tribes of central india: an overview

EditorsProf. Byomakesh Tripathy

Dr. Basanta Kumar Mohanta

AAYU PUBLICATIONSNew Delhi-110086

RECENT RESEARCHESON THE

TRIBES OF CENTRAL INDIAVolume 1

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Recent Researches on the Tribes of Central India© Editors

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CONTENTS

Preface (v)

List of Contributors (xxi)

VOLUME 11. Tribes of Central India: An Overview 1

Byomakesh Tripathy and Basanta K. Mohanta

2. Globalization and Tribal Communities: Challenges Ahead 39Jayanta K. Behera

3. Protection of Expression of Folklores: A Legal Intervention 59Debabrata Pani

4. Historical Background of the Anti-colonial Tribal Movementsin South Odisha 83Shyama Prasad Mishra

5. Kondha Resistance in The Boudh District, Central Odisha 92Suravi Nanda

6. Tribal Rebellion Against the British Rule: A Case of theKandhas of Odisha 101Manas Kumar Das

7. Paraja and Nandapur-Jeypur Kingdom: Ethnohistory ofthe Joria Paraja Tribe of Koraput, Odisha 108Kabiraj Behera

8. Violent Conflict Among Primordial Solidarities: A Study ofthe Post-riot Life and Living in Tribal Kandhamal of Odisha 125R.K. Mohanty

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TRIBES OF CENTRAL INDIA:AN OVERVIEW

Byomakesh Tripathy and Basanta K. Mohanta

IntroductionIndia is the home to large number of indigenous people, who are still untouchedby the lifestyle of the modern world. It has the second largest concentration oftribal population which comes next to the African continent. The totalScheduled Tribe population in India as per 2011 census is 10.43 crore,constituting 8.6 % of the total population. Though, the percentage of this tribalpopulation in India is very small, it represents an enormous diversity of groups.These tribal groups vary from one to another in terms of their language,physical features, size of population, the extent of acculturation, livelihood,economy, culture, social stratifications, ecological settings in which theylive etc.

Tribal societies are small in scale, are restricted in the spatial and temporalrange of their social, legal, and political relations, and process of morality, areligion and worldwide corresponding dimensions. Characteristically too, triballanguages are unwritten and the extent of communication in time is narrow.At the same time tribal societies exhibit a remarkable economy of design andhave compactness and self-sufficiency lacking in modern society. The tribes ofcentral India are no exception to it, they have interesting and colorful socio-cultural life which are reflected in their daily life. During the British period anumber of rebellions and resistance movements were organized by the tribalcommunities against the British administration which are important aspectsof history of modern India. After independence, the government of Indiainitiated a number of plans and programmes for tribal development in the

2 RECENT RESEARCHES ON THE TRIBES OF CENTRAL INDIA

area which have far reaching consequences. These developments along withother factors have brought changes in the traditional structure of the tribalsociety.

According to the Draft National Tribal Policy 2006 of the government ofIndia, 698 Scheduled Tribes are residing in India but as per the Census ofIndia 2011, the number of individual groups notified as Scheduled Tribes is705. The name of these Scheduled Tribes are notified under Article 342 of theConstitution of India, spread over different States and Union Territories ofthe country. On the basis of their location of habitation, ecological, social,economic, administrative and ethnic factors, these tribes can broadly be dividedinto five regional groups, namely; (1). Himalayan Region (It has three sub-regions, i.e., Northern Himalayan Regions, Central Himalayan Regions andNorth-Western Himalayan Regions); (2). Middle Region (it constituted by thestates of Bihar, Jharkhand, West Bengal, Odisha, Madhya Pradesh andChhattisgarh) where more than 55 per cent tribal people of India live;(3). Western Region (It includes the states of Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharastra,Goa, Dadra and Nagar Haveli; (4). Southern Region (It comprises the states ofAndhra Pradesh (including Telengana), Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Kerala)and (5) Island Region (The islands of Andaman and Nicobar in the Bay ofBengal and Lakshadweep in the Arabian Sea). As mentioned, the more thanhalf of these Scheduled Tribes population is residing in the middle region(Central Indian States) and its neighbouring areas of western and southernregions, comprising the states of Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Odisha,Rajasthan, Gujarat, West Bengal, Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh (HLC Report,Ministry of Tribal Affairs. 2014.34-35; Tribal Welfare & Development. 2015.Annual Report 2014-15. Ministry of Tribal Affairs, Govt. of India. pp.58). Inthis present paper a brief overview about the tribal population of central Indiaas well as its neighbouring states is given to get a broad idea about theirdistribution, number, physical features, culture, art and craft, language,religion, economy, society, political organisation, education, development etc.Besides, a general bibliography on the central Indian tribe is given for furtherstudies.

Nomenclature and DefinitionThe term ‘tribe’ or ‘tribal’ is a British legacy and the use of this word has beenstarted by the travellers, explorers, traders, missionaries and British coloniststo distinguish and describe the local native people and their way of life andculture found in Africa, Asia and Australia etc. As mentioned, India occupies

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the second position in the world, next to Africa; so far the tribal population isconcerned and there are 8.6% of total population of India belongs to tribe(census 2011). The use of the term ‘tribe’ or ‘tribal’ does not appear in thetraditional Indian literature. In India, ‘the term tribe was used by British forthose groups of human beings, who were not included in Varna Vyavastha ofIndian society; and whose residence were located in extremely remote forest,hills, islands, sea-coasts etc’ (Upadhyay and Pandey 2003:3). Anthropologistsused various synonymous terms for ‘tribe’ in texts. Some of the importantterms used for this term is ‘aboriginal’, ‘Adivasi’, ‘backward Hindus’, ‘barbaric’,‘depressed class’, ‘indigenous’, ‘Janajati’, ‘naïve’, ‘native’, ‘original settlers’,‘pre-literate society’, ‘primitive’, ‘savage’, ‘simple society’ and ‘uncivilized men’etc. In India, the local corresponding of the term ‘tribe’ is often assumed to be‘Jana’ or ‘communities of people’ based on the usage of the term in ancientBuddhist and puranic texts. According this conception, the term jana wasused in opposition to the term ‘jati’ to indicate that these communities wereoutside the ‘jati’ or hierarchical caste system of social organization (HLC2014:51). In present time, normally the words ‘Adivasi’ and ‘Janajati’ are usedin Hindi for the English term ‘tribe’. ‘Anushuchit Janjati’ or ‘Scheduled Tribe’is the some of the tribe whose name has been included under Article 342 ofthe Indian Constitution.

