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Siam and Her Cultural History

Tracing The Glory of Sri-Vijayan Empire Art Style in South

East Asia

Andre Iman Syafrony

Department of Literature and Folklore

Faculty of Humanities

Naresuan University

2014

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1. Introduction

The link of the civilizations influenced by Indian culture in Indonesia and

Thailand has been a thought provoking area. Especially, there are many discoveries found

in the southern Thailand that bear the same art style as Javanese 9th

century artworks. This

proves that in the past, the constituencies in South-East Asia had been in contact with

each other. Therefore, the aim of this paper is to explore the concept of cultural influence

and link it with the influence of Indian cultural in South-East Asia, leading to the cultural

conceptualization of the art style during the particular period of Srivijaya Empire.

2. Discussion

In South-East Asia, it can be said that many of the cultures in the region are

exposed to the influence from India. One of the most prominent examples is the existence

of two bodies of name; the Suvarnabhumi and Suvarnadvipa, which are derived from the

Sanskrit word. The first term epitomizes the ancient power which is said flourished in the

South East Asia mainland, while the later was the old name of the Sumatra Island in

Indonesia.

The word Suvarnabhumi relate to Suvarna, which means “taking a beautiful

color”, “sparkling”, or “golden” and the word “bhumi” conveys the semantic category:

“earth”, “country”, or “land”. Therefore, the term "Suvarnabhumi" may be rendered into

English as "Golden Land" (Saraya, 1999, p. 31). In the Kingdom of Thailand, which is

considered as the great empire in the mainland of South-East Asia nowadays, government

proclamations and national museums insist that Suvarnabhumi was somewhere in the

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coastal area of the central plain, especially at the ancient city of U Thong, which might be

the origin of the Dvaravati Culture (Jermsawatdi, 1979, pp.16-24.)

In the interim, for the word Suvarnadvipa, dvipa mean a "land having water on

two of its sides", which can mean "Peninsula" or "Island". Hence, the term Suvarnadvipa

may be rendered into English as "Golden Peninsula" or "Golden Island" (Majumdar,

1986, p. 16). It can be said that, Suvarnadvipa is the early title for ancient Sumatran

mainland. It is generally believed that Suvarnadvipa is the center of the kingdom of

Srivijaya. It was the story of the golden age in Sumatra, Indonesia where there were many

prehistoric wharfs formerly assumed as the major port of Suvarnadvipa (Majumdar, 1986,

p. 18).

Not only had the name of these two areas which is derived from the Sanskrit, but

also the very inner heart of their ways of life received the influence of the great tradition

from India. That is why the beliefs of the two bodies of power are to a certain extent

comparable. These two corresponding names implied the existences of two important

administrative bodies of the past here in South East Asian. According to Saraya,

Suvarnabhumi is regarded as the Kingdom of Siam in the old times when the states of Sri

Dvaravati were in statute. (Saraya, 1999, p.13) and “Suvarnadvipa was the sanctioned

name given to the island of Sumatra, Indonesia during the Srivijaya Buddhist era of

Indonesia” (Majumdar, 1986, p. 16).

The Hindu and Buddhist influence on the culture is, therefore, remarkably

astounding in the South East Asian nations nowadays. On the subject of culture, there are

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many facets on the spread of the Indian culture in the countries of South East Asian. The

cultural synthesis of Indian influences, ostensibly, was supported by local leaders, who

fostered the growth of the new institutions and political and social patterns (Saraya, 1999,

p.34). The Indian influence was not enforced primarily by the conquering activities but

rather by the acceptance by the local leaders at that period of time who likely embraced

the religions and cultures without confrontation.

