results from Appendixes A. 2 and
F to define potential aircraft production requirements.
C. I V/STOL REPLACEMENT POTENTIAL
The profiles of the number of aircraft in service, by type, as a func-
tion of time shown in Figure C-1 indicate a replacement market develops
from 1978 onwards for short to medium haul aircraft. These profiles are
based upon the number of and service life history of U.S. carrier aircraft
since 1946. The service introduction dates for different aircraft are shown
in Table C-1. In the different categories, the introduction of replacement
types varies from 6 to 11 years. The number of 2 and 3 engine jets in
carrier service is shown in Table C-2. A leveling off in the total number is
indicated for the 1969 through 1971 time period. It is not clear from these
data whether this is due to market saturation or a recession. However, it
may be conservatively assumed that the air modal split for this market will
not drastically change without significant service changes that are not pres-
ently obvious. Assuming a 15-year service life as a reasonable maximum,
the entire fleet for the short and medium haul market will have to be replaced
C-I. a
by 1983. This replacement schedule could be accelerated by environmental
noise requirements that may make engine retrofit uneconomical. For exam-
ple, quiet STOL is a replacement candidate for the high density short haul
portion of this market. A suggested schedule for this replacement is shown
in Table C-3.
The data shown in Figure C- 1 also include four engine jets and wide-
body jets. The number and type of aircraft operated by U.S. carriers in
1971 are shown in Table G-4. Air carriers often sell an aircraft before it has
been fully depreciated to replace it with a newer, larger aircraft. For exam-
ple, while sales of 727s have continued, the fleet size for 2 and 3 engine jets
has remained almost constant (see Table C-3) due to the replacement of
smaller aircraft with the 727s. These data tend to confirm the estimate of
a nearly constant level of 2 and 3 engine jets in the U.S. carrier fleet from
1972 through 1980.
C. 2 DEMAND SENSITIVITY AND OPERATING COSTS
While all of the 2 and 3 engine jet fleet will be replaced, only the use
of a quiet STOL in the short haul high density market has been examined.
The details of the definition of the demand for this market and probable load
factors are given in Appendix A. 2. There, both maximum and minimum
growth markets and competitive and noncompetitive load factors are defined.
The DOC and IOC developments for the STOL and V/STOL aircraft are
detailed in Appendix F. The cost data, market data and aircraft utilization
were then studied in combination to determine sensitivities and fleet sizes.
Examples of DOC and IOC variation with stage lengths, and the
variation of fare and air modal split, also as functions of stage length,
are included in Volume I, Section V. These data are a summary of what
is considered to be the most significant case of those examined. The
C-2
complete matrix included fare levels varying from the California intrastate
case to the CAB fare level, as indicated in Figure 15, Volume I; the compe-
titive 55 percent load factor and the non-competitive 65 percent load factor;
the maximum and minimum growth markets; and aircraft annual utilization
levels of 2500, 3000, and 3500 hours. The resulting short haul high density
market fleet sizes are shown in Tables C-5, C-6, and C-7. The data are
for the 1980 STOL, 1990 STOL and 1990 V/STOL, respectively. These data
represent the domestic fleet sizes as a function of utilization and aircraft
size for the market growth and load factor conditions indicated. The data
were derived by determining the number of aircraft flights required to serve
each city pair route as a function of the parameters just indicated.
The methodology utilized for estimating the STOL fleet size is illus-
trated in Figure C-2. As the figure shows, the number of annual flights
necessary to provide service to satisfy a city pair demand is determined as
a function of aircraft size and load factor. A minimum service level of 4
flights per day is provided for any city pair route, even where demand does
not require 4 flights. The aircraft annual utilization and the city pair route
block time provide the number of annual flights given aircraft can make on a
city pair route. The flights required and the flights available per aircraft
give the required number of aircraft for that city pair route. Since most of
the traffic is to and from hub cities, fractional aircraft can be obtained by
scheduling adjustments between different routes at that hub. Fleet spares
requirements are added to the total obtained for the routes.
Different regions of the country have market elasticities that are
dependent on the local economics, competitive transportation modes, short
haul service characteristics and fares. Thus, the fare reduction which is
made possible by increasing the passenger load factor from 55% to 65% pro-
duces an increase in total air demand which varies differently under different
market elasticities. The minimum growth market, characterized by the
California Corridor, has an elasticity which requires an increased number
of aircraft to satisfy the short haul air demand created by the air fare reduc-
tion associated with the load factor increase. The maximum growth market,
C-3
characterized by the Midwest Corridor, has a different elasticity. Here, the
increased number of air passengers is less than the additional aircraft seats
made available in going from 55% to 65% passenger load factor, and, hence, a
fewer number of aircraft are required. Each region will have a slightly dif-
ferent market elasticity characterized by local conditions. The results here
are approximations of the total U. S. short haul fleet requirements and do not
necessarilypredict the exact requirements for any route or region, although
the extreme values should be indicative of the potential fleet requirements.
As indicated in Volume I, the 150-passenger aircraft with 2500 hours
per year of utilization at a 55 percent load factor in the maximum growth
market was selected for primary emphasis. The 150-passenger size was
selected as this size of aircraft is currently successfully used in this market
and similar studies have indicated this is a satisfactory to near optimum size
for this application. The 2500 hour annual utilization represents current good
service practice. The load factor, as discussed in Appendix A.2, represents
the average load factor obtained when two or more airlines operate in compe-
tition on a given route, while the maximum market is representative of the
potential in most of the U.S. The 100-passenger VTOL was selected since
even with new construction for 1990 there will be relatively fewer CBD VTOL-
ports than STOLports. Therefore, better service can be offered with the
smaller aircraft.
A sensitivity check was made for the 1980 STOL case. These data
are summarized in Figure 16 of Volume I and are discussed there.
C. 3 INTERNATIONAL DEMAND FOR STOL
The international market for U.S. built commercial aircraft has often
been a significant portion of the production of a given type. While this cannot
be guaranteed for STOL or VTOL because of the high interest in STOL devel-
opment in European countries, it may still be the case since past history indi-
cates a tendency to buy U.S. aircraft even where a given type was first pro-
duced elsewhere. An indication of the internationalmarket is givenby Table C-8
C-4
where the world fleet of turbine powered aircraft is listed. Table 7 of
Volume I indicates the percent of foreign sales for several major U.S. jet
aircraft. An average foreign sales potential of 40 percent of total sales
was indicated by this survey. The potential foreign market was not used for
basic costing, but a potential reduction in domestic fare (3 to 5 percent) was
determined if the full domestic plus foreign production was realized.
C-5
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Table C-4. Domestic Jet Aircraft Ownership by Air Carrier (1971)(Reference C-4)
Jet 2,3 No. In Jet 4 No. In Jet No. In No. InAirline Engine Fleet Engine Fleet Wide Body Fleet Other Fleet
AlohaAllegheny
American
Braniff
Continental
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Eastern
Frontier
HawaiianTWA
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Western
HughesNational
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Northwest
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Piedmont
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Air Calif.PSA
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727DC9DC9
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737727737
52830
1002444
5
231676
10180
12
87219
15071
9301938
15211456
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707880720DC8707720
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28
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L382
AC500EL188L1329B99CV580DHC 6CV640
F27
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i I-I I- *t.581 118
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Table C-8. World Fleet - Turbine Powered Aircraft
This summary shows, by types, the turbine.poweredairlines in service with, and on order, by the world'sairlines (excluding Aeroflot, the USSR operator) onMay 15, 1972. (Reference G-5)
t tlIt()lJI r.-ItwlI REDI AIRCRA-FT IN S:ERVICE ON ORDLR TOTAL BY TYPES
AerubpatlAle ('ra rclle 245 5 250Airhbl Inldustries A.300H 13 13
BAC 1-11 159 - 159
DAC VC10 36 - 36
Hacing 707 659 17 676hu-InLg 720. 107 - 107
Inolng 727 868 8 949H,,ciog '37 292 16 308Uocjg 747 185 27 212Convllr (VB80 49 - 49
Clivair ('V990 24 - 24I)a.ljult Fan Jet Falcon 8 - 8
Dlas.aillt Nelrcurc -10 10I)ouI. )( DC .8 534 2 536
ou!la., I)C-9 628 24 652Fokker-VFW F28 39 10 49(Galte Lcarjet 30 1 31G;rummnlan Gulfstream 2 1 - I
I;,wvkcr Siddeley HS 125 II 1 12iH.wker Slddlcley Comet 33 - 33
Ila 6ker Siddeley Tridcnt 73 13 86Il 1320 If:insa Jct 6 - 6
Ilyuhin 11 62 16 1 17I okhlccd L I1011 TriStar 4 121 125Mcl)Uinnll Douglas DC-10 31 127 158N.A.R. Acro Coinnmairder 3 - 3
I'uplecv I u-104 4 - 4'lupolcv I u- 124 2 - 2l',plIl-v l'u -34 27 - 27! l.u. I u -154 - 2 2VI 'W-I'okker 614 - 7 7
Yi.kovkv YAK-40 6 5 11
Totals 4,080 483 4.563
i'tlRII(Plt10'P-POWERED AIRCRAFTAcroupalia:l 262Antonlov An-10Antonov An-24..%av. S I ()LIiAt' li iltalniaUAt" VanguardIIA(' Vicountllccob King AirIeccch:r.:ft 99Ieccill Wctwid('ani.,dailr CL-44('onvair CV 580
i'oliv:ir (:V 6001640I)11' 2''uibo BeaverI)IC' * I Will OtterI:..h.hildl liller F.27jFH.227F.kkcr VI W F.27(;iullllmlall (Gultlream I(imiI..iiaiaii Mallardifhlllloln1 'I'uri)olincrll.i,.dh:y l'agc lHerald2nd IIclc) I'agC Jc tllcamI l.awl(. Sideliley Argosyl.Ila ket Siddelcy IS 748lIy.dilin II.-18I. A. JclilrcanI It I. 4W1)I ,,i.hcid L 188 I-lcctraI.-ck Ihod lecrctues
It,.. Oh J--2NANIC YS-11N... It. Acro Turbo CommanderIPA('/lt-cCh 1 fadewindPilatu;i '[urho PorlerSinders S'1'--27 HleronShort SkyvinSwearingen MlerlinVolpti Beech
TURBIINE.-POWFIRED IIELICOPTERSAeio,,paliilc AlouettcAclosputiale 315 I.nlaAcro p.ltillc/%Vcesl:lnd GazelleAscrn.pjalIc/Wctlland Puni;.AgU..u Bell1111 ?204UDll 24)51ell 0116 JletRangerIdcll 212FI:a.hldd Flillcr FH.1100I:uji 1¢11Illughl, 500K., . k'.lki KV-M107MII. Nli-8Sil.olMky S 58TSll, ort y S 61SkouiLy S 62
CI I.I , WVcssexWstiJnd W'S 55
40I
49
1837
1565
1275
30116256
232114260
15374
12278
I4
108315
1298I
482
24
24
Totals 1,866
1206
75
4524
1974
146
343
1743101622
Total, 573
2
24
4
20
8
2
3
I
2
6
56
I
I
5
I-
10
40
502
1839
1605
1315
30116256
242114268
77
374
1113378
4III315
1308
502
24
30
1,922
1207
75
4525
1974
146
393I
1744101622
583
C-16
REFERENCES
C. 1 Aviation Data Services, private communications, 1970-1971.
C. 2 PSA Annual Report, 1970.
C. 3 Air California Financial Statements, 1971.
C.4 Air Transport World, World Aviation Publications,Washington, D. C. (November, 1971).
C. 5 ESSO, as reproduced in Aviation Daily (1972).
C-17
APPENDIX D
AIRPORT REQUIREMENTS
CONTENTS
Page
D. 1 STOLport Requirements for Passenger Convenience...
D. 2 Runway Capability and Availability . . . . . .
D. 3 Typical Urban Airport Complex . . . . . . . .
D. 4 Airport Category and Operations ..........
D. 5 Reliever Port Impact . . . . . . . . . . . .
D. 6 Noise Impact Effects.
D. 7 Airport/STOLport ATC Requirements ........
D. 8 STOLport Requirements Summary.
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . D-1
* . . D-3
. . . D-3
* . . D-3
. . . D-4
. . . D-5
· . . D-6
* . . D-7
. . . D-74
FIGURES
D-1. Percent Modal Split Required for an Economically ViableService Path ....................