Now-a-days in India, the academicians, social scientists, governmentofficials, economist, NGOs, politicians, planners, social activists are frequentlyusing the word ‘tribe’ and ‘development’. Before going to discuss about thetribal culture and development in India in general and the central Indiainparticular, it is important to discuss some basic concepts and definitions ofthe tribe. According to Imperial Gazetteers of India, “a tribe is collection offamilies bearing a common name, speaking a common dialect, occupying orprofessing to occupy a common territory and is not usually endogamous, thoughoriginally it might have been so”.

Similarly, the Oxford Dictionary defines, “a tribe is a group of people in aprimitive or barbarous state of development acknowledging the authority of achief and usually regarding them as having a common ancestor”. Prof. D. N.Majumdar, a noted anthropologist defines tribe as, “a tribe is a social groupwith territorial affiliation, endogamous, with no specialization of functions,ruled by tribal affairs, hereditary or otherwise, united in language or dialect,recognizing social distance with other tribes or castes, without any socialobloquy attaching to them, as it does in the caste structure, following tribaltraditions, beliefs and customs, illiberal of naturalization of ideas from alien

TRIBES OF CENTRAL INDIA: AN OVERVIEW


sources, above all conscious of homogeneity of ethnic and territorialintegration.” From these definitions, it is clear that tribes possess some specialcharacteristic features which differentiate them from others.

Under Article 342 of the Constitution of India, certain tribes have beenspecified as Scheduled Tribes. According to Article 366 (25) of the Constitutionof India only those communities who have been declared as such by thePresident of India through an initial public notification or through a subsequentamending Act of Parliament will be considered to be Scheduled Tribes.According to this Article of the Indian Constitution, “Scheduled Tribes meanssuch tribes or tribal communities or parts of or groups within such tribes ortribal communities as are deemed under article 342 to be Scheduled Tribesfor the purposed of this Constitution.” The list of Scheduled tribes of one stateor Union Territories declared by the government of India need not necessarilythe same for the other states or Union Territories. There are some communities,even if known as ‘tribe’, but are not necessarily included within the ScheduledTribe list in some specific area. For example, the Panika tribe, which is one ofthe tribal groups of central India, mainly found in Anuppur, Chhatarpur, Datia,Dindori, Mandla, Panna, Rewa, Satna, Shahdol, Sidhi and Tikamgarh districtsof Madhya Pradesh. In some parts of central India, they are considered astribe while in other parts they are identified as Other Backward ClassCommunity. Besides, there are two other governmental classifications of tribeswhich refers to specific histories and vulnerabilities of these communities,viz., De-notified, Nomadic and Semi-Nomadic Tribes and ParticularlyVulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs). Earlier, these PVTGs were known asPrimitive Tribal Groups (PTGs) on the basis of their greater ‘vulnerability’even among the tribal groups. Presently, there are 75 tribal groups in Indiahave been identified as PVTGs on the basis of their forest dependent livelihoods,pre-agricultural level of existence, stagnant of declining population, low literacyrates and a subsistence-based economy. The majority of the PVTGs are livingin the central Indian states. There are 13 PVTGs found in Odisha which is thelargest number in any states. These PVTGs are under threat of loss of theirtraditional livelihoods, habitats and customary resources rights. Because ofthe exploitative intrusion of the market, industrial projects, conservationefforts, tourism, forest bureaucracy etc causing malnutrition, starvation, illhealth among these tribal groups. The PVTGs of central India under this threatare the Bondos of Odisha, the Abujh Marias of Chhattisgarh and the Birhorsof Jharkhand. Apart from this some tribal groups of central India, like thePaudi Bhuiyan of Odisha are still not included within the list of Scheduledtribes (HLC 2014:59).

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The main characteristics followed by the Lokur Committee for identifyingScheduled Tribes are; indications of primitive traits, distinctive culture, shynessof contact with the community at large, geographical isolation andbackwardness (Tribal Welfare & Development. 2015. Annual Report 2014-15.Ministry of Tribal Affairs, Govt. of India. p.58). Now-a-days also the inclusionand exclusion is going on in the list of Scheduled Tribe. This Lokur Committeegives some recommendations on their considerations while determining thelegal status of groups claiming tribal identity. “Some of the reasons cited forinclusion of new tribes within the list include ‘very isolated’, ‘still living incaves’, ‘living in forest areas’, or more vaguely, ‘are primitive jungle tribes’,‘having tribal characteristics’, ‘very backward tribe’, and ‘distinctive dress andcustoms’. Clearly, a mixture of geographical and locational features as well asprimitiveness and backwardness account for the suggested Constitutionalrecognition of a range of tribes. On the other hand, the explanations forsuggested exclusion from the list were ‘not a tribe’, ‘do not possess tribalcharacteristics’, ‘population insignificant’ and ‘assimilated with the generalpopulation’ “ (HLC 2014:55). According to the Scheduled Tribes and ScheduledAreas Commission (Bhuria Commission) Report (2002-2004, p.7) the changein tribal society is resulted because of the change in individualism, particularlyamong the youth. This Commission mentioned that, “as an individual,individualism, may be practiced by a tribal when he is at large and may beabroad, but even in facing the larger world his psyche looks backwards to leanon the support of his own tribal community, thereby revealing the profundityof bonds with his tribe”. (Govt of India. 2002-2004, p.7).

