UNDERSTANDING WOMEN’S EXPERIENCES OF DISPLACEMENT

The South Asian region has been especially prone to mass displacement and relocations owing to its varied geographical settings as well as socio-political factors. This book examines the women’s perspective on issues related to displacement, loss, conf lict, and rehabilitation.

It maps the diverse engagements with women’s experiences of displacement in the South Asian region through a nuanced examination of unexplored literary narratives, life writing and memoirs, cultural discourses, and social practices. The book explores themes like sexuality and the female body, women and the national identity, violence against women in Indian Partition narratives, and stories of exile in real life and fairy tales. It also offers an understanding of the ruptures created by dislocation and exile in memory, identity, and culture by analyzing the spaces occupied by displaced women and their lived experiences. The volume looks at the multiplicity of reasons behind women’s displacement and offers a wider perspective on the intersections between gender, migration, and marginalization.

This book will be useful for scholars and researchers of cultural studies, literature, gender studies, conf lict studies, development studies, South Asian studies, refugee studies, diaspora studies, and sociology.

Nabanita Sengupta is presently working as an assistant professor in English at Sarsuna College, affiliated to the University of Calcutta, India. Her areas of specialization are 19th-century travel writings, women’s studies, and translation studies. She has participated as a translator in the workshops of Sahitya Akademi, Viswa-Bharati, and others. She has also presented papers in various national and international seminars in India and abroad and organized both national and international webinars and seminars for her college. Her recent publication is a translation of a 19th-century Bengali travel writing, Englandey Bangamahila (A Bengali Lady in England) with a critical introduction.

Suranjana Choudhury teaches literature at North Eastern Hill University, Shillong, India. She has published research articles in various national and international journals, as well as book chapters in a number of edited anthologies. She has presented research papers at different national and international conferences in India and abroad. Her areas of interest include Partition Studies, South Asian studies, women’s writing, and cultural studies. She is the author of the book A Reading of Violence in Partition Stories from Bengal.

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UNDERSTANDING WOMEN’S EXPERIENCES OF DISPLACEMENT

Literature, Culture and Society in South Asia

Edited by Nabanita Sengupta and Suranjana Choudhury

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First published 2022by Routledge2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN

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© 2022 selection and editorial matter, Nabanita Sengupta and Suranjana Choudhury; individual chapters, the contributors

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DOI: 10.4324/9781003045717

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CONTENTS

Image viiiList of contributors ixForeword xivAcknowledgements xvii

Introduction: Displacement: Debates and engagements 1

PART ICRITICAL ESSAYS 15

1 Interconnected lives, disrupted realities: Revisiting gendered narratives from India’s northeastern Partition, 1947 17Binayak Dutta

2 “A language without words”: Remapping women’s displacements through transnationalism in Chandani Lokugé’s fiction 27Sibendu Chakraborty

3 Displacement, family sagas, and a feminist gaze: Retelling women’s sexual history in Love Marriage and Bodies in Motion 38Kaustav Bakshi

vi Contents

4 Prison as a paradigm of displacement: Narratives of female prisoners in 1970s West Bengal 53Samrat Sengupta

5 Negotiating the trauma of displacement in Bharati Mukherjee’s Wife and Jasmine 65Rima Bhattacharya

6 Post-riot narratives: Locating the voices of “displaced” women? 80B. Rajeshwari

7 Nation, female body, and sexuality: Contextualizing Hansda Shekhar’s “November Is the Month of Migration” 90Aparna Singh

8 When home is a glass coffin: Women and displacement in some Indian fairy tales 100Sudeshna Chakravorty

9 Women, violence, displacement: Delineating the abduction motif in South Asian partition stories 112Debasri Basu

10 Singing in exile: Relocating the notion of displacement in Usha Kishore’s Immigrant 123Goutam Karmakar

11 The post-Independence rehabilitation displacement: The birangona case in Bangladesh 137Kusumita Datta

12 “Please, dear Zari, tell my story!”: Reading women’s displacement in Zarghuna Kargar’s Dear Zari 154Dolikajyoti Sharma

PART IILife writings and memoirs 169

13 Among her own 171Amarinder Gill

Contents vii

14 Maps, shapes, and women breaking (out of ) homes: A memoir 177Nabina Das

15 “Reaching out to grasp roots … I stand uprooted” 184Lapdiang Artimai Syiem

16 Dreams, displacement, and a garden 192Paromita Sengupta

17 The women in Chambal: Translated from Bengali by Sanghita Sanyal 197Suvendu Debnath

18 Women in conf lict 205Subhajit Sengupta

Index 211

IMAGE

11.1 Meherpur memorial 148

Kaustav Bakshi is an Associate Professor, Department of English, Jadavpur University, Kolkata, and a Charles Wallace India Trust Fellow. He has been pub-lished in South Asian Review (2012), Postcolonial Text (2015), New Cinemas: Journal of Contemporary Film (2013), South Asian History and Culture (2015/2017) and South Asian Popular Culture (2018). He has published an anthology entitled, Rituparno Ghosh: Cinema, Gender and Art, published by Routledge in 2015 and is working on two projects: the first Queer Studies with Orient BlackSwan; the second, commis-sioned by Taylor and Francis, is titled Popular Cinema in Bengal: Stardom, Genre, Public Cultures. He has presented papers at several national and international conferences. His other published books include two co-edited anthologies, Anxieties, Influences and After: Critical Responses to Postcolonialism and Neocolonialism (2009) and Studies in Indian English Poetry (2008).

Rima Bhattacharya is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Humanities and Social Sciences at the Indian Institute of Technology Jodhpur, India. She received her doctorate degree in 2020 from the Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur and her M.A. and M.Phil. degrees from the University of Calcutta. She was awarded the Outstanding Thesis Award for her doctoral dissertation. She has pub-lished papers in journals like Journal of Men’s Studies, Neohelicon, Journal of Language, Literature and Culture, American Notes and Queries (ANQ), South Asian Review, Journal of Commonwealth Literature, International Journal of Comic Art, Economic and Political Review, Indian Journal of Gender Studies, and British and American Studies. Her areas of research interest include Asian American literature, Indian English Poetry, Diasporic Studies, and Postcolonial Literature. She has also attended the prestigious Institute for World Literature program at Harvard University with a scholarship.

CONTRIBUTORS

x Contributors

Debasri Basu is an Assistant Professor employed with West Bengal Education Service and is currently posted at the Department of English (UG and PG), Maulana Azad College, affiliated to the University of Calcutta, in Kolkata, India. An alumna of St. Xavier’s College, Kolkata, she was awarded her M.A. and Ph.D. degrees by the Department of English, University of Calcutta. She professes an avid interest in British Literature of the 18th century, Partition Studies, Resistance Literature, Popular Culture as well as miscellaneous Indian Writings in English, Bengali, Hindi, and English translation. Her research articles have been published by the Journal of Commonwealth and Postcolonial Studies (Georgia Southern University, USA), Cambridge Scholars Publishing, University of Calcutta, Vidyasagar University, University of Burdwan, Netaji Subhas Open University, Littcrit, and Café Dissensus, among others.

