topoclimatic diversity in forlandsundet region (nw spitsbergen) in global warming conditions

NICOLAUS COPERNICUS UNIVERSITY IN TORUŃ

TOPOCLIMATIC DIVERSITY IN FORLANDSUNDET REGION

(NW SPITSBERGEN) IN GLOBAL WARMING CONDITIONS

EditorsRajmund Przybylak, Andrzej Araźny

and Marek Kejna

Toruń 2012

Authors:Andrzej Araźny *Marek Kejna *Rafał Maszewski *Rajmund Przybylak *

Reviewers:Krzysztof Migała **Tadeusz Niedźwiedź ***

* Nicolaus Copernicus University, Poland** University of Wrocław, Poland*** University of Silesia, Poland

© Copyright by the Department of Climatology, Nicolaus Copernicus University, Toruń, Poland

Photo and cover design:Andrzej Araźny, Marek Kejna

This monograph has been funded by the Polish-Norwegian Research Project PNRF– 22– AI–1/07 “Arctic Climate and Environment of the Nordic Seasand the Svalbard-Greenland Area (AWAKE)”.

ISBN 978-83-89743-06-0

Press:Machina Druku87-100 Toruńul. Szosa Bydgoska 50 tel. 56 651 97 87

Publisher:Oficyna Wydawnicza „Turpress”87-100 Toruńul. Mickiewicza 109www.turpress.com.pl

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CONTENTS

Preface............................................................................................................... 5

1. Introduction.................................................................................................. 71.1. Research purpose (Rajmund Przybylak)................................................... 71.2. Research area and methodology (Marek Kejna, Andrzej Araźny)............ 81.3. Primary climatic controls (Marek Kejna).................................................. 17

2. Atmospheric circulation and dynamic conditions (Rajmund Przybylak, Rafał Maszewski)........................................................... 27

2.1. Atmospheric circulation.......................................................................... 272.2. Atmospheric pressure............................................................................. 342.3. Wind....................................................................................................... 40

3. Radiation conditions (Marek Kejna).............................................................. 533.1. Cloud cover............................................................................................. 533.2. Sunshine duration.................................................................................. 593.3. Solar radiation........................................................................................ 61

4. Thermal conditions....................................................................................... 774.1. Ground temperature (Andrzej Araźny).................................................... 774.2. Air temperature (Rajmund Przybylak, Rafał Maszewski).......................... 89

5. Higric conditions (Andrzej Araźny)................................................................ 1155.1. Relative air humidity............................................................................... 1155.2. Precipitation........................................................................................... 131

6. The influence of atmospheric circulation on temperature and humidity conditions (Rajmund Przybylak, Rafał Maszewski).................. 1396.1. The influence of atmospheric circulation on temperature conditions ................................................... 1396.2. The influence of atmospheric circulation on humidity conditions......................................................... 142

7. Comparison of meteorological conditions in the area of Forlandsundet in the summer seasons of 2010-2011 with meteorological conditions in the years of 1975–2011 (Rajmund Przybylak, Andrzej Araźny)............................................................. 1477.1. Introduction............................................................................................ 1477.2. Kaffiøyra................................................................................................. 1477.3. Waldemar Glacier.................................................................................... 156

Appendixes........................................................................................................ 161

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PREFACE

A considerable warming of the Arctic, noted particularly intensively since the mid-1990s, has resulted in dramatic changes in all components of the climate system, not just in the Arctic but also globally. It is enough to mention that in September 2011 the sea ice extent was recorded at its lowest in the history of satellite observations (the previous record low was observed in 2007), and most probably in the last few hundred years, as well. Close correlations between the climates in the Arctic and elsewhere on the globe have been known about for a long time. The Arctic is considered to be the key region shaping global climate, and an indicator when predicting the directions of climate changes. What follows from these facts is the vital importance of Arctic research to various fields of hu-man activity in the world (economic, social, etc.). The high rate of changes occur-ring in the Arctic environment calls for a need to activate world financial and human resources in order to gain a better insight into the mechanisms of the Arctic Climate System, which are still not fully understood. This awareness must have been fundamental to the organisation of the 4th International Polar Year (IPY) in 2007–2009 and the decision to continue intensive studies of the area as part of the International Polar Decade initiative.

The Polish-Norwegian research project Arctic Climate and Environment of the Nordic Seas and the Svalbard-Greenland Area (AWAKE), initiated in 2010, has become a part of this trend to carry on extensive interdisciplinary studies started during the IPY by scientists from different countries, including Poland and Norway. Within the project, researchers and students of the Nico-laus Copernicus University (NCU) Institute of Geography continue long-term studies of the climate of Spitsbergen and the topoclimates in the area of the Forlandsundet. Their topoclimatic studies have noted substantial progress, mainly thanks to recent technological developments in measuring instru-ments (particularly miniaturisation and electronic data recording). In the sum-mer of 2010 as many as 18 measurement sites were established over an area that largely exceeded the area of observations carried out before. Ten of the sites were equipped with automatic meteorological stations. To the best of our knowledge, even though this kind of observation was initiated at two sites on Spitsbergen as early as during the Russian-Swedish expedition of 1899/1900, it has never been extended over an area as big as it is now. This article attempts to present the most important results of the studies, obtained through measurement and observation conducted in the Forlandsundet re-gion (NW Spitsbergen) from July 2010 to August 2011.

The authors would not have been able to undertake the work without finan-cial support from the Polish-Norwegian research fund operating within the framework of the above-mentioned research project. The authors would also like to thank the students of the NCU Institute of Geography, Ms. Aleksandra Pospieszyńska, and Mr. Edward Łaszyca, for their assistance in field studies

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carried out in the summer seasons of 2010 and 2011, respectively. We also ap-preciate the help given by the other participants of the Toruń Polar Expeditions and by Ms. Katarzyna Huzarska. Finally, we would like to thank the reviewers for their material input and constructive comments, which have added considera-ble value to the text.

Rajmund Przybylak

Toruń, December 2011

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Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1. Research purpose

Topoclimatic studies in the area of the Forlandsundet were initiated at the time of the 1st Toruń Polar Expedition (TPE), launched in the summer of 1975. That year measurements of some of the meteorological elements were carried out in the northern part of the Kaffiøyra Plain at four sites, selected to represent dif-ferent physiographical characteristics: on the coast, a beach, a moraine and in the tundra. However, regular standardised measurements of all meteorological elements were performed only at the beach site (Jan Leszkiewicz, personal comm.). An instrument shelter containing a thermo-hygrograph was placed on the tongue of the Aavatsmark Glacier (Leszkiewicz 1977; Olszewski 1977), al-though the observations lasted there only a short time (Jan Leszkiewicz, per-sonal comm.). Unfortunately, as yet no meteorological data from the measure-ments have been published, with the exception of the results obtained at the beach site (Leszkiewicz 1977; Wójcik et al. 1997). During the 3rd TPE (1978), the main location of the measurements was moved from the beach to the terminal//lateral moraine of the Aavatsmark Glacier, and two further sites were estab-lished on the Waldemar Glacier – on its head and in the firn field (Wójcik and Marciniak 1983). All subsequent TPEs in which climatologists participated con-tinued the observations at the above-mentioned sites. In the course of some of the expeditions, topoclimatic studies were extended to include the area of St. Jonsfjorden (1979), the Elise Glacier (1980) (Marciniak 1983; Wójcik et al. 1997), and in 1989 the first measurements were taken on the ridge of Gråfjellet Moun-tain. In that summer season the first ever measurements of the air temperature were carried out at 20 cm at a number of points between the shore of the For-landsundet and the moraines of the Waldemar Glacier. The results of those measurements were later used to identify the mesoclimates of Kaffiøyra (Wójcik et al. 1991, 1993).

The most extensive topoclimatic research in the area of the Waldemar Gla-cier took place in 2005 (Przybylak et al. 2008, 2010; Kejna et al. 2010) and was made possible by the introduction of automatic measurement systems (auto-matic weather stations and temperature and humidity recorders). At the same time, the longest-established sites extended the scope of their observations to include the measurement of atmospheric pressure and wind speed and direc-tion (Przybylak and Araźny 2007; Przybylak et al. 2007), ground temperature and permafrost (Przybylak et al. 2010), air temperature and precipitation (Przybylak et al. 2011).

In the 1975–2009 period, referred to above, a gradual increase in topocli-matic studies can be seen. In the following years of 2010–2011, they were

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intensified even further when large-scale topoclimatic research was carried out as part of the Polish-Norwegian project, Arctic Climate and Environment of the Nordic Seas and the Svalbard-Greenland Area (AWAKE). In the summer of 2010 as many as 18 measurement points (10 of which were equipped with auto-matic stations) were sited in an area that went largely beyond the previous boundaries (Przybylak et al. 2011). The observations included, for example, the area of Prins Karls Forland, and covered the area of St. Jonsfjorden to a much larger extent than before. Moreover, at the main meteorological station (also referred to as the base station) situated at the Polar Station of the Nicolaus Copernicus University (NCU), and in front of the head of the Waldemar Glacier (2010) and on its firn field (2010–2011), the first measurements of radiation balance and its components were performed in the summer, using a CNR 4 net radiometer (Kipp&Zonen) – Kejna et al. (2011). In the summer season of 2011, the site in front of the glacier was moved to the tundra, as it yielded similar results to those obtained from the site located at the base station.

The area of our interest, the Forlandsundet (Forland Sound), includes all types of surface (beaches, tundra, moraines, glacial ice) and surface features (lowlands, terminal moraine, mountain ridges), representative of other areas on Spitsbergen. Another important research task undertaken as part of the project is definition of the factors causing increasing or decreasing topoclimatic diver-sity in the area of Forlandsundet, and the roles they have in the process.