D-2. California Corridor Service Path Evaluation Process . . . D- 9
D-3. Airports With Runways > 3000 feet Within a 25 MileRadius - Chicago, Illinois ................ D- 10
D- 4 . Airports With Runways > 3000 feet Within a 30 MileRadius - New York, New York . . . . . . . . . . . . . D- 11
D-5. Airports With Runways > 3000 feet Within a 25 MileRadius - Boston, Massachusetts ............. D- 12
D-6. Airports With Runways > 3000 feet Within a 25 MileRadius - Detroit, Michigan ................ D- 13
D-7. Airports With Runways > 3000 feet Within a 15 MileRadius - Houston, Texas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D- 14
D-8. Airports With Runways > 3000 feet Within a 15 MileRadius - Kansas City, Kansas .............. D- 15
D-i . L
FIGURES (Continued)
Page
D- 9. Airports with Runways > 3000 feet Within a 15 MileRadius - Minneapolis/St. Paul, Minnesota . . . . . . . . . . D-16
D- 10. Typical Airport Capacities - FAA 1980 PredictionPANCAP Maximum Practical Annual Capacity (000). . . D-17
D- 11. NEF Noise Program ................... D-18
D- 12. NEF Noise Program ................... D-19
D- 13. 1980 General Aviation Airport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-20
D- 14. 1980 Reliever Airport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-21
D- 15. 1980 Major Domestic Airport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-22
D- 16. 1980 Major International Airport . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-23
D- 17. 1990 Basic Airport 1 - General Aviation ... D-24
D- 18. 1990 Basic Airport 2 - Reliever Airport ... D-25
D- 19. 1990 Basic Airport 3 - Major Domestic Airport . D-26
D- 20. 1990 Basic Airport 4 - Major International Airport . . D-27
D- 21. Effective Block Speed ........ ....... . . . . D-28
D- 22. Upgraded Third Generation CONUS ATC System (Phase 1) . D-29
D- 23. Scanning - Beam MLS Antenna Radiation Patterns ... D-30
D- 24. Expected Number of Terminal Facilities . .... .. D-31
D- 25. Variation in Aircraft Gate Time With Passenger Capacity,Load Factor, and Servicing.. D- 3 2
D- 26. Peak Hour Passengers in Terms of Annual Passengers (FAA). D-33
D- 27. Terminal Building Floor Area Requirements (FAA) ... D-34
D- 28 Terminal Building and Parking Area Requirements . . . . . D-35
TABLES
PageD-1. Los Angeles-San Francisco Service Path Selection Data,
Percent Total Demand (Service Paths 16, STOL Frequencyof Service 1 flight/hour) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-36
D-ii
TABLES (Continued)
Page
D-2. Los Angeles-San Francisco Service Path Selection Data,Percent Total Demand (Service Paths 10, STOL Frequencyof Service 0. 73 flight/hour) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D- 37
D-3. Los Angeles-San Francisco Service Path Selection Data,Percent Total Demand (Service Paths 7, STOL Frequencyof Service 0. 73 flight/hour) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D- 38
D-4. Los Angeles-San Francisco Service Path Selection Data,Percent Total Demand (Service Paths 4, STOL Frequencyof Service 0. 73 flight/hour) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D- 39
D-5. Los Angeles-San Francisco Service Path Selection Data,Percent Total Demand (Service Paths 2, STOL Frequencyof Service 0. 73 flight/hour). . . . D- 40
D-6. Los Angeles-San Francisco Service Path Selection Data,Percent Total Demand (Service Paths 1, STOL Frequencyof Service 0. 73 flight/hour). . D- 41
D-7. Typical Available Airport Complexes . . D-42
D-8. Existing Facilities at the 71 Selected 1980 Reliever Ports D- 43
D-9. Airport/Aircraft Operations Mix - FAA 1980 Projection. . . D-46
D-10. Airport/Aircraft Operations Mix for 1980 STOL Introduction. D-47
D-11. 1980 CTOL Airport Relief . ... .... ... . D-48
D-12. Atlanta Aircraft Movements (000) . . . . D- 49
D-13. Boston Aircraft Movements (000) . . . . . . . . . . . . D- 50
D-14. Chicago Aircraft Movements (000) . . . . . . . . . . . . D-51
D-15. Cleveland Aircraft Movements (000) . . . . . . . . . . . . D- 52
D-16. Dallas Aircraft Movements (000) . . . . . D- 53
D-17. Detroit Aircraft Movements (000) . . . . . . . . . . . . D- 54
D-18. Honolulu Aircraft Movements (000) . . . . . . . . . . . D- 55
D-19. Houston Aircraft Movements (000) ... . D- 56
D-20. Kansas City Aircraft Movements (000) . . . . . . . . . . . D- 57
D-21. Los Angeles Aircraft Movements (000) . D-58
D-22. Miami Aircraft Movements (000) . . . . . . . . . . . . D- 59
D-23. Milwaukee Aircraft Movements (000) . . . . . . . . . . . D- 60
D-iii
TABLES (Continued)
Page
New York Aircraft Movements (000).
Philadelphia Aircraft Movements (000) ........
Pittsburg Aircraft Movements (000). .........
San Diego Aircraft Movements (000). .. .....
San Francisco Aircraft Movements (000). .......
Seattle Aircraft Movements (000) .......
Washington/Baltimore Aircraft Movements (000) ....
1980 Airport Capacity Prediction (Maximum Number ofOpe rations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Noise Analysis Flight Conditions ...........
Major Elements of ATC System. ...........
ATC System Generations. ...............
Airport Auto Traffic Per Enplaned Passenger.
* . D- 6 1
. . D-62
. D- 6 3
* . D-64
* . D- 6 5
* . D-66
· .D-67
.D-68
. D- 6 9
. D- 70
· D-71
.D-72
D-iv
D-24.
D-25.
D-26.
D-27.
D-28.
D-29.
D-30.
D-31.
D-32.
D-33.
D-34.
D-35.
APPENDIX D
AIRPORT REQUIREMENTS
The results presented in Volume I have indicated that the successful
implementation of STOL short haul operations is dependent upon providing
increased passenger convenience at acceptable fare levels, and upon meeting
the environmental criteria anticipated for the time period. Major elements
in the airport requirements are that the reduction of air and surface conges-
tion at these STOLports should be such as to increase passenger convenience
without providing for uneconomical service paths. The STOLports must be
configured to reduce passenger access and processing time. The environ-
mental impact of noise due to STOL operations must meet the community
acceptance level. While the requirements generated by these criteria were
summarized in Volume I, the subsequent sections of this appendix provide
additional background and amplification to the summary data.
D. 1 STOLPORT REQUIREMENTS FOR PASSENGER CONVENIENCE
The number of STOLports and service paths for passenger con-
venience in a large metropolitan area is dependent on the area demography
and the city pairs being served. For a given city pair, the number of ports
and paths may be increased until the gain in air travelers by the addition of
another new port-path is not sufficient to justify its addition. This metho-
dology and route analysis is detailed in Reference D-l, and the results
obtained were utilized here. Summary results presented in Volume I
show that the incremental increase in air modal split decreases at some
point as additional port-paths are made available. The number of port-paths
where this decrease occurs represents the point where fare economics and
convenience are no longer attractive to the air traveler. Some additional
results to further illustrate the methodology are presented here.
D-1
An aircraft is assigned to fly each given route and/or service path. In
Figure D-l one Augmentor Wing aircraft was assigned to the Los Angeles-
San Francisco route which has only one service path between the Chavez
Ravine STOLport in Los Angeles to the Crissy Field STOLport in San
Francisco. For each given aircraft capacity (40 passenger increasing in
increments of 20 seats to 200 passenger) the fares are varied and the STOL
air modal split and load factors are determined. This gives a carpet
plot of aircraft capacity and load factor as a function of modal split (the
percent of the total travel demand between Los Angeles and San Francisco
that is captured by this particular STOL service. )
Independent of the above calculations, the economics portion of the
program calculates for each given capacity and several load factors the
DOC, IOC, ROI and fare required to get a fair return on investment for the
aircraft operating on the route and service path. A 10. 5 percent ROI was
used and the results are shown as broken lines for fares of $16. 00 and
$21.50. At any point along the line the ROI is 10.5% and the aircraft capac-
ity, load factor, and percent modal split associated with the given fare are
available from the plot.
As additional service paths and aircraft are assigned to the route
the travelers on the route are served more conveniently and more travelers
utilize the STOL service increasing the modal split. This is shown in
Figure D-2 for fares of $16. 00 and $21. 60, still maintaining a ROI of 10. 5
percent for all aircraft assigned to the route. The results for the combined
service paths are shown by the solid upper line while the results for the
weakest service path are shown by the lower broken line. The weakest
service path loses travelers to the other service paths as they are added.
This is the result when some of the STOL air travelers switch from one
STOLport to a new one that has been added, which is more conveniently
located. These data are representative of the California, Midwest and North-
east arenas that were considered to obtain the approximation of Volume I.
D-2
RUNWAY CAPABILITY AND AVAILABILITY
The data presented in Volume I indicate that there were 472 airports
available for consideration for the 61 cities of the study. This number was
arrived at by examining all of the airports within reasonable proximity to
the urban developed area of the subject cities. Examples for several cities
are illustrated in Figures D-3 through D-9. As examination of the figures
will show, the radius within which airports were considered varies with
the size of the urban developed area. These maps were developed for each
of the subject cities. The figures selected here illustrate how the avail-
ability of airports varies in each of the cities, and examples of typical airport
complexes are given in Table D-7.
The list of airports selected for short haul service for the 61 cities
is given in Table D-8. The list does not include the major CTOL airports if
they are not used for short haul traffic. The tabulation indicates that most
of these airports have adequate runways and landing aids for reliever port
ope ration.
D. 3 TYPICAL URBAN AIRPORT COMPLEX
The example of Chicago was shown in Volume I. This is effectively
an enlargement of a portion of Figure D-3. The complex for other cities is
obtained in a similar manner once the STOL reliever airports have been
selected.
D. 4 AIRPORT CATEGORY AND OPERATIONS
The definition of airport category and capacity is very much a function
of the individual airport. It was not within the scope or purpose of this study
to do a detailed study of each of the candidate airports and STOLports. Rather,
it was desired to apply a uniform measure of capacity to the candidates for
both operational capability and noise impact. The data and method of Refer-
D-3
D. 2
ence D. 2 provide the desired information. The basic operations definition
of the reference is shown in Table D-9. These are the same data shown
in Table 12 of Volume I, but there an additional descriptive name is given to
the airport categories and it is indicated that the STOL operations are sub-
stituted for the 2and3 engine jet operations. This is illustrated here by Table
D-10 where different arbitrary levels of substitution are shown. These levels
are applicable primarily to noise impact. Reference D. 2 also gives the prac-
tical annual capacity (PANCAP) of operations for different runway configura-
tions. This is illustrated in Figure D-10 and is based on the operations mix
of Table D-10. The pertinent assumptions made in the reference are also
listed in Figure D-10. The PANCAP data of the reference were matched to
the appropriate runway configuration of the candidate airport to define its
capacity in terms of the nominal operations mixes of Table D-10. These
data provide an assessment of the relative capacity of the airport, and are
used to determine its impact as a reliever STOLport.
D. 5 RELIEVER PORT IMPACT
The airport capacity data described in the previous section were
matched with the predicted level of operations to determine the potential
STOL reliever port impact. The prediction of the 1980 STOL demand is
described in Section III of Volume I and Appendix A of Volume II. These data
can then be used to determine the 1980 STOL peak hour O&D passengers.
These operations and passengers represent a maximum that can be diverted
to reliever STOLports. These data are shown in Table D-ll for the major
hub cities. The CTOLport PANCAP, determined as described previously, is
also listed. In addition, the predicted total 1980 air carrier operations are
shown. The total air carrier operations were derived from the FAA data of
References D. 3 and D. 4. Reference D. 3 gives the FAA ten year prediction
for 1982, and the 1980 level was interpolated from this. This procedure gives
a 1971 to 1980 air carrier aircraf t operations growth factor of 1. 128. The
D-4
total growth factor including air carrier and general aviation is 2. 07. The
air carrier growth factor was applied to the operations data of Reference D. 4,
the FAA summary for 1971. These data are shown in Figure 23 of Volume I.
