turning a/e/c knowledge into working knowledge

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Turning A/E/C Knowledge into Working Knowledge

Renate Fruchter*, Peter Demian**, Zhen Yin***, and Greg Luth**** *Director of Project Based Learning Laboratory, Civil and Environmental Engineering Department, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, ASCE Member, [email protected] **Ph.D. Candidate, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305. ***Ph.D. Candidate, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305 ****President and CEO of KL&A of California Consulting Structural Engineers and Builders, Santa Clara, CA 95054 Abstract This paper presents A/E/C industry needs, emerging information technologies, and applications for knowledge capture, sharing, and re-use that can enable corporations to turn knowledge into working knowledge. Innovative multimedia and multimodal digital communication channels, visualization and navigation techniques of large repositories, and information retrieval algorithms can assist in building effective and efficient next generation digital knowledge management environments. This paper presents four scenarios and technologies that support knowledge capture, sharing and re-use and discuss them in the larger perspective of industry practice today and beyond. Introduction The former chief executive of HP, Lew Platt, was quoted saying, “If HP would know what HP knows, we would be 3 times more profitable.” [Davenport and Prisak, 1998] Managing and reusing knowledge can lead to greater competitive advantage, improved designs, and more effective management. However reuse often fails, since knowledge is not captured, it is captured out of context rendering it not reusable, or there are no formal mechanisms for finding and retrieving reusable knowledge. The digital age holds great promise to assist in knowledge capture and re-use. Nevertheless, most digital content management today offers few solutions to capitalize on the core corporate competence, i.e., to capture, share, and re-use business critical knowledge. They are limited to digital archives of formal documents (CAD, Word, Excel, etc.), and disconnected digital images repositories and video footage, where the search is by keyword, date, and originator. These ignore the highly contextual and interlinked modes of communication in which people generate and develop concepts, and reuse knowledge through gesture language, verbal discourse, and sketching. We argue that in order for knowledge to be reusable, the user should be able to see and understand the context in which this knowledge was originally created and interact with this rich content.

Copyright ASCE 2004 Information Technology 2003Downloaded 30 Nov 2005 to 158.125.1.113. Redistribution subject to ASCE license or copyright, see http://www.ascelibrary.org/

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In the context of this paper we distinguish between data, information and knowledge in the following way: data represents raw material, i.e., objective facts captured in structured records; information represents data that has a meaning, relevance, purpose and value for the creator and consumer of specific data. The transition from data to information takes place through contextualization, categorization, and synthesis of data. Knowledge is created during communicative events within and between people through activities such as conversations, what-if scenarios comparing options, connecting ideas and solutions, analyzing consequences of different decisions, exploration, brainstorming, etc.

We assert that a primary source of information behind design decisions is embedded within the verbal conversation among designers. Capturing these conversations is difficult because the information exchange is unstructured and spontaneous. In addition, discourse is often multimodal. It is common to augment speech with sketching and gesturing. Audio/video media can record these activities, but do not provide an efficient means to index the captured information. How can such rich contextual content, i.e., knowledge that constitutes conceptual design generated during informal events such as brainstorming or project review sessions, be capture with high fidelity and least overhead to the team members?

We view knowledge reuse as a step in the knowledge life cycle [Fruchter and Demian, 2002]. Knowledge is created as designers collaborate on design projects using data, information, past experience, and knowledge. It is captured, indexed, and stored in an archive as presented in the next sections. At a later time, it is retrieved from the archive and reused. Finally, as knowledge is reused it is refined and becomes more valuable. In this sense, the archive system acts as a knowledge refinery (Figure 1). As Professor Paul Romer from the Graduate School of Business at Stanford, once said “knowledge is the only unlimited resource, the one asset that grows with use.”

Figure 1. Knowledge life cycle.