1.2. Research area and methodology

The topoclimatic research was conducted on Spitsbergen (the biggest island in the Norwegian province of Svalbard), in Oscar II Land and on Prins Karls Forland (Fig. 3.1). Oscar II Land stretches from Isfjorden to Kongsfjorden. It has a sur-face area of 2,582 km2, approximately 1,600 km2 of which is covered with gla-ciers (62%) (Lankauf 2002). The area has a diverse geological structure – on the west coast pre-Cambrian Hecla Hoek rocks can be found, consisting of meta-morphic shale, quartzite, sandstone, limestone, dolomite, and even marbles (Wójcik 1981). Similar rock formations occur on Prins Karls Forland island. The pattern of the mountain ranges in Oscar II Land refers to its major tectonic lines with the main ranges running from the SSE to the NNW and branching trans-versely into secondary mountain ranges. The highest mountains in Oscar II Land are over 1,000 m a.s.l. high, for example Dronningfjella (1,263 m) or TreKroner (1,225 m). Oscar II Land is carved by deep bays and fjords, such as St. Jonsf-jorden, Dahlbukta, Hornbaekbukta, and Engelsbukta, which divide the area along with the glaciers heading towards the sea into coastal plains, such as the Kaffiøyra and the Sarsøyra. The substratum of these plains is composed of ter-tiary and quaternary formations related to glacial accumulation and marine sedimentation, mainly from the Holocene. As a result of glacial isostatic adjust-ment, the coastal plains have become terraced (Niewiarowski et al. 1993). Now-adays, they are covered with tundra vegetation (Barcikowski et al. 2005) and crisscrossed by glacial rivers forming outwash fans. In Oscar II Land sub-polar

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glaciers occur, which are typical of Spitsbergen and other high latitudes (Bara-nowski 1977). The glaciers cover the inner part of the land and usually run out towards the sea. There are also smaller alpine glaciers, which fill mountain val-leys and have firn fields and glacial tongues. The snowline on Spitsbergen runs at a level of 300 m a.s.l. (Hisdal 1985). Intensive deglaciation occurs on Spits-bergen with the glaciers retreating at a fast pace, e.g. 8–18 m/year in the area of the Kaffiøyra (Sobota and Lankauf 2010).

The Forlandsundet stretches from the north to the south across over 80 km and is 15 to 25 km wide. Geologically, the sound is a graben (Lankauf 2002). Its depth varies from 200 to 250 m at both ends. Currents and waves from the Sarsøyra and the Prins Karls Forland have formed sand spits, narrowing and shallowing the Sound, occasionally to just a few meters, which makes it inac-cessible to larger ships.

Prins Karls Forland is an island situated west of Spitsbergen. It is 86 km long but quite narrow, so has a total area of just 640 km2 (Stange 2008).The west coast of the island is subject to the influence of the Greenland Sea and its warm West Spitsbergen Current. The geological structure of the island is reflected in its surface features. On the foundation of hard crystalline rocks mountain ranges exceeding 1,000 m have been formed (the highest mountain being Mt. Mona-cofjellet, 1,081 m a.s.l.). Among the mountain ranges there are flat coastal plains. The relief of the middle part of the island is characteristic of high mountains (al-pine) and features glaciers heading to the east, towards the Forlandsundet. How-ever, the area is generally non-glaciated, covered by vast coastal plains and even non-glaciated valleys crossing the whole island from the west to the east.

In the area described above three research zones (A, B and C) were estab-lished, distinguished by dissimilar environmental conditions (Fig. 1.1):

Zone A covers the north of Kaffiøyra and the south of Sarsøyra with Sarstan-gen. The measurement sites were located on the coast: on the beach (SAT), on tundra-grown terraces (SAO, KHT, KT), on moraines (KH, ATA, LW1), on glaciers (LWm, LW2) and in the mountains (KU, GF, PH1 and PH2). Basic information about individual points is shown in Table 1.1, with their exact locations in Figure 1.1, and images of the sites in Photographs 1.1-1.30. The variety of ground cover, distances from the sea, elevations, exposure to the sun and influences of atmospheric circulation all make the Zone topoclimatically diversified.

Zone B is situated on Prins Karls Forland. The measurement points were lo-cated along the profile from the west to the east coast. The first site (PK1) was situated on a coastal plain, approx. 3 km from the shore of the Greenland Sea. The second site, in the middle of the valley crossing the island from the north to the south (PK2, 68 m a.s.l.), and the last two sites on the coast of the Klub-ben (PK3 and PK4). The area is non-glaciated, and the narrow valley, surround-ed by 500 to 600-m high mountains supports the development of local weath-er and climatic conditions.

Zone C had measurement points located on the edge of St. Jonsfjorden, which is approx. 20 km long (Stange 2008). The fjord is surrounded by high mountains, among which glacial tongues emerge. Sites SJ1 and SJ2 were

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located on the south and north sides of the fjord, respectively, whereas SJ3 was situated at the end, in a spot where it was subject to strong influence by the air masses inflowing from the Osborne and Konow glaciers.

Topoclimatic measurements were carried out using the following automatic instruments: – Vantage Pro 2 weather station, recording speed and direction of wind, at-

mospheric pressure, air temperature and humidity, precipitation and UV/solar radiation,

– MadgeTech data loggers, recording air temperature and relative humidity,– CNR 4 radiometer (Kipp&Zonen), consisting of two pyranometers and two

pyrgeometers pointing up and down, which enabled measurement of the short- and long-wave components of the radiation balance.

Table 1.1. Meteorological sites in Forlandsundet region in 2010–2011

Sites φ λ h (m a.s.l.)

Measurements range

Summer Year

KH Kaffiøyra-Heggodden 78o40’34” N 11o49’38” E 11C, T, F, V, AP, P, SS, SR, UV, BR, ST, PL

T, F

SAT Sarstangen 78o43’38” N 11o28’50” E 2 T, F, V, AP, P, SR, UV T, F

SAO Sarsøyra 78o42’55” N 11o43’26” E 9 T, F T, F

KHT Tundra 78o40’25” N 11o52’01” E 8 BR**

KT Terasa 78o40’34” N 11o58’04” E 90 T, F, P T, F

ATA ATA 78o40’31” N 11o59’30” E 137 T, F, V, AP, P, SR, UV T, F

KU Kuven 78o40’53” N 12o00’53” E 193 T, F T, F

GF Gråfjellet 78o39’59” N 12o00’33” E 345 T, F, V, AP, P, SR, UV* T, F

LW1 Waldemar Glacier-Front 78o40’31” N 12o00’01” E 130T, F, V, AP, P, SR, UV, BR*

T, F

LWm Waldemar Glacier -Middle 78o40’38” N 12o01’50” E 211 P

LW2 Waldemar Glacier-Firn field 78o40’54” N*78o40’59” N**

12o05’16” E*12o05’15” E**

375T, F, V, AP,

P, SR, UV, BRT, F

PH1 Prins Heinrichfjella-1 78o40’51” N 11o59’28” E 500 P, F T, F

PH2 Prins Heinrichfjella-2 78o41’01” N 12o06’25” E 590 P, F T, F

PK1 Prins Karls Forland-West 78o28’10” N 11o11’56” E 9T, F*T, F, V,

AP, P, SR, UV** T, F

PK2 Prins Karls Forland-Middle 78o30’18” N 11o12’47” E 68T, F, V, AP, P,

SR, UV* T, F** T, F

PK3 Prins Karls Forland-Klubben 78o32’46” N 11o14’42” E 8 T, F, V, AP, P, SR, UV T, F

PK4 Prins Karls Forland-East 78o40’52” N 11o59’28” E 6 T, F T, F

SJ1 St. Jonsfjord-Cooper 78o30’10” N 12o43’03” E 2 T, F T, F

SJ2 St. Jonsfjord-Hus 78o31’36” N 12o51’53” E 4 T, F, V, AP, P, SR, UV T, F

SJ3 St. Jonsfjord-Muton 78o34’10” N 13o09’22” E 14 T, F T, F

Explanations: C - cloudiness, T - air temperature, F - relative air humidity, V - wind velocity and direction, AP - air pressure, P - precipitation, SS - sunshine duration, SR - solar radiation, UV - UV radia-tion, BR - radiation balance, ST - soil temperature, PL - permafrost layer, *-2010, **- 2011

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Figure 1.1. Location of meteorological sites used in this study shown on a topographic map produced by the Norwegian Polar Institute (for explanations see Tab. 1.1)

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Photo 1.3. Automatic weather station

Vantage Pro (Photo by M. Kejna)

Photo 1.4. Heliographs

(Photo by A. Araźny)

Photo 1.5. Ground temperature sites:

M - Moraine, T - Tundra, B - Beach (Photo by A. Araźny)

Photo 1.6. Ground temperature site Beach


Photo 1.1. Nicolaus Copernicus University

Polar Station on Kaffiøyra (Photo by A. Araźny)

Photo 1.2. Meteorological garden - KH


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Photo 1.7. Ground temperature site Moraine,


Photo 1.8. Ground temperature site Tundra


Photo 1.9. Radiation balance measuring site (CNR 4)

- KH (Photo by M. Kejna)

Photo 1.10. Radiation balance measuring site (CNR 4) - KHT (Photo by M. Kejna)

Photo 1.11. Radiation balance measuring site

(CNR 4) - LW1 (Photo by A. Araźny)

Photo 1.12. Radiation balance measuring site (CNR 4) - LW2 (Photo by M. Kejna)

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Photo 1.15. Measuring site LWm (Photo by A. Araźny)

Photo 1.16. Measuring site LW2 (Photo by M. Kejna)

Photo 1.17. Measuring site KT


Photo 1.18. Measuring site KU

(Photo by M. Kejna)

Photo 1.13. Measuring site ATA


Photo 1.14. Measuring site LW1(Photo by A. Araźny)

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Photo 1.19. Measuring site GF


Photo 1.20. Measuring site PH1 (Photo by M. Kejna)

Photo 1.21. Measuring site PH2


Photo 1.22. Measuring site SAO (Photo by A. Araźny)

Photo 1.23. Measuring site SAT


Photo 1.24. Measuring site SJ1


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Photo 1.27. Measuring site PK1








Photo 1.25. Measuring site SJ2 (Photo by M. Kejna)

Photo 1.26. Measuring site SJ3


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All sensors were placed 2 m over ground level. In the summer seasons of 2010 (7 July–2 September) and 2011 (11 July–31 August) readings were re-corded at an interval of 10 minutes, or every minute in the case of CNR 4. In the rest of the year the MadgeTech loggers recorded air temperature and relative humidity every hour.

The results obtained were compared with the data from the base station on the Kaffiøyra Plain, where meteorological observations were carried out every 6 hours (at 01:00, 07:00, 13:00 and 19:00 LMT), besides automatic registration. The observations concerned the cloud cover (using the scale of 0-10), air tem-perature and humidity, as well as wind speed and direction (using WindMaster hand held anemometer). Moreover, sunshine duration was recorded using a Campbell-Stokes heliograph. Atmospheric precipitation in profile from the coast (KH) to the firn field of the Waldemar Glacier was measured using Hell-mann rain gauges (7 units), in order to support the automatic instruments. At KH (moraine, beach) the precipitation was measured daily at 07:00 LMT, where-as at the other sites the measurements were taken at least every 5 days.