The distribution of the STOL traffic among the candidate STOL ports in the
various cities was somewhat arbitrary, except that all O&D STOL traffic was
removed from the major CTOL port where capacity required or it was advan-
tageous to do so. In cases like Boston, where the major CTOL port is also
in a CBD port location, some STOL traffic was left at this location. An
optimum split could be determined by use of the traveler preference model-
ing methods, but this was beyond the scope of this study. The economic
impact of a CBD port is examined in Appendix F. The nominal distributions
of STOL operations to reliever ports are shown in Tables D-12 through D-30
for the major hub cases.
D. 6 NOISE IMPACT EFFECTS
The aircraft noise technology background is given in Appendix B.
The aircraft noise levels were converted into airport noise impact by the use
of the computer program described in Reference D-5. The output from this
program is a set of NEF (noise exposure forecast) contours for a given
airport operations level, aircraft mix, day/night distribution and flight paths.
This program procedure is summarized in Figures D-ll and D-12. It was
decided to confine the NEF effects study to single runway airports operating
at maximum PANCAP for the appropriate operations mix.. This is typical
of the nominal "worst" condition to be encountered at most airports where
STOL would be operating. Operations at the Category 1 and 2 airports were
assumed to be confined only to daytime (0700-2200) while at Categories 3 and
4 they are divided: 90% daytime (0700-2200) and 10% nighttime (2200-0700).
These operations are summarized in Table D-31. Nominal typical flight con-
ditions were assigned, as shown in Table D-32. The NEF contours were then
generated for these data by using the 1980 and 1990 STOL aircraft desired
D-5
noise levels for each category of airport. Contours were developed for
these cases: all CTOL aircraft, half two or three engine CTOL and half
STOL, and all two or three engine CTOL replaced with all STOL. Current
aircraft noise level data were used for all CTOL aircraft. The resulting
NEF contours are shown in Figures D-13 through D-20. The zero point
represents the beginning of the runway in all cases. The resulting contours
show the effect of quiet STOL relative to noise levels for current type air-
craft operations.
D.7 AIRPORT/STOLPORT ATC REQUIREMENTS
Air traffic control requirements are a continuing concern of the FAA.
Studies and prototype installations have been conducted on instrument landing
systems and area surveillance systems. It is assumed that these systems
will be installed by the FAA at major airports for the 1980 time period.
Therefore, expenses for such systems will not be STOL peculiar and are not
charged to the system. In addition to the air safety and control aspects, the
reduction of the increment between flight block speed and operational block
speed (the increment shown in Figure D-21) would be a primary benefit. This
would be a realizable objective for STOL and reliever port traffic.
The major elements of the system -- area navigation, terminal guid-
ance and the instrument landing system -- are briefly described in Table D-33.
The upgraded third generation system that is of interest to this study is illus-
trated in Figure D-22. The MLS antenna patterns are illustrated in Fig-
ure D-23. The coverage of this system is adequate for both STOL, VTOL
and CTOL operations. Actual, planned and assumed levels of ATC deploy-
ment are illustrated by Figure D-24. The number of systems available for
the 1980 to 1985 time period is more than adequate, since complete STOL-
port coverage would be achieved by shifting approximately 10 installations.
D-6
D. 8 STOLPORT REQUIREMENTS SUMMARY
The STOLport requirements provide for effective STOLport opera-
tions through improved passenger convenience, reduced processing time and
expedited V/STOL aircraft operations. In all airports where STOL opera-
tions were to take place, a special STOL terminal area was provided. This
terminal area must have its own gate/apron area, parking area and passenger
processing procedure. The terminal/parking requirements were based on
Aerospace in-house studies of V/STOL port requirements. The parking area
requirement is a function of the number of inbound vehicles (auto) per
enplaned passenger, as shown in Table D-35. These vehicle traffic data
were based on Reference D-7. The gate/apron requirements were based on
the relation:
(T + Tc)
(PHP)G =
60 (P + Pd)
where:
G = Number of gates required.
PHP = Peak hourly passengers (enplaning plus deplaning).(Fig. D-26).
P Average number of enplaning passengers per aircraft.ePd = Average number of deplaning passengers.
T = Average gate time (minutes) per aircraft. (Fig. D-25)
T = Time to clear gate and next aircraft to park (minutes).
The terminal area requirements are shown in Figure D-27 and the
parking area requirements in Figure D-28.
D-7
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I .- TOTOTAL ALL SERVICE PATHS---- WEAKEST SINGLE SERVICE PATH
-I I- I . I .--- p- -I . -
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D -42
Chicago O'Hare, Midway and Meigs represent a CTOL,STOL reliever and STOL CBD complex.
New York Kennedy and LaGuardia are major CTOL, anumber of available STOL reliever, no STOLCBD site.
Boston Logan, major CTOLport is located near CBD,Hansdom provides STOL reliever.
Detroit Has CTOLport at Detroit Metro and STOLreliever at Detroit City, also near CBD.
Houston Hobby provides STOL reliever, but no CBD siteavailable.
Kansas City K. C. International, well out of town, STOLreliever not required, but K. C. Municipal providesCBD and so is used for convenience.
Minneapolis/St. Paul Reliever ports are available, but are not moreconvenient and STOL traffic does not justify.
Table D-8. Existing Facilities at the 71 Selected 1980 Reliever Ports
Airport
Albany County, NY
Fulton County, GA
Robert Mueller Muni, TX
Friendship Intl, MD
Logan Intl, MA
LG Hanscom Fld, MA
Greater Buffalo Intl, NY
Meigs Field, IL
Midway, IL
Lunken Field, OH
Burke Lakefront, OH
Port Columbus Intl, OH
Dallas Love Field, TX
James Cox-Dayton Muni, OH
Stapleton Intl, CO
Des Moines Muni, IO
Detroit City, MI
Fresno Air Terminal, CA
Bradley Intl, CT
William P. Hobby, TX
Weir Cook, IN
Jacksonville Intl, FL
Kansas City Muni, MO
McCarran Intl, NV
Long Beach, CA
Hollywood-Burbank, CA
Hawthorne Muni, CA
Ontario Intl, CA
Tower
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
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Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
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Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
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Yes
Yes
No
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Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
ApproachLights
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
No
Yes
No
Yes
D -43
Table D-8. Existing Facilities at the 71 Selected 1980 Reliever Ports(Continued)
Airport
Orange County, CA
Standiford Field, KY
Memphis Intl, TN
Opa Locka, FL
Gen Mitchell Fld, WI
Minn-St Paul Intl, MN
Lakefront, LA
Teterboro, NJ
Newark, NJ
Westchester Co, NY
Norfolk Regional, VA
Will Rogers World, OK
Eppley Airfield, NE
North Philadelphia, PA
Allegheny County, PA
Sky Harbor Intl, AZ
Portland Intl, OR
T. F. Green State, RI
Raleigh-Durham, NC
Reno Intl, NV
R. E. Byrd Intl, VA
Rochester-Monroe Co, NY
Sacramento Executive, CA
Monterey Peninsula, CA
Salt Lake City Intl, UT
San Antonio Intl, TX
San Diego Intl-Lindberg Fld, CA
Tower
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
ILS
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Lighting
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
ApproachLights
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
D -44
Table D-8. Existing Facilities at the 71 Selected 1980 Reliever Ports(Continued)
Airport
San Francisco Intl, CA
Metropolitan Oakland Intl, CA
San Jose Muni, CA
Boeing Field Intl, WA
Spokane Intl, WA
Weiss, MO
Syracuse Hancock Intl, NY
Tampa Intl, FL
Tucson Intl, AZ
Washington Natl, DC
Greensboro-High Point/Winston-Salem Regional, NC
Lihue-Kauai, HI
Honolulu Intl, HI
Hilo, HI
Ke Ahole, HI
Kahului, HI
La Guardia, NY
Tower
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
ILS
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Lighting
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
ApproachLights
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
D-45
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Table D-33. Major Elements of ATC System
D-70
Area Navigation
RNAV - 3D Guidance between way points"Pinpoints horizontal position and altitude."
RNAV - 4D "Adds dimenstion of time, thus eliminatingholding pattern delays, permits precise controlof arrival time."
Terminal System Guidance "Advance Radar Terminal System"
ARTS-III "Monitors all beacon aircraft within 55 mileradius of terminal, controlled display includes:aircraft identification, altitude, ground speed,etc. " "Modular expandable."
AdvanceARTS-III "62 systems by 1973, 200 systems by 1980."
Instrument Landing System
MILS "Universal MILS, operate principally ATC band,with K 4 band employed for final flare out guidance,if required.
MLS "FAA STOL office believes advance MLS shouldhave segmented or curvilinear approach capability."
Table D-34. ATC System Generations
DEPLOYIENT YEARS
NAVIGATION
Airborne
Ground stations
Landing and Terminal
AIRPORIS
Runamy Operations
Ground Guidance andControl
DATA ACQUISITION, AIR-
Primary urveillance
Secondary survellance
DATA TRANSMISSION
Primary coamnunict ions
Secondarycoruniccatioo:
Ground
Airborne
DATA PROCESSING AND CONTROFla Control
Clearance processing
Separation & Sequencing
Metering & Spcr.rg(precise timescheduling)
CONTROL COORDINIATION
Iletrafacility
OQAMIIC NAV & ATC
Surveillance
Conmnunicet ons
Control
Navigation
FLIGHT SERVICES
Generation
Second
Point-to-Point
VOWJDhE/TACAN
VHF ILS (Gategory 11)
Parallel ILS (6000 ft:
111 rd
Same plus aome areanavigation
Sane plus moreaccurate VOR
Same plus limitedCategory 11 and 1iI
PI. I. rim V/STOL
Sane
Upgraded %llrd
lase I
1975-1978
More area navigationapplicatlone
Same plus highercapacity DM
Same plus Initial MLS
Dual lane ruways
Airport surface Initial Airport Ground Improved Airport Groundetection equipment_ Traffic CnntroI (AGTC) Surveilance & Guldanc,
Radar
Beacon (64 code)
VHF/UHF Voice
None
Emergency Deacon Code
Decentrallred
Kenua I e
Menuel
Menaul,vhen perforaed-
Voice
Pilot reports-voice
LF/MF voice (non-ATC)
hanual
Self-contained air-borne plue LORAN
Hanuvl
Beacon (4096 code for Samealtitude and identity)
Radar Sane
Sanme Same
Backup emergency Samecomnunicatlons (BUEC)
Same Same
Centralized-manual Centralized-automated
Simplified manual Aulomatic Generationprocedure
Automated aids to Automated conflictcontroller Idetection & resolution
Same 'Automnted-voice control
Via controller display Fully automated or viaor voice -controllr display or
voice
I _
Sanme
Same plus somededicated VHF
KenMl-auo computeraids
Sane
henual-reconfigured
Plase Tl1978-19R5
Sanme
Increased nnherr ofM0S runla ys
Precision HLS approaches toclosed-spaced parallelronvays (2500 ft)
Comprehensive Al rlrt GroundTrafic Cont ru I
Discrete Address BeaconSystem (DABS) introduced
Same
DARS data link and VIF/UhFVoice
Same
IIF/VIIF Voice
Cvntra lied-autma ted
Altomatic Delivery via DataLink
Altomatic safety commands viedata link: IPC to VFR
ATC to IFR
Autnmted - data link control
I Same
.
Same plus nome tAutomatic reports vie dataautomatic reports llnk/satallt:e urrvel lance
Same Sane plus "L" band data linkvla satellite
More computer aids to Samecont ron ler
Primarily inertlal Inertil and LORAN/OhEGA
Autom ted aids to SS IPllot eelf-servieca utumtlonspecialists {(fight plan filing h
tbrlefing)
D-71
I
I
Table D-35. Airport Auto Traffic Per Enplaned Passenger
Inbound VehiclesPer Enplaned
Passenger
Los Angeles 2. 55
Washington Natl 1. 56
Boston 1. 88
Philadelphia 1. 83
Pittsburgh 1. 85
Denver 2. 41
St. Louis 2. 32
Minneapolis 2. 38
Seattle 2. 76
Baltimore 1. 76
Phoenix 1. 68
Washington Dulles 2. 01
Weighted Average 1 2. 12
D-72
L
PR ,rTCFTNG PAGE BLANK NOT FILMED
REFERENCES
H. L. Solomon, Interim Report, Study of Short Haul High DensityV/STOL Transportation Systems, Aerospace Report No.ATR-72(7301)-l, Vol. I, NASA Report No. CR-114466, TheAerospace Corporation, El Segundo, California (July 1972).
Airport Capacity Criteria Used in Long Range Planning, AL 150/5060-3A, Federal Aviation Administration, Washington, D. C.(December 24, 1969).