Previous empirical observations [Fruchter and Demian, 2002] of designers at work show that knowledge reuse is effective since:

• The designer can quickly find reusable items. • The designer can remember the context of each item, and can therefore

understand it and reuse more effectively. Based on these observations, we formalize two key activities that must be

supported in the process of knowledge re-use from digital repositories of either informal unstructured knowledge or formal hierarchical knowledge: finding reusable items, and understanding these items in context that is critical in assessing the value and re-usability of found items.

Knowledge creation

Knowledge reuseARCHIVE

CaptureIndex Store

Knowledge refinement


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How can such rich contextual A/E/C knowledge be transformed into working knowledge, i.e., knowledge that can be captured, shared, retrieved, understood and assessed for potential future re-use? We illustrate these activities with a number of scenarios and emerging technologies and discuss them in the larger perspective of industry practice today and beyond. Project Review and Brainstorming Sessions Creating, capturing, sharing, and re-using knowledge is critical to increase the quality of the product, reduce time-to-market and cost in the A/E/C industry. Concept generation and development occur most frequently in informal media, where capture tools are the weakest, and takes place during meetings with the client, brainstorming and project review sessions. This statement has strong implications for the capture and reuse of design knowledge because conceptual design generates the majority of initial ideas and directions that guide the course of the project. People communicate through gestures, verbal discourse, and sketches with pencil & paper. Sketching is a natural mode for designers to communicate in highly informal activities such as brainstorming sessions, project reviews. Often, the sketch itself is merely the vehicle that spawns discussion about a particular design issue. Our observations show that during communicative events there is a continuum between gestures, discourse, and sketching as ideas are explored and shared. The link between gesture-discourse-sketch provides a rich context to express and exchange knowledge. This link becomes critical in the process of knowledge retrieval and reuse to support the user’s assessment of the relevance of the retrieved content with respect to the task at hand. Thus, from a design capture perspective; capture of the sketch itself and the discussion and gestures that provide the context behind the sketch are important. It is interesting to note that today's state-of-practice such knowledge is lost when the whiteboard is erased, a new set of blue prints are produced, or the paper napkin sketch is tossed away.

The issue of how to capture knowledge in project design teams has received extensive attention from researchers in design theory and methodology. The value of contextual design knowledge (process, evolution, rationale) has been repeatedly recognized, but so has the additional overhead required of the designer in order to capture it. We are currently working on a new generation of knowledge capture technology that builds on a prototype system RECALLTM [Fruchter and Yen, 2000] that focuses on the informal, unstructured knowledge captured through informal multimodal channels such as sketching, audio for the verbal discourse, video for the gesture language and artifacts that support the discourse. The RECALLTM system builds on Donald Schon’s concept of the reflective practitioner paradigm [Schon 1983]. Research studies of design have focused on either the sketch activity, i.e., learning from sketched accounts of design [Tversky 1999, Stiedel and Henderson 1983, Olszweski 1981, Kosslyn '81, Goel '95] or verbal accounts of design [Cross 1996, Cross 1992, Dorst 1996]. Some researchers have studied the relation between sketching and talking [Eastman 1969, Goldschmidt 1991].

RECALLTM is an application written in Java that captures and indexes each individual action on the drawing surface and synchronizes it with audio/video (AV)


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capture and encoding through a client-server architecture (Figure 2). During a brainstorming or project review session the participants can create free hand sketches or import CAD images and annotate them. They have a color pallet, and a “tracing paper” metaphor that enables them to re-use the CAD image and create multiple sketches on top of the CAD. Once the session is complete, the sketch and AV information is automatically indexed and published on a RECALLTM Web server that allows for real-time, streamed, and synchronized replay of the sketch and audio/video session that supports sharing of ideas and decisions with remote project team members or team members that where not present at the meeting, or knowledge re-use from project to project. The user is able to navigate through the session by selecting individual sketch elements and jump to that session part of interest. The RECALLTM technology invention is currently being patented by Stanford.

Figure 2. RECALLTM Production and Service Modules.