Many tribes are present in more than one state. The largest numbers ofscheduled tribes are in the states of Odisha (i.e. 62). Madhya Pradesh is the2nd largest state of India. Because of its centrally location, it is often called asthe ‘Heart of India’. Each of these tribes has its own identity and culture whichvaries greatly from each other. The tribes have their distinct socio-economic,cultural, political and religious institutions which are important part and parcelof cultural heritage of India. They have contributed immensely towards thehistory and culture of India.

The Central India consists of plateaus and mountainous belt between Indo-gangrtic plain to the north and roughly to the Krishna River to the south. Inthis present article, the tribal residing in Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh,south-eastern Rajasthan, northern Maharashtra, northern Telengana,northern Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, Jharkhand, southern Utter Pradesh and



south-western West Bengal are considered as tribes of central India. Theimportant tribes inhabiting in this zone are the Agaria, the Asur, the Baiga,the Bhils, the Bhuinya, the Bhumij, the Birhor, the Bondo, the Borida, theGadava, the Ho, the Juang, the Kamar, the Katkari, the Kharia, the Kharia,the Kol, the Kondh, the Koraku, the Lodha, the Munda, the Muria, the Oraon,the Pardhan, the Santal / Santhal, the Savara etc.

PopulationThe central eastern part of India possesses a largest concentration of ScheduledTribal populations, i.e. 52.51 per cent of the total tribal population of India.These tribal people are distributed in the states of Andhra Pradesh, Bihar,Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Telengana and WestBengal. The details of the number and percentage of tribal population in 1991,2001 and 2011 census as well as the percentage of STs in the State to the totalpopulation and the percentage of STs in the State to the total population inIndia in 2001 and 2011 census is given in table-01. Although, a very largetribal population relative to the total population is found in northeastern partof India but significant tribal populations are also living in the central Indianstates. On the basis of the distribution of the tribal population by states,Madhya Pradesh stands first having 14.7% of the total tribal population.Following to it, the other central Indian states having large concentration oftribal populations are Odisha (9.2%), Jharkhand (8.3%), Chhattisgarh (7.5%),Andhra Pradesh (5.7%) and West Bengal (5.1%). As mentioned earlier, Odishahas the largest number of notified STs, i.e. 62, which is the highest in numberin India. The other central Indian states also contain a good number of tribalgroups. There are 43 tribal groups living in Madhya Pradesh, 42 inChhattisgarh, 25 in Andhra Pradesh, 33 in Bihar, 32 in Jharkhand and 40 inWest Bengal. Most of these large tribal groups are having several sub-tribesand are called by various (though usually similar) nomenclatures in differentarea since they are often several over a large area often crossing theadministrative bounderies of the states. For example, the sub-tribe of the Gondare the Arakh, the Arrakh, the Agaria, the Asur, the Badi the Maria, theBada Maria, the Bhatola, the Bhimma, the Bhuta, the Koilabhuta, theKoilabhuti, the Bhar, the Bisonhorn Maria, the Chota Maria, the DandamiMaria, the Dhuru, the Dhurwa, the Dhoba, the Dhulia, the Dorla, the Gaiki,the Gatta, the Gatti, the Gaita, the Gond the Gowari, the Hill Maria, theKandra, the Kalanga, the Khatola, the Koitar, the Koya, the Khirwar, the

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Khirwara, the Kucha Maria, the Kuchaki Maria, the Madia, the Maria, theMana, the Mannewar, the Moghya, the Mogia, the Monghya, the Mudia, theMuria, the Nagarchi, the Nagwanshi, the Ojha, the Raj, the Sonjhari Jhareka,the Thatia, the Thotya, the Wade Maria, the Vade Maria, the Daroi.

There are 90 districts in India, where the tribal population is more than50% of the total population and 62 districts, where the tribal population ismore than 25% but less than 50% of the total population. Out of these 90districts having more than 50% percentage of tribal populations, 26 districtsare located in central Indian states, i.e. Odisha (08 districts), Chhattisgarh(07 districts), Madhya Pradesh (06 districts) and Jharkhand 05 districts). (HLCReport 2014: 43-44). Similarly, the central Indian states having tribalpopulation between 25 and 50% are Madhya Pradesh (13 districts),Chhattisgarh (08 districts), Jharkhand (06 districts), Odisha (06 districts) andAndhra Pradesh (01 district).

The tribal population of central India can be distinguished from one toanother on the basis of their size of population, like, the Gonds, the Bhils, theSantals (Santhals), the Oraons, the Mundas etc have a population betweenone million to seven millions. On the other side, there are some tribalcommunities, like the Birjia, the Asur, the Birhor etc have a population of lessthan 200 persons (HLC 2014:35).