Additionally, the ground temperature was measured 4 times a day, at three sites: M (moraine), B (beach) and T (tundra). Mercury thermometers were used to take the measurements at depths of 1, 5, 10, 20, and 50 cm, whereas at 100 cm a deep soil thermometer was used (readings at 13:00 LMT). At 13:00 LMT the ground thawing depth (thickness of the active layer) was measured on the beach, as well.

The meteorological observations and topoclimatic studies were carried out by Andrzej Araźny, Aleksandra Pospieszyńska and Rajmund Przybylak from 7 July to 4 September 2010, and by Marek Kejna and Edwad Łaszyca from 11 July to 2 September 2011.

1.3. Primary climatic controls

Maritime properties of the climate in the area of Forlandsundet and the whole of Spitsbergen make it stand out from the rest of the Arctic. Significant positive anomalies in the air temperature occur there along with greater cloudiness and precipitation and increased atmospheric dynamics. The main climatic controls in the area are the latitude and the related possible influx of solar radiation, the kind of active surface whose diverse albedo affects the amount of absorbed energy, and the atmospheric circulation and the influence of oceanic waters, the properties of which depend on oceanic currents and the reach of sea ice, among other things. From the topoclimatic point of view the significant factors include the absolute height, the arrangement of mountain ranges and the re-lief, the exposure of mountain slopes and the distance from the sea. On a local scale, a specific atmospheric circulation is formed there, orographically and thermally conditioned by the interaction of the sea, the non-glaciated land and the glaciers.

The location of the research area in a polar region determines the amount of solar radiation reaching the ground. Disproportions in the annual solar

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radiation balance are enhanced by the phenomena of the polar day and the polar night. At the Nicolaus Copernicus University Polar Station on the Kaffiøyra (78o40’34”N, 11o49’38”E) the polar night lasts from 26 October to 16 February (114 days) and the polar day from 17 April to 25 August (131 days). In the re-maining parts of the year the day and the night occurred normally, during each 24 hours (Tab. 1.2).

Table 1.2. Sunrises, sunsets and the solar altitude at midday on the Kaffiøyra Plain (times for 15oE)

Days Sunrise SunsetDays duration

(hours)Sun above

the horizon (o)

15 Jan Polar night -9.9

15 Feb Polar night -1.6

15 Mar 06:50 17:57 11:07 8.9

15 Apr 01:46 22:58 21:12 20.9

15 May Polar day 30.0

15 Jun Polar day 34.6

15 Jul Polar day 32.6

15 Aug Polar day 25.5

15 Sep 04:46 19:25 14:39 14.6

15 Oct 08:45 15:09 06:24 3.0

15 Nov Polar night -7.0

15 Dec Polar night -11.9

The actual times of sunrise and sunset also depend on the extent of the horizon of an observation point. At the NCU Polar Station the horizon is favour-able, except for to north and the northeast where mountain ranges obscure the sun, which is particularly noticeable at the lower culmination of the sun in the second half of August. On the Kaffiøyra Plain, the sun reaches its culmination at midday on 22 June, at the time of the summer solstice (34.8o), whereas at the time of spring and autumn equinox the angle of the midday sun is 11.3o.

The low altitude of the sun means that the potentially available amount of solar radiation (determined by the angle of solar rays and the optical mass of the atmosphere) reaching the ground is very small. Nevertheless, during the polar day and the 24-hour influx of solar radiation the sums are comparable with those for Poland (Bogdańska and Podogrocki 2000). During the polar night, on the other hand, the only components of solar radiation balance are the outgoing longwave (terrestrial) radiation and the downward atmospheric radiation. As a result, the net radiation balance is remarkably negative in that season of the year. The balance is also unfavourable because of the long-term snow cover duration (September through May or June), which has a high albedo, allowing only a little portion of solar radiation to be absorbed by the ground. Additionally, a lot of the energy is used to melt the snow and glacial and sea ice.

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The weather and climate conditions on Spitsbergen are largely affected by the oceanic waters, surrounding the island, the Greenland Sea in the west, the Barents Sea in the east, the Norwegian Sea in the south, and the Arctic Ocean in the north. A warm West Spitsbergen Current (WSC), with average water tem-perature of 5-7oC, runs along the western coastline of Spitsbergen (Walczowski and Piechura 2006). On the east side of the island, however, some of the ice-cold waters of the East Spitsbergen Current (ESC) flow round the south end of Spitsbergen and head north as the so-called Sørkapp Current (Fig. 1.2).

Figure 1.2. Map of Svalbard showing the major currents: the warm West Spitsbergen Current (red), the cold East Spitsbergen Current (blue) and the Sørkapp Current. The dashed black line indicates the frontal area between the two types of currents (after Swendsen et al. 2002)

Figure 1.3. Temperature (color scale) and baroclinic currents at 100 dbar in (a) summer 2010 and (b) summer 2011 (Institute of Oceanology, Polish Academy of Sciences in Sopot)

a) b)

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Warm Atlantic waters coming with the WSC are particularly important in the shaping of the island’s climatic conditions. In recent years the temperature (Fig. 1.3) and salinity of the waters have significantly risen. This affects weather and climate conditions both globally and locally, especially on the west coast of Spitsbergen (Walczowski and Piechura 2006, 2011; Piechura and Walczowski 2009; Styszyńska 2011).

The system of oceanic currents and the heat exchange between the ocean and the atmosphere influence the range and concentration of sea ice. At the time of its maximum extent (i.e. in March/April), sea ice envelops the whole of Spitsber-gen. Towards the end of summer, however, there is a substantial difference be-tween the west and the east coasts of the Svalbard archipelago. In the west, the sea is often free from sea ice as far as northernmost Spitsbergen, whereas in the east, sea ice flows from the north and, having passed the Sørkapp, is driven far along the west coast of Spitsbergen in a northward direction.

In the analysed years (2010 and 2011) the area of sea ice cover in the Arctic re-mained below the long-term average value (1978–2008). A trend to reduce the amount of sea ice in the Arctic was continued (Marsz and Styszyńska 2007) and thus, in 2011, the total area of sea ice in all months was smaller than in 2010 (Fig. 1.4).

The extent of sea ice varies regionally. In 2010, in the area of Spitsbergen, at the time of the most intense propagation of sea ice (April), the west coast was free of ice, while in the east it reached the Sørkapp (Fig. 1.5). In July that year most of the ice melted and in October the sea ice moved away from the archi-pelago to the north, allowing ships to travel round Spitsbergen.

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However, in January 2011 sea ice reoccurred, covering the sea east of Spits-bergen and spreading to the northeast coast in April. In July the sea ice re-mained along the east coast (Fig. 1.5) and, floating with the oceanic currents, went around the Sørkapp, blocked the entrance of the Isfjorden and reached the Kaffiøyra. In spite of this, in September 2011 the sea ice extent in the Arctic had shrunk to its record low of 4,240 million km2, or 0.6% less than in the pre-vious record-breaking summer of 2007 (G. Heygster 2011, http://www.iup.uni-bremen.de:8084/amsr/minimum2011-en.pdf).

Figure 1.5. Concentration of sea ice in the Arctic in 2010 on 1/04, 1/07, and 1/10, and in 2011 on 1/01, 1/04 and 1/07. University of Bremen, GMES project – Polar View and the Arctic Regional Ocean Observing System (Arctic ROOS), http://www.iup.uni-bremen.de:8084/amsr (Spreen et al. 2008)

Another important climatic control in the area of Spitsbergen is the atmos-pheric circulation. The Svalbard Archipelago is situated in the impact zone of various barometric centres (Fig. 1.6); the area is affected by Icelandic lows which move eastwards in the so-called ‘Iceland-Kara Trough’, some of them fol-lowing the path along the west coast of Spitsbergen (the Spitsbergen Trough). The most intense cyclogenesis connected with the Icelandic Low occurs in the

22

winter half of the year (Käsmacher and Schneider 2011; Turner and Marshall 2011), and in spring, Spitsbergen is often subject to the Greenland High. When the summer comes cyclonic situations become more active, but they are less intense. In the summer season, in the area of Spitsbergen the baric field is dis-persed by small pressure gradients (Niedźwiedź 2007). Anticyclonic patterns are often formed over the Barents Sea and the Novaya Zemlya (Przybylak 2003). In the west of Spitsbergen, on the other hand, lows often move far into the Arctic Ocean. In spring, the baric field undergoes reconstruction with increasing ther-mo-baric contrasts and intensified cyclogenesis.

A)

B)

Figure 2.6. Averaged atmospheric pressure field (hPa) in January (A) and July (B) (1968–1996) in the Atlantic sector of the Arctic (acc. to Marsz and Styszyńska 2007)

23

Changes in the atmospheric circulation system are among the principal fac-tors behind the changing climates in the Arctic (Przybylak 2003; Serreze and Francis 2006).

According to studies by Niedźwiedź (2007), cyclonic patterns are more fre-quent than anticyclonic patterns on Spitsbergen (56.5% vs. 40.6%, respectively in 1951-2006). In the winter and autumn the share of cyclonic patterns in-creases (by 64.8% and 56.5%, respectively) and the maximum falls in November (67.5%). In the spring and summer, on the other hand, the contribution of cy-clonic and anticyclonic patterns becomes similar with anticyclonic patterns pre-vailing in May (59.7%). The most frequent situation over Spitsbergen is a high pressure wedge or ridge (Ka – 10.4%) and a cyclonic pattern with an easterly advection (Ec – 9.9%). The baric field arrangement in the area of Spitsbergen is characterised by great dynamics and changeability, both daily and annually.

In an annual take, Spitsbergen is the most often frequented by air masses incoming from the east sector, particularly in the cold half of the year. A warm air influx from the south east reaches its peak in summer (July 11.6%) (Niedźwiedź 2007).

In the area of the Forlandsundet air masses are transformed through the influence of local factors, such as the relief and type of surface. The longitudinal arrangement of the mountain ranges on Prins Karls Forland and on Oscar II Land supports the flow of air from the south and the north. With a westerly or easterly advection foehn processes often take place on the downwind side of the hills. The diverse surfaces, including the sea, glaciers and non-glaciated land provide good conditions for the formation of local air masses, characterised by different temperature and humidity. Local atmospheric circulation types are of-ten formed, for example, on the glaciers – a katabatic flow (glacier winds), on mountain slopes – valley and mountain winds, and in the coast area – even sea-breeze circulation. At mountain tops and in the upper parts of glaciers inverse temperature and humidity situations often occur, which is related to the expo-sure of the slopes, cloudiness and the local atmospheric circulation.