RECALLTM aims to improve the performance and cost of knowledge capture, sharing and re-use. It provides a number of key benefits, such as zero overhead and cost for capture, indexing, and delivery of rich multimedia sketch-discourse-gesture content in context, and interactive direct manipulation of rich content on demand. RECALLTM has been tested and deployed in different user scenarios, such as

• individual brainstorming, where a project team member has a “conversation with the evolving artifact” enacting Schon’s “reflective practitioner” and using a TabletPC augmented with RECALLTM and then sharing his/her thoughts with the rest of the team by publishing the session on the RECALLTM server.

• team brainstorming and project review sessions, using a SmartBoard augmented with RECALLTM

• corporate best practice capture, where senior experts, such as designer, engineers, builders, capture their expertise for the benefit of the corporation.

Audio/Video Capture

Sketch Capture

Sketch andMedia

Storage

Sketch Encoding

Recall Serving web,media,applet

Media Encoding


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Asynchronous Communication The process of designing and constructing modern buildings depends for its success on the effective communication of ideas among individuals with a variety of different backgrounds who are likely to be geographically distributed as well. Historically, the most effective communications occur during face-to-face meetings where multiple members of the team are able to interact and participate in project-wide problem solving. The effectiveness of the communication and interaction that occur in these meetings is influenced by process as well as technical factors.

The entire A/E/C industry has adopted internet-based technologies such as e-mail and incorporated them into the daily routine. These technologies offer a combination of advantages such as direct one-on-one communication, similar to phones, asynchronous modes such as written communications, along with the ability to store and retrieve the communications in electronic form. However, the effectiveness of ordinary e-mail for team collaboration is limited by the distributed storage and the lack of organization that would facilitate sharing of content with all team member, tracking and retrieval.

To address these asynchronous communication needs we have developed and deployed a Web-based team collaboration tool called ThinkTankTM, that provides many of the advantages of face-to-face team meetings combined with the utility of e-mail and the organization of database technology. ThinkTankTM facilitates A/E/C project team members to create, capture, share, email, reply, attach additional documents, track, sort, search, archival, and re-use data, information, and knowledge. ThinkTankTM functionalities evolved based on ethnographic studies of the state-of-practice in industry and academia focused on the cross-disciplinary project team communication needs.

A private ThinkTankTM is set up for each team to facilitate the capture, sharing, tracking, and re-use of ideas, issues, topics, and project solutions. Team members can establish a series of interactive forums at different levels of granularity, i.e., general project forum, design concept forum, component design forum, design alternative forum. The key impact in using the ThinkTankTM as a discussion forum is an emerging collaboration process in which collaboration is initiated before design begins. That means that team members identify and communicate their goals, constraints and concepts before they start to define concrete solutions for their building project. Consequently, cross-disciplinary exposure, awareness, appreciation and understanding are built during this process. Another result of using this tool is the capture of the design rationale and process itself that enables further re-use and analysis of project progress.

Figure 3 provides an illustration of the use by one of the global A/E/C teams in the A/E/C Global Teamwork course offered at Stanford in collaboration with universities worldwide [Fruchter 1999]. ThinkTankTM has been in use in this course for the past five six and for the past two years it is used in pilot projects at Obayashi Corporation. Its functionalities and user interface have evolved based on identified communication needs in the A/E/C course testbed and industry pilots. One of the current additions is a TreeViewer Navigator tool developed at the Project Based Learning Lab. The ThinkTankTM Navigator can be launched from the banner (second


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to last icon in the ThinkTankTM banner, Figure 3). It enables users to focus and visualize the large amounts of data, information, and knowledge items in context stored in the ThinkTankTM rather than browse linearly through content as shown Figure 3. It provides a rapid multidimensional navigation, visualization, and search capability based on the advanced visualization principles. Similar viewers have been explored in other domains, e.g., hyperbolic geometry projection into a 2D plane [Lamping and Rao, 1995].