Sibendu Chakraborty is an Assistant Professor of English at Charuchandra College, Kolkata, India. He was awarded the Australian Studies Fellowship (Junior) by Australia India Council in 2012 to work on his research area at Monash University, UNSW, QU, ANU, and UWA. He was also awarded the prestigious Haskel Grant for presenting a research paper at the Annual ACLA Conference held at Brown University, USA. He also presented a paper on “Contemporary Aboriginal Theatre” at the PSA Annual convention held at the School of Advanced Study, University of London. He has many scholarly articles to his credit. His areas of interest include Aboriginal Studies, Whiteness Studies, Performance Studies, and South Asian Diasporic literature. His recent publication includes a paper titled “Locating Indigenous Sovereign Spaces: Race and Womanhood in Romaine Moreton’s Poetry” published in Claiming Spaces: Australian Women’s Writing, edited by D. Das and S. Dasgupta (2017).

Sudeshna Chakravorty is an Assistant Professor of English, Susil Kar College (affil-iated to the University of Calcutta). She has chaired sessions and presented papers at National and International conferences, the most recent being the International Conference on Trauma, Narrative, Responsibility, Romania, June 2019. She is a Life Member of the Shakespeare Society of India and Jadavpur University Society for American Studies. Her recent publication “Is It Magic?: Analysing the Gender Inequality in the Distribution of Mercy in Fairy Tales across Cultures” was pub-lished in Indian Folk Literature (Ed. Suman Bala & Sandeep Pathak 2020). She has edited an anthology “Gender: Constructions, Connotations and Representations” in 2019. Her areas of interest include Gender Studies, Folklore, and Culture Studies.

Kusumita Datta is an Assistant Professor of English in Behala College under the University of Calcutta. She is currently in the process of submitting her Ph.D. thesis on “Ephemera in literatures and literary works of Ireland and Bangladesh: A People’s Metanarrative of Martyrdom” for which she has been granted the Charles Wallace India Trust Research Grant. Her forthcoming publications include “Painting–Whitewashing: Liminal Memories of the Martyr in the Mural Literature

Contributors xi

of Ireland” in Jayita Sengupta (ed.) Narrative Explorations: History, Memory & Time (London, New York, New Delhi: Routledge, forthcoming 2021) and “‘Gonojagoron Monchos’ of the 2013 Shahbag Bangladesh: ‘Religions’ and the Digital Media” in Cornelis van Lit and James Morris (eds.) Introductions to Digital Humanities: Religions in Asia (Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter, forthcoming 2021).

Binayak Dutta teaches Modern India in the Department of History, North Eastern Hill University, Shillong. His areas of special interest include Partition of India Studies, Migration, Displacement, and Gender Studies. He has authored three books besides research papers in edited volumes and journals. He is editing an upcoming volume on Partition in northeast India.

Nabina Das is a 2017 Sahapedia-UNESCO fellow, a 2012 Charles Wallace crea-tive writing alumna (Stirling University), and a 2016 Commonwealth Writers Organisation feature correspondent. Her poetry collections are Sanskarnama (2017), Into the Migrant City (2013), and Blue Vessel (2012). Her first novel is Footprints in the Bajra (2010), and her short fiction volume is The House of Twining Roses (2014). A 2012 Sangam House, a 2011 NYS Summer Writers Institute, and a 2007 Wesleyan Writers Conference alumna, Nabina writes and translates occasion-ally in English, Assamese, and Bengali while her poetry has been translated into the Croatian, French, Bengali, Malayalam, and Urdu. A guest faculty at the University of Hyderabad for Creative Writing, Nabina has worked in journalism and media for about 10 years and is the co-editor of 40 under 40, an Anthology of Post-Globalisation Poetry (2016).

Suvendu Debnath started his career as a computer engineer in Delhi. After 14 years of service in the IT sector, he turned to journalism to pursue his interest in writ-ing. his first publication, a Bengali book of verses “Lyric lekha tulo khet” was pub-lished in 2015. He has received the best poet award from “Pragati Bangla” in 2017. Currently he is employed in the Bengali division of a national daily. Recently, his first nonfiction work “Abar Chambal,” a journalistic account of life in Chambal, has been published by Hawakal Publishers. This book is a product of an adventurous and arduous fortnight spent in Chambal.

Amarinder Gill is a Chandigarh-based academician employed with the Education Department, Chandigarh Administration. She holds a doctorate in Sociology from Punjab University. Her topic of research was “Jat Sikh Women: Social Transformation, Changing Status and Life Style.” She occasionally reviews books for a national daily. Her areas of specialization are gender studies and rural studies.

Goutam Karmakar, Ph.D. (English), is an Assistant Professor of English at Barabazar Bikram Tudu Memorial College, Sidho-Kanho-Birsha University, West Bengal, India. He has completed his Ph.D. from the Department of Humanities and Social Science, NIT Durgapur, West Bengal, India. His forthcoming recently published

xii Contributors

edited volumes are The City Speaks: Urban Spaces in Indian Literature (London: Routledge, 2022), Religion in South Asian Anglophone Literature: Traversing Resistance, Margins and Extremism (London: Routledge, 2021), The Lie of the Land: An Anthology of Indian Poetry in English (2020) and South Asian Literature, Culture and Society: A Critical Rumination (2020). He has been published in journals like South Asian Review, Journal of Gender Studies, Journal of Postcolonial Writing, National Identities, Asiatic, and many more.

B. Rajeshwari is currently positioned as Research Consultant at Wageningen University and Research (WUR) (the Netherlands). She has earlier taught as Assistant Professor in the School of Humanities and Social Sciences, GD Goenka University, Gurugram. She has a Ph.D. in political science from Jawaharlal Nehru University and has done a collaborative post-doctoral fellowship with the Indian Institute of Technology, New Delhi, and the Wageningen University (Netherlands). She has worked on civil society and women’s rights during her postdoc. Her research interests include gender studies, civil society, inter-religious conflict, and post-conflict justice mechanisms.

Sanghita Sanyal is currently teaching in Loreto College, Kolkata, in the capacity of Assistant Professor, in the Departments of English and B.Ed. She has graduated in English Literature, from Presidency College; thereafter she completed her Masters and M.Phil. from Calcutta University. She is a research scholar, pursuing her Ph.D. in the Centre for Studies in Social Sciences, Calcutta (Kolkata). Gender Studies and Sexuality Studies are her special areas of interest and function, besides Culture Studies and Translations. She is also one of the Executive Council Members of the Intercultural Poetry and Performance Library, Kolkata. Sanghita takes a keen inter-est in English, Hindi, and Bengali translation activities.