LanguageThe tribal languages of India is divided into four different linguistic families,namely, Indo-European, Dravidian, Austro-Asiatic and the Tibeto-Burmansub-family of the Sino-Tibetan languages. Most of the central Indian tribesused to speak either Dravidian or Austro-Asiatic languages. Some of the majortribes speaking Dravidian language are the Gond, the Khond, the Koya, theOraon and the Toda. The Austro-Asiatic family of languages is spoken by theSantal, the Munda, the Ho etc. Only a few tribal groups, like the Bhil, theHalbi used to speak Indo-European family of language. Apart from their ownlanguages, some of the tribals also speak the regional or state languages forinter community communications. For example, the Gonds usually speak theirown Gondi dialect for their intra tribal communication but while they used tospeak with their neighbouring people, they speak either the Chhattisgarhi orthe Hindi. Similarly, the Bhil speaks ‘Bhili’, the Santal speaks ‘Santali’, theHo speaks ‘Ho’, the Munda speaks ‘Mundari’, the Kondh speaks ‘Kondhi’ as so



on as their main dialect for intra tribal communication but they also speakthe other languages as per their rrequirement to communicate people fromother communities. Recently, some tribes of central India have developed theirown scripts for easy and better communication and spred of their language.The ‘Al-chiki’ (Ol Chiki) of the Santal is the best example of it. Apart fromthis, the Ho and the Gonds are also developing their own scripts.

ReligionReligion and magic are the integral part of the tribal culture. Most of thetribes of central India are animist in nature. Besides, the worship of ancestoralsprit is also in practice. Superstitution and traditional beliefs are deeply rootedwith their religious practices. It is a general belief among all the tribes ofcentral India that everything what ever happening to them are either by theblessing or curse of the supernatural power or evil sprits. They used to worshiptheir surrounding nature, hills, mountains, rivers and streams, trees,agricultural fields, animals etc as a deity for various purposes, like curingfrom diseases, protection from natural calamities and wild animals, prosperouslife, good cultivation etc. Most of their rituals and worships are related eitherto their economy or to their daily life. Usually, the family or clan deities areworshipped by the head of the family or clan members but for the village levelor tribe level worship they seek help of their Ojha or religious head. The serviceof witch doctor is rendered for curing from black magic. They never took theservices of the Brahmins in any religious activities. There is a hierarchy foundamong the deities in most of the central Indian tribe. For example, the deitiesof the Gond tribe. There are nine distinct groups of gods found among theGonds. The Bada Deo or Ma-hadev (Pen) who is conventionally thought to beShiva of the Hindu traditions is considered as the principal god of the Gond.Similarly, the Singhbonga (the Sun God) is the principal deity of the Santals,the Mundas and the Hos. Other deities of this tribe are Jahir era, Monika,Marangburu etc. The Juangs of Odisha believe in the supernatural power.The ‘Dharm deuta’ (sun god) is their supreme deity and the ‘Basuki mata’(earth goddess) is his counterpart. In every ritual, the Juangs worship them.Tlrre ‘Rusi and, ‘Rusiani’ are considered as their mythical ancestors andremembered in each occasion. Most of the tribes of Chotanagpur and itsneighbouring areas believe in Sarna religion. The word Sarna is derived fromthe word Sar (arrow). The worship place of the tribes of Chotanagpur is known

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as Sarnasthal or Jahera which is nothing but a sacred grove, where a set ofold Sarjom (Sal) trees exist. This Sarnasthal is usually, but not necessarily,present at a little distance of the village. In his first monumental work “Mundaand their Country”, Rai Bahadur S.C. Roy (1912) has mentioned that “Althoughthe greater portion of the primeval forest, in clearings of which the Mundavillages were originally established, have since disappeared under the axe orunder the jara-fire, many a Munda village still retain a portion or portions ofthe original forest to serve as Sarnas or sacred groves. In some Mundarivillages, only a small clump of ancient trees now represent the original forestand serves as the village-Sarna. These sarnas are the only temples the Mundasknow. Here the village- gods reside, and are periodically worshipped andpropitiated with sacrifices” (1995:242). To describe Sarna religion, Dalton(1872:56-57) and Dehon (1906:124) have mentioned that it is composite innature but as per Roy (1918:1) it is an organized system of spiritism set on abackground of vague animism, which institutionally recognizes the deitiesand ancestral spirits.

But now-a-days, because of the impact of various agencies, likeChristianity, Hinduisation, globalization, Industrialization etc some of thetribal people are bending towards the other religion of woder pantheon. Someof them have completely assimilated with their new religion and some arepartly adopted the new religious traits and parallel following both the religions.Because of this syncretism, they are only worshipping few traditional deities.For example, some of the Hos, the Mundas, the Santals, the Gonds who arepartly Hinduised and worshipping their traditional deities as also worshippingthe Hindu deities. It is same in the case of those tribals of central India thosewho have partly adopted the Christianity.

Rituals and FestivalsMost of the rituals and festivals of the tribes of central India are associatedwith their economic activities, i.e. related to hunting, fishing, agriculture etc.The agriculturalalist tribes perform different rituals at different stages ofagricultural period for protection of crops from wild animals and insects, goodrain, better crops etc. For example, Soharae, the harvesting festival, is themost important festival of the Santal. The other important festivals are Baha,Maghsin, Eroksin and Karam. Similarly, the Mundas also observe differentagricultural festivals, like Garam Dharam, Maghe Parav, Sarhul, Halchar



etc. Due to the regular contact with the wider Hindu pantheon, spread ofeducation, popularity of printed and electronic media, and availability of easycommunication facility they gradually started to adopt some rituals andfestivals of their neighbouring people. They celebrate their traditional ritualsand festivals at their village and house levels side by side participate in variousreligious activities of their neighbours. Examples may be cited of the Gonds,the Bhils of central India who celebrate Holi and Diwali as one of theirimportant festival. The Puspunei, Ambanua, Asadhi, Akshya Tirtiya,Dhananua etc. are their main festivals of the Juangs. The religious syncretismis clearly evident among the Juang. After coming in contact with theirneighbouring wider pantheon they have also started worshipping differentHindu gods and Goddesses like, Laksmi, Mahadev, Parvati, Durga, Jagannath,Balabhadra, Rama and Sita, etc. The photographs of these deities are keptboth in the houses and majang (youth dormitory) and worshipped at variousoccasions.