Figure 3. Screen snapshot ThinkTankTM of the Pacific2003 team discussing issues about the first floor plan of their building. Architect Dan from Kansas University, Structural Engineers Matt from Stanford and Bo from KTH Sweden Construction Managers Christian from Stanford University and Andrea from Bauhaus University Germany. Live Corporate Standards All companies face the problem of knowledge transfer. Young engineers have traditionally learned the art of engineering through interaction with experienced engineers while solving problems in the context of actual projects. In this rich and stimulating environment, a young engineer is more likely to ask questions and internalize the resulting knowledge that evolves during the lifecycle of the project. Much of this knowledge has never been formalized, a fact that prevents standardization across regions, makes the profession slow to adapt, and handicaps young engineers when the experienced engineer is unavailable or otherwise occupied. Most engineering companies have company standards that address typical approaches to commonly encountered design problems that reflect the collective experience and


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wisdom of the firm. Quite often these take the form of standard details in a paper binder, sometimes with a cryptic explanation of how and why the detail would be used. One of the ways young engineers learn is to question experienced engineers about the evolution of a particular detail.

To address this concrete corporate need KL&A of California Consulting Structural Engineers and Builders and the Project Based Learning Laboratory, at Stanford, worked towards an effective use of ThinkTankTM to discuss and articulate current and future company standards and leverage web technologies to develop an innovative online KL&A Standards repository to store and retrieve standard details while capturing and presenting the rich contextual knowledge behind the details in a way that facilitates retrieval, learning, and assessment of the appropriateness of re-using specific standards in a current project by anyone who has access to the web-based company standard resource. This approach acts as a virtual tutor. The Web based Standard provides a feedback function to a ThinkTankTM web-based discussion forum. This facilitates continuous feedback and refinement of the details that is transparent to all users becoming a concrete embodiment of the knowledge refinery concept (Figure 4). The feedback functionality further increases the educational value of the on-line standards, as well as the value of the specific standard items as they are augmented with new experiences and uses.

Figure 4. Example of detail from KL&A Company Standard. Corporate Memory How can a corporation capitalize on its core competence by turning A/E/C knowledge into working knowledge when large digital repositories are available? How do you find the metaphorical needle in a haystack? How do you find a needle in a haystack if you don’t even know you’re looking for a needle, or if you’ve never


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seen a haystack before? How can a computer system support designers of constructed facilities in reusing building designs and design experiences from previous projects? Those are the kind of questions that emerging information retrieval and information extraction technologies and algorithms start to address. We present an innovative prototype CoMemTM (Corporate Memory) that addresses these issues.

Consider the following scenario from an ethnographic study done in a structural engineering firm in the Bay Area: Nick and Eric work for “Xinc” a structural engineering design firm. Eric, is the founder of the company and a superb structural designer with 25 year of experience in complex building projects. Nick, is a young entry level structural engineer, and a novice in the firm. They are working on a ten-story hotel that has a large cooling tower unit. Nick must design the structural frame that will support this cooling tower. Nick gets stuck and asks Eric for advice. Eric recalls several other hotel projects that were designed by “X Inc”. He tells Nick go find the documentation and drawings from their archive and to look at the drawings from the Bay Saint Louis project, a hotel project that “X Inc” designed a couple of years ago. Nick spends over an hour looking for the Bay Saint Louis drawings in the “X Inc” paper archive. He eventually finds the drawing sheet with the Bay Saint Louis cooling tower frame. He shows it to Eric. The drawing shows the cooling tower frame as it was finally built. It is a steel frame. Eric realizes that what he had in mind for Nick to reuse is an earlier version that had a steel part and a concrete part. He is not sure if this earlier version is documented somewhere in the archive. Rather than go through the paper archive again, Eric simply sketches the design for Nick. Eric’s sketch also shows the load path concept much more clearly than the CAD drawing would have, which helps Nick to understand the design. Eric explains to Nick how and why the design evolved. Given the current project they are working on, it would be more appropriate to reuse the earlier composite version. Eric recalls that the specifications of the cooling tower unit itself, which were provided by the HVAC subcontractor, had a large impact on the design. Nick now feels confident enough to design the new cooling tower frame by reusing the same concepts as the Bay Saint Louis cooling tower frame, as well as some of the standard details.