Aviation Forecasts, FY 1972-1983, Federal Aviation Administration,Washington, D. C. (September 1971).
FAA Air Traffic Activity, Fiscal Year 1971, Federal AviationAdministration Report.
Horonjeff, R. D. and Paul, A., A Digital Computer Program forComputation of Noise Exposure Forecast Contours, Federal AviationAdministration Report FAA-ND-70-6, June 1970 (Prepared by Bolt,Beranek and Newman).
Concepts, Design and Description for the Upgraded Third GenerationAir Traffic Control System, Report FAA-ED-01-1, Mitre Corporation,McLean, Virginia (January 1972).
S. CG. Lardiere and F. E. Jarema, Impact of Projected Air TravelDemand on Airport Access, Highway Research Record No. 274,Washington, D. C. (1969).
Preceding page blank
D-74
D. 1
D. 2
D. 3
D. 4
D. 5
D. 6
D. 7
APPENDIX E
ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES
iF _},1
CONTENTS
Page
Principal Roles and Responsibilities Applied to VariousAspects of V/STOL Applications.
E. 1. a National Aeronautics and Space Administration
E. 1. b Federal Aviation Administration.
E.1. c Civil Aeronautics Board .
E. 1. d Secretary of Transportation .
E. 1. e Urban Mass Transportation Administration .
E. 1. f Federal Highways Administration.
E. 1. g State, Regional and Local Agencies.
E. 1. h Organization of Aeronautical Activities in California
E. 2 Timing of V/STOL Implementation Activities.
E. 2. a V/STOL Aircraft and Related Equipment Manufacturers.
E. 2. b Airport s. . . .
E. 2. c Airline Operations. . . . . . . . . . .
E. 2. d Airways and Air Traffic Control . . . . . .
E. 2. e Airport Access . . . . . . .
References .
. E-2
. E-4
. E-6
. E-8
. E-9
· . E-10
· . E-10
·. E-ll
· .E-1 3
. E-25
. E-26
. E-27
. E-27
. E-28
i . E-28,
. E-37
FIGURES
Principal Role Interactions.
Rapid Transit Milestones .
California Freeway Development
....... E-30
. . . . . . . . . . . E-31
Milestones . . E-32
TABLES
E-1. Sources of Laws and Regulations Pertinent to V/STOLApplications .
E-2. State Organizations for Aeronautics.
E.1
E-1.
E-2.
E-3.
E-33
. .E-35
APPENDIX E
ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES
An airport and its accompanying operations can radically change
the environment of a large contiguous territory and may even
influence property and persons only remotely connected to it geographically.
As a consequence, vigorous and serious debates frequently result over
whether an airport is needed, how it is to be developed, the kind of equip-
ment it is to use, how it is to operate, the nature and extent of its environ-
mental and economic influence, and the extent of compensation to be awarded
to those persons claiming losses from the introduction of the airport and its
operations into the community. In response to such issues, laws and
regulations have emanated at the local, regional, state and national level to
help bring about orderly and effective development of air transportation.
These laws and regulations establish the roles of the various government
agencies. Some of these laws and regulations may constitute V/STOL
airport and aircraft design objectives or constraints. Other laws affect the
operations of the airport and the aircraft and, just as importantly, other laws
establish roles and responsibilities to foster air transportation.
In view of the widespread and important impact of air operations, it
is not surprising that a great number of government organizations have
interests, of varying degrees and kinds, in air transportation activities. These
organizations exist at the national, state, regional and local levels. The roles
and responsibilities of the various agencies are of critical importance. The
timing of their actions may be equally significant because of the interdependence
of the agencies with each other and with aircraft manufacturers, the airlines,
airport authorities, and those responsible for surface access.
In the following paragraphs, the roles and responsibilities of selected
key organizations will be discussed in terms of their impact on airports,
E-1
airport access, aircraft development, air traffic control and landing aids,
and airline operations.
E. 1 PRINCIPAL ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES APPLIED TOVARIOUS ASPECTS OF V/STOL APPLICATIONS
As can be seen from Table E-1, the organizations having defined
responsibilities toward air transportation are both numerous and varied. E-1
However, the nature and importance of the responsibilities differ. In the
cases of the Civil Aeronautics Board and Federal Aviation Administration,
aeronautical activities constitute the primary rationale for the organiza-
tions' existence and the corresponding air transportation responsibilities
they bear overshadow those of other organizations. In some instances, such
as the National Aeronautics and Space Administration and the Congress, other
organizational responsibilities are borne in addition to the specific ones related
to air transportation. Congress, for example, affects virtually all aspects of
civil aviation through the legislative powers to define the regulatory authority,
to grant or deny appropriations that fix expenditure levels and to investigate the
performance of, as well as needed changes in, legislation and organizational
responsibilities. In some cases, organizational responsibilities are relatively
minor, as in the cases of the Interior Department and Agriculture Department
which bear air transportation responsibilities only when national park or
forest lands are involved.
For the purpose of this report, major discussion is to be focused
upon a selected set of organizations considered to be of special importance to
air transportation, in general, and V/STOL applications in particular. At
the Federal level, these include the National Aeronautics and Space Adminis-
tration, the Civil Aeronautics Board, and the Federal Aviation Administration.
At the state level, the organizations to be concentrated upon are organizations
such as the departments of aeronautics. At the regional level, the discussion
will be limited to those regional organizations whose specific purpose relates
E-2
to air transportation. At the local level, the discussion will center upon
organizations such as the airport authority, the planning agencies, and
agencies concerned with surface access to the airport.
It can be seen in Figure E-1 that government agencies at all levels,
interrelate with airlines and airline operations. The principal agencies to
be considered here are the CAB, the FAA, and various agencies at the
state, regional and local level.
A variety of traveler and community needs seem to be served by
the various agencies in carrying out their functions. Thus, the costs to the
traveler are regulated for interstate travel by the CAB; schedules are
controlled by the CAB to assure accessibility; safety of airline' operations
is provided through certification of aircraft, crews and maintenance
personnel by the FAA; and passenger comfort is considered among the
many criteria leading to aircraft certification by the FAA. Various govern-
ment agencies such as the CAB and FAA seek to encourage economic growth
as a consequence of improvements in air service. NASA and the FAA are
actively engaged in programs to reduce noise and air pollution. The FAA
and CAB are both concerned with the reduction of air space congestion for a
variety of reasons.
Agency responsibilities concerning airports are also of importance.
Any significant alteration of airport characteristics, operations and
location may affect a wide variety of community, as well as traveler, needs.
For example, the decision to use reliever airports; in conjunction with hub
airports for the 1980 STOL should provide an increased accessibility for
significant parts of the traveling population. The increased accessibility is
significant in reducing the individual's total travel time through a reduction in
the amount of time spent on surface travel. Correspondingly, total travel
costs may be reduced since the traveler may benefit directly from the lower
surface fares as well as from the reduced time spent on surface modes. The
E-3
environmental impact of an airport is a matter of concern for local,
regional, and state agencies as well as the Federal Environmental
Protection Agency.
NASA, the FAA and the CAB bear major Federal responsibilities
for aircraft development, airports, airlines, and airways; however, the
responsibilities for airport access, frequently a limiting factor in the
effectiveness of these agencies, fall almost entirely outside their purview.
Other agencies at the Federal level do play critical roles. These include the
Aviation Advisory Commission, the Office of the Secretary of Transportation,
the Urban Mass Transportation Agency, the Federal Highway Administration,
and the Department of Housing and Urban Development. Important roles and
responsibilities are also carried out by government agencies at the state,
regional and local levels.
a. National Aeronautics and Space Administration
(1) V/STOL Aircraft and Related Equipment Manufacturers.
NASA's roles and responsibilities for V/STOL aircraft research
and development evolve from the National Aeronautics and Space Act of
1958, as amended. E-2 One of the assigned statutory functions of NASA
described by the Act is to conduct research for the solution of the problems
of flight and the development, construction, test, and operation of aero-
nautical vehicles. Its relationships with the aeronautical industry are
extensive since the Act calls for the widest practicable and appropriate
dissemination of information concerning NASA's activities and their results.
While planning, coordination, and control of NASA's programs are vested in
Headquarters Directorate of NASA's field centers, other NASA installations,
such as the Ames Research Center, are responsible for execution of NASA's
programs, largely through contracts with research, development, and
manufacturing enterprises.
E-4
One such contract, under Ames Research Center's project
responsibility, is the QUESTOL program -- an acronym for quiet, experi-
mental, short-takeoff -and-landing aircraft. Lockheed Aircraft Corporation,
McDonnell Douglas Corporation and Grumman Aerospace Corporation are
sponsored by NASA for the initial phase of QUESTOL design and development.
The objective of the program is to provide propulsive and lift technology
required for the development of quiet STOL transport aircraft that can help
reduce community noise, ease airport congestion and improve short haul air
transportation. Subsequent contracts will provide for industry fabrication of
two aircraft to be delivered to NASA for testing as experimental transports.
Data from the program will then be made available to the aircraft industry for
use in the development of V/STOL aircraft.
Other NASA technological research and development activities of rele-
vance to potential V/STOL manufacturers include the quiet engine, jet augmen-
tation wing and lift fan, and externally blown flap programs. Its basic research
on aerodynamic noise is of particular relevance in view of the critical impor-
tance of aircraft noise for the future of V/STOL applications.
Since non-technical considerations frequently constrain or modify
aircraft development, NASA also engages in non-technological research of
relevance to V/STOL applications. These activities include studies of air-
craft in short haul transportation systems, noise considerations for V/STOL
air transports, and time-value analysis of short haul passenger transportation.
NASA's support of industrial research and development activities
along with its in-house R&D activities is supplemented by the availability of
various government facilities, such as wind tunnels at NASA field installations,,
to potential V/STOL manufacturers.
(2) Airways and Air Traffic Control
NASA's research and development activities, of relevance to airways
and air traffic control, include programs to provide automatic landing systems
for V/STOL aircraft, communications systems, and the launching of
meteorological, navigation and communications satellites.
b. Federal Aviation Administration
(1) Aircraft and Related Equipment Manufacturers
The FAA interactions with V/STOL aircraft and related equipment
manufacturers may significantly influence the characteristics of any V/STOL
aircraft manufactured for the airline industry. The FAA roles and responsi-
bilities include the sponsorship of aircraft researchand development, the
establishment of certification standards for V/STOL aircraft, and type and
prototype certification.E-
3
(2) Airports
The Administrator of the FAA administers programs to identify the
type and cost of development of public airports required for a national
airport system and provides grants of funds to assist public agencies in
airport system planning, airport master planning, and public airport develop-
ment. The Airport and Airway Development Act of 1970 constitutes a
comprehensive effort by the Congress to provide for the expansion and
improvement of the airport and airway system in the United States. It
provides that the Secretary of Transportation is to formulate and to recommend
to Congress a National Transportation Policy. In revising and formulating the
national airport system plan, the Secretary is to take into consideration the
relationship of each airport to the rest of the transportation system in the
particular area, its relationship to the forecasted technological developments
in aeronautics, and the relationship to other developments such as those in
intercity transportation. These considerations are of particular significance
to V/STOL applications since potential travelers between cities, particularly
for relatively closely spaced cities, are faced with a choice among travel
modes.
E-6
The FAA engages in a number of research and development activities
of immediate significance to airports. It is engaged in technological R&D
on airport and airways traffic capacity. It provides aviation forecasts for
approximately ten years into the future. It forecasts the composition of the
National Airport System, again for about ten years into the future. The FAA
studies the problem of airport congestion for approximately five years into
the future. It engages in studies on the influence of the airport on the local
communities. It establishes criteria relating to airport development grants
and studies problems of airport expansion and long range planning.
Since only the use of existing airports is envisioned by this study for
the 1980 STOL, many of the problems associated with the development of an
entirely new airport are eased. In particular, the high cost of "'landside"
development diminish. With the Airport and Airways Development Act of 1970
providing for matching funds on a 50-50 basis for "airside" developments, the
problems of persuading the local communities to help create a 1980 STOL
capability are eased somewhat further.
(3) Airlines and Airline Operations
The FAA, along with the CAB, plays perhaps the more significant
of the government roles regulating airlines and airline operations.
The FAA participates in the CAB route proceedings. It issues and
administers air safety regulations and certifies the safety of aircraft for
operations. The FAA establishes the standards, gives the appropriate tests
and issues licenses for airmen and maintenance personnel. It provides also
preflight and enroute briefings to airline personnel.