Social StructureMostly the tribes of central India are monogamous but the practice of polygamyis also occasionally present. The practice of sorrorate and levirate is sociallyaccepted. The tribals of central India follow tribe endogamy and clan exogamyand because of that the marriage within the gotra (clan) is strictly prohibitedand members of clan are considered as brothers and sisters. Arranged marriageis generally preferred but love marriage, capture marriage, negotiationmarriage, exchange marriage are also socially approved. Although it isgradually vanishing, but still some tribal groups of central India are havingtheir youth dormitories which is playing an important role for maintainingthe law and order in the society and giving traing to the youth. This youthdormitories also play major role for selection of life partners. The Ghutul ofthe Murias of Chhattisgarh is the best example of it which play an importantrole for controlling the memebrs of the society. Bride price is usually prevalentamong the tribals of central India. Although, the tribals like to live togetherand close by close, but in the present time, because of the impact ofmodernization, industrialization, urbanization, education etc the number ofjoint and extended families are graduaaly decling from the tribals. The tribalswho are living in urban and industrial areas prefer for nuclear family.

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EducationEducation is the key substance to the development. This education forms animportant component in the overall development of individuals, enabling themto greater awareness, better comprehension of their social, political and culturalenvironment and also facilitating in the improvement of their socio-economicconditions (Statistical Profile of STs. 2013:13). This education disseminatesknowledge which is very essential for the tribal for getting freedom from theexploitation and poverty. Because of their illiteracy and ignorance the tribalpeople have not been able to receive all advantages of new plan and policiesimplemented by both the central and state governments from time to time forthe development of their education, economy, health etc. Because of the pooreducation facilities in tribal areas, the literacy rate of central Indian tribes isvery low. The main causes of slow progress in this literacy rate is the povertyof the parents, contents of education, inadequate educational institutions andsupporting services, absenteeism, medium of instruction, language barrier,and education policy.

For the literacy rate of STs in India, increased from 8.53 in 1961 % to58.96 % in 2011. This literacy rate increased by 11.86 percentage points from2001 to 2011 for STs and 8.15 percentage points for total population duringthe same period. According to census 2011, there are 10 states of India havingliteracy rates less than country’s average (58.96 %) for ST population of which06 are present in central India. These central Indian states having less literacyrates are Andhra Pradesh (49.2%), Madhya Pradesh (50.6%), Bihar (51.1%),Odisha (52.2%), Jharkhand (57.1%) and West Bengal (57.9%) (Statistical Profileof STs. 2013:13-14).

EconomyThe economy of the central Indian tribe is varying from tribe to tribe as wellas from area to area. Large sections of tribal population are collectors of forestproduce, hunter-gatherers, shifting cultivators, pastoralists and nomadicherders, and artisans. Traditional occupations of these tribal groups may rangefrom honey-collection to hunting small animals to engaging in metal-workand rope-making (HCL 2014: 35). All these traditional economies of the tribalsare close to nature and are done with indigenous technology. The traditionaleconomic activities of the central Indian tribes can be groups under hunting,hill-cultivation, plain agriculture, simple artisans, pastoral and cattle-herding,



folk-artists and agricultural and non-agricultural labourers. The tribes likethe Birhor, the Hill Kharia, the Pahariya, the Birijia, the Korwa of centralIndian states are mainly depending upon the hunting and foraging. Similarly,the tribes, like the Maler, the Hill Kharia, the Juang, the Paudi Bhuyian, theKoya, the Konda Reddi, the Baiga, the Maria Gond and many others residingin the hills of Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, Telengana, Madhya Pradesh,Chhattisgarh and Jharkhand are practicing hill cultivation which is variouslyknown as shifting cultivation, slash-and-burn- cultivation or podu / jhumcultivation. Even though it is not highly productive, the plain land cultivationis the major means of the livelihood of most of the central Indian tribes, likethe Bhumij, the Bhuyian, the Santal, the Munda, the Ho, the Oraon, the Baiga,the Gond, the Bhil etc. Preparing different types of art and craft objects fromwood, bamboo, iron and other metal, leather are the primary occupation ofsome tribes of central India. The Lohar and the Karmali are subsist onpreparing iron agricultural implements, the Chik-Barik are expert in handwoven cloth, the Mahali used to prepare basket and bamboo products, theLohar, the Mahali, the Asur and the Agaria are known for their traditionaliron smelting and iron smith. The Pradhan and the Ojha are expert in folkarts and depend upon singing, barding and dancing. Apart from these, numbersof landless and marginal tribal people are engaged as agricultural labour andsome, those who are residing near mining and industrial areas, are workingas non-agricultural labourer to meet their daily livelihood. During pre-independence period, some tribal people from the Munda, the Oraon, theSantal, the Ho etc communities of Chhattisgarh, Odisha and Jharkhand, havemigrated to Assam to work in tea garden. These tribal people are called as‘tea tribes’ who are not included in the list of Scheduled Tribe of that state.

PovertyTraditionally, poverty is defined as the total per capita expenditure of thelowest expenditure class, which consumed 2400 kcal / day in rural and 2100kcal/day in urban areas. Poverty relating to health, education and other basicservices has been continuously taken into consideration for the planningprocess of poverty eradication. There are number of anti-poverty programmeshave been launched by the government from time to time to reduce theincidence of poverty in the country. Apart from these, there are some specialprogrammes implemented for the welfare of Scheduled Castes and ScheduledTribes, and other vulnerable groups (Statistical Profile of STs. 2013. 89-93).