By analyzing this scenario and many others like it, we identified two reasons for the effectiveness of internal knowledge reuse:

1. Even though the expert’s internal memory is very large, he is always able to find relevant designs or experiences to reuse.

2. For each specific design or part of a design he was reusing, he is able to retrieve a lot of contextual knowledge. This helps him to understand this design and apply it to the situation at hand. When describing contextual knowledge to the novice, the expert explores two contextual dimensions: the project context and the evolution history.

Armed with these observations, we developed CoMemTM [Fruchter and Demian, 2002] to enable designers to:

1. Find reusable items in large corporate archives 2. Explore the project context of these items in order to understand them 3. Explore the evolution history of these items in order to understand them


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Based on these observations, we formalized two key activities that must be supported in the process of knowledge reuse from a corporate repository: finding reusable items, and understanding these items in context. CoMemTM is distinguished from the document-centric state-of-practice solutions by its approach of “overview first, filter, and then details-on-demand.”

Based on the three reuse steps identified above – find, explore project context, explore evolution history – CoMemTM has three corresponding modules: an overview, a project context explorer, and an evolution history explorer. For each module, we investigated radically new interaction metaphors: corporate map, fisheye lens, and storyteller, respectively.

The CoMemTM Overview Module (Figure 5) provides a succinct “at a glance” view of the entire corporate memory. CoMemTM uses a map metaphor for the overview. Corporate memories are usually hierarchical, where the corporation contains multiple projects, each project consists of multiple disciplines or building subsystems (structural, electrical, and so on), and each discipline contributes multiple components. This hierarchy can become very large. For example, consider a small design practice that has worked on 10 projects, each project involving 10 disciplines, each discipline contributing 20 components, with each object versioned 50 times over the course of the project. The total number of objects in the corporate memory is close to 105. Conventional techniques for visualizing hierarchies using nodes connected by links are inappropriate, given that the overview needs to show the entire corporate memory in a single display. CoMemTM uses the squarified treemap algorithm [Schneiderman 1994, 1999] to display an overview of the corporate memory in which the hierarchy is visualized as a series of nested rectangles. The area on the map allocated to each item is based on a measure of how much knowledge this item encapsulates, i.e. how richly annotated it is, how many times it is versioned, how much external data is linked to it. Each item on the map is color-coded by a measure of relevance to the designer’s current task. Currently, this relevance measure is based on textual analysis of the corporate memory

We used various text analysis methods to optimize the relevance measure in CoMemTM. For example, in the text vector model, each text (in our case the set of words used to label and annotate a design component) is represented as a vector in high-dimensional space. The similarity between two vectors can be taken as the Euclidean distance or dot product. Latent semantic indexing [Landauer and Dumais, 1995] is a refinement of the vector model which attempts to detect associations between terms, so that a search for “cooling tower” would also return results with the term “vibration”. A less experienced designer might not know that one of the most common problems in cooling towers is vibration, but the system would infer this from the way that these terms repeatedly appear together in the corporate memory.

The CoMemTM Project Context Explorer module supports the designer in exploring the project context of any item selected from the overview (Figure 5). This item becomes the focal point of the interaction. CoMemTM uses a fisheye lens metaphor for the project context explorer. A fisheye lens balances local detail with global context. This metaphor is used here to suggest that the designer is initially concerned only with the item of interest, but begins to explore the context “outwards” as necessary. Given a user-specified focal point, CoMemTM uses the fisheye


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formulation [Furnas 1981] to assign a degree of interest to every item in the corporate memory. Items with a higher degree of interest are displayed more prominently in the project context explorer.