Paromita Sengupta, Ph.D., is an Academic, Researcher, Writer, Translator, and Independent Filmmaker, currently based in Ireland. Paromita is keen and curious to publish herself both academically and creatively—through writing, word and sound art, and films. Her areas of academic and creative interest include subjects such as identity, migration, marginalization, and motherhood. Her book publica-tions include a long critical edition of The Persecuted, the first drama to be written in the English language by an Indian, and Bimukta, the Bengali translation of Volga’s The Liberation of Sita, published in 2020 by Eka, a division of Westland Amazon. Currently, she is translating the award-winning novel Sanatan by Sharan Kumar Limbale from Hindi to English. In 2020, she was awarded the prestigious Govt. of Ireland International Education Scholarship and is currently pursuing Media Studies in Mary Immaculate College, Limerick, Ireland.

Samrat Sengupta is an Assistant Professor of English, Sammilani Mahavidyalaya under the University of Calcutta. He has done his Ph.D. from the Centre for Studies in Social Sciences, Calcutta. He has co-edited an anthology of critical essays

Contributors xiii

on post-colonialism and edited two special supplements on Violence and Terror. His latest publication is on Bernard Stiegler and Jacques Derrida’s take on tele-technology and modes of power published in an anthology from Springerlink. His work exists in the fields of Gender Studies, Post-structuralism, Memory Studies, and Philosophy of Literature. He is co-editing a special issue of the international journal Sanglap on “Caste in Humanities” and a volume on Bengali radical writer Nabarun Bhattacharya.

Subhajit Sengupta is an award-winning journalist known for chronicling the unobvious. He has been practising journalism for 15 years covering internal con-flicts, communal disturbances, disasters, and displacement. He had won the prestig-ious Ramnath Goenka Award 2016 for a documentary which focused on ethnic riots in Assam, the cause behind the strife, and the subsequent displacement. He is currently working with CNN-NEWS18/News18 .co m.

Dolikajyoti Sharma is presently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of English, Guwahati University, Assam. She has presented papers in various national and international conferences and has published papers. Her areas of interest are diverse and include women’s literature, modern poetry and fiction, green studies, and contemporary South Asian literature.

Aparna Singh is working as an Assistant Professor of English at Diamond Harbour Women’s University, West Bengal, since 2016. She has published in various national and international journals to date. Some of them are the International Journal of Multifaceted and Multilingual Studies and International Journal of Innovative Knowledge Concepts. She has an edited volume to her credit: Explorations: Literary and Cultural. She is currently a Sahitya Academy reviewer of the English translation of Vinayak, a Sahitya Award–winning Hindi novel.

Lapdiang Artimai Syiem specializes in acting from the National School of Drama, New Delhi, and further trained in physical theatre from the Commedia School, Copenhagen, Denmark. She has performed in India and abroad in countries such as Pakistan, China, Denmark, Sweden, and Estonia. Currently based in Shillong, Meghalaya, she has been attempting to establish herself as a solo performer while conceptualizing and writing her own work. Now she is involved in a film, written and directed by Mita Vashisht, titled That Thing Called the Actor and Iewduh, a Khasi film, directed by Pradip Kurbah.

This anthology on the topic of women and displacement in South Asia compiled and edited by Dr. Suranjana Choudhury and Dr. Nabanita Sengupta is a massive undertaking in studying the complex effects of displacement on women from South Asia since 1947. There is comprehensive coverage of both women in the Indian subcontinent and women of the South Asian diaspora living in different countries. The 18 pieces in this collection divided into two parts cover the effects of mass dislocations on women in the different countries of the subcontinent after Partition. The essays and narratives in this anthology explore major aspects of social history in the subcontinent. Both voluntary and forced dislocations and relocations in the countries of South Asia usually involve both women and their children moving together. When entire families are displaced or relocated, adult women are expected to attend to the needs of both the children and the elderly in the process of resettlement.

The stress and workload generated for women by relocations/displacements have always been significant. Some of the articles in this anthology address mar-riage and displacement. I am reminded of the enormous workloads of my late mother, a high school teacher, who packed up everything in her home, and handled relocation with her children and her aging in-laws every time my late father’s government job transferred him to another city in India. She would have to quit her job when she moved. After setting up her household in a different city, she would get her children adjusted to new schools and search for another teaching position. Upon retirement in Kolkata as a widow with all three of her children living elsewhere, she was deeply attached to her home full of a lifetime of memories. When her health declined and she could not live alone anymore, I persuaded her to move to Mumbai to live with my brother and sister-in-law.

FOREWORD

Foreword xv

This displacement was emotionally taxing for her, but there were no options. In the last year of her life, my mother made one last trip to Shillong where she had spent her childhood and adolescence. Shillong remained her “place” in her memories. Terminally ill and hospitalized in Mumbai, her one last wish was to “go home” to her room in my brother’s home. We brought her home when she passed away before making that final journey for the last rites of Hindu crema-tion. In death was her final displacement.

My mother’s journey through life continues to be that of many wives and mothers in South Asia who live in traditional families. There are variations on displacements and relocations that are economic choices such as those of work-ing-class women who move from rural areas to cities in search of domestic employment and unskilled jobs. They too are part of the group currently termed “migrant workers.” Another group of women whose displacement and reloca-tion appear to be clearly voluntary are those who leave their parents’ homes to pursue higher education and careers in other cities, other states, and, at times, other countries.

The f irst part of this anthology on literary representations contains 12 thought-provoking pieces, some of which create room for more discussion on current post-colonial literary works. Topics covered in this section include women’s bodies and the sexual exploitation of indigenous “adivasi” women, abduction of women in narratives of the 1947 Partition, displacement, and exile of women in contemporary Afghanistan, women poets of the Indian dias-pora settled overseas, vignettes of the lives of South Asian immigrant women in Canada, the depiction of women’s sexuality by expatriate Sri Lankan writ-ers, the depiction of the traumas of Indian immigrant women in the USA by the late Bharati Mukherjee, narratives of women political prisoners in West Bengal, women of the South Asian diaspora in Australia, and the depiction of women in South Asian fairy tales. Each one of these articles provides insights that have the potential to be developed into larger research projects such as doctoral dissertations.