One of the best examples of the influence in the past was the existence of the Sri-

Vijaya kingdom which had its capital city situated in Sumatra Island, in the east of

Palembang (Muljana, 2006, p.3). However, the excavation of Muaro Jambi complexes in

the year of 2013, suggest that the capital might have had been moved from one place to

another. This is the case of Candi Muaro Jambi which is a Buddhist temple complex, in

Jambi province, Sumatra, Indonesia. The temple complex was built by the Melayu

Kingdom. It is situated 26 kilometers east from the city of Jambi. Its surviving temples

and other archaeological remains are estimated to date from the eleventh to thirteenth

century CE. The archaeological site includes eight excavated temple sanctuaries and

covers about 12 square kilometers, stretches 7.5 kilometers along the Batang Hari River,

much of it as yet unexcavated. It is one of the largest and best-preserved ancient temple

complexes in South East Asia and perhaps one of the main capitals of the Srivijaya

Kingdom.

Srivijaya was the most powerful maritime kingdom of South-East Asia at the time

of the 8th century A.D. Its dominion extended up to Java and the Malay Archipelago, as

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well as Nakon Sritammarat (at that time called Tamalinga) and Chaiya (Carahi) in the

South of Thailand. The art of Sri-Vijaya kingdom (the Buddhist art) also borrowed and

imitated workmanship from India, like the Dvaravati School of art which flourished in the

Central Region of Thailand at almost the same time with the Srivijaya Kingdom.

Figure 1. The maximum xxtension of Srivijaya Empire around 7th

century A.D.

Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Srivijaya_Empire.svg by Sippanan

Nuanla-ong (2010). Retrieved on 14 November, 2014

As it is seen from the figure 1, the red dots show the important center of power

during of the Srivijaya Empire. These centers of power may influence each other as many

monuments during the Sailendra dynasty in Java are connected to this empire. The map

also shows the extent of the empire to the modern-day Chaiya, in Surat Thani, Thailand.

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These traces might also be the reasons why the remnants of Srivijaya in the Southern

Thailand bear similar outlook as their counterparts in Java.

It is known that the Buddhist art and architecture of Sri Vijaya was influenced by

the Indian art of the Gupta Empire and Pala Empire (Munoz, 2006, p. 27). According to

various historical sources, a complex and cosmopolitan society with a refined culture,

deeply influenced by Northern Buddhism School, flourished in the Srivijayan capital.

However, the scarce findings in the Sumatra nowadays make the real territory and

boundary of Srivijaya Empire is still in questions, whether the capital city is in Sumatera,

Java, or Malay Peninsula.

The examples of the artifacts found in Sumatra are, first the 7th century Talang

Tuwo inscription which described Buddhist rituals and blessings at the auspicious event

of establishing a public park. The second is The Kota Kapur Inscription which mentions

the Srivijaya military dominance against Java. These inscriptions were in the Old Malay

language, the language was used by Srivijayan and also the ancestor of Malay and

Indonesian language (Muljana, 2006).

Since the 7th century, the Old Malay language has been used in Nusantara (Malay-

Indonesian archipelago), marked by these Srivijaya inscriptions and other inscriptions

using old Malay language in coastal areas of the archipelago, such as those discovered in

Java. The trade contact carried by some ethnics at the time was the main vehicle to spread

Malay language, since it was the communication device amongst the traders. By then,

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according to Stuart-Fox, “Malay language became lingua franca and was spoken widely

by most people in the archipelago” (Stuart-Fox, 2003, p. 76).

The Buddhist art of this period therefore, belonged to the Mahayana School as

Mahayana or Northern Buddhism from India flourished in this kingdom from the

beginning of the 7th century A.D. onwards. Though there are not many artifacts found in

Sumatra, Jermsawatdi (Jermsawatdi, 1979) states that there are abundant of material

culture found in the Chaiya, Surat Thani, Thailand which resemble the arty style of

Sailendra in Java.

That is why, despite its economic, cultural and military prowess, Srivijaya left few

archaeological remains in their heartlands in Sumatra, in contrast with Srivijayan episode

in Central Java during the leadership of Sailendras that produced numerous monuments;

such as the Kalasan, Sewu and Borobudur. The Buddhist temples dated from Srivijayan

era in Sumatra are Muaro Jambi, Muara Takus and Biaro Bahal, however unlike the

temples of Central Java that constructed from andesite stones, the Sumatran temples were

constructed from red bricks and laterite.