The FAA's aviation forecasts provide useful market data to airline
planners. Through the establishment of uniform safety standards, the FAA
permits both manufacturers and airlines to be assured that sacrifices in
safety features by competitors will not allow them unfair competitive
advantage.
Airways and Air Traffic Control (ATC)
While the responsibilities for other aspects of V/STOL applications
are generally allocated to a number of Federal and non-Federal agencies,
the Federal Aviation Administration bears almost sole responsibility for the
Federal Airways System. Its research and development are supplemented
by those of NASA.
The FAA plans, finances, owns and operates the Federal Airways
System. It operates the air traffic control towers and trains the ATC personnel.
FAA's research and development programs include R&D of a semi-
automatic ATC system, improved long-distance navigation, large screen
displays for ATC, and improvements in its Airport Surveillance Radar.
Currently planned FAA equipment and facilities have an inherent
capability for handling a 1980 STOL. However, in the absence of firm
definitions of the 1980 STOL, increased FAA attention to the uses of the
equipment and facilities may be required in order to exploit the potential
benefits of a STOL system.
c. Civil Aeronautics Board
(1) Airports
The CAB also fulfills important roles and responsibilities withE-4respect to airports. It approves particular airports to serve particular
areas with air service. It authorizes routes which influence airport
planning and design. With the Interstate Commerce Commission, the
CAB establishes air cargo zones and ground pickup zones.
Like the FAA, the CAB actively undertakes or sponsors a variety
of research activities of significance to STOL and V/STOL applications. It
has studied problems of airport congestion by 1975. It forecasts the growth
of scheduled domestic passenger air traffic. It conducts origin-destination
surveys of airline passenger traffic.
E-8
(4)
(2) Airlines and Airline Operations
The CAB plays a particularly important role in terms of its regulation
of airlines and airline operations. Under the terms of the Federal Aviation
Act of 1958, particularly Title X of the Act, the Civil Aeronautics Board has
powers to regulate virtually every facet of the airline industry's structure,
operations, and relationships to other industries. The CAB's powers include:
licensing or granting of operating authority; regulation of airline rates;
enforcement of laws, regulations and procedures; the regulation of relation-
ships among air carriers and between air carriers, common carriers, and
other aeronautical firms.
In carrying out its responsibilities the CAB studies are important to
airline and airline operations as well as airports. The CAB studies of
special relevance to airlines and airline operations include: airport congestion,
air travel demand, forecasts of the growth of scheduled domestic passenger
air traffic; fare structures and effects of competition in selected areas; air
carrier financial and traffic statistics; local service air carrier costs; and
studies of freight rates.
d. Secretary of Transportation
(1) Airport Access
The Airport and Airways Development Act of 1970 authorizes the
Secretary of Transportation to grant funds to planning agencies for airport
system planning and to public agencies for airport master planning. The
terms of the act make approval of a project conditional upon its being
reasonably consistent with existing planning agency projects for development
of the area where the airport is located. The Secretary is also required to
withhold approval unless the Secretary is satisfied that fair consideration is
given to the interests of communities in which or near which the project may be
located. Nor is the Secretary to authorize airport development projects
which he determines will have an adverse effect upon the environment, unless
there is no feasible alternative. If there is no feasible alternative, the
Secretary is to assure that all possible steps are taken to minimize the adverse
effect. No airport development project is to be approved unless the public
agencies sponsoring the project certify that the public has been given the
opportunity for a hearing. The governor of the state in which the project is
located is to certify that the project will comply with proper air and water
quality standards.
No Federal funds are to be used under the Act for the cost of
construction of public parking facilities for passenger automobiles as part of
the airport development project. Similarly, the Act precludes funding of the
cost of construction, alteration, or repair of a hangar or of any part of an
airport building unless those buildings or parts of buildings are intended to
house facilities or activities directly related to the safety of persons at the
airport.
e. Urban Mass Transportation Administration
(1) Airport Access
The Urban Mass Transportation Agency (UMTA) of the Department of
Transportation provides grants or loans to public bodies for acquiring or
improving capital equipment and facilities needed for public or privately
operated mass transit systems. While neither these loans, nor UMTA's
"demonstration grants" have yet provided an adequate means of solving
airport access problems, the potential for such help remains.
f. Federal Highways Administration
(1) Airport Access
The Bureau of Public Roads of the Federal Highway Administration
(still another part of the Department of Transportation) provides funds to
E-10
state highway departments for constructing the interstate highway system
and for building or improving primary and secondary roads and streets.
Funding for the interstate highway system is authorized by the Congress to
be spent from the Highway Trust Fund on a matching basis, with the Federal
share being 90% and the State share 10%. The funding for building or
improving primary and secondary roads is on a 50-50 basis.
g. State, Regional and Local Agencies
(1) Airports
In view of the very great impact -- for good and for bad -- that an
airport may have upon a local community, it is not surprising that a number
of agencies at the state, regional and local levels involve themselves in
airport activities.
At the state level, the state may provide planning and technical aid
for airport development and under some circumstances may assist the local
or regional agencies with financial help concerning airport planning and
development. The organization at the state level varie's from state to state.
In some instances, the organization concerned with aeronautical activities
functions as part of a higher state organization (e. g., in California the
Department of Aeronautics is part of the Business and Transportation Agency)
while in other instances the organization concerned with aeronautical acti-
vities represents the highest level of government agency (e. g. , the Alabama
Department of Aeronautics). Responsibilities and roles also vary from state
to state. In California, for example, the Department of Aeronautics is
assisting in the development of statewide system of airports, including
responsibilities concerned with airport site and heliport site approvals. It
also cooperates with Federal authorities in the development of a national
system of civil aviation and in the coordination of aeronautic activities within
the State of California.
E-ll
Regional agencies also have critical roles and responsibilities
concerning airports. In some instances, a regional authority may deter-
mine the location for a new airport. In other instances, a regional authority
may plan, finance and develop the airport system. In Los Angeles County, for
example, the Los Angeles County Aviation Commission makes recommendations
to the County Board of Supervisors on the acquisition of sites for County
airports and heliports, the establishment of regulations for the management
and operation of these facilities, and other such matters. The Commission also
makes recommendations to the County Engineer on regulations and plans for
developing aviation in the County. These may include proposals for enlarging
existing facilities or adding new ones to serve the aviation industry. For a
county such as Los Angeles, the development of reliever airports may also call
into play the Los Angeles County Engineer who also serves as Director of
Aviation for the Los Angeles County.
The Los Angeles Department of Airports has charge, supervision,
direction and control over the Los Angeles municipal airports (which include
LAX, Van Nuys and Ontario). The Board of Airport Commissioners establishes
rules and regulations governing the use of the airports and the operation of
aircraft in connection with the airports. The Los Angeles Planning Commission
and the City Planning Department provide a master plan for the physical
development of the city, including its airports. The City Planning Commission
also acts as the Airport Zoning Commission. The Planning Department
regulates the use of privately owned property through zoning ordinances and
through the approval of proposed subdivisions and passes upon zoning varia-
tions, as well as the city's acquisition of land.
(2) Airlines and Airline Operations.
A state may limit aircraft operations to particular areas or times
and is empowered to have jurisdiction over intrastate tariffs. A regional
E-12
authority may seek to specialize a particular airport for a particular
kind of air service. Agencies of the local community, in particular the
airport authorities, participate with the CAB in the route authority proceed-
ings. The local community may restrict unacceptable aircraft, the hours
during which airline operations will be permitted, and the uses to which the
airline activities may be directed.
(3) Airport Access
Since each state highway department has considerable discretion in
determining what the state's interstate highway, primary and secondary road
system should be, the state has the ability to help provide airport access
improvements. County planning commissions may administer a "master plan
for highways" for the unincorporated areas of a county with various city
planning departments bearing similar responsibilities in the urban areas.
Other departments are usually charged with making surveys for street
improvements and for street maintenance.
(4) State Organizations for Aeronautics
Organizations for aeronautical activities at the state, county and
local levels vary from state to state (Table E-2). In some instances, the
state organization concerned with aeronautical activities functions as part of
a higher state organization (e. g. , in California the Department of Aeronautics
is part of the Business and Transportation Agency) while in other instances
it represents the highest level of government agency (e.g., the Alabama
Department of Aeronatutics). In Colorado and Nevada, separate state organi-
zations for aeronautics are not identified.
(h) Organization of Aeronautical Activities in California
A variety of organizations at the state, county and local level are of
significance to aeronautical activity. It is the purpose of this section to
E-13
describe briefly some of the organizations affecting air operations and air-
ports including airport access in the State of California. While California is
not necessarily representative of other states, the description of the organi-
zations and their responsibilities still provide a feel for the problems to be
encountered elsewhere.
(1) California Department of Aeronautics
As an example of government organization for aeronautics, the State
of California Department of Aeronautics activities include: encouragement
of the development of private flying and general use of air transportation,
the fostering of air safety, assisting in the development of a statewide system
of airports, and providing for cooperation with federal authorities in the
development of a national system of civil aviation as well as coordination of
aeronautics activities of federal authorities with the State of California. E-5
It is charged with airport and heliport site approval as well as airport
operating permits.
The programs administered by the California Department of Aero-
nautics to accomplish its objectives include: (a) development of aviation and
navigation facilities, (b) aviation safety and education, and (c) administra-
tion.
The objective of the aviation and navigation facilities program is to
plan for the optimum use of available air space and to provide technical and
financial assistance toward the development of aviation and navigational
facilities. On-going elements of the program in FY 1970-71 included: (a)
allocation of airport assistance revolving funds, (b) regulation of airports
and heliports, (c) inspection of schools and state building sites, (d) leasing
the navigational system, (e) noise standards for airports, and (f) the State
Airport Master Plan.
During the 1969 Session, the California Legislature enacted legisla-
tion which required the Department of Aeronautics to develop and adopt noise
E-14
standards governing the operation of aircraft and aircraft engines for
airports operating under a valid permit issued by the department to the extent
not prohibited by law. The act, Chapter 1585, Statutes of 1969, established an
advisory committee to assist the department in the adoption of standards and
directed that the regulations be presented to the Legislature by April 1970;
which, in the absence of legislative action they were to become effective
January 1, 1971.
The bill provided $50, 000 from the General Fund to be repaid by
the Airport Assistance Revolving Fund from the revenue realized from a
newly imposed tax on aircraft jet fuel.
Further, the bill specifically provided that the counties would be
responsible for the enforcement of the regulations and directed that the
officer in charge of the airport provide the enforcement authority, to be
designated by the county, such information as is required by the noise
standard regulations to permit their efficient enforcement.
The objectives of the California Department of Aeronautics aviation
and safety program in the fiscal year 1970-1971 were to develop and promote
a safety program and to insure the adequacy of training equipment, facilities
and procedures in aeronautical activities and schools. Elements within the
program included: (a) regulation of parachute jumping, (b) financial
responsibility, (c) safety and education, (d) regulation of commercial flight
schools, (e) search and rescue, and (f) airmarking.
The Department of Aeronautics in FY 1970-1971 was also in the
process of developing the first phase of a two-phase master plan for
aviation. When compiled, the plan was to provide a logical basis for the
distribution of the Airport Assistance Revolving Fund and was to relate the
needs of the state to the potential financing of airport development. The
study is a 28-month study which uses regional and local planning data as
basic inputs. The Bay Area Regional Airports study is thus a basic
E-15
component of the statewide master plan. Once developed the study will be
drawn into a more general multi-mode plan which will include ground transit
as well as aviation.
The California State Master Plan of Aviation is a two-part study
involving the air element of the overall transportation picture. When
completed, the plan will encompass all 58 California counties. Phase I of
the plan is primarily concerned with inventory and data gathering, analysis
of the existing system, the forecasted supply and demand, postulated future
systems and the evaluation of the proposed alternatives. It will, in effect,
describe where California is today with respect to air transportation, what
California can expect in the future, and alternative ways of coping with the
future.
Phase II is to develop the actual aviation program based on the data
and results stemming from the Phase I activity. It will produce an imple-
mentation program to be pursued in putting the Master Plan into effect. An
additional feature of the Phase II activity will be a computerized information
Data Bank which will store all collected and inventoried data assembled
during the course of the study. This Data Bank will be updated on a selected
element basis, to be available to all types of users as their needs for data
arise.