The second part of this collection contains six pieces on socio-cultural rep-resentations and life writings. Topics covered in this section provide models that can be used by writers of creative nonfiction. This section covers Partition in 1947, the effects of Partition on Northeastern India, the plight of women dis-placed and violated during the Bangladesh Liberation War in 1971, women vic-timized by riots in the Indian subcontinent, the story of an Indian woman who settles in Sweden after marrying a Swedish man, the personal narrative of a Khasi theatre arts professional who traveled to Denmark and returned to her home state, and women among the bandits (Bagis/dacoits) of the Chambal valley.

In this collection of critical essays on women and displacement from South Asia, Dr. Suranjana Choudhury and Dr. Nabanita Sengupta present a valuable anthology for university students, professors, and research scholars in the fields of

xvi Foreword

both gender studies and postcolonial studies. This anthology is a work of refer-ence that I am planning to include in courses that I teach on feminist theory and critical theory where I cover the topic of global feminisms.

Dr. Mitali P. WongChair and Professor

Department of EnglishClaf lin University

Orangeburg, SC 29115USA

Gender studies and its associated areas have been a mutual interest for a long time and that is what drove us to edit this anthology. Our first and foremost thanks go to the e-journal Café Dissensus and its dynamic editor Mosarrap Khan because it was there we began our collaborative project. A guest-edited issue on women and displacement and the interest it generated among the scholars and general readers motivated us to expand the project further into an edited volume of criti-cal writings on the subject. We are grateful to Routledge for providing us with the opportunity to bring out this anthology. We owe special thanks to Shoma Choudhury, our commissioning editor, who took to the idea of the book and made this one possible. We gratefully acknowledge and thank all our contribu-tors for their support of this volume and timely completion of their papers.

We are also extremely thankful to Prof. Jharna Sanyal, Retd. Professor, University of Calcutta, a renowned academician and scholar, for her constant encouragement and guidance without which this anthology would not have been possible. Another person we must express our gratitude to is Dr. Jaydeep Sarangi, Principal, New Alipore College, Kolkata, and eminent scholar. He has been most kind in extending his help whenever it was required. Our sincer-est thanks to Prof. Mitali Wong, Chair and Professor, Department of English, Claf lin University, Orangeburg, South Carolina, USA, for believing in our pro-ject and being with us. We also express our gratitude to Dr. Kaustav Bakshi for his help in the early stages of this book.

We wish to thank our family members and close friends for their patience and understanding and for reminding us always what it means to belong.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

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I left your land and merciful soilAnd your fragrance of jasmineMy wing is broken like your wing.

Amineh Abou Kerech in “Lament for Syria”

These lines from Amineh Abou Kerech’s poem “Lament for Syria” powerfully evoke the pain and agony connected with the idea of dislocation and homeless-ness. Amineh here becomes representative of every voice that has suffered loss of home. In many ways, world history during the last few decades has been one of displacement and issues related to it. Displacement is a key notion that we come across in our engagements with current times. Since the beginning of the last century, an increasing number of people have been displaced from their homes due to internal strife, armed conf licts, and recurrent violations of human rights. Displacement caused by conf lict, environmental disaster, or any other factor not only directly affects those who are displaced but also has significant effects on the society and culture as a whole. Through decades, displacement has impacted the idea of citizenship, national belonging, and insider–outsider dynamics. Ishtiaq Shukri, like many other scholars engaged with this issue of concern, observes that now 1 in every 113 people on earth is an asylum seeker, a displaced person, or a refugee, more than at any other point in our history.1 He further warns that the figure is set to rise as increased levels of conf lict and climate change make large swathes of our planet uninhabitable. The displaced mass—their everyday lives, circumstantial struggles, rehabilitation woes—has often remained invisible, out-side the domain of public perception. Hannah Arendt, the noted critical thinker, has drawn our attention to these different ruptures of the displaced predicament in “We Refugees.” She writes, “We lost our home, which means the familiarity of daily life. We lost our occupation, which means the confidence that we are of

INTRODUCTION

Displacement: Debates and engagements

DOI: 10.4324/9781003045717-1

10.4324/9781003045717-1

2 Introduction

some use in this world.”2 As argued by Birgitte Refslund Sorrensen, and discussed in many academic deliberations, home is an intimate and familiar environment in which the displaced person has developed a sense of integrity and identity.3 Mahmoud Darwish, the noted displaced poet had asked: “where should the birds f ly after the last sky?”4 The answer is not easy to arrive at. Displacement causes one to be alienated from both place and time. However, in recent times, mem-oirs, testimonies, and photographs have caused substantial alertness around and discernment of this very crucial global phenomenon. Erin Corcoran and Nadia Yakoob tell us about this: “Using graphic images of destroyed villages, orphaned children, and destitute refugee camps, the media has brought the plight of the forcibly displaced into our living rooms.”5 Our book takes as its starting point the view that displacement both as a conceptual framework and as an experiential discourse offers a unique insight into the complexity of lived realities of the past and the contemporary.

The malaise of a displaced individual/community has been addressed in vari-ous forms and manners. The category of the displaced is not a homogeneous category; it constantly challenges any attempt at homogenization through its inclusion of multiple parameters and conditions of displacement. Individuals and groups from different backgrounds, national origins, ethnicities, and social classes represent different kinds of recipients of experiences of displacement. Caren Kaplan while drawing our attention to the dynamic nature of displace-ment points out pertinently that displacement is not universally available or desirable for many subjects, nor is it evenly experienced. It is challenging to conceptualize displacement in a transparent and singular manner.6 Philosophical, sociological, and anthropological frameworks towards explaining displacement express a range of complexities on negotiating with the subject. This multiplic-ity of stances enhances the dynamic territory of displacement and distinguishes its diverse forms and structures. Displacement involves various forms which in turn produce plural displaced subjects like migrants, refugees, exiles, diasporas, expatriates, and many more. It is to be noted that there are differences between these varied forms and these differences change the position of the displaced subject and also the nature of displacement experiences. A number of research-ers have also looked at the possible intersectional ties that qualify these different forms and categories of displacement. Ruchira Ganguly and Kuntala Lahiri-Dutt have observed that “the boundaries of poverty-induced migration, develop-ment-induced displacement, and forced mobilities often intersect and are hence blurred.”7 Homi Bhabha in “The location of Culture” has defined the term as the “fragmented and schizophrenic decentering of the self” that actually points to its dual, hybrid, bipolar characteristics and its constant deferral.8 This idea also refers to the complexity entailed in identity construction vis-à-vis the process of displacement. Discussing the interconnectedness between the displaced entities and the negotiations that go into the making and unmaking of identities, Katrina M. Powell notes:

Introduction 3

An actual body may be physically removed from a space, but the discur-sive identity of that body, that is, the stories told by and about that body, are inscribed on that body. However, the new physical space, the new identity (whether it be refugee, internally displaced person, or traveler through many nations), does not completely overtake the old identity. Displacement is not an overtaking—that would suggest linear movement, a dialectic relationship among identities. Rather, displacement is a mean-dering path, a combination of many paths, paths not predetermined by place, person, or nation.9

Displacement has increasingly appeared as a significant theme in national dis-courses in many South Asian countries for a number of reasons. The South Asian region has been especially prone to mass displacement and relocations owing to its varied geographical settings as well as socio-political factors. This geo-politi-cal space has, over the years, staged diverse religious, ethnic, linguistic, cultural, and regional forms of consciousness and dissonance.