The CoMemTM Evolution History Explorer module enables the designer to explore the evolution history of any item selected from the overview (Figure 5). This view tells the story of how this item evolved from an abstract idea to a fully designed and detailed physical component, discipline subsystem, or even entire project. CoMemTM uses a storytelling metaphor for the evolution history explorer. This is based on our observation that the most frequent mechanism to transfer knowledge from experts to novices in A/E/C design offices is through stories from past projects. In the evolution history explorer, all the versions of an item are displayed side by side on a zoomable canvas.

Figure 5. CoMemTM Modules: (a) The Overview provides a succinct snapshot of the entire corporate memory; (b) The Evolution History Explorer allows the user to explore the evolution of an item before reusing it; (c) The Project Context Explorer allows the user to explore related items in the corporate memory to better understand the item being reused; (d) The Content Viewer displays the item being reused.


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Figure 6. CoMemTM -iRoom prototype.

CoMemTM can be a valuable vehicle in alternative exploration and decision support for knowledge re-use from past projects. We have integrated CoMemTM prototype with an innovative interactive room (iRoom) environment that controls multiple computers linked to large displays (e.g., SmartBoards or projection screens) developed by the human computer interaction (HCI) group in the Computer Science Department at Stanford [Winograd, 1999] The CoMemTM -iRoom can facilitate effective exploration and comparative studies of rich content in context during project team meetings (Figure 6). Chris Michaelis of Intel in Arizona deployed the integrated CoMemTM-iRoom prototype in February 2003 to explore its potential use with project managers, project team members, and sub contractors at Intel. He says: " CoMemTM provides great benefits by representing project information and knowledge in various forms for each user type to gain the greatest benefit. Having the actual context that the information was created in stored with the information makes reuse so much more powerful. Project managers can use the CoMemTM Overview to find related components from the entire corporate memory to help solve (and avoid) project issues while taking that same information in the "storyteller" Evolution History Explorer metaphor to work with subs to determine the reuse capabilities. The Evolution History Explorer allows for more than just the end state to be reusable, it allows users to examine all the progressive states with the complete context of the knowledge creation making for many reusable knowledge components. Very powerful in its presentation of complete knowledge within context!" Concluding remarks This paper presented a number of emerging technologies that apply innovative multimedia and multimodal digital communication channels, techniques for visualization and navigation of large repositories, and information retrieval algorithms that facilitate effective and efficient knowledge management. Our observations show that the most striking means of transmitting knowledge from project to project, among team members and from experts to novices in A/E/C offices


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is through recounting of experiences from past projects. This provides rich contextual background that enables users to understand and assess potentially re-usable data, information and knowledge. Stories convey great amounts of knowledge and information in relatively few words. The use a storytelling metaphor requires adequate and innovative knowledge capture, sharing and re-use approaches. For instance, RECALL TM enables users to replay relevant parts or the full discourse of a meeting, ThinkTankTM provides users with an insight into team’s discussion process related to specific topics and steps towards project decisions, CoMemTM Evolution History Explorer module enables the designer to explore the evolution history of any item selected from the overview - from an abstract idea to a fully designed and detailed physical component, discipline subsystem, or even entire project. Finally, it is important to highlight that each of these technologies require careful strategic deployment planning that addresses new behaviors, protocols and processes that have to be in place in order to best take advantage of the technology affordances. Acknowledgements Projects sponsored by Cisco, Obayashi Corporation, the UPS Endowment Fund, Wallenberg Global Learning Network, the Project Based Learning Laboratory and CIFE at Stanford have partially supported the research, development, testing, deployment and assessment of the technologies presented in this paper. The authors would like to acknowledge the contributions of other research assistants of the Project Based Learning Lab who contributed to the development and testing of functionalities of these technologies: Matt Breidenthal, Kushagra Saxena, Mahesh Hardikar, and Senthil Arun Govindasamy Singaravelu. References Cross N., Christiaans, H., Dorst K., (1996).Analyzing Design Activity, John Wiley & Sons

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