References

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Barcikowski A., Gugnacka–Fiedor W., Zubel P., 2005, Charakterystyka tundry obszaru Kaffiøyry, [in:] Kaffiøyra. Zarys środowiska geograficznego Kaffiøyry (NW Spitsbergen), Grześ M., Sobota I. (eds.), Toruń, 35–36.

Bogdańska B., Podogrocki J., 2000, Zmienność całkowitego promieniowania słonecznego na obszarze Polski w okresie 1961–1995, Mat. Bad. IMGW, Meteorologia 30, 43 pp.

Hisdal V., 1985, Geography of Svalbard, Norsk PolarInstitutt, Oslo, 75 pp.Käsmacher O., Schneider C., 2011, An objective circulation pattern classification for the re-

gion of Svalbard, Geogr. Ann., Series A, Phys. Geogr., 93, 259–271. DOI: 10.1111/j.1468–0459.2011.00431.x.

Kejna M., Przybylak R., Araźny A., 2011, Spatial differentiation of radiation balance in the Kaffiøyra region (Svalbard, Arctic) in the summer season 2010, Probl. Klimatol. Pol., 21, 173–186.

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Kejna M., Przybylak R., Araźny A., Jankowska J., Maszewski R., Wyszyński P., 2010, Warunki topoklimatyczne w sezonach letnich w rejonie Kaffiøyry (NW Spitsbergen) w latach 2005––2009, Probl. Klimatol. Pol., 20, 63–81.

Lankauf K.R., 2002, Recesja lodowców rejonu Kaffiøyry (Ziemia Oskara II – Spitsbergen) w XX wieku, Prace Geogr. PAN, 153, 221 pp.

Leszkiewicz J., 1977, Meteorological conditions in the northern part of Kaffiöyra Plain dur-ing the period from July 1 to August 31, 1975, Acta Univ. Nic. Copernici, Geogr., XIII, 82, 97–111.

Marciniak K., 1983, Attempt of evaluation of thermic conditions perceptible in summer at the Kaffiöyra (NW Spitsbergen), Acta Univ. Nic. Copernici, Geogr., XVIII, 125–145.

Marsz A. A., Styszyńska A., 2007, Klimat Rejonu Polskiej Stacji Polarnej w Hornsundzie, Wydawnictwo Akademii Morskiej w Gdyni, Gdynia, 376 pp.

Marsz A.A., Styszyńska A., 2011, Rozkład przestrzenny oraz skala ocieplenia Arktyki Atlantyc-kiej w 30-leciu 1980–2009 i jej porównanie z ‘wielkim ociepleniem Arktyki’ lat 30, XX wieku, Probl. Klimatol. Pol., 91–114.

Niedźwiedź T., 2007, Cyrkulacja atmosferyczna, [in:] Marsz A. A., Styszyńska A. (eds.), Klimat rejonu Polskiej Stacji Polarnej w Hornsundzie, Gdynia, 45–64.

Niewiarowski W., Pazdur M.F., Sinkiewicz M., 1993, Glacial and marine episodes in Kaffiøyra, northwestern Spitsbergen, during the Vistulian and the Holocene, Polish Polar Res., 14, 243–258.

Piechura J., Walczowski W., 2009, Warming of the West Spitsbergen Current and sea ice north of Svalbard, Oceanologia, 51 (2), 147–164.

Przybylak R., 2003, The Climate of the Arctic. Atmospheric and Oceanographic Sciences Library, 26, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht/Boston/London, 288 pp.

Przybylak R., Araźny A., 2006, Climatic conditions of the north–western part of Oscar II Land (Spitsbergen) in the period between 1975 and 2000, Polish Polar Res., 27(2), 133–152.

Przybylak R., Araźny A., Ćwiklińska K., 2007, Warunki meteorologiczne w regionie Lodow-ca Waldemara (NW Spitsbergen) w sezonie letnim 2005 r., [in:] R. Przybylak, M. Kejna, A. Araźny, P. Głowacki (eds.), Abiotyczne środowisko Spitsbergenu w latach 2005–2006 w warunkach globalnego ocieplenia, Toruń, 51–65.

Przybylak R., Araźny A., Kejna M., 2010, Zróżnicowanie przestrzenne i wieloletnia zmienność temperatury gruntu w rejonie Stacji Polarnej UMK (NW Spitsbergen) w okresie letnim (1975–2009), Probl. Klimatol. Pol., 20, 103–120.

Przybylak R., Kejna M., Araźny A., 2011, Air temperature and precipitation changes in the Kaffiøyra region (NW Spitsbergen) from 1975–2010, Papers Glob. Change IGBP, 18, 7–22.

Przybylak R., Kejna M., Araźny A., Maszewski R., Wyszyński P., 2008, Zróżnicowanie tempera-tury powietrza w regionie Kaffiøyry (NW Spitsbergen) w sezonach letnich 2005–2007. [in:] A. Kowalska, A. Latocha, H. Marszałek, J. Pereyma (eds.), Środowisko przyrodnicze ob-szarów polarnych, Wrocław, 150–159.

Serreze M. C., Francis J. A., 2006, The Arctic amplification debate, Climatic Change, 76, 241–264.Sobota I., Lankauf K.R., 2010, Recession of Kaffiøyra region glaciers, Oscar II Land, Svalbard,

Bull. Geogr., Phys. Geogr. Ser., 3, 27–45.Spreen, G., Kaleschke L., Heygster G., 2008, Sea ice remote sensing using AMSR–E 89 GHz

channels, J. Geophys. Res., 113, C02S03, doi:10.1029/2005JC003384. Stange R., 2008, Spitsbergen – Svalbard: a complete guide around the arctic archipelago.

Druckerei Karl Keuer, 540 pp.Styszyńska A., 2011, Wpływ zmian temperatury wody powierzchniowej mórz Barentsa, Nor-

weskiego i Grenlandzkiego na trend rocznej temperatury powietrza na Spitsbergenie, Probl. Klimatol. Pol., 21, 115–131.

Svendsen H., Beszczynska–Møller A., Hagen J-O., Lefauconnier B., Tverberg V, Gerland S., Ør-bæk J.B., Bischof K., Papucci C., Zajaczkowski M., Azzolini R., Bruland O., Wiencke C., Win-ther J–G., Dallmann W., 2002, The physical environment of Kongsfjorden–Krossfjorden, an Arctic fjord system in Svalbard, Polar Res., 21(1), 133–166.

Turner J., Marshall G.J., 2011, Climate change in the polar regions, Cambridge University Press, 434 pp.Walczowski W., Piechura J., 2006, New evidence of warming propagating toward the Arctic

Ocean, Geophys. Res. Lett., 33, L12601, DOI:10.1029/2006GL025872.Walczowski W., Piechura J., 2011, Influence of the West Spitsbergen Current on the local

climate, Int. J. Climatol, 31, 1088–1093.Wójcik C., 1981, Geological observations in the eastern part of the Forlandsundet Graben between

Dahlbreen and Engelsbukta, Spitsbergen, Stud. Geol. Polonica, LXXII, 23–35.

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Wójcik G., Kejna M., Marciniak K., Przybylak R., Vizi Z., 1997, Obserwacje meteorologiczne na Ziemi Oscara II (Spitsbergen) i w Oazie Bungera (Antarktyda), Oficyna Wydawnicza „Tur-press”, Toruń, 412 pp.

Wójcik G., Marciniak K., 1983, Meteorological conditions at the Kaffiöyra Plain in summer 1978, Acta Univ. Nic. Copernici, Geogr., XVIII, 99–111.

Wójcik G., Marciniak K., Przybylak R., 1991, Mezoklimatyczne i topoklimatyczne jednostki w regionie Kaffiöyry (NW Spitsbergen), Acta Univ. Wratisl., 1213, 323–342.

Wójcik G., Marciniak K., Przybylak R., Kejna M., 1993, Mezo- i topoklimaty północnej części regionu Kaffiøyry (Ziemia Oskara II, NW Spitsbergen), Wyniki Badań VIII Toruńskiej Wyprawy Polarnej Spitsbergen 89, Uniwersytet Mikołaja Kopernika, Toruń, 83–111.

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Chapter 2

ATMOSPHERIC CIRCULATION AND DYNAMIC CONDITIONS

2.1. Atmospheric circulation

2.1.1. Introduction

The issue of the temporal and spatial variability of atmospheric circulation and its influence on the local climate has been undoubtedly more thoroughly inves-tigated in the area of Svalbard than in any other part of the Arctic. This is no coincidence, but a result of the empirical fact that the role of atmospheric cir-culation in the shaping of weather and climate conditions in the Arctic is the greatest on the Svalbard Archipelago (Przybylak 1996, 2002). The openness of the Atlantic Ocean towards the Arctic and the proximity of the Icelandic Low, which is exceptionally active in the cold seasons, are the direct causes. The key role of the Atlantic Arctic (including Svalbard) in the modelling of the changes and changeability of the Arctic climate has always encouraged scientists to make efforts to gain the most comprehensive insight into various aspects of the climate in that area and the mechanisms that control the visible changes. In consequence, there are extensive sources concerning the above-mentioned re-search problems, particularly in Polish academic literature and – to a lesser de-gree – in Norwegian (Przybylak 1992a, b; Wójcik et al. 1992; Niedźwiedź 1993, 1997a,b, 2001, 2006, 2007; Hanssen-Bauer and Førland 1998; Araźny 2008; Bednorz 2010; Łupikasza 2010; Käsmacher and Schneider 2011). Listing all or even most of the works, articles and studies here is impractical, therefore the authors have decided to mention only those, that are considered (perhaps sub-jectively) the most important. For further reading, the selected sources list most of the literature that we do not refer to herein.