Displacement in South Asia

Migration within South Asia was, in fact, pervasive in the precolonial period. Moreover there is a long and fascinating history connecting Gujarat with the Persian Gulf and East Africa and connecting Africa and South India with the so-called Indic civilizations of South East Asia10

The above statement takes back migration to the days long before the forma-tion of nation as a concept. But it is with the formation of “nation” and the postcolonial period that the modern concept of displacement took shape. It allowed the dialectics of “belonging” as opposed to “longing,” “establishment” as opposed to “marginality,” a desire to return to what one has left behind.11 The idea of diaspora holds within itself these contradictory concepts where the individual is torn between the desire to belong to both the homeland as well as the country of relocation. Therefore, “diaspora by definition returns us to an origin, a homeland, from which communities have been dislocated. At this historical moment the ‘homeland’ often coincides with the modern nation state.”12

But diaspora is only one form of displacement. In South Asia, displacement takes multiple forms and layers—internally displaced person, exile, migrant, refugee. These are overlapping identities with very nuanced distinctions. South Asia contains one of the largest internally displaced populations and is a major contributor to the global diaspora. According to the 2019 report on displace-ment in South Asia,13almost 13.8 per cent of the globally displaced population comes from the five countries of India, Afghanistan, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, and Nepal with India topping the chart. Myriad factors contribute to such

4 Introduction

large-scale displacement of population from this region of the world. As Paula Banerjee states,

we have the birth of Human Rights Commissions in most of South Asia in the 1990s. While these were being set up, South Asia was emerging as one of the most conf lict prone zones of the world with thousands killed and many more displaced each year. Among the displaced were those who found refuge in other countries; however, many more could not cross borders.14

Added to these were the natural calamities such as earthquakes, cyclones, f loods that displaced millions of people each year. A third factor that contributed to the rise in the number of displaced persons was developmental projects such as the building of dams and highways. In the name of building the economy of these developing countries, a number of developmental projects were undertaken and continue even now, which lead to large-scale displacement. Those who are uprooted by the government’s development policies have even less freedom of choice than the victims of generalized violence.

Moreover, 90 per cent of those who have been evicted from their homes by development projects have not been rehabilitated and cannot be rehabilitated. They continue to remain displaced within the borders of their countries.15 In India, post 1947, a huge number of dams constructed have caused a large sec-tion of the population to migrate. Most of these displaced people were from tribal communities as these projects had to be undertaken in areas rich in natural resources. Bangladesh, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka too have had a huge number of displacements due to such developmental projects.

One case in point would be the Bhakhra Nangal Project in Rajasthan, India, one of the earliest developmental projects in independent India. The “oustees” were relocated to Rajasthan from Himachal Pradesh and even after more than half a century, they remain as outsiders in the local community who derogatorily call them “Bilaspuria,” after the name of their village of origin. Not only that, they still suffer from the lack of proper rehabilitation plans and nurse a feeling of being let down by the government.16

A reverse example of the same can be seen in the large-scale exodus of migrant workers from Indian cities to their villages in the wake of the global pandemic. It further complicates the problem of homelessness among the displaced, in this case the workers who had left their place of belonging in search of a livelihood. The urge to reach home even at the cost of losing their lives highlights the desire for home that haunts these displaced migrants all their lives.

Political conf licts, riots, and crime have also contributed to displacement. Political instability and extremely volatile situations in Afghanistan have been responsible for large-scale migration of its population to the West and other developed countries. Similarly, the persecution of the Rohingya Muslims in Myanmar brings out the stronghold of identity politics and ethnic violence in

Introduction 5

the region. While there has been a lot of literature regarding Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs), very few have committed themselves to explore the displace-ment caused by crimes—political or social. Such displacement may either lead to relocation or even to complete immersion in the world of crime. Another major reason for displacement from South Asian countries to the developed nations is the promise of a lucrative career and the lure of a luxurious lifestyle. This region contributes significantly to the diasporic population in the more devel-oped countries.

This also opens up the question of emplacement or displacement which “empowers.” It would be too simplistic to think of displacement only as a reduc-tive phenomenon. The complexity of displacement lies in the fact that it is not always disempowering and at times can also lead to a kind of empowerment of the individual. The “loss” of home is replaced by a “new” home and often home-sickness or a rootlessness is compensated by the material comforts unavailable in the displaced individual’s place of origin. Though there are disadvantaged refu-gees left destitute by dislocation, there is also a large section of the diaspora that has made an important space for themselves in their country of choice.

Whether internally displaced or part of the diaspora, relocation comes with a lot of baggage. It questions the sense of belonging and root. The anxiety to be accepted and the fear of otherness remain dominant among the displaced. This book attempts to look at all these various aspects of displacements in South Asia with particular reference to women.

Women and displacement

Around the world COVID-19 is taking lives and changing communities but the virus is also inducing massive protection risks for women and girls forced to f lee their homes, the Assistant High Commissioner for Protection at UNHCR, the UN Refugee Agency, Gillian Triggs, warned today.17

The above news item published by United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNCHR) in India reports on the impact of COVID-19 on the lives of women and children indicating how they might be forced to f lee their homes and could be displaced amidst such a precarious situation. This story is crucial because it highlights how displacement experienced by women requires special attention and a separate framework of examination. Women as the “displaced subjects” elicit interesting views and exchanges. If displacement and its ramifi-cations affect everyone, why is there a need to address women’s experiences of displacement separately? Is it true that “femaleness intensifies homelessness and statelessness?”18 When discussing displacement, are marginality and dispossession acutely compounded if the displaced individual is a woman? Virginia Woolf had commented, “As a woman, I have no country. As a woman, I want no country.”19 Women were without a country, a home(land) or a state that would protect their rights and interests as individuals; Zinn and Stanley’s observations in this regard

6 Introduction

sum up this historical fact accurately. Taslima Nasreen, the noted writer who has had to experience banishment and displacement in different ways and measures, talks about this idea of belonging somewhere to be able to write and fight:

Banishment took away the ground from beneath my feet. What I need now most is a firm footing to stand up somewhere to fight for the freedom of expression. I was banished from both East and West Bengal. As a Bengali writer it is necessary for me to live in Bengal.20