Many scholars believe that the expansion of Buddhist kingdom of Srivijaya was

involved in the rise of the dynasty in Java. Supporters of this connection emphasize the

shared Mahayana patronage, the intermarriages and the description of inscriptions found

in Sumatra (Munoz, 2006). Also the fact that some of Sailendra‟s inscriptions were

written in old Malay, which suggested Srivijaya or Sumatran connections.

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Paul Michel Munoz in his book of Early Kingdoms of the Indonesian Archipelago

and the Malay Peninsula (2006) states that with the expansion to Java as well as the

Malay Peninsula, Srivijaya controlled two major trade choke points in Southeast Asia.

Some Srivijayan temple ruins are observable in Thailand, Cambodia and on the Malay

Peninsula.

At some point in the seventh century, Cham ports in eastern Indochina started to

attract traders, diverting the flow of trade from Srivijaya. In an effort to redirect the flow

of trade back to Srivijaya, the Srivijayan king or maharaja, Dharmasetu, launched various

raids against the coastal cities of Indochina. The city of Indrapura by the Mekong River

was temporarily controlled from Palembang in the early eighth century (Munoz, 2006, p.

132).

The Srivijayans continued to dominate areas around present-day Cambodia until

the Khmer King Jayavarman II, the founder of the Khmer Empire dynasty, severed the

Srivijayan link later in the same century (Munoz, 2006,p.140) After Dharmasetu,

Samaratungga, the last ruler of the Sailendra dynasty, married Dharmasetu‟s daughter,

Dewi Tara, the princess of Srivijaya, and became the next Maharaja of Srivijaya. He

reigned as ruler from 792 to 835. Unlike the expansionist Dharmasetu, Samaratuga did

not indulge in military expansion, but preferred to strengthen the Srivijayan hold of Java.

He personally oversaw the construction of Borobudur; the temple was completed in 825,

during his reign.

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The early work of George Coedes (Coedes, 1959, p.42) also suggests that the

relationship between Chaiya, the Sailendra Dynasty and Srivijya could be one of family

relationship such as the marriage between the son of Phra Visanu of the Sailendra

Dynasty with Phra Jao Sa Tu‟s daughter. This marriage probably was the reason why the

penetration of culture could be spread to the Malay Peninsula.

Another scholar, Kulke summarised his ideas this way:

…Early Sriwijaya was neither an empire nor a chieftaincy but a typical Early

kingdom, characterised by a strong centre and surrounded by a number of subdued

but not yet annexed (or „provincialised‟) smaller polities. The unique feature of

Sriwijaya‟s future development was its peculiarity that it never succeeded, or

perhaps even never tried, to change this structure of its bhumi polity … In fact,

one may even argue that the longevity and the flexible greatness of Sriwijaya was

based on the very non-existence of those structural features which historians

regard as a prerequisite of a genuine empire (Kulke, 1993, p.176).

The description of Kulke, interestingly, has the same foundation as the ideas

proposed by Dhida Saraya about the political entity of Dvaravati Kingdom which

according to the historical timeline, thrived side by side with Srivijaya. She states that the

Dvaravati culture was consisted of several such proto-states and several others that

formed into groups. The Dvaravati left behind traces of large religious sites and

communication networks. There were enough differences in terms of art, in the popularity

of different symbols and beliefs, and in geographic conditions to indicate that these

Dvaravati centers were not joined together in a kingdom (Saraya, 1999, p. 31). However,

they did share a common faith in Buddhism, which served as a core that integrated all the

differences.

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Claessen, aligned with Kulke, also supposes that Srivijaya as a whole was no more

than a conglomeration of „mutually cooperating, fairly independent regions scattered over

a large area of the Indonesian archipelago (Claessen, 1995, p. 444). Thus, one may

conclude that defining the political organization of Srivijaya remains an open question.

One of the causes of this historiographic problem appears to be controversy surrounding

the criteria for the existence of the state.