The description of the atmospheric circulation of the studied area has been provided using the calendar of circulation types for Spitsbergen, continuously updated by Tadeusz Niedźwiedź and available at http://klimat.wnoz.us.edu.pl/#!/glowna. The principles of classification of the circulation types are given on the website and summarised in this Section. Niedźwiedź (1981) applied his own method of distinguishing circulation types in Spitsbergen, presented in his habilitation thesis. In the case of Spitsbergen (just as with the Lesser Po-land area), he distinguished 21 circulation types, listed in Table 2.1. In order to increase clarity, the author of the classification used common denomina-tions of advection direction, adding ‘a’ for anticyclonic (high-pressure) sys-tems and ‘c’ for cyclonic (low-pressure) systems. The period concerned in this monograph is rather short (July 2010 – August 2011), therefore the influence of atmospheric circulation on the climate was analysed using the combined circulation types for Spitsbergen, as proposed by Przybylak (1992a), so that

28

the statistical sample of the days when individual synoptic patterns occurred could be increased. Considering that there are as many as 21 circulation types, a number of them did not occur in specific months and seasons, or their fre-quency of occurrence is not relevant enough (Tab. 2.1). Taking them into ac-count would compromise a reliable evaluation of the influence of atmosphe-ric circulation on the climate.

Table 2.1. Synoptic situations (types) used in the study (after Niedźwiedź 1981)

Type of circulation Description of synoptic situations

Na, Nc Synoptic situations with air advection from the north

NEa, NEc Synoptic situations with air advection from the north-east

Ea, Ec Synoptic situations with air advection from the east

SEa, SEc Synoptic situations with air advection from the south-east

Sa, Sc Synoptic situations with air advection from the south

SWa, SWc Synoptic situations with air advection from the south-west

Wa, Wc Synoptic situations with air advection from the west

NWa, NWc Synoptic situations with air advection from the north-west

Ca Central anticyclonic situation, no advection, anticyclonic centre over Spitsbergen

Ka Anticyclonic wedge, sometimes several unclear centres or a blurredarea of high pressure, axis ridge of high pressure

Cc central cyclonic situation, cyclonic centre over Spitsbergen

Bc Cyclonic trough, blur area of low pressure or axis of cyclonic trough withdifferent directions of air advection and front systems dividing different air masses

X Synoptic situations which cannot be classified and barometric cols

A/C Anticyclonic/cyclonic situation

For the purpose of generalisation of the atmospheric circulation the pro-gression indices proposed by Murray and Lewis (1966) were applied in a form modified by Niedźwiedź (1993, 1997b). The indices enable determination of the degree of dominance of the zonal circulation (W), meridional (S) or cyclonic/anticyclonic (C). The W index defines the intensity of westerly zonal circulation (positive values) and/or easterly zonal circulation (negative values). The S index defines southerly (positive values) or northerly (negative values) circulation. Fi-nally, the C index (cyclonicity) indicates the degree of cyclonic (positive values) or anticyclonic (negative values) activity.

2.1.2. Frequency of occurrence of the circulation types

The geographical location of Spitsbergen in the vicinity of two stationary cen-tres of weather modification (the Icelandic Low and the Greenland High) deter-mines the movement of air masses over the island, which then conditions the weather. According to Markin (1975), the climate conditions on Spitsbergen are primarily affected by the Icelandic Low and its long-term fluctuations and the

29

position of the Arctic front, along which active cyclones move from the Atlantic Ocean to the west.

July 2010 – August 2011

The frequency of occurrence of all 21 and of 11 combined circulation types on Spitsbergen in the period of July 2010 – August 2011 has been shown in Tables 2.2-2.3 and Figs. 2.1-2.2.

Table 2.2. Relative frequency of occurrence (%) of synoptic patterns on Spitsbergen in the period from July 2010 to August 2011

Types ofcirculation

2010 2011

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Na · 16.1 3.3 · 3.3 3.2 3.2 · · · 6.5 2.0 6.5 6.5

NEa · 12.9 3.3 9.7 13.3 6.5 9.7 · · · 6.5 3.0 3.2 9.7

Ea 6.5 · · · 3.3 9.7 9.7 7.1 · · · · · ·

SEa 3.2 · 6.7 · · 3.2 · 10.7 · · 6.5 · 6.5 16.1

Sa · · 3.3 · · 3.2 · 10.7 · · · · · 9.7

SWa · · 3.3 · 3.3 · · · · 3.3 6.5 · 12.9 ·

Wa 16.1 3.2 · 3.3 · · · · · 3.2 · · ·

NWa · 3.2 6.7 · · · · · · 3.3 3.2 13.3 · ·

Ca · 3.2 · · 6.7 · · 3.6 · · 6.5 · · 9.7

Ka 9.7 19.4 6.7 · 3.3 · 6.5 · 3.2 3.3 9.7 6.7 12.9 9.7

Nc 9.7 9.7 . 22.6 13.3 6.5 6.5 · 35.5 6.7 6.5 6.7 3.2 6.5

NEc 9.7 6.5 3.3 22.6 1.0 16.1 9.7 · 12.9 3.3 6.5 3.3 9.7 6.5

Ec · · 2.0 12.9 2.0 6.5 16.1 3.6 3.2 6.7 9.7 3.3 3.2 3.2

SEc 3.2 · 1.0 · · 12.9 9.7 21.4 · 2.0 3.2 · 6.5 6.5

Sc 9.7 · · 9.7 · · 3.2 7.1 3.2 6.7 · · · ·

SWc 6.5 3.2 3.3 6.5 · 6.5 3.2 10.7 19.4 1.0 3.2 3.3 · 3.2

Wc 9.7 6.5 6.7 6.5 · · · 7.1 · 1.0 3.2 3.3 3.2 3.2

NWc · 6.5 3.3 · · 3.2 · 3.6 · · 6.5 · 6.5 ·

Cc · 3.2 6.7 6.5 6.7 3.2 6.5 3.6 6.5 6.7 3.2 6.7 9.7 9.7

Bc 6.5 · 3.3 3.2 6.7 3.2 12.9 3.6 9.7 13.3 3.2 3.3 9.7 ·

X 9.7 6.5 1.0 · 6.7 16.1 3.2 7.1 6.5 6.7 6.5 · 6.5 ·

Explanation: · - circulation type did not occur

In the analysed period, the prevailing advection brought the air masses from the northern sector (combined types: NWc+Nc+NEc and NWa+Na+NEa), espe-cially with cyclonic circulation (20.4%) and, to a lesser degree, anticyclonic circu-lation (14.5%) (Fig. 2.2). The synoptic patterns forming the first of the combined

30

types, Nc and NEc, were the most frequent (9.6 and 8.7%, respectively) of all 21 analysed circulation types, whereas the NEa type, with a frequency of 7.5%, was the fourth (Fig. 2.1). Apart from northern directions, the most common were advections from the E and SE, which – again – were notably more frequent in cyclonic situations (14.3%) than anticyclonic (6.3%). The combined types Sc+SWc+Wc and Sa+SWa+Wa occurred with a similar frequency, although slightly smaller (12.6 and 5.9%, resp.). As far as non-advective circulation types are concerned, cyclonic patterns (Cc+Bc) were also more frequent (11.2%) than anticyclonic ones (Ca+Ka, 8.7%) (Figs. 2.1-2.2). All in all, in the analysed period cyclonic situations (58.5%) outnumbered anticyclonic weather (35.4%).

Table 2.3. Relative frequency of occurrence (%) of combined synoptic patterns on Spits-bergen in the period from July 2010 to August 2011

Type ofcirculation

2010 2011

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

NWa+Na+NEa · 32.2 13.3 9.7 16.7 9.6 12.9 · · 3.3 16.1 63.3 9.6 16.1

Ea+SEa 9.7 · 6.6 · 3.3 12.9 9.7 17.9 · · 6.4 · 6.5 16.0

Sa+SWa+Wa 16.1 3.2 6.7 · 6.7 3.2 · 10.7 · 3.3 9.7 · 12.9 9.7

Ca+Ka 9.7 22.6 6.7 · 10.0 · 6.5 3.6 3.2 3.3 16.1 6.7 12.9 19.4

NWc+Nc+NEc 19.4 22.6 6.7 45.2 23.3 25.8 16.1 3.6 48.4 10.0 19.4 10.0 19.4 12.9

Ec+SEc 3.2 · 30.0 12.9 20.0 19.4 25.7 25.0 3.2 26.7 12.9 3.3 9.6 9.7

Sc+SWc+Wc 25.8 9.7 10.0 22.6 · 6.5 6.5 25.0 22.6 26.7 6.5 6.7 3.2 6.5

Cc+Bc 6.4 3.2 10.0 9.6 13.3 6.5 19.4 7.1 16.1 20.0 6.4 10.0 19.4 9.7

X 9.7 6.5 10.0 · 6.7 16.1 3.2 7.1 6.5 6.7 6.5 · 6.5 ·

Anticyclonic 35.5 58.0 33.3 9.7 36.7 25.7 29.1 32.2 3.2 9.9 48.3 70.0 41.9 61.2

Cyclonic 54.8 35.5 56.7 90.3 56.6 58.2 67.7 60.7 90.3 83.4 45.2 30.0 51.6 38.8

Explanation: · – circulation type did not occur

Figure 2.1. Relative frequency of occurrence (%) of atmospheric circulation types (acc. to Niedźwiedź 1981) on Spitsbergen in the period from July 2010 to August 2011

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Figure 2.2. Relative frequency of occurrence (%) of combined circulation types on Spitsbergen (acc. to Przybylak 1992a) in the period from July 2010 to August 2011

Table 2.4. Anomalies in relative frequency of occurrence (%) of combined circulation types on Spitsbergen (acc. to Przybylak 1992a) in the period from July 2010 to August 2011, as compared with average values from 1950 to 2006 (Niedźwiedź 2006)

Type ofcirculation

2010 2011

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

NWa+Na+NEa -6.7 24.4 4.5 -2.9 5.9 -3.0 1.1 -12.4 -13.3 -16.1 -3.0 50.4 3.0 8.2

Ea+SEa 0.2 -12.7 -1.9 -8.6 -6.2 4.3 0.4 7.2 -14.0 -14.7 -6.6 -9.2 -3.0 3.4

Sa+SWa+Wa 4.9 -7.1 1.6 -3.7 3.4 -0.9 -3.5 7.2 -3.4 -0.3 0.9 -8.7 1.7 -0.6

Ca+Ka -7.8 5.1 -4.6 -10.7 3.1 -6.8 -0.2 -4.1 -4.6 -7.9 -2.5 -11.7 -4.6 1.9

NWc+Nc+NEc 7.6 9.8 -12.1 25.5 3.3 4.8 -3.8 -14.3 31.5 -3.1 7.3 -4.7 7.6 0.1

Ec+SEc -6.3 -10.4 12.5 -5.9 -0.7 -2.6 2.8 5.0 -17.4 11.3 4.0 -5.6 0.2 -0.7

Sc+SWc+Wc 8.9 -4.2 -3.0 13.0 -11.6 -3.3 -4.7 13.1 13.4 17.4 0.1 -3.7 -13.7 -7.4

Cc+Bc -6.6 -7.9 -2.8 -3.6 -1.4 -5.8 7.6 -6.1 3.7 9.1 -3.1 -3.5 6.3 -1.4

X -1.1 -0.8 -1.8 -0.5 0.0 0.6 1.1 0.8 1.8 0.5 0.0 -0.6 -1.1 -0.8

Anticyclonic -9.4 9.7 -0.5 -25.9 6.2 -6.4 -2.3 -2.2 -35.3 -38.9 -11.2 20.8 -3.0 12.9