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There are number of central Indian states with Rural and Urban Povertyratios of STs greater than the country’s average for STs for the year 2004-05.The central Indain states with Rural Poverty ratio > country’s average forSTs (2004-05) are Odisha (75.6%), Madhya Pradesh (58.6%), Chhattisgarh(54.7%), Jharkhand (54.2%) and Bihar (53.3%) of ST Population). Similarly,the central Indian states with Urban Poverty ratio> country’s average for STs(2004-05) are Odisha (61.8%), Bihar (57.2%), Andhra Pradesh (50.0%),Jharkhand (45.1%), Madhya Pradesh (44.7%), Chhattisgarh (41.0%) of STpopulation.

Tribal ProblemsAs discuss earlier, the tribal people of central India are residing in hilly andforested area which are very remote and having no proper communicationfacilities. Most of the tribal people are very poor and illiterate, living in smallhuts made of mud, wood, grass, leaves and bamboos. Some of the tribals arenomadic or semi-nomadic and do not get food round the year. They are havingdifferent kinds of problems which can be categorized as follows: land alienation,poverty and indebtedness, bonded labour, shifting cultivation, housing,education, drinking water, communication, unemployment, health andsanitation, malnutrition, labour migration etc. There are so many causesresponsible for these problems. The principal cause for land alienation is theirpoor economic condition, drinking habit, indebtedness, urbanization,industrialization, impact of neighbouring religions, lack of land records,administrative inefficiency, share cropping etc. Similarly, the causes of povertyand indebtedness are land alienation, illiteracy, unemployment, increasepopulation, less cultivable land, lack of proper irrigation facilities, forest acts,exploitation by money lenders and middlemen, drinking habit etc. Illiteracyis the main problem for the tribals. There are numbers of factors, such as nonenrolment, non-attendance and dropouts due to cultural practices andmigration in search of job, poverty, syllabus and mode of teaching not accordingto tribal area, less number of educational institutes in tribal areas, absence ofteachers, lack of coordination between parents and teachers etc are mainlyresponsible for their poor literacy rate (Upadhyay and Pandey 2003:58-99).

Tribal UnrestAs mentioned earlier, most of the tribals of India are living in hill and forestareas which are far away from the development. Still they are suffering from



poverty, illiteracy and different kinds of exploitations. They are being exploitedcontinuously by the zamindars, landlords, officers etc since the time of pre-independence period. The tribal land was taken by the zamindar and duringBritish time their remaining lands were brought under zamindari system forthat they had to pay taxes. Apart from this land alienation, they also faceddifferent kinds of socio-cultural, economic, religious, political problem duringthis time. Besides, the tribal women were also subjected to sexual harassmentand exploitation. This kind of exploitative and oppressive behavior of thezamindars, landlords, contractors, sahukaars, government officials, Britishrulers etc forced the tribal to organize themselves and make agitation againstthem. Even after independence, they faced similar kinds of problem for a longtime. The government of India constituted special provisions for theirdevelopment and protection but still they did not get their full right and freedomto leave peacefully as the other mainstream people are availing. Therefore,from time to time, these simple tribals protested to get their rights. There areseveral reasons for this kind of tribal unrests. The main reason for theirdissatisfaction are inadequate implementation of Constitutional safeguards,denial of participation to tribals in development process, lack of accountability,lack of tribal leadership, land alienation and displacement without adequaterehabilitation, exploitation in forestry and other economic activities, and socio-cultural factors (Verma 1995:169-170). As mentioned earlier, the hill and forestareas of central India are the areas where more than half of the Indian tribalpeople are residing. These tribals are not only socio-culturally and economicallyrelated to their local land and forests but also they are very tight emotionaland sentimental relations with their surrounding ecology. Since they dependon their near by forest resources for fulfilling a major portion of their livelihood,they used to respect their surrounding nature as their food provider or as agod. Most of the tribal people of central India are animist and worship theirnear by forest, mountain, hills, river, stream, pond, trees etc as their deity. Along interference between this man-nature relationships of the tribals byvarious agencies caused revolution. Because of the various kinds of problems,the tribal started movements from time to time. Historically, the Chotanagpurand Santal Pargana region of Jharkhand has witnesses a number of tribalmovements.

Most of the tribal movements of India occurred in these areas. Theformation of new Jharkhand state, which comes into existence on 15th

November, 2000 to rule over these areas of Chotanagpur and Santal Pargana

15

is also a result of a long run tribal movement to get proper justification. Someof the important tribal movement of Central India are Maler or PahariyaRevolt, Ho revolt of Singhbhum, the great Kol revolt, Santal revolt, 1857movement among the tribals, Bhagirath-Kherwar movement, revitalizationmovement of Munda, Sardari Lahar, Birsa movement, Tanabhagat movement,Safahor (Clean man or Be-clean) movement, Lakho Bodara movement orAdisamaj movement, Raghu Nath Murmu movement or Sarana movement,Kherwar movement, Jharkhand movement, the Khondh movement, theBhuiyan movement, the Juang movement and the Gond movement.

DevelopmentNow-a-days, tribal development is a burning topic and both govenment andnon-government agencies are talking about the tribal delopment. In India,the concept of tribal development started since the time of pre-independenceera. After independent, the government of India has introduced variousapproaches, models, theories and concepts for their developmenet. When wediscuss about the tribal development, one question comes in our mind that‘why it is required?’ or ‘what is the need of tribal development?’. As it is alredydiscussed about various kinds of tribal problems they were having and stillsome are continuing. These problems are related to their health and sanitation,education, economy, society, religion, settlement or habitation, food and drinketc which are caused because of the urbanization, industrialization, landalienation, displacement, rehabilitation, poverty, unemployment, new forestpolicies etc. So, there is no doubt that, the simple and innocent tribals arevery backwards in terms of education and economy and are exploited a lot bydifferent people from the time immomerial. Even after almost 70 years ofindependence and introduction of several plans and policies for the tribaldevelopment, still some trials are far away from the development. They arenot getting proper advantages of the modern developmental schemeimplemented by the government. Therefore, it is very much essential for givespecial emphasis for the tribal development to bring them into main stream.