In terms of the remains of material culture, some Buddhist sculptures, such as

Buddha Vairocana, Boddhisattva Avalokiteshvara and Maitreya, were discovered in

numerous sites in Sumatra and Malay Peninsula. These archaeological findings such as

stone statue of Buddha discovered in Bukit Seguntang, Palembang, Avalokiteshvara from

Bingin Jungut in Musi Rawas, bronze Maitreya statue of Komering, all discovered in

South Sumatra. In Jambi, golden statue of Avalokiteshvara were discovered in

Rataukapastuo, Muarabulian. In Malay Peninsula the bronze statue of Avalokiteshvara of

Bidor discovered in Perak Malaysia, and Avalokiteshvara of Chaiya in Southern Thailand.

All of these statues demonstrated the same elegance and common style identified as

"Srivijayan art" that reflects close resemblance — probably inspired — by both Indian

Amaravati style and Javanese Sailendra art (c. 8th to 9th century).

In the field of art, the SriVijaya art may be regarded as one of the perfect early

Buddhist arts in South-East Asia. In Java, Sumatra and other island-countries, many of the

Buddhist monuments and antiquities bear strong Mahayana character. In South Thailand,

Sri-Vijaya art, both in architecture and sculpture, had its great impact in Chaiya sub-

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district of Surathani Province, Songkha Province, at Ra-Not and Cha-Ting-Pra sub

districts of Nakon Sri-Tammarat Province, and at Ta-Kua-Pa. Also in other parts of the

country, the remains of this school of art have been found in U-Tong of Supannaburi

Province and at Sukhothai of North and Central Thailand (Department of Fine Arts: The

Brief History and Archaeology of the Indo-Chinese Peninsula, p. 18 as cited in Chareonia,

1981, p. 51).

The Sri-Vijaya school of Buddhist art in Java and Thailand, then, can be said

receiving its artistic inspiration and workmanship from the Gupta, post Gupta Amravati

and Pala-Sena schools of art. That is why the antiquities of this period, either in stone or

bronze that have been discovered in Southern Thailand are so similar to those found in

Java or Sumatra that sometimes it is very difficult to distinguish them, because most of

them are of one and the same artistic elements Mahayan Buddhism.

It is said that most of Sri-Vijayan architecture was represented at Chaiya, Surat

Thani, which was without doubt a very important centre during the Sri-Vijaya period

(Chareonla, 1981, p. 52). The monuments of this period were built in dedication of

Mahayana Buddhism. The type of structure consists of a Mondop or cell-chamber to

house the Buddha Image while the summit of the structure was erected in the form of

stupa with successive, superimposed terraces. The best example is at Pra Barom That

Chaiya Stupa at Wat Phra Mahathat, Chaiya, Surathani Province, South Thailand. As the

writer observe this type resembles the small Candi or Stupa in Java Island.

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The monument at Nakon Sri-Tammarat also has its best style consisting of the

body of structure decorated with arch-niches. The top of structure consists of five towers.

There is a central and large tower placed in the middle, while the other four small towers

are placed in each of the corners of the structure. This signifies the cosmological theme,

and according to the writer‟s own opinion and observation, being have lived near the

temples in Java, this construction has the same architecture as in Java. This is

unsurprising, since the sculptural objects of Srivijaya art in this period are the images of

Mahayana deities, chief among them being the statues of Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara

which are found in many temples in Yogyakarta and Central Java, Indonesia.

On the other hand the Buddha Images with different gestures were also created

during this period. There are Buddha images in Chaiya belonging to this school of art

shows the artistic inspiration and workmanship of art of the Pala-Sena period. The

ushnisha or protuberance of the skull is like that of Dvaravati art and consists of the skull

with the slight, small curl hair-knot. But, in some Buddha images, there is an urna

between the eyebrow and middle of the forehead. The figure of a Bodhi leaf always is

attached in front of the ushnisha of the Buddha, the smoothed forehead and the arched and

curved eyebrows, flat face like the late Dvaravati style of the Buddha Image. Other

features are the unsquare chin-shape type and soft lips and mouth. The end of the robe

consists of both types as short end over the chest and the longed hanging down up to the

navel (Jermsawatdi, 1979, p. 20).