Cyclonic 3.5 -12.7 -5.4 28.9 -10.3 -7.0 1.8 -2.3 31.2 34.6 8.2 -17.5 0.3 -9.5

In order to determine the extent of influence of atmospheric circulation on weather conditions it is vital to identify the character of the circulation in the relevant period and compare it with the corresponding average circulation in a long-term reference period. Therefore, the anomalies of occurrence of the combined circulation types were analysed in comparison with their frequency in the years 1950 - 2006 (Tab. 2.4, Fig. 2.3). From July 2010 to August 2011, the frequency of a combined types was no more than 5% higher/lower than the long-term average frequency (Fig. 2.3). The highest positive anomalies were characteristic of the ‘northerly’ types (2-4%), whereas those from the south-west sector were much less frequent (0.1-1.5%). Combined types from the

32

E and SE directions, cyclonic and anticyclonic, occurred less often than the aver-age (by 2.0 and 4.4%, resp.). Non-advective situations also displayed consider-able negative frequency anomalies, particularly the Ca+Ka type (-3.1%). Cy-clonic patterns were 2.3% more frequent, on average, and anticyclonic patterns were 5.2% less frequent.

Figure 2.3. Anomalies in relative frequency of occurrence (%) of combined circulation types on Spitsbergen (acc. to Przybylak 1992a) in the period from July 2010 to August 2011, as compared with average values from 1950 to 2006 (Niedźwiedź 2006)

Figure 2.4. Annual course of atmospheric circulation indices W, S, C on Spitsbergen in the pe-riod from July 2010 to August 2011

An analysis of anomalies in the relative frequency of occurrence of the com-bined circulation types in individual months of the analysed period (Tab. 2.4) shows that the extent of their changes is much larger. In all but 3 months the anomalies exceeded more than ±10%. An exceptional deviation from the standard is exhibited by the combined types of the northern sector. Their over-representation in June and March 2011 and in October 2010 amounted to 50.4%, 31.5% and 25.5%, respectively. The negative anomalies were not so big and did not exceed 20%. Their respective highest values, -17.4, -16.1 and -14.7%, were observed in the following circulation types: Ec+SEc, NWa+Na+NEa and

33

Ea+SEa. In the spring of 2011, notably in March and April, there was a greatly increased/decreased share of cyclonic/anticyclonic patterns, exceeding 30%.

A more generalised picture of the changes in the atmospheric circulation in the period from July 2010 until August 2011 is given by the circulation indices (W, S and C) presented in Figure 2.4, which clearly shows that, in nearly all the months, the prevailing air masses came from the northern and eastern sectors, as compared with the southern and western. The cyclonicity index, C, confirms the initial conclusion drawn from the frequency of occurrence of circulation types with a conspicuous predominance of cyclonic systems.

21 July – 31 August

In the summer season, research programmes are much more extensive than observations conducted throughout the year. Nearly all TPEs started their meteorological observations on Spitsbergen before 21 July, and this is why, in order to make the results obtained in different summer seasons comparable, the common period of 21 July–31 August was selected. An ex-amination of the reasons for changes in weather conditions that occurred in that period has been supported by an independent analysis of the frequency of occurrence of the combined circulation types (Fig. 2.5). In the summer of 2010, northern sector types exceeded the standard frequency (their anoma-lies amounted to approx. 20% and 10% for the anticyclonic and cyclonic type, respectively). The X type aside, the frequency of occurrence of the other synoptic patterns was below standard. Particularly substantial nega-tive anomalies (approx. 13%) were characteristic of easterly types, which did not then occur at all. This kind of specific atmospheric circulation was re-sponsible for the cool summer.

Figure 2.5. Relative frequency of occurrence (%) of combined circulation types on Spitsbergen in the period from 21 July to 31 August in 2010 and 2011, and the long-term aver-age from 1975 to 2005

34

In the summer of 2011, the atmospheric circulation was much closer to the long-term course (Fig. 2.5). The greatest anomalies in the frequency of occurrence of individual circulation types in the analysed summer seasons, as compared with the long-term period of 1975–2005, were identified in the influx of air masses from the south-western sector. Their negative value (-11.7%) was recorded for cyclonic types, and the positive (9.0%) for anticyclonic types. Two other types, NWa+Na+NEa and Ec+SEc, exceeded the ±5% difference (6.5% and -5.6%, resp.). In that season, the share of anticyclonic systems was substantially higher (by 17.9%) than the standard, whereas cyclonic systems were less frequent (by 16.2%).

2.2. Atmospheric pressure

The atmospheric pressure in the Svalbard area (including Spitsbergen) has hard-ly ever been given close scrutiny or subjected to detailed study. It is enough to point out that in the available Norwegian publications concerning the climate of the Norwegian Arctic (Steffensen 1969, 1982; Førland et al. 1997) or of Spits-bergen only (Hanssen-Bauer et al. 1990), there are no descriptions of this mete-orological element at all. The matter has barely been addressed in Polish studies as well. However, in recent years the situation has considerably improved. The most detailed studies, based on long term data collection in the whole of the Norwegian Arctic, were presented by Araźny (2008), and Niedźwiedź (2007) for the area of the Polish Polar Station in Hornsund. Other important studies ana-lysing the problem to a larger extent (although for the summer season only) include studies of the spatial diversity of the atmospheric pressure on the west coast of Spitsbergen (Przybylak et al. 2006, 2007) and short descriptions of the changes in pressure in the summers of 2005 and 2006, observed at the base station in Kaffiøyra (Kejna and Maszewski 2007; Przybylak and Araźny 2007).

The study by Araźny (2008) shows that there is little spatial diversity in the atmospheric pressure in the Norwegian Arctic. During the AWAKE project the meteorological element was measured only in the summers of 2010 and 2011, and the statistics, as with other elements, were presented for the common pe-riod of 21 July to 31 August, practically concerning only one complete month. Table 2.12 in the same study indicates that the mean values of atmospheric pressure in August, obtained at three Spitsbergen stations (Ny-Ålesund, Sval-bard Lufthavn and Hornsund) and calculated for the periods of 1975-2000, 1976-2000 and 1979–2000, respectively, differed from one another by merely 0.1 hPa. In individual years the differences were obviously greater, however still hardly evident. Analysing data collected from six stations situated on the west coast of Spitsbergen in the summers of 2006 and 2007, Przybylak et al. (2006, 2007) found the differences to reach 3.9 and 4.0 hPa, respectively, and exclud-ing the values recorded at Svalbard Lufthavn, only 1.2 and 1.7 hPa. According to Przybylak et al. (2006), the reasons for the lower values of atmospheric pres-sure in both summer seasons at Svalbard Lufthavn, as compared to the other stations situated on the west coast of Spitsbergen, are hard to explain, espe-cially given the long-term invariability referred to above.

35

The area investigated during the AWAKE project was a small section of the west coast of Spitsbergen, therefore the spatial diversity of atmospheric pres-sure should have been even smaller. For that reason, some aspects of the weather element have been dealt for selected stations representing three differ-ent regions: Kaffiøyra, Prins Karls Forland and St. Jonsfjorden.

The atmospheric pressure at all the analysed observation points was higher in the summer of 2011 than in the summer of 2010, and the average increase ranged from approx. 1.5 hPa (at LW1) to 4.0 hPa (at SJ2) (Tab. 2.5). Regarding ten-day and daily means, clearly most of them show a higher pressure in the summer of 2011 (Tab. 2.5, Fig. 2.6). The highest mean pressure of 2010 was recorded at the KH station (1012.6 hPa), and in 2011 at PK3 (1016.3 hPa). The lowest pressure in the same years was recorded respectively at SJ2 (1011.1 hPa) and at LW1 (1013.5 hPa).The spatial diversity was therefore rather small, rang-ing from 1.5 hPa in the summer of 2010 to 2.8 hPa in 2011.The ranges of the differences in comparison with the reference station of KH have been shown in Figure 2.7.

Table 2.5. Mean values of atmospheric pressure reduced to sea level (hPa) in the area of the Forlandsundet in the summers of 2010 and 2011

Sites21-31 Jul 01-10 Aug 11-20 Aug 21-31 Aug 21 Jul-31 Aug

2010 2011 2010 2011 2010 2011 2010 2011 2010 2011

KH 1009.1 1016.6 1012.3 1015.9 1014.5 1014.3 1014.8 1016.7 1012.6 1015.9

SAT 1007.8 1016.0 1011.0 1015.6 1013.5 1013.8 1013.8 1016.2 1011.5 1015.4

ATA 1008.8 - 1012.0 - 1014.0 - 1014.3 - 1012.2 -

GF 1008.1 - 1011.3 - 1013.4 - 1013.8 - 1011.6 -

LW1 1008.8 1014.2 1012.0 1013.3 1014.0 1011.9 1014.4 1014.2 1012.3 1013.5

LW2 1008.8 1015.6 1012.0 1014.6 1013.9 1013.2 1014.1 1015.5 1012.2 1014.8

PK1 - 1015.9 - 1015.1 - 1013.6 - 1015.9 - 1015.2

PK2 1008.3 - 1011.5 - 1013.8 - 1014.1 - 1011.9 -

PK3 1008.6 1017.0 1011.8 1016.4 1014.1 1014.7 1014.3 1017.1 1012.2 1016.3

SJ2 1007.7 1015.8 1010.9 1014.7 1012.8 1013.8 1013.3 1015.8 1011.1 1015.1

Explanation: „–„ - denotes lack of data

Regarding the 10-day means, the highest pressure was recorded in both summer seasons at most of the stations in the last eleven days of August, e.g. 1014.8 hPa (2010) and 1016.7 hPa (2011) at KH (Tab. 2.5). However, with non-standard 10-day periods the highest atmospheric pressure values, reaching 1021.1hPa on average, occurred in the summer of 2011 between 26 July and 4 August (Fig. 2.6). At all measurement sites the lowest ten-day values in the summers of 2010 and 2011 occurred towards the end of July and in mid-Au-gust, respectively (Tab. 2.5).