During British time, various attempts have been made to acquire the triballands and forests which very badly affected on their social, religious, economicand political life. Apart from these, the British government deployed armies,police and administrators in tribal areas who exploited and oppressed a lot tothe tribals. This exploitation and oppression brought damage in their



traditional institutions, customary laws, and traditional organisations etcwhich forced them to lunch violent movements. Although, the Britishgovernment controlled them by using force but it forced to think about theproper administration and development of tribal areas which resulted theintroduction of some Acts and regualations were passed for the tribaldevelopment. Some of the important Acts and regulations implemented bythe British government for the development of the tribes of central India areCleveland’s Hill Assembly Plan; Bengal Act, XIII, 1833; Wilkinson Act;Scheduled Area Act 1874; Chotanagpur Tenancy Act; Government of IndiaAct 1919; Government of India Act 1935 etc.

Because of the rebellion created by the Malers or the Sauria Paharias ofRajmahal Hills in Santal Pargana of present Jharlhand, the Britishgovernment had faced a lot of problem. This revolt was populately known asMaler Revolt. In 1878, Mr. Cleveland was appointed as the Collector ofRajmahal Hills who formulated ‘Hill Assembly’ for the development of theSauria Paharia to solve their problem. This scheme of tribal development isknown as ‘Cleveland’s Regulation’ and according to this scheme, resolutionswere passed to provide arms to Paharia archers like regular police and totransfer the case of Paharias to the Tribal chief. Besides, system of payingpension to the Mukhiyas and deputy Mukhiyas of the tribal villages of RajmahalHills was introduced. Cleaveland also established regular market in this tribalarea of Rajmahal hills to encourage the tribals for selling their forest products.Similarly, after the Kol movement in 1831, in present Jharkhand, the Britishgovernment reviewed its administrative policies towards the tribals andintroduced the Bengal Act, III in 1833 through which the entire Chotanagpurregion was freed from the jurisdication of common court and was kept underthe agent of governer general. Similarly, the Wilkinson Act was implementedfor the judicial administration in the tribal area of Chotanagpur where thetraditional role of Mundas, Mankis and other village functionaries wereaccepted by the local administration and were given responsibilities to solvethe problem related to civil and criminal cases. Some special regulations relatedto selling and purchasing land, loan and taxes were implemented which wasdifferent from the other neighbouring localities. The Act 1855 was implementedimmediate after the Santal insurgency where a new district ‘Santal Pargana’was created for better administration. In this Act, the village functionartieswere recognized and were given administrative powers and the role of

17

middleman between thr tribals and assistant commissioners was abolished.Help of village functionaries were taken to solve both the civil and criminalcases.

As mentioned earlier, after independence the government has takenseveral steps for the upliftment of the tribals. Special provisions have beenmade in the constitution of India for the welfare and development of the tribals.“The constitutional arrangements for the Scheduled Tribes follow differentpatterns and provide for both protections from non-tribals (particularly onland alienation, money-lending and political representation) and provisionsfor autonomous decision-making on various matters” (HLC 2014:67). Differentcommittees are set up for evaluation and review as well as impementations ofvarious schemes. Some of the important committees setup for tribaldevelopments are Elwin Committee (1956), Dherbar Commission (1960),Bhuria Committee (1991) and the Bhuria Commission (2002-2004) etc. Tribalsub-plans were implemented during five year palns.

In order to protect the interests of Scheduled Tribes with regard to landand other social issues, various provisions have been enshrined in the FifthSchedule and the Sixth Schedule of the Constitution. The Fifth Schedule underArticle 244(1) of Constitution defines “Scheduled Areas” as such areas as thePresident may by order declare to be Scheduled Areas after consultation withthe Governor of that State. Presently, nine states of the country are coveredby this Fifth Scheduled Areas of which most of the states are located in thecentral India. The broad list of these area covering in this Fifth Scheduledareas are Visakhapatnam, East Godavari, West Godavari, Adilabad,Srikakulam, Vizianagaram, Mahboobnagar, Prakasam (only some mandals /villages are scheduled mandals) of undivided Andhra Pradesh; Dumka, Godda,Devgarh, Sahabgunj, Pakur, Ranchi, Singhbhum (East & West), Gumla,Simdega, Lohardaga, Palamu, Garwa, (some districts are only partly tribalblocks) of Jharkhand; Sarguja, Bastar, Raigarh, Raipur, Rajnandgaon, Durg,Bilaspur, Kanker of Chhattisgarh; Sehdol, Chindwada, Jhabua, Mandla, Dhar,Khargone, East Nimar (Khandwa), Sailana tehsil in Ratlam district, Betul,Seoni, Balaghat, Morena of Madhya Pradesh; Mayurbhanj, Sundargarh,Koraput, Malkangiri, Rayagada, Narayanpur (full), Raigada, Keonjhar,Sambalpur, Kondmals, Ganjam, Kalahandi, Bolangir, Balasor (some blocks)of Odisha.



Now-a-days, both the government and non-government organizations aretrying their level best for the overall development of the tribes. Under theConstitution of India, there are some special provisions have been made forprotection and development of Scheduled Tribes. Some of the importantprovisions relating to Scheduled Tribes are contained in the Articles 15(4),16(4), 19(4), 19 (5), 23, 29, 46, 164, 275 (1), 330, 332, 334, 335, 338 and Fifthand Sixth Scheduled of the Commission.