The Department of Aeronautics contends that the long-term plan
for future development of an overall Statewide Aviation System is necessary
if the Department of Aeronautics is going to carry out its objectives in the
State of California. To effect uniformity of the laws and regulations relating
to aeronautics in order that persons may engage in every phase of aeronautical
activity with the least possible restrictions consistent with the safety and rights
of others, a need exists for a means of coordination and cooperation with
Federal authorities.
In the development of a national system of civil aeronautics, it is
necessary to provide a means for coordination of the aeronautical activities
of the Federal authorities in the State of California. A number of needs arise:
o There is a need to develop an economically and technicallyappropriate system of general aviation airports financed out ofuser charges as distinct from other sources of funds.
o There is a need to develop a system of reliever airports andairstrips for accommodating the overflow of general aviationand the diversion of training flight operations to maintain capacityat existing airports.
o There is a need to develop a system of recreational airportsconsistent with recreational values and needs.
o There is a need to determine the need for the Business andTransportation Agency, the Department of Aeronautics, theAeronautics Board, and possibly the State Transportation Boardto administer future state and federally supported aviation trustfunds.
o There is a need to establish an information data system forexisting and future projected aviation data in a computerbased form.
o There is a need to evaluate the adequacy of .the system todetermine future demands and surplus and to provide optimumalternative systems, recognizing cost effectiveness differences.
o There is a need'to formulate an implementation programdesigned to meet the needs of the physical and policy elementsof the California Master Plan including capital improvements,legislative actions, administrative measures and responsibilities,and regulatory implications.
o There is a need for the establishment of a state agency whichwill be responsible for final accomplishment of the program,including the coordination of the aviation planning, administrativeand implementation functions, with other state, regional, localand federal agencies involved in transportation planning.
o There is a need to provide liaison with DOT/FAA as to whichairports may qualify for federal grants-in-aid as part of thetotal airport system within the context of the National AirportSystem Plan and the State Master Plan of Aviation.
E-17
o There is a need to determine and update airport standardsrelating to physical plan versus facilities, noise, environ-ment and other physical requirements.
(2) California Public Utilities Commission
The California Public Utilities Commission, a constitutional agency
composed of five members appointed by the Governor with the advice and
consent of the Senate, is responsible for the regulation of privately owned
public utilities. The term "public utility" includes such businesses as truck,
bus, airline companies and pipeline corporations (comprising the "transporta-
tion" group of utilities), telephone, gas and electric companies, and warehouse
companies. The commission's primary objective is to insure adequate
facilities and services for the public at reasonable and equitable rates consistent
with a fair return to the utility on its investment.
The commissions' authorized staff of 807 positions (FY 1971) was
organized into six divisions: Administrative, Transportation, Utilities,
Finance and Accounts, Examiner, and Legal. The commissions' two major
programs are the Regulation of Transportation (receiving about 62 percent of
the budgeted funds) and the Regulation of Utilities (receiving about 38 percent
of the funds). Direct operating responsibility forthese two programs is
handled, respectively, by the Transportation Division and the Utilities
Division, each of which receives supporting services from the other four
divisions.
Operating Procedures. The commission reviews and passes judgment
on all changes in operating methods and rate schedules proposed by regulated
utilities and transportation companies. It investigates complaints registered
E-18
against utilities and may initiate an investigation of a utility company on its
own volition. In all such cases, data are accumulated by the staff, hearings
are held, decisions rendered, and compliance secured through enforcement
procedures. No state court may review a commission decision except the
California Supreme Court whose review power is limited to questions of law.
An application or complaint presented to the commission by or
against a transportation company, for example, would be studied by the
Transportation Division. Any financial implications would be reviewed
and evaluated by the Finance and Accounts Division. The Legal Division
would advise the commission on legal matters and the Examiner Division
would conduct the hearings. The Administrative Division provides staff
supervision, administers commission policies, and maintains housekeeping
services.
Support of the Commission. The 'commission is supported by the
General Fund and the Transportation Rate Fund. The Transportation Rate
Fund finances only those commission activities relating to the rates, charges,
and practices of motor carriers hauling freight. All other commission
functions are supported by the General Fund.
Revenues for the Transportation Rate Fund are derived from a fee
paid by the regulated motor carriers which is equal to one-third of one
percent of their gross operating revenues. Additional revenue to the
Transportation Rate Fund is produced by a $4 quarterly "filing fee" which
is paid by all motor and rail freight carriers at the time they file with the
commission their reports on gross operating revenue. Other revenues are
derived from a miscellany of penalties, application fees for permits and
certificates, and from the sale of documents.
E-19 '
Applications to California Air Transportation. The California Public
Utilities Commission has the authority to regulate and the responsibility to
regulate intrastate air carriers and to regulate intrastate fares of carriers
certificated by the Civil Aeronautics Board. The commission also regulates
surface carriers which serve the various airports in California, with the
exception of those carriers which are operated by other governmental or
municipal agencies. It has relations with the Association of Bay Area
Governments (San Francisco region) and the Regional Airport Systems Study
Committee as it is the commission's belief that it can contribute to the solu-
tion of the regional transportation problem by the adoption of a program
designed to shape its regulation of air carriers and airport surface transit
to comport with an integrated and dispersed usage of the San Francisco Bay
area airports.
The Commission has adopted a policy of promoting cooperation with
the Civil Aeronautics Board on questions of air carrier service by the
establishment of an air team which coordinates their common activities.
Although the Commission has full regulatory authority over intrastate
airlines, its authority over interstate airlines is limited to the fixing of
rates for their intrastate operations. In effect the two regulatory agencies
must work harmoniously toward the same objectives to insure the most
convenient, economic and balanced utilization of airport facilities. Some
phases of cooperation between the two agencies may require additional
legislation on both the state and federal levels. Where this is found to be
necessary, the respective agencies should take steps to secure the intro-
duction of the appropriate bills.
(3) California Division of Highways
The activities of the California Division of Highways are of special
importance to the development of adequate airport access. The Division of
Highways is a part of the Department of Public Works which, in turn, is a
part of the Business and Transportation Agency. The Highways Division
E-20
plans, supervises construction of, and maintains the State Highway System.
It also issues transportation and encroachment permits. One of its district
offices conducts the. Los Angeles Regional Transportation Study.
(4) Los Angeles County Board of Supervisors
At the County level organizations vary from county to county. In
Los Angeles County the Los Angeles County Board of Supervisors serves
as the governing body of the County and many special districts, including
Flood Control, Air Pollution Control and Fire Protection Districts. The
Board enacts ordinances and rules; determines County and special district
policies; supervises activities of the Chief Administrative Officer; County
departments and special districts; and sits each July as the County Board of
Equalization to hear appeals from property assessments.
It has the unique function of serving as the executive and legislative
head of the largest and most complex County Government in the entire
United States.
(5) Los Angeles County Regional Planning Commission
The Regional Planning Commission establishes a master plan for
Los Angeles County (plans which provide, among other things, for airport
locations and related activities); maintains orderly and effective administra-
tion of existing plans; and provides comprehensive and precise zoning for
unincorporated areas of the County. Its Development Planning Division
administers the Master Plan of Highways and reviews public land
acquisition for conformity with master plans. The Regional Planning
Division's County Wide Planning Division handles all the technical work
regarding the creation of masterplans, community plans, and special
planning assignments involving unincorporated areas of the County distinct
from regional plans.
E-21
Los Angeles County Aviation Commission
The Los Angeles County Aviation Commission makes recommendations
to the County Board of Supervisors on the acquisition of sites for County
airports and heliports, the establishment of regulations for the management
and operation of these facilities, and other such matters.
The Commission also makes recommendations to the County Engineer
on regulations and plans for developing aviation in the County. This may
include proposals for enlarging existing facilities or adding new ones to serve
the aviation industry. The Commission also recommends programs for the
promotion and growth of the aviation industry.
(7) Los Angeles County Engineer -- Aviation Division
The Los Angeles County Engineer is also Director of Aviation for
Los Angeles County. The County Engineer's overall functions include the
performance of engineering services in the unincorporated area of the county
and in contract cities as directed by the Los Angeles County Board of
Supervisors.
(8) Los Angeles County Road Department
The Los Angeles County Road Department is responsible for
planning, designing, constructing, maintaining, and repairing County
highways, roads, bridges, and culverts, and for making the related surveys;
design, installation and maintenance of traffic signals; administration,
construction and maintenance of County Lighting Districts.
The Road Department also controls right-of-way requirements;
determines acceptability of Record of Survey maps and subdivision maps
in regard to dedication of streets; issues permits for excavations,
construction, and moving of buildings on public highways.
E-22
(6)
Los Angeles County Air Pollution Control District
The Los Angeles County Air Pollution Control District develops and
enforces measures to control air contaminating emissions from stationary
sources; administers air monitoring, research, source testing, instruments
and methods development, meteorological and control engineering services
in support of this basic mission; performs air monitoring projects for State
and Federal agencies; provides atmospheric radiological monitoring and
protection services for the County.
(10) Los Angeles City Planning Commission
To guide orderly growth the Los Angeles City Planning Commission
is appointed to study city growth and recommend policies to the governing
body of the city. This usually results in the County Master Plan. They
also recommend which particular areas of the city should be used for certain
purposes. The planning and zoning laws adopted by the city are for the
health and welfare of the public thus serving one of the requisites for the
exercise of the police power of the community. Planning commissions
usually pass on any new subdivision development to determine that they con-
form to the overall interests of the community. By law the planning commis-
sions may control street alignment, improvements, size and shape of lots,
etc. The commissions usually pass on all subdivision maps before they are
presented to the City Council or Board of Supervisors. The City Planning
Commission usually works closely with county planning commissions
(sometimes called Regional Planning Commissions, as in the case of Los
Angeles County) in planning through highways and other matters requiring
coordinated action.
(11) Los Angeles City Planning Department
The Los Angeles City Planning Department prepares and maintains
a master plan for the physical development of the city including such elements
E-23
(9)
as highways, the Civic Center, public works facilities, branch administrative
centers, schools, recreational facilities, airports and the shore line. All
matters which would affect any portion of this plan must be approved by
the City Planning Commission (which also acts as the Airport Zoning
Commission). The Department regulates the use of privately owned property
through zoning ordinances and through the approval of proposed subdivisions.
The Department investigates and reports on applications for amendments to
the zoning ordinances and passes upon zone variance applications. The
acquisition of land by the City of Los Angeles for public use must be approved
by the City Planning Department.
(12) Los Angeles Department of Airports
The Los Angeles Department of Airports has charge, supervision,
direction, and control over the Los Angeles municipal airports. The Board
of Airport Commissioners establishes rules and regulations governing the
use of the airports and the operation of aircraft in connection with the airports.
The municipal airports include Los Angeles International Airport, the Van
Nuys Airport and the Ontario Airport.
(13) Los Angeles City Engineering Bureau
The Los Angeles City Engineering Bureau, a part of the Public Works
Department, prepares surveys and engineering plans for street improvements,
bridges, sewers, storm drains, and other public works, and is the custodian
of all maps, plans and records pertaining to such work.
(14) Los Angeles Right of Way and Land Bureau
The City of Los Angeles Right of Way and Land Bureau acquires
rights-of-way, makes appraisals and purchases property required for public
use. It examines property titles, maintains records, and collects rentals for
the use of City-owned land and improvements.
E-24
(15) Los Angeles Streets
In Los Angeles, streets are primarily the responsibility of the city.
Three agencies of the city -- the Planning Department, the Traffic Depart-
ment, and the Public Works Department -- are involved in the provision and
maintenance of the city streets. The Planning and Traffic Departments
evaluate capabilities of existing streets and define requirements for future
streets, while the Public Works Department is responsible for construction
and maintenance. Each of these departments is, in turn, responsible to a
citizen's commission, or board, which is in turn responsible to the City
Council and Mayor for the activities of these departments.
E. 2 TIMING OF V/STOL IMPLEMENTATION ACTIVITIES
Whatever the importance of the roles and responsibilities of the
government agencies for V/STOL applications, the timing of their activities
is a critical determinant of the future of V/STOL applications. The webs of
interdependency are such that the action of one group is frequently dependent
upon the prior completion of some other activity by another group. Unfor-
tunately, in some instances a considerable period of inactivity results
because each is awaiting the other's move.' This may be at least partially
descriptive of V/STOL activities. The manufacturers are unwilling to
commit funds and resources to the development of a V/STOL aircraft in the
absence of firm aircraft purchase orders. The aircraft purchases from the
manufacturers are withheld pending granting of route authority to the airline
by the CAB for a particular V/STOL route. Also, delivery of the aircraft
may be held up pending certification of the aircraft by the FAA. The CAB,
on the other hand, may be hesitant to provide route certification in the
absence of firm information about the number and type of aircraft to be used,
the scheduling of the airline operations, the characteristics of the aircraft,
the nature of the market, and the effects upon other transportation activities.