The frequency of occurrence of mean daily pressure in the studied sum-mers has been shown in intervals of 2 hPa for the three stations (KH, PK3 and

36

SJ2), representing the aforementioned three areas of investigations (Fig. 2.8). There are visible differences in the distribution of atmospheric pressure in both seasons. In the summer of 2010 the distribution was nearly normal, whereas in 2011 it was substantially negatively skewed. A greater similarity in the distribution patterns is visible between the stations at KH and PK3, situ-ated on opposite sides of the Forlandsundet. In the summer of 2010, the mean daily values of atmospheric pressure occurred the most frequently in the ranges of 1010.1-1012.0 hPa (17–20%), and least frequently at 1000.1–1002.0 hPa (< 2%). In the summer of 2011, they occurred the most often in the ranges of 1020.1-1022.0 hPa (approx. 18%) and were the least frequent at 996.1-998.0 hPa (approx. 0.5%).The number of ranges in 2011 was 1.5 times bigger than in 2010.

Figure 2.6. Courses of atmospheric pressure reduced to sea level (hPa) at A) the Base Station (KH), B) PK3 and C) SJ2 in the summers of 2010 and 2011

From the beginning of the summer season to mid-August the pressure gen-erally rises and then gradually begins to fall (Fig. 2.6). However, at the begin-ning of the second ten-day period the values deviate from the trend. In both years pressure drops lasting for a few days were observed, some of which were particularly big in the summer of 2011, reaching below 990 hPa.

The highest atmospheric pressure in the area of our investigations occurred at PK3 and KH, exceeding 1023 hPa (2010) and 1025 hPa (2011) (Tab. 2.6).

37

Figure 2.7. Differences of atmospheric pressure reduced to the sea level (hPa) between the Base Station (KH) and the other measurement sites in the area of the Forlandsundet in the summers of 2010 (A) and 2011 (B)

Figure 2.8. Relative frequency of occurrence (%) of the mean daily pressure in intervals of 2 hPa at KH, SJ2 and PK3 stations in the summers of 2010 (A) and 2011 (B)

The spatial diversity of the values was not significant, reaching 1.6 hPa (2010) and 3.1 hPa (2011). In the summer season in 2011 the highest values of atmospheric pressure at all stations exceeded 1020 hPa in all ten-day series of the common period, however in 2010 the pattern was observed at most of the stations and in most of the ten-day periods.

The lowest values of atmospheric pressure in the common period of 21 July to 31 August were slightly above 1000 hPa in the summer of 2010, but ranged between 985 and 987 hPa in 2011 (Tab. 2.7).

The spatial diversity of atmospheric pressure, just like with the maximum recorded values, was not big and amounted to 1.5 hPa in 2010 and 2.5 hPa in 2011. Nevertheless, the diversity of these values during the polar summer was several times greater, particularly in 2011 (Tab. 2.7, Fig. 2.6).

38

Table 2.6. Maximum values of atmospheric pressure reduced to sea level (hPa) in the area of the Forlandsundet in the summers of 2010 and 2011

Sites21–31 Jul 01–10 Aug 11–20 Aug 21–31 Aug 21 Jul–31 Aug

2010 2011 2010 2011 2010 2011 2010 2011 2010 2011

KH 1015.7 1023.9 1021.1 1023.9 1023.4 1025.1 1023.6 1022.6 1023.6 1025.1

SAT 1014.1 1022.9 1019.8 1023.7 1022.2 1024.6 1022.3 1022.3 1022.3 1024.6

ATA 1015.4 – 1020.8 – 1023.0 – 1023.0 – 1023.0 –

GF 1014.2 – 1020.3 – 1022.0 – 1022.1 – 1022.1 –

LW1 1015.2 1021.1 1020.8 1021.1 1022.8 1022.5 1022.9 1020.4 1022.9 1022.5

LW2 1015.3 1022.4 1020.7 1022.6 1022.9 1023.9 1023.0 1021.7 1023.0 1023.9

PK1 – 1023.1 – 1023.1 – 1024.4 – 1021.9 – 1024.4

PK2 1014.9 – 1020.5 – 1022.7 – 1022.8 – 1022.8 –

PK3 1015.3 1023.9 1020.7 1024.6 1023.1 1025.6 1023.1 1023.0 1023.1 1025.6

SJ2 1014.1 1023.0 1019.7 1022.5 1021.7 1024.0 1022.0 1021.9 1022.0 1024.0

Explanation: „ – „ - denotes lack of data

Table 2.7. Minimum values of atmospheric pressure reduced to sea level (hPa) in the area of the Forlandsundet in the summers of 2010 and 2011

Sites21–31 Jul 01–10 Aug 11–20 Aug 21–31Aug 21 Jul–31 Aug

2010 2011 2010 2011 2010 2011 2010 2011 2010 2011

KH 1002.9 1005.5 1001.6 998.1 1006.7 986.9 1009.8 1011.2 1001.6 986.9

SAT 1001.8 1005.0 1000.3 998.0 1005.5 986.3 1008.9 1010.6 1000.3 986.3

ATA 1002.3 – 1001.7 – 1006.1 – 1009.3 – 1001.7 –

GF 1001.5 – 1000.8 – 1005.8 – 1008.8 – 1000.8 –

LW1 1002.3 1002.9 1001.8 995.5 1006.1 984.9 1009.3 1009.2 1001.8 984.9

LW2 1002.7 1004.2 1001.8 996.5 1006.0 985.7 1009.0 1010.5 1001.8 985.7

PK1 – 1004.5 – 998.0 – 986.2 – 1010.5 – 986.2

PK2 1002.4 – 1000.7 – 1005.6 – 1009.1 – 1000.7 –

PK3 1002.6 1005.9 1001.0 999.1 1006.0 987.4 1009.4 1011.7 1001.0 987.4

SJ2 1001.1 1004.5 1000.6 996.7 1004.9 986.9 1008.0 1010.7 1000.6 986.9


The diurnal course of averaged pressure in the analysed seasons hardly chang-es at any of the measurement points (Fig. 2.9). The diurnal ranges of the aver-aged courses do not exceed 0.5 hPa, yet two maximum values (at midday hours

39

and at ‘night’) and two minimum values (in the morning and in the evening) can be identified. A different diurnal course of pressure can be observed only at GF, where only one maximum (during ‘night’ hours) and one minimum (in the re-maining hours) can be identified (Fig. 2.9D). Averaged seasonal courses of atmos-pheric pressure in other areas outside the Forlandsundet are also very stable, however the distribution of their maximum and minimum values is different.

As for Hornsund, Araźny (2008) reports that, for example, in the ten years between 1991 and 2000 the maximum values occurred at 12:00-15:00 UTC, whereas the minimum values were at 03:00-06:00 UTC. At Calypsobyen (Maria Curie-Skłodowska University station) and at the Ebby Valley (Adam Mickiewicz University station), in the summer season of 2005 the minimum was observed in the morning hours, whereas in the rest of the day the atmospheric pressure values were higher, yet remained at the same level (Cf. Fig. 3 in Przybylak et al. 2006). On the other hand, in that year at the Base Station (KH) the diurnal course of atmospheric pressure was similar to the one shown in Figure 2.9A.

Figure 2.9. Average diurnal course of atmospheric pressure [hPa] reduced to sea level in the area of the Forlandsundet: A-C –from summer seasons of 2010 and 2011 and D – from selected summer seasons at ATA (2010), GF (2010), PK1 (2011), and PK2 (2010)

40

2.3. Wind

2.3.1. Introduction

The area of the Forlandsundet is small enough to display a homogeneous set of circulation conditions in the synoptic scale. These have a key role in determining the occurrence and range of changes in the direction and speed of wind. In the case of the lowlands there should not be any significant variability in the wind parameters, which should be consistent with the prevalent atmospheric circula-tion. However, the mountainous area of Forlandsundet has very diverse surface features with big height differences. Thus, a ‘working’ presumption can be made that the wind there must be considerably varied in terms of direction and speed, i.e. it should be considerably affected by the local conditions.

So far, such correlations have been observed in Svalbard (including Spitsber-gen) mainly on the basis of data obtained from permanent Norwegian mete-orological stations or temporary stations operated mostly in the summertime during various scientific expeditions (e.g. Steffensen 1969, 1982; Leszkiewicz 1977; Wójcik 1982; Wójcik and Marciniak 1983; Marciniak and Przybylak 1983; Hanssen-Bauer et al. 1990; Wójcik and Kejna 1991; Wójcik and Przybylak 1991; Kejna and Dzieniszewski 1993; Marciniak et al. 1993; Førland et al. 1997; Araźny 1999, 2002; Kejna 2002; Przybylak and Szczeblewska 2002; Przybylak et al. 2006; Kejna and Maszewski 2007a; Przybylak and Araźny 2007; Przybylak et al. 2007a; Araźny 2008; Maszewski and Wyszyński 2008). Yet in either case the stations were always situated in the tundra, near the coast.

The literature regarding the occurrence and characteristics of local winds in Spitsbergen is also quite abundant. For the area of the Kaffiøyra, the issues were addressed by, for example, Wójcik and Przybylak (1985) and Kejna (1989 a, b). Similar studies for the area of Hornsund were presented by Pereyma (1983) and Pereyma and Piasecki (1984).

On the other hand, there are very few studies dealing with the inland areas of Spitsbergen, the mountains or the glaciers. As for the area of the Kaffiøyra, the first attempt to change this was made in the summer of 2005 when two Davis automatic weather stations were installed at the Waldemar Glacier – at its front (ATA) and on the firn field (LW2) – to record a number of parameters, in-cluding wind speed and direction (Przybylak et al. 2007b). In the summer of 2006 another station was sited right at the front of the glacier (LW1) (Kejna and Maszewski 2007b), where measurements were taken every summer until 2011. As part of the AWAKE project, in the summer season of 2010 the measurements were substantially expanded to include 5 more sites (SAT, PK1, PK3, SJ2 and GF) situated in different places, characterised by dissimilar local conditions (cf. Sec-tion 1.2). This is the most developed network of measurement points employed to record the meteorological element on Spitsbergen.