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The hands and heads of the Buddha are gentle and slender along with the body;

unlike in Dvaravati art as the writer observed and there are many poses of the statues that

strike the tri-banggha pose or the triple-flexioned pose. The inflexions are in the arm,

body and legs part. This tri-bhangga poses are very similar to the statues found in Central

Java, for example in Candi Plaosan Lor. Notice the figure 1 and 2, The Srivijayan style

found in Chaiya is quite similar to early Central Javanese Sailendran style, with relaxed

and bended torso.

Figure 1and 2: On the left is the Avalokitesvara from Chaiya, Surat Thani Province,

Thailand and on the right is the Avalokitesvara from Candi Plaosan Lor, Central

Java, Indonesia

Sources:

(http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cf/Avalokitesvara,_from_Srivijaya._B

angkok_National_Museum._b093.jpg and

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Avalokitesvara_Plaosan.jpg/

386px-Avalokitesvara_Plaosan.jpg. Retrieved on 29 November 2014)

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Therefore, the outstanding sculptural production of this period is the statue of

Bodhisattva Avalokitesavara, the supreme divinity of Mahayana Buddhism. At Chaiya, in

Surathani Province, and other provinces of South Thailand, the images of that Mahayana

deity have been discovered. Its features bear the strong Gupta and Pala-Sena influence

just like those which were found in Java. This is irrefutable evidence of the understated

Sailendra-Srivijaya ties which probably had stretched as far as Surat Thani, Thailand.

Other features of these statues are the original and attractive form of the crown, and the

jewelled ornaments on the neck and arms as well as the streamers, like strands of hair,

falling on both shoulders. There is the scarf or fold of the robe across the body in addition

to the thread or the dhoti.

3. Conclusion

In conclusion, judging from many evidences such as artwork of that particular

period, Srivijaya may have had more than one center and the principal center, in this case

is the main capital, was in different places at different times, especially after the recent

excavation in Muaro Jambi at the year of 2013. This could relate to long-term changes in

the advances of trading, the importance of Chaiya, Thailand, in the past as the main

trading route around the peninsula of Thailand. This argument leads to the shift of the

control of the Melaka Straits shifted to Melaka. This would suggest the possibility of a

large united kingdom in Southeast Asia, which is important to the very idea of a Southeast

Asian identity as a certain regional identity.

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The striking similarities of art works and architecture found in Chaiya with those

built in Java are also reminder for the young generation that we were used to be more

connected than what it is right now. By knowing and understanding the phase of history

of other nations will bring an understanding between human beings of what they have in

common. Especially is to be able to raise an awareness, appreciation, and understanding

of Indonesian people and Thai people on the basis of the cultural values they share.

References:

Chareonia, C. (1981). Main Aspects of Buddhist Arts of Thailand. Thesis: Magadh

University Bodh Gaya. Gaya

Jermsawatdi, Promsak. (1979). Thai Art with Indian Influences. New Delhi, Abhinav

Publications, pp.16-24.

Majumdar, R.C. (1986).Suvarnadvipa: Ancient Indian Colonies In the Far East (2 Vols.)

South Asia Books

Muljana, Slamet (2006). Sriwijaya. Yogyakarta

Munoz, Paul Michel (2006). Early Kingdoms of the Indonesian Archipelago and the

Malay Peninsula. Editions Didier Millet. ISBN 981-4155-67-5.

Saraya, Dhida. (1999). Sri Dvaravati, The Initial Phase of Siam's History. Muang Boran:

Bangkok.

Stuart-Fox, Martin. (2003). A Short History of China and Southeast Asia: Tribute, Trade,

and Influence. London: Allen and Unwin.

Tylor, Sir Edward Burnett J. Murray. (1871). Primitive Culture: Researches Into the

Development of Mythology, Philosophy, Religion, Art, and Custom. The University

of Michigan.