Funds for tribal development under Tribal Sub Plan (TSP) are sourcedfrom State Plans, Special Central Assistance (SCA) to Tribal Sub Plan, Grantsunder Article 275 (1) of the Constitution and funds under other Schemes ofthe Ministry, Sectoral programmes of Central Ministries/Departments; andInstitutional Finance. These funds are used through different TribalDevelopment Programmes. The Ministry of Tribal Affairs is implementingvarious Schemes / programmes aimed at welfare and development of ScheduledTribes. Some of the important heads on which government is giving specialemphasis for the tribal development in India includes, Intigrated RuralDevelopment Programme (IRDP), National Rural Employment Programme(NREP), National Rural Landless Employment Guarantee Programmes(NRLEGP), Training of Rural Youth for Self-Employment (TRYSEM), RuralWoman and Children Development Programme (DWACRA), Jawahar RojgarYojna (JRY), Indira Awas Yojna, Million Wells Scheme (MSW) or JaldharYojna, Drought Prone Area Programme (DPAP), Integrated Warrant LandDevelopment Programme (IWDP), Restriya Jal Chhajan Yojna (NationalWater-Storage Development Programme) (NWDP), Nehru Rojgar Yojna (NRY),Self-Employment of Educated Un-Employed Youth (SEEUY), Self EmploymnetProgramme for the Urban Poor (SEPTU), Prime Minister’s Integrated UrbanPoverty Elimination Programme (PMIUPEP), Prime Minister’s Rozgar Yojna(PMRY), Pradhan Mantri Gram Samridhi Yojna (PMGSY), Swarna JayantiGram Swarojar Yojna (SJGSY), Pradhan Mantri Gramodya Yojna (PMGY),Antodya Anna Yojna (AAY), Annapurna Yojna, National Social AssistantProgramme (NSAP), National Old Age Pension Scheme, Nationa FamilyBenefit Scheme, National Maternity Benefit Scheme, Mahila Samvridhi Yojna(MSY), Balika Samvridhi Yojna (MSY), Integrated Child DevelopmentProgramme (ICDS) etc.

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Table-3: Some major Tribes of Central India with more than 5 lakh of population andtheir usual Place of Habitation as per Census 2011

Tribe Name

Population Usual Place of habitation (State Name) including outside of Central India Person Male Female

Bhil 12,689,952 6,428,757 6,261,195 Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Tripura

Gond 10,859,422 5,441,476 5,417,946 Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, West Bengal

Santal 5,838,016 2,945,209 2,892,807 Bihar, Jharkhand, Odisha, Tripura, West Bengal

Mina 3,800,002 1,976,425 1,823,577 Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan

Oraon 3,142,145 1,580,607 1,561,538 Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Odisha, West Bengal

Munda 1,918,218 966,070 952,148 Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Tripura, West Bengal

Khond 1,397,384 689,330 708,054 Bihar, Jharkhand, Odisha, West Bengal

Kol 991,400 508,920 482,480 Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Maharastra, Odisha

Karwa 812,770 405,524 407,246 Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Odisha

Ho 806,921 401,913 405,008 Bihar, Jharkhand, Odisha, West Bengal

Korku 774,196 395,334 378,862 Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Maharastra

Bhumij 765,909 387,336 378,573 Jharkhand, Odisha, West Bengal

Koya 692,435 345,040 347,395 Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Odisha

Halba 639,094 319,254 319,840 Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra

Saharia 527,015 271,571 255,544 Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan



Table-4: State wise number of District of Central India where the ST Population is morethan 50% and between 25% to 50% as per census 2011

State Total Population

ST Population

Percentage of ST

More than 50% ST

Population

Between 25% to 50% ST

Population

Jharkhand 32,988,134 8,645,042 26.2 5 8

Odisha 41,974,218 9,590,756 22.8 8 6

Chhattisgarh 25,545,198 7,822,902 30.6 7 6

Madhya Pradesh

72,626,809 15,316,784 21.1 6 13

Andhra Pradesh

84,580,777 5,918,073 7.0 0 1

Table-5: State wise Literacy Rates of STs in Central India (Source: Registrar General ofIndia, Census 2011)

State / India Total Rural Urban

Person Male Female Person Male Female Person Male Female

Andhra Pradesh

49.2 58.3 40.1 46.9 56.1 37.7 66.8 74.7 58.7

Bihar 51.1 61.3 400.4 50.3 60.7 39.5 65.3 72.5 57.6

Chhattisgarh 59.1 69.7 48.8 57.6 68.4 47.1 76.9 84.9 69.0

Jharkhand 57.1 68.2 46.2 55.2 66.6 43.9 75.4 83.2 67.8

Madhya Pradesh

50.6 59.6 41.5 49.3 58.4 40.1 66.7 74.0 59.2

Odisha 52.2 63.7 41.2 51.1 62.7 39.9 69.1 77.7 60.5

West Bengal 57.9 68.2 47.7 56.7 67.2 46.2 71.2 78.4 64.0

India 59.0 68.5 49.4 56.9 66.8 46.9 76.8 83.2 70.3

ConclusionCentral India is that area of Inda where verieties of tribal people are living.They are having their distict characteristics which separate them from others.They have their own language, economy, culture. Some of the tribes aredepending upon their traditional subsistence while some are slowly inclineingtowars the modernization. They are culturally very rich. Most of the tribal areself sufficient and rarely depend on the others. Because of the globalization,

23

industrialization, urbanization etc they came in contact with their neighbouringand communities adopted some elements heritage of the tangible andintangible cultural heritages. They have using modern machine made productswhich are easily available to them in their near by market centres. Because ofthe spread of education and modern communication facilities, they are exposingthemselves and getting knowledge on various aspects of life and culture. Thegovernment of Indiahas introduced several plans and policies for theirdevelopment but still they are on the way of development. They need moresocio-economic and educational support to bring themselves in to themainstream.

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