Narratives by and about South Asian women map the history of gendered dis-placement in varied ways and manners. Experiences of displacement and con-nected tropes have come to significantly characterize South Asian women’s position and related concerns. The different histories of displacement processes in the South Asian region and the contrasting positions of South Asian commu-nities inform any discussion of displaced South Asian women. Here one should also remember that the idea of a homogeneous category of South Asian women is a perilous proposition. Nirmala Puwar and Parvati Raghuram in their intro-ductory essay to the volume South Asian Women in the Diaspora help theorize this existence of differences and many-sidedness within the category of South Asian women:

The figure of the South Asian woman could in itself be said to be a contested term in its imperious sweep across nations and communities. Differences of power mean that not only are “we” referring to a heterogeneous figure, but also to an assortment of women who are more often than not posi-tioned in contradistinction to each other.21

There is no denying the fact that a significant segment of the entire mass of dis-placed people constitutes women who have been forcibly displaced and who are under constant threat and pressure from various power structures. It is impor-tant to pay close attention to the nature of victimhood experienced by certain sections of displaced women and their everyday negotiations with associated marginality. We recall Rita Manchanda whose comments in this context offer interesting insights into the diversity in experiences of displacement vis-à-vis dispossession and subjugation compulsively faced by women:

Be it the Rohingya refugees in Bangladesh, the Tamil refugees in India or IDPs in Sri Lanka, the Chakma and the Chin forced migrants in India, Afghan refugees in Pakistan and the Bhutanese refugees in Nepal, the image is of helpless and superf luous women and children, dis-located and destitute; uprooted and unwanted.22

Because the range of experiences is so varied in South Asia, strategies and methods for analysis are numerous. Partition-induced displacement did have

Introduction 7

far-reaching consequences in the lives of women in the Indian subcontinent. Different phases of communal riots, episodes of ethnic cleansing, insurgency-related dislocations, politically orchestrated uprooting, discriminatory citizen-ship laws produce a whole mass of displaced women. It also needs to be noted that the number of internally displaced women in South Asia is extremely large. The South Asian diaspora dispersed across different continents represents a dif-ferent qualifier for displacement experiences of women. For women comprising the diaspora population it is not just physical isolation but an internal sense of exile affects them the most. RoseMarie Perez Foster’s study shows how this issue becomes particularly difficult for women “who often find themselves iso-lated, forced to deal on their own with the multiple demands of life in a for-eign environment.”23 Clearly, the diverse issues impacting women’s experiences of displacement in South Asia point to the analytical dilemmas in exploring the ways and methods through which these displacement stories are told and disseminated.

Framing the volume

Research volumes on displacement have generally focused on any one particular aspect of displacement like Partition, IDPs, migrant workers, or developmental displacement. But the intention of this volume is to focus on the multiple strands of displacement that exist today and its heterogeneous character. By including articles on different dimensions of women’s displacement within one volume it critically explores the multidimensional perspective of displacement. This book seeks to offer a more inclusive model; it explores how these very different nar-ratives map the connections and divergences within and between South Asian women’s stories of displacement. Thus, through a nuanced study of literary, cultural, and archival representations, this book marks a departure from con-ventional sociological or political readings of displacement narratives on wom-en’s experiences. By bringing in narratives from India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Afghanistan, and the diasporic population dispersed across different continents, our volume broadens the customary focus on any particular geographical loca-tion as a possible site for representing displacement.

The chapters have been divided into two parts—the first focuses on the criti-cal analysis of displacement in various narratives like diasporic fictions, judicial reports, prison narratives, and fairy tales, and the second involves a more personal engagement with the displaced individuals, self or the other, in form of memoirs and personal essays. As will become evident through the volume, the common thread that unites the different chapters is the attempt to locate the voices that have been largely ignored and bypassed in the larger corpuses of representations. It facilitates an inclusive methodological approach to exploring dispersed narra-tives that can actually be brought under the framework dealing with women’s displacement. Toril Moi had emphasized upon the importance of experience in constructions of knowledge, she reminded us how the way we experience and

8 Introduction

live our bodies is shaped by this interaction.24 Our attempt has been to bring in diverse experiences and utilize multiple sources available and, in this process, open up a space for ideas that have been ignored and unacknowledged in the prevalent discussions concerning the displacement of South Asian women.

The Partition of 1947 remains one of the most seminal moments of South Asian history that caused ruthless displacement and brokenness of lives. There are definite underpinnings of gender, caste, and class in the experiences of Partition and life after it. Displacement during the Partition had a different kind of ramification in women’s lives. That is why it is very important to map out the consequences of Partition-induced displacement in women’s lives and find ways to challenge historical representations that have remained largely gendered.

India’s northeast has remained notably invisible for a very long time in Partition discourses of the Indian subcontinent. The issues that affected the Partition of northeast India were more complex than those in the Punjab and Bengal. Here, religion was not the sole decisive factor; linguistic animosity and ethnicity played crucial roles in impacting its dynamics. The referendum of the Sylhet district of Assam has been the central narrative of the Partition experi-ence of Assam and northeast India. Binayak Dutta’s article provides an insightful analysis of lives disrupted by the effects of displacement in India’s northeast. It identifies the interconnected character of displaced lives of both men and women in the context of post-Partitioned India. Dutta, using an empirical framework, draws upon the first-hand accounts of men and women to show how violation of the rights of men “had adversely affected the lives of women as well.”

Debasri Basu’s chapter offers accounts of abducted women’s difficult negotia-tions with implications of forced displacement in the post-Partition years. The literary texts offered by Basu highlight the ways in which patriarchal social for-mations shaped public discourses on the position of women who were displaced due to abduction during that time. Researchers like Butalia, Menon, and Bhasin have shown that abducted women by destabilizing the notion of masculine hon-our invested in women’s chastity presented a new social question. Collectively, the stories investigated by Basu demonstrate how abducted women’s displaced predicament and survival challenged the forging of dichotomous relationships between domestic and civic spaces in the context of the post-Partition transition phase.

Amarinder Gill’s narrative is a retelling of her family history spanning gen-erations—her grand aunt, aunt, and cousin. Her essay brings us closer to under-standing how the 1947 Partition was not a conclusive episode; it was rather the beginning of multiple levels of disconnect. Through the story of Rani, her mother Husna, and her son Kaka, Sandhu lingers on the sense of alienation that one encounters not only through physical displacement but also through existing approaches towards identity construction and related complexities that inform such constructions.

How displaced women and their close relations reconstituted their lives in the aftermath of the Partition is analyzed in Nabina Das’s life story titled “Maps,

Introduction 9

Shapes and Women Breaking (Out of ) Homes: A Memoir.” Her narrative com-pels an inquiry into the ideas concerning home, place, and belonging. Das being a writer herself alerts us to the close connection that her art form bears with the subject of memories of displacement and the complex layers that informed the lives of the displaced in many unexpected ways. Her essay becomes a nuanced commentary on her creative journey and points to the possible motifs of disloca-tion invoked in her writing.