Similarly, local agencies may be hesitant to accord support for a V/STOL
applications program in.the absence of firm data about the noise and air
E-25
pollution likely to be produced by the aircraft as well as its impact upon
both air and surface congestion.
Figure 32, Volume I, depicts in summary fashion some of the time-
related interdependencies. In each facet of V/STOL applications many of the
decisions and implementing acts are dependent upon some preceding act.
Thus, in the aircraft category, the availability of the 1980 STOL depends
upon prior STOL certification by the FAA, the FAA certification of a STOL,
prior flight tests of the STOL aircraft, and so forth. Time-related depen-
dencies span categories. Thus, with respect to the airline category STOL
aircraft revenue service depends upon the availability of certified STOL
aircraft (from the aircraft category line) and STOL landing aids (from the air
traffic control line).
It i s important to bear in mind that the time requirements for the
decisions and implementation acts are subject to considerable variations.
In some instances, the time requirements are established by law, as in the
stipulation that a certain number of days will elapse between notice of a
CAB hearing and the hearing itself. In other cases, the time requirements
cannot be defined with any precision because of uncertainties associated
with technical developments of a revolutionary nature. Often, however, the
times are difficult to define because of an agency's caution in making a
decision in order to safeguard all interested parties.
a. V/STOL Aircraft and Related Equipment Manufacturers
The dependence of V/STOL aircraft and related equipment manu-
facturers for funding of research in the manufacturer's facilities and
information resulting from sponsored research and in-house government
research was described earlier. The manufacturers may delay their own
work on the development of a V/STOL aircraft pending the completion of such
R&D activities. But the aircraft manufacturer is also likely to wait for
E-26
government endorsed definitions of a market particularly as a result of
CAB route authorization and airline interests in an aircraft to service
that market. And if it does develop the aircraft, the manufacturer is
dependent upon meeting FAA standards in order to have its aircraft certified.
Figure Ii, Volume I, gives an example of the time requirement for STOL
development as a composite of the time requirement for the NASA QUESTOL,
plus the time required for the DC-10 development, plus one additional year
between the two programs for contingencies.
b. Airports
This study does not envision the creation of new airports for the
1980 STOL, although new airports may be required to implement 1990
VTOL.
Since no new airport is to be developed for the 1980 STOL, problems
related to decision and implementation are greatly minimized principally
since costly and time-consuming land acquisition procedures are avoided.
However, for new airports to be developed for a 1990 V/STOL site, selec-
tion studies and air space determination should be initiated by 1982.
c. Airline Operations
In view of the unwillingness of manufacturers to design and develop
V/STOL aircraft prior to the establishment of a market and the CAB's
route authorization, the speeding of government decisions in these areas
may greatly accelerate the V/STOL applications process. A speeding up
of CAB's decision making process would permit earlier decisions of STOL
routes to be made. If such decisions are made, airlines may then firm up
their plans on the number and type of aircraft required to service the new
markets. The manufacturers would then be in greatly improved positions
to move ahead with the development of aircraft to satisfy the airline needs.
Communities concerned with planning for airport developments would then
E-27
be in a position of having firm data on operational characteristics of the
airplanes programmed to service their communities. The difficulties of
the CAB should not be minimized, however. It is required to protect the
interests of a variety of parties and in order to do so it must generally
follow a set of time consuming procedures. Figure 30, Volume I, shows
the times required for three different CAB decisions. While the current
law does not permit basic changes in the procedures, significant speedups
could occur in the scheduling time requirements if the judge's and the
board's decisions could be speeded.
d. Airways and Air Traffic Control
Since ownership and control of the Federal Airways System is
vested in the FAA, no delays are expected in implementing V/STOL
applications as a consequence of the necessity for air space studies or for
the construction of whatever additional ATC and landing aids might be
required.
e. Airport Access
Significant improvements in existing airport access are generally
time consuming and costly. If new rapid transit systems are to be
constructed for airport access, the time delays are indeed very great.
Figure E-2 shows the time requirements for the San Francisco BARTS
program, and for the Washington, D. C. subway. If freeways are to be
developed to provide airport access, the State of California experience has
shown optimistic scheduling to require about seven years (Figure E- 3 ).
The development of surface street improvements, particularly if rights of
way have already been acquired, provides the speediest solution if not the
best long-term solution.
Fortunately, the 1980 STOL and the 1990 V/STOL envision reliever
airports being used in conjunction with the hub airports. The use of the
E-28
reliever airports may serve to reduce airport congestion at the hub
airports while adding acceptable levels of increased traffic at the reliever
airports.
E-29
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PRECDING PAGE BLANK NOT FILMED
REFERENCES
Bernard A. Schreiver and William W. Seifert, Cochairmen.Air Transportation 1975 and Beyond - A Systems Approach,The M.I.T. Press, Cambridge, Mass. (1968) pp. 84-1ZL-
Code of Federal Regulations, Title 14, Chapter V NationalAeronautics and Space Administration, (January 1, 1970).
Code of Federal Regulations, Title 14, Chapter I, FederalAviation Administration, Department of Transportation,(January 1, 1970).
Code of Federal Regulations, Title 14, Chapter II, CivilAeronautics Board, (January 1, 1970).
California Legislature, Analysis of the Budget Bill of the Stateof California for Fiscal Year 1970-1971, pp. 878-884.
Preceding page blank ]
E-37
E. 1
E. 2
E. 3
E. 4
APPENDIX F
COST AND FUNDING REQUIREMENTS
F - ,I
CONTENTS
Page
F. 1
F. 2
F. 2. a
F. 2. b
F. 2. c
F. 2. d
F. 3
F. 3. a
F. 3. b
F. 3. c
F. 3. d
F. 4
F. 4. a
F. 4. b
F. 4. c
Reference
Summary of 1980 and 1990 V/STOL Systems
1980 STOL System. ...........
Aircraft Development and Production Costs.
Airline Acquisitions and Introduction Costs.
STOLport Development Costs.
Air Traffic Control System Costs.
1990 VTOL System. ...........
Aircraft Development and Production Costs.
Airline Acquisition and Introduction Costs .
VTOLport Development Costs.......
Air Traffic Control ...........
Operating Cost Analysis .
Direct Operating Cost (DOC) .......
Indirect Operating Cost (IOC) .......
Return on Investment (ROI) .
Is.
........ F-1
, ....... F-2
...... ...F-3
...... ...F-5
, ....... F-5
, ....... F-5
......... F-6
...... ...F-6
...... ...F-7
...... ...F-8
...... ...F-8
...... ...F-8
...... ...F-8
...... ...F-9
...... ...F-10
...... ....F-70
FIGURES
1980 STOL and 1990 VTOL Implementation Schedule. . . F-ll
1980 STOL and 1990 VTOL System Costs ........ F-12
Cumulative 1980 STOL and 1990 VTOL SystemImplementation Costs ............... . F-13
Comparison of Fare Levels, 1980 STOL and 1990 VTOLSystems (Adjusted Domestic Trunk IOC) ........ F-14
1980 STOL and 1990 VTOL System Cumulative Funding . F-15
F-i, 2,
F-l
F-2
F-3
F-4
F-5
FIGURES (Continued)
Page
F-6 1980 STOL Implementation Schedule. F-16
F-7 Cumulative Time-Phased Summary of ImplementationCosts (1980 STOL System - 150 Passenger Aircraft) . F-17
F-8 Airframe Development Cost . F-18
F-9 Composite Structures, Cost Estimating Relationship . F-19
F-10 Airframe Cost Estimating Relationships. F-20
F-ll 1980 STOL System Aircraft Flyaway Costs. .F-Z1
F-12 Implementation Costs by Year for 1980 STOL System -Airline Acquisition & Introduction . .. . . . F-22
F-13 1980 STOL System Time Phased STOLport DevelopmentCosts - Airfield and Support Area . . . . . . . . . . F-23
F-14 1980 STOL System Air Traffic Control Facilities Cost F-24
F-15 1980 STOL System Time Phased Air Traffic ControlFacilities Cost .. F-25
F-16 1990 VTOL Implementation Schedule . . . . . . . . . F-26
F-17 1990 VTOL Aircraft Lift Turbofan Engine DevelopmentCosts . F-27
F-18 1990 VTOL Aircraft, Lift Turbofan Engine ProductionCosts . F-28
F-19 1980 STOL System, EBF 3000 ft., Direct OperatingCosts.. F-29
TABLES
F-1 STOL and VTOL Port Development Costs by Region F-30
F-2 Summary of Implementation Costs - 1980 STOLSystem, 150-Passenger Aircraft . .......... F-31
F-3 Engine Technology Assessment and Cost . . . . . . . F-32
F-4 NASA Funded STOL Development . . . . F-33
F-ii
TABLES (Continued)
Page
F-5 Airline Investment Cost Factors Per Aircraft. F-34
F-6 STOLport Improvement Costs, Airfield and SupportFacilities 1980-1984 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . F-35
F-7 Time Phased STOLport Development Costs, Airfieldand Support Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . F-37
F-8 STOLport Improvement Costs, Airfield Area . F-44
F-9 STOLport Improvement Costs, Support Area . . . . . . F-50
F-10 STOLport Improvement Unit Costs. F-57
F-ll Aircraft Maintenance Facility Costs . . . . . . . . . . F-58
F-12 Maintenance Facility Locations . F-59
F-13 Air Traffic Control Facilities. F-60
F-14 Time Phased Implementation Costs - 1990 VTOL System,Airline Acquisition and Introduction,100-Passenger Aircraft ......... F-62
F-15 Summary of Implementation Costs, 1990 VTOL System F-63
F-16 Estimated NASA VTOL Funding Requirements . . F-64
F-17 VTOLport Development Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . F-65
F-18 VTOLport Development Construction Cost Factors . F-66
F-19 Air Traffic Control Facilities and Equipment Cost. . F-67
F-20 Direct Operating Costs, 1990 VTOL Lift Fan,100-Passenger Aircraft ............... F-68
F-21 Comparison of Indirect Operating Costs (1970 CostLevels) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . F-69
F -iii
APPENDIX F
COST AND FUNDING REQUIREMENTS
F. 1 SUMMARY OF 1980 AND 1990 V/STOL SYSTEMS
A time-phased implementation schedule and funding analysis for
the forced scenario 1980 STOL and fostered scenario 1990 VTOL system
has been developed based on the technology, performance and costs of
developing, acquiring, and introducing STOL service in 1980 and VTOL
service in 1990.
The implementation schedules for the 1980 and 1990 scenarios are
shown in Figure F-1 and indicate the key milestones associated with aircraft
development, airline introduction, V/STOL port development and availability
of the necessary air traffic control facilities and equipment.
A summary of implementation costs for the 1980 STOL and 1990 VTOL
systems is shown in Figure F-2. The aircraft cost which consists of flyaway
costs and spares for the specified fleet sizes required is seen to be the
largest system cost element. VTOLport development costs are significantly
higher than STOLport costs because of the costs of land acquisition and new
facility construction. Similarly, VTOLports require new air traffic control
facilities instead of additional facilities as for the STOL system.
A time-phased summary of these implementation costs is shown in
Figure F-3 for both the 1980 STOL and 1990 VTOL systems. Peak implemen-
tation costs are shown for both systems during the initial year of service which
is also the peak in aircraft production, V/STOL port development, and
installation of air traffic facilities and equipment.
Fare levels for these aircraft are shown in Figure F-4 with the 1990
VTOL requiring the highest fare level because of the characteristics of its
F-1
lift and cruise engine system. These fare levels are determined from an
analysis of direct and indirect operating costs, return on investment,
and load factor.
Sources of funding for development of the 1980 STOL and 1990 VTOL
systems are shown in Figure F-5. Commercial banks are shown to provide
the largest funds for aircraft development, airline acquisition, and STOL and
VTOL port development.
A summary of STOL and VTOL port development costs by region is
shown in Table F-1. The Northeast Region is seen to require the largest
investment compared to other regions for both STOL and VTOL ports.
F. 2 1980 STOL SYSTEM
The implementation schedule for the 1980 STOL system is shown
in Figure F-6 which illustrates the key milestones associated with aircraft
development, airline acquisition and introduction, airport development, and
the supporting air traffic control facilities and equipment.