The necessity to look for queer spaces and the dynamics of such spaces within the framework of diaspora discourses is emphasized by Kaustav Bakshi’s analysis of Sri Lankan expatriate fictions. Bakshi examines Homi Bhabha’s notion of the “unhomely” to problematize issues of victimhood and empowerment in rela-tion to non-normative sexuality within contemporary debates on South Asian women. Bakshi’s exploration of the two novels brings forth the complexities entailed in the spectrum comprising the execution of nationalist framing of women’s sexuality within the structures of the diaspora and their ramifications witnessed in the production of nationalism in the home nation. Bakshi’s chapter is a significant intervention in the study of intersectional ties between alternative sexualities, diasporic communities, and nationalist politics.

Samrat Sengupta’s exploration of Meenakshi Sen’s prison memoir written in the context of the Naxalbari movement compels us to recognize the significance of alternative spaces that exist outside of our common understanding of home and homelessness in order to address women’s experiences of displacement. The chapter highlights how “belonging for socially disenfranchised women in an incarcerated condition can be a paradigm for thinking displacement.” Sengupta examines the spatial significance of prison as an entity to provide insights into the idea of gendered displacement and its relationship with overlapping margin-alities and associated politics of representations.

Kusumita Dutta’s essay provides a resounding critique of the ways in which rehabilitation narratives on Birangonas emerged post the Bangladesh Liberation War and how these narratives were marked by multiple dimensions of displace-ment and emplacement with their politics of subversion. Pointing to the central-ity of the ethics of care, Dutta discusses its role in bringing forth justice to those women who had experienced trauma and violation. The article also looks at the problems embedded within these programmes and how they cause discrimina-tion, which in turn leads to further occurrences of displacement and concomitant crisis. Her article further illustrates the manner in which hierarchies informing the spaces of rehabilitation centres re-narrativize the “placement” dimensions of these women.

Discussing Hansda Sowvendra Shekhar’s “November Is the Month of Migrations,” Aparna Singh researches the issue of women’s displacement fore-grounding structures of domination that exist beyond the prevailing matrix constituting nationhood, sexuality, and the female body. Her focus is on the marginalized subjectivity of a Dalit woman character and her negotiations with her class and caste identity in relation to displacement and its attendant violence.

10 Introduction

The essay reveals how everyday acts of discrimination and sexual predation define a Dalit woman’s migrant condition and how these issues are in stark con-trast to the dominant imaginary of the Indian woman.

Lapdiang Syiem in her essay establishes an intimate and meaningful relation-ship with the subject of displacement. Her discussion shows how social, cul-tural, and institutional locations define an individual’s, and in her case, an artist’s sense of the self. Syiem’s moving away from her home to follow her dreams as a performer has led her to view her experience of displacement as an avenue for discovering the idea of what constitutes a home. It leads her to arrive at new heights inwardly and outwardly. Her “Khasi” identity—deeply embedded in a matrilineal system of practice—provides her with a crucial edge to examine her role as a performing artist connecting roots and bridging gaps.

In the age of post-globalization, regional identities cannot exist in a separatist form. They become a part of the greater continuum of other regional identities in a globalized world. Hence speaking of women’s displacement in South Asia, their relocation to other parts of the world like Canada, the United States, or Australia to name a few, cannot be ignored. The diasporic population forms one of the major categories of the displaced population and South Asia contributes the largest share here. So any study of the displacement of South Asian women cannot be complete without a study of the diaspora.

Rima Bhattacharya’s essay associates displacement with violence. She speaks of the diaspora population in Canada and the States. The multiculturalism that divides the population and marginalizes those not belonging to the dominant culture in Canada is opposed to the cultural melting pot that the USA is. Two women protagonists, in the novels she considers, are victims as well as perpetra-tors of violence that is related to the displacement. While the insensitivity of her in-laws and husband leads to a crisis in Dimple’s life, resulting finally in the mur-der of her husband, Jyoti, who becomes Jasmine and Jane, loses her husband due to a terror attack. Both novels have violence at their roots—something that causes the women to live in the diaspora. Dimple kills her unborn foetus as a mark of her hatred towards her husband as well as her liberation towards a free life in the West.

Sibendu Chakraborty’s essay focuses on the fiction of Chandani Lokugé. Her own displacement is one of choice and empowerment. “I came professionally” speaks of a voluntary mobility in search of better prospects which is a common occurrence in developing countries. The chapter, on the one hand, explores the complexities of women’s displacement through the character of Manthri in If the Moon Smiled where she is both a perpetrator as well as a product of patriarchal violence. On the other hand, it also looks at the forced migration of women due to marriage where Mahendra’s relocation abroad in search of greener pastures forces his wife to accompany him.

Goutam Karmakar’s essay deals with the identity politics and associated angst of the diaspora poet Usha Kishore. There is a deep desire to celebrate the plu-rality of cultures among the exiles which however gets constantly thwarted by the dominant culture of that place by actions like ridiculing one’s accent, attire,

Introduction 11

or cultural practices. The concept of patriarchal racism occupies an important position in determining the experience of the diaspora population, particularly of women.

Afghanistan’s conf lict-ridden terrain and its extreme violation of women as individuals are explored in the essay by Dolikajyoti Sharma. Through the real-life experiences of Zarghuna Kargar and the fictional narration of the protagonist of Dear Zari, this chapter brings out the complex negotiation of nostalgia and trauma that the exiled women of Afghanistan have to face. Both Kargar and her pro-tagonists have to negotiate exploitation and abuses at various levels before they are forced to leave their homelands. Even when in England, Kargar is not free from patriarchal exploitation. The essay is an attempt to show how even displacement from one’s homeland is not enough to stop an Afghan woman’s repression. The land of exile becomes an extension of the society she wishes to escape.

Violence and subsequent displacement is also the subject of Paromita Sengupta’s memoir where her own relocation to Ireland is pitted against that of another woman from Bangladesh who survived the Bangladesh Liberation War and almost miraculously f led to Ireland to build her life there. The desire for home gets translated into her Maharaja’s garden, a slice of Bangladesh in Ireland. The author and her subject both get caught in an exile’s perpetual dilemma of belonging and longing.

Riots, political violence, and crimes are also major reasons for women’s forced displacement. B. Rajeshwari examines the riot narratives in various government reports and focuses on the apathy at recording women’s voices where often their issues of displacement and homelessness are completely downplayed as opposed to the male voices in the narrative. The essay focuses on the lack of narratives of women’s displacement in these documents—a powerful statement by itself which needs to be recorded and explored as well.

Subhajit Sengupta speaks of his first-hand experience visiting riot victims. He looks at how women and children who are displaced by riots lose even their right to dignity. Apart from living in subhuman conditions, they also fall easy prey to traffickers. His personal interaction with these displaced and often exploited women unravels the miseries that communal riots lead to.

Suvendu Debnath, in his essay on women bagees in Chambal, brings out another aspect of displacement where the displaced women are victims of some crime. They are either abducted or raped to settle family scores and have no way of returning to society. This makes the lives of women bagees significantly dif-ferent from those of male ones. While men often take up arms and follow that road voluntarily, to avenge their honour, women are forced into this by a society which is steeped in patriarchy.

That women’s displacement is not an issue particular to modern society is rein-forced by its presence in folktales and fairy tales. Sudeshna Chakravorty’s essay explores the concept of displacement among women in the mythic tradition. Fairy tales occupy an important space in literary narratives because on the one hand they chronicle the collective consciousness of a society collected and transferred over

12 Introduction

generations. On the other hand, they also form the staple reading for children and therefore help in shaping their mindscape. Displacement even in fairy tales affects women differently from men. She chooses fairy tales from various parts of India and shows how displacement by marriage, a common occurrence in the real world, has its counterpart in the fairy tale world as well. She also highlights an extremely unconventional tale where displacement is also emplacement—a Rajasthani folk tale where two women find happiness in forsaking the heteronormative world. It can be considered as one of the earliest narratives of lesbianism.

This volume does not claim to look at all the aspects of the displacement of women in South Asia. It is not possible to do justice to the complexity of this issue within a single volume. However, it is an earnest effort to draw attention to the multiple layers of discourses. This volume explores the heterogeneity of dis-placement by selecting papers that take up separate strands of engagement with the core subject of women’s displacement in South Asia. Though displacement of women is definitely a global issue, the South Asian political situation, natural conditions, and economic status add to its intricacies.

Notes

1 See Ishtiaq Shukri, “Fear in the Age of Displacement,” Transition, No. 123, 2017, pp. 20–39.

2 Hannah Arendt, “We Refugees,” in Jerome Kohn and Ron H. Feldman (eds), The Jewish Writings, New York: Schoken, 2007, p. 264.

3 Birgitte Refslund Sorrensen, “Experience of Displacement: Restructuring Places and Identities in Sri Lanka,” in Karen Fog Olwig and Kirsten Hastrup (eds), Siting Culture. The Shifting Anthropological Object, New York: Routledge, 1997, pp. 142–164.

4 Mahmoud Darwish, “Earth Presses Against Us,” trans. Munir Akash and Carolyn Forche. https :/ /ww w .poe mhunt er .co m /poe m /ear th -pr esses - agai nst -u s/.

5 Erin Corcoran and Nadia Yakoob, “The Politics of Forced Displacement,” SAIS Review, Vol. 23, No. 1, 2003, p. 279.

6 Caren Kaplan, Questions of Travel: Postmodern Discourses of Displacement, London and Durham: Duke University Press, 2000.

7 Ruchira Ganguly and Kuntala Lahiri-Dutt (eds), Rethinking Displacement: Asia Pacific Perspective, New York: Routledge, 2012, p. 4.

8 Homi Bhabha, “Introduction: Narrating the Nation,” in Homi Bhabha (ed.), Nation and Narration, London: Routledge, 1990, pp. 1–7.

9 Katrina M. Powell, “Rhetorics of Displacement: Constructing Identities in Forced Relocations,” College English, Vol. 74, No. 4, 2012, pp. 299–324.

10 Peter van der Veer (ed.), Nation and Migration: The Politics of Space in the South Asian Diaspora, University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia, 1995, p. 4.

11 Ibid.12 Monisha Das Gupta, et al., “Rethinking South Asian Diaspora Studies,” Cultural

Dynamics, Vol. 19, No. 2–3, July 2007, pp. 125–140.13 “Displacement in South Asia”, 2019. https :/ /ww w .int ernal -disp lacem ent .o rg /gl obal-

repor t /gri d2019 /down loads /repo rt /20 19 -ID MC - GR ID -so uth -a sia .p df.14 Paula Banerjee, “Resisting Erasure: Women IDPs in South Asia,” in Sabyasachi Basu

Ray Chaudhury and Samir K. Das (eds), Internal Displacement in South Asia, New Delhi: SAGE Publications India Pvt Ltd, 2005, p. 280.

Introduction 13

15 Samir Das, Sabyasachi Basu Ray Chaudhury and Tapan K. Bose, “Forced Migration in South Asia: A Critical Review,” Refugee Survey Quarterly, Vol. 19, No. 2, 2000, pp. 48–57.

16 M. Kendra, “The First Development-Caused Displacements in India: The Forgotten People of Bhakra Nangal,” in R. Modi (ed.), Beyond Relocation: The Imperative of Sustainable Resettlement, New Delhi: SAGE Publications India Pvt Ltd, 2009, pp. 133–153.

17 “Displaced and Stateless Women and Girls at Heightened Risk of Gender-Based Violence in the Coronavirus Pandemic,” UNHCR, 20 April 2020. https :/ /ww w .unh cr .or g /new s /pre ss /20 20 /4/ 5e998 aca4/ displ aced- state less- women -girl s -hei ghten ed -ri sk -ge nder- based - viol ence- coron aviru s .htm l.

18 Gesa Zinn and Maurin Tobin Stanley (eds), Exile Through a Gendered Lens, New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012, p. 2.

19 Virginia Woolf, Three Guineas, Toronto: Harcourt, 2006 (1st ed. 1938), p. 129.20 Manik Sharma’s interview with Taslima Nasreen in “Taslima Nasrin on Being

a Writer in Exile: Bans and Censorship Hurt; But Banishment Hurt the Most,” Firstpost, 4 December 2016. www .f irstp ost .c om /li ving/ tasli ma -na srin- on -be ing -a -writ er -in -exil e -ban s -and -cens orshi p -hur t -but -bani shmen t -hur t -the -most -3136 796 .h tml.

21 Nirmala Puwar and Parvati Raghuram (eds), South Asian Women in the Diaspora, Oxford: Berg, 2003, p. 3.

22 Rita Manchanda, “Gender, Conf lict and Displacement: Contesting ‘Infantilisation’ of Forced Migrant Women,” Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 39, No. 37, 2007, p. 4179.

23 RoseMarie Perez Forster, “When Immigration Is Trauma: Guidelines for the Individual and Family Clinician,” American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, Vol. 71, No. 2, 2001, p. 154.

24 Toril Moi, What Is a Woman?, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999, p. 68.

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14 Introduction

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