The pacing item in aircraft development is the availability of a quiet,
lightweight, and efficient engine. Go-ahead of aircraft manufacture requires
that airlines receive appropriate route certification. STOLport development
follows go-ahead of aircraft manufacture and airline route certification.
Availability of air traffic control facilities and equipment is shown required
during the aircraft certification phase.
A summary of the implementation costs for the 150-passenger air-
craft is shown in Figure F-2. A cost breakdown by major system element
is contained in Table F-2.
Commercial banks will finance 70% of aircraft and engine development
and manufacture. Airlines will finance 30% of the flyaway price, spares, and
GSE and 100% of introduction costs.
F-2
For the 1980 STOL system,airport authorities and the FAA will
share airfield development costs on a 50-50 basis. Support facility costs
covering passenger terminal and airport parking will be provided by airport
authorities. Airport authorities will obtain 30% of all required implementa-
tion costs from available funds and 70% from sale of revenue bonds. Airlines
will finance aircraft maintenance facilities, 30% from available funds and 70%
from commercial banks. Air traffic control facilities will be provided by
the FAA.
a. Aircraft Development and Production Costs
(1) Aircraft Development Costs
Airframe. Airframe development costs for the 1980 EBF STOL,
1990 AW STOL, and 1990 Lift Fan VTOL are illustrated according to aircraft
size in Figure F-8. These costs represent an Aerospace estimate and are
based on analysis of available data.
Engine. A recently completed engine technology and assessment cost
study by the Rand CorporationF - l was utilized to estimate engine development
and production costs. The Rand study is based on performance and cost data
of 29 turbojet and 9 turbofan engines and utilizes engine thrust, weight,
temperature, total pressure and SFC to develop a technology/time assessment
and cost estimate. Based on the STOL and VTOL performance parameters,
developed engine technology appears available to meet the developmental
schedules. Table F-3 provides a summary of engine performance, technology
assessment, and engine costs and quantities.
This method, although extremely sensitive to engine weight,
temperature, and SFC, does not consider the impact of noise reduction which
is a large uncertainty. Cost experience in developing and producing a quiet
engine is at best limited. Current indications are that engines meeting the
noise goals forecast for 1980 and 1990 will be more than double the cost
of current equivalent thrust engines.
F-3
NASA STOL Development. The STOL airframe and engine develop-
ment schedules and costs assume that NASA funded STOL development
activities will accelerate in areas of quiet engine and QUESTOL aircraft
development. Projected NASA funding in support of 1980 STOL development
is shown in Table F-4. These development activities are essential to the
necessary technology, operational hardware, and system planning being
available to meet the system implementation schedule for the 1980 STOL
system. The results of these activities must provide aircraft and engine
manufacturers with design and test criteria and specifications for the
development and manufacture of production aircraft.
(2) Production Costs
Airframe. Cost estimating relationships covering aluminum and
composite structures and other equipment and controls were developed
from analysis of available industry data. A large cost reduction in the cost
of composite structures was forecast for 1990. Cost estimating relationships
for composite structures are illustrated in Figure F-9, while Figure F-10
illustrates the cost relationships for aluminum structures and other
equipment and controls.
To determine unit cost as a function of quantity, the above costs,
which are based on quantity, were multiplied by 2. 644 to obtain a first unit
cost. Average cost was then obtained by: Average cost = 1st airframe unit
cost (quantity of airframes) ' 4 9 7.
Engine. Engine production costs for the cruise engine were obtained
from the engine technology and cost method and were shown in Table F-3.
F-4
(3) Flyaway Costs
Flyaway costs for the airframe and engine for the 50, 100, 150, and
200 passenger aircraft are illustrated in Figure F-ll.
b. Airline Acquisition and Introduction Costs
Time phased airline acquisition and introduction costs are shown in
Figure F-12 and cover flyaway costs of the aircraft and spares and GSE and
introduction costs. Airline investment cost factors related to payment
schedules for the aircraft and allowances for various categories of introduc-
tion costs are shown in Table F-5.
c. STOLport Development Costs
A time phased summary-of STOLport development costs is shown in
Figure F-13 and covers costs of improving or adding runways, taxiways,
taxiway access, aprons, and passenger terminals, airport parking, and
aircraft maintenance facilities.
A summary of these costs by state for both minimum and maximum
demand levels is shown in Table F-6. A time phased summary for each
STOLport in each state is contained in Table F-7. A cost breakdown of air-
field and support facilities for each STOLport is shown in Tables F-8 and
F -9, STOLport cost factors for the landing area, terminal building, and
parking area are listed in Table F-10. Aircraft maintenance facility costs
for centralized and regional bases are contained in Table F-ll. Maintenance
facility locations are shown in Table F- 12.
d. Air Traffic Control System Costs
A summary of air traffic control facility costs is shown in Figure
F- 14 and covers additional control towers, microwave ILS, and approach
lighting systems required at various STOLports. Time phased costs for
these facilities are shown in Figure F-15. A cost breakdown of each
category of facilities necessary for each STOLport is shown in Table F-13.
F-5
F. 3 1990 VTOL SYSTEM
The implementation schedule for the 1990 VTOL system is shown in
Figure F-16 which illustrates the key milestones associated with aircraft
development, airline acquisition and introduction, VTOLport development,
and the supporting air traffic control facilities and equipment.
As in the STOL system, the pacing item in aircraft development is
the availability of quiet, lightweight, and efficient cruise and lift engines.
Go-ahead of aircraft manufacture and VTOLport development requires that
airlines receive appropriate route certification.
A time phased summary of implementation costs for the 100-passenger
aircraft is shown in Table F-14. A cost breakdown into major system
elements is contained in Table F-15. System financing similar to the STOL
system has been assumed. It is recognized that current FAA funding
criteria excludes the costs of terminal and parking facilities; however, since
these facilities are integral to the VTOLport, a change in funding criteria
has therefore been made. This funding appears to be essential to VTOLport
development if airport authorities are to be able to finance their share.
The flyaway cost estimate for the 100-passenger lift fan VTOL was
derived using the same costing estimation techniques used for the 1980 STOL
which are:
Airframe (000)$5, 764
Engine $3, 187
Total $8, 951
a. Aircraft Development and Production Costs
(1) Aircraft Development Costs
Airframe development costs for VTOL aircraft as a function of size
were illustrated in Figure F-8. Cruise engine development costs were shown
F-6
in Table F-3 and were based on the Rand Corporation engine technology
and assessment cost study. Lift engine development costs represent
Aerospace estimates and are based on analysis of available data. Develop-
ment costs as a function of engine thrust are illustrated in Figure F-17.
(2) NASA VTOL Development Costs
Th-e VTOL airframe and engine development schedules and costs
assume that NASA funded VTOL development activities are required in
areas of quiet lift fan engine and quiet VTOL aircraft. Projected NASA
funding in support of 1990 VTOL development is shown in Table F-16. These
development activities are essential to the necessary technology, operational
hardware, and system planning being available to meet the system implementa-
tion schedule for the 1990 VTOL system. The results of these activities must
provide aircraft and engine manufacturers with design and test criteria and
specifications for the development and manufacture of production aircraft.
(3) Production Costs
For the airframe, cost estimating relationships covering aluminum
and composite structures and other equipment and controls as shown in
Figures F-9 and F-10 were used to develop aircraft production costs. A
reduced cost for composite materials was forecast in 1990. Cruise engine
costs were obtained from the engine technology and cost method. Lift engine
costs as a function of thrust are illustrated in Figure F-18. These costs
are Aerospace estimates based on available industry data.
b. Airline Acquisition and Introduction Costs
Time phased airline acquisition and introduction costs were shown in
Figure F-12 and cover flyaway costs of the aircraft and spares and GSE and
introduction costs.
F-7
c. VTOLport Development Costs
A summary of VTOLport development costs by type of facility for
each hub city is shown in Table F-17. These costs consist of land and
construction costs of ground level, small elevated and large elevated ports.
Costs of centralized and regional aircraft maintenance facilities are also
included. Land and construction cost factors for each of the VTOLports are
listed in Table F-18.
d. Air Traffic Control
For the 1990 VTOL system new terminal air control, communica-
tions, data acquisition, and navigation landing aids will be required and
are listed for a typical VTOLport in Table F-19.
F. 4 OPERATING COST ANALYSIS
a. Direct Operating Costs (DOC)
DOC for STOL aircraft were based on the utilization of a modified
Boeing 1971 DOC methodF - 2 which updates cost factors to 1970 levels and
reflects airline experience. The following modifications were made to the
Boeing 1971 method to bring the costs to 1972 levels and reflect the impact
of a new STOL aircraft design in initial airline service.
Flight Crew - Increase 15%
Fuel & Oil - $. 115/Gal vs $. 095/Gal
Insurance - 2% vs 1%
Maintenance - 2, 000' STOL Increase 30%
- 3, 000' STOL Increase 20%
Depreciation - 14 Years, 2% Residual vs 12 Years,0% Residual
The resulting DOC per available seat mile as a function of distance
is illustrated in Figure F-19.
F-8
The DOC for VTOL aircraft utilized the above modified Boeing 1971
method with the exception of an increase in the insurance rate to 2.5% and
the addition of lift engine maintenance equations obtained from an Eastern
Airline Guideline for V/STOL systems. F-3 The DOC per block hour based
on 500 statute miles are shown in Table F-20.
b. Indirect Operating Costs (IOC)
The IOC were based on the operational characteristics of a V/STOL
system limited to high density short haul markets. The IOC formulas were
developed on the basis of (1) intrastate carrier cost of operation in the
California Corridor, and (2) typical domestic trunk carriers experienceF-4adjusted for STOL service.-
The resulting IOC formulas are as follows:
California Corridor = $21. 71 + (0. 3249 X CAP) +(0. 67161 X NO PAX) + (0. 004061 X ASM) +(0. 002318 X RPM)
Domestic Trunk = $47. 30 + (0. 6438 X CAP) +(1. 972 X NO PAX) + (. 004383 X ASM) +(0. 001307 X RPM)
CAP = Airport Size (No. of Seats)
NO PAX = Number of Passengers
ASM = Available Seat Miles
RPM = Revenue Passenger Miles
The IOC vary widely depending upon the, service characteristics ofairlines such as fleet size, airports served, and average stage length.
Table F-21 illustrates the different IOC obtained from various industry
methods. The level of California Corridor IOC can be seen to be far
lower than any method based on domestic trunk IOC. This comparison
indicates that more research is required to determine the level of IOC
that can be achieved by domestic trunk airlines in performing high density
STOL service.
F-9
c. Return on Investment (ROI)
A return on investment analysis was incorporated into the system
economics to provide a means to evaluate the economic viability of various
aircraft designs and operational concepts.
The ROI developed represents a rate averaged over a number of
years. The rate of return on investment utilized is based on current
practices of regulatory agencies. For the California Corridor, the rate of
return used is 10. 5% which is established by the California Public Utilities
Commission.F-5 A 10% ROI on the total investment base is equivalent to an
ROI of 13. 8% per year based only on the aircraft investment.
For domestic trunk carriers, the rate of return used is 12% whichF-6
is established by the Civil Aeronautics Board. A 12% ROI on the total
investment is equivalent to an ROI of 19. 7% per year based exclusively on
the aircraft investment.
F-10
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REFERENCES
F.1. Artur J. Alexander and J. R. Nelson, Measuring TechnologicalChange, Aircraft Turbine Engines, R1017, ARPA/PR (May 1972),and Personal Communication Concerning Follow-on AnalysisRelating Technology to Cost for Aircraft Engines.
F.2. Boeing 1971 DOC and IOC Formula Update, DC-22514, The BoeingCompany, Seattle, Washington (July 1971).
F3. Operational Requirements and Guidelines for V/STOL Systems,Eastern Airlines, August 1969.
F.4. H. L. Solomon, Interim Report, Study of Short Haul High DensityV/STOL Transportation Systems, Aerospace Report No.ATR-72(7301)-l, Vol. I, NASA Report No. CR-114466, TheAerospace Corporation, El Segundo, California (July 1972).
F.5. Estimated Result of Operation of Pacific Southwest Airlines,Application 50847, California Public Utilities Commission,Transportation Division (May 1969).
F.6. Civil Aeronautics Board Docket 21866-8, Domestic PassengerFare Investigation, Phase 8-Rate of Return, Civil AeronauticsBoard, Washington, D. C., (April 9, 1971)
F -70