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2.3.2. Wind direction

Wind direction is particularly prone to changes related to the orography and topography of the terrain. The results of measurements performed in the sum-mer seasons of 2010 and 2011 (i.e. from 21 July to 31 August), broken down into the 16 points, have been collected in Table 2.8 and Figure 2.10. Looking at the information shown there, considerable diversity in the frequency of occur-rence of individual wind directions in the summer is evident.

Table 2.8. Relative frequency of occurrence (%) of wind directions in the Forlandsundet area in the summers of 2010 and 2011

Dire

ctio

n KH SAT ATA LW1 LW2 PK3 SJ2 GF PK1

2010

2011

2010

2011

2010

2011

2010

2011

2010

2011

2010

2011

2010

2011

2010

2011

N 5.4 4.0 1.1 7.1 0.0 0.7 0.6 6.5 3.3 1.8 7.6 21.0 3.3 1.0 2.8 2.0

NN

E

1.7 3.8 1.0 7.8 0.5 0.4 2.1 32.5 3.7 1.6 9.2 13.5 3.0 1.1 1.0 6.8

NE 1.6 3.1 0.4 3.1 1.8 1.6 11.0 15.5 3.8 2.4 3.0 6.2 14.1 10.4 1.1 4.2

ENE

0.7 0.8 0.4 6.6 12.5 12.3 20.3 6.8 5.0 4.0 1.3 2.7 20.1 24.1 1.4 0.6

E 0.6 0.3 3.0 7.6 17.0 24.9 13.1 3.7 9.1 9.2 0.6 0.5 7.2 15.2 3.6 1.2

ESE

1.0 1.1 22.3 10.4 12.0 13.8 6.0 5.2 13.4 15.0 0.5 0.4 2.9 3.0 28.0 11.7

SE 13.1 15.2 12.2 6.4 5.3 9.9 3.4 1.6 4.1 3.3 1.0 10.2 1.9 1.0 11.0 9.2

SSE

17.6 22.8 6.6 5.1 3.0 3.9 2.0 1.3 2.0 4.0 8.8 3.2 3.3 1.2 2.7 10.6

S 10.4 12.4 2.0 2.6 2.9 2.4 1.6 1.6 5.8 3.6 24.1 6.0 2.4 2.3 1.1 12.0

SSW 2.2 1.8 0.7 4.5 3.8 1.5 2.4 5.1 16.8 4.8 13.0 13.6 1.7 1.4 2.2 10.0

SW 2.6 0.9 1.2 5.0 3.6 2.1 3.8 5.3 10.5 14.9 7.0 6.8 4.2 2.2 2.3 5.7

WSW 2.1 0.8 1.5 3.8 3.1 1.9 12.6 1.9 5.0 9.6 1.8 2.8 13.2 5.7 1.4 2.3

W 1.6 2.4 2.2 5.3 5.4 2.7 6.5 1.6 1.5 4.3 1.9 1.5 13.1 17.4 3.5 4.0

WN

W

2.3 3.0 5.8 6.2 19.4 5.0 4.0 0.8 1.0 1.3 2.3 0.6 2.4 5.8 17.2 3.1

NW 12.0 10.3 33.1 14.5 3.6 8.8 2.3 1.1 0.7 1.0 6.7 0.5 1.0 0.1 13.3 3.4

NN

W

22.2 14.0 5.9 3.7 0.2 1.0 1.2 1.1 1.4 1.3 8.9 7.2 0.8 0.1 0.6 5.0

C 2.9 3.4 0.7 0.5 6.0 7.0 7.1 8.4 12.9 17.9 2.2 3.3 5.4 8.0 6.8 8.2

42

Figure 2.10. Frequency of wind directions in the Forlandsundet area in the summers of 2010 and 2011

43

Figure 2.10. cont.

A certain similarity in wind roses can only be seen comparing SAT and GF with ATA and SJ2 sites. All the other patterns are significantly different, which means that the influence of local conditions on the direction of wind is a deci-sive factor in all but some cases. For example, the site located on the firn field of the Waldemar Glacier (LW2), surrounded by mountain ranges, displays the greatest frequency of influxes of air masses from upper part of within the field (katabatic wind) and from the SW and the SSW, i.e. the directions in which the glacial tongue extends. The LW1 site, situated at the very front of the Waldemar Glacier, is clearly affected by katabatic winds. On the other hand, the winds have a smaller influence on the ATA site, which is only about 200 m away from the glacier’s front, but at the same time 7 m higher than LW1. Heavy air carried by the katabatic wind, having descended the glacier, must be turning south onto the lower terrain, where the Waldemar River has its source. Similarly, the wind directions in the area of measurements (PK1 and PK3) on Prins Karls For-land clearly follow the course of river valleys cutting across the island from the south to the north. The wind directions on St. Jonsfjorden (SJ2) are fully consist-ent with its axis (Fig. 2.10).

With such an abundance of source data on hand, it was decided to deter-mine to what extent the wind directions in the analysed areas refer to the gen-eral atmospheric circulation described in Section 2.1. For that purpose, the fre-quency of wind directions was totalled up for the following three sectors of air mass influxes: NW+N+NE, E+SE and S+SW+W, using combined types of cir-culation. Figure 2.11 shows a comparison of the frequency of occurrence of air mass influxes in the free atmosphere from the three sectors and their frequency of occurrence near the ground surface. An analysis of the data leads to the conclusion that the results obtained for the east part of Prins Karls Forland (PK3) and the Kaffiøyra are the most compatible with the general circulation of the air (the differences are generally smaller than 10%). The local conditions affect the actual atmospheric circulation the most at ATA and LW2. It is also notewor-thy that the general direction of the air mass influx from the S+SW+W sector is the least affected by the local conditions. Apparently, the biggest discrepancy

44

between the directions of the air mass influx in the free atmosphere and at the ground occur with the circulation from the east sector (E+SE) (Fig. 2.11). Also, the influx of air masses from the north sector (NW+N+NE) coincides with sub-stantial influence of the local conditions on the observed wind directions.

Figure 2.11. Average relative frequency of occurrence (%) of the following circulation types: A) NW+N+NE, B) E+SE, C) S+SW+W and wind directions: NW+N+NE, E+SE, S+SW+W in the area of Forlandsundet in the summers of 2010 and 2011 (GF and PK1 sites – 2010 data only)

45

2.3.3. Wind speed

The friction occurring between the air masses and the swept surface decreases their speed – the rougher the surface the bigger the decrease. Anemological conditions are also largely influenced by the positioning of mountain ranges in relation to the influx of the prevalent air masses. In the area of the Forlandsun-det the relief is varied and the highest mountains are over 1000 m a.s.l., there-fore the wind speed there varies heavily, as well, in terms of the average values (Tab. 2.9) and the maximum values (Tab. 2.10).

Table 2.9. Average wind speed (ms-1) in the area of the Forlandsundet in the summers of 2010 and 2011


2010 2011 2010 2011 2010 2011 2010 2011 2010 2011

KH 5.8 5.3 6.1 6.0 5.8 4.1 3.5 2.5 5.3 4.5

SAT 5.6 5.4 5.9 5.9 6.0 4.2 3.7 2.6 5.3 4.5

ATA 2.0 2.8 2.3 2.8 3.0 2.4 1.5 1.0 2.2 2.3

GF 5.6 – 5.3 – 6.9 – 2.9 – 5.1 –

LW1 1.8 1.7 1.6 2.2 2.6 2.1 1.3 1.0 1.8 1.7

LW2 1.9 1.7 1.8 2.3 1.8 2.5 1.1 0.9 1.6 1.8

PK1 – 3.5 – 5.1 – 3.5 – 1.5 – 3.4

PK3 3.3 3.5 3.9 4.7 3.5 3.8 1.7 1.8 3.1 3.4

SJ2 1.6 2.0 2.0 1.9 1.9 2.9 1.0 0.7 1.6 1.9


In the analysed summer seasons, the highest average wind speed values (5.3

ms-1 in 2010 and 4.5 ms-1 in 2011) were recorded at the Kaffiøyra site (KH) and on the Sarstangen Peninsula (SAT). These two areas are mostly open terrain. A slight-ly lower wind speed value (5.1 ms-1 in the summer of 2010) was recorded on the hilltop of Mt. Gråfjellet (GH), situated at 345 m a.s.l. This value, in theory, should be the closest to the wind speed in the free atmosphere. According to the au-thors of the relevant publications referred to in the Introduction above, the wind speed at KH was increased by the tunnelling effect observed along the Forland-sundet. The effect is undoubtedly encountered on the Sarstangen (SAT). Consid-ering the fact that the PK3 site (located on the east side of Prins Karls Forland) shows the smallest disturbance of inflowing air masses in relation to the general circulation and that is situated in a shielded bay, surrounded by mountains, one could reduce the influence of the tunnelling effect on the measured wind speeds and claim that perhaps these results are best qualified to represent the dynamic conditions of the analysed area. If this were true, the tunnelling effect could be

46

estimated at 1-2 ms-1. At most of the rest of the sites, the recorded wind speeds are much lower, being particularly low on the Waldemar Glacier and in its imme-diate vicinity (LW1 and LW2) and at St. Jonsfjorden (SJ2) (Tab. 2.9 and Fig. 2.12).

An analysis of the 10-day values in both summer seasons (Tab. 2.9 and Fig. 2.12) shows that the highest average wind speed was observed in the first ten days of August, and the lowest in the last eleven days of the month. Neverthe-less, the highest value of the average wind speed of all the ten-day periods (6.9 ms-1) fell on the second ten days of August 2010 at the GF site. The lowest value (0.7 ms-1) was observed at SJ2 in the last eleven days of August 2011.

Figure 2.12. Differences in wind speed (ms-1) between the Base Station (KH) and the other measurement points in the area of the Forlandsundet in the summers of 2010 (A) and 2011 (B)

In this article, the wind speed divisions proposed by Bartnicki (1930) have been slightly modified. The scale enables a verbal description of the wind speed and provides a general characteristic of anemological conditions prevailing at the relevant stations:

0.0 ms-1 calm

0.1 – 2.0 ms-1 very light

2.1 – 5.0 ms-1 light

5.1 – 10.0 ms-1 moderate

10.1 – 15.0 ms-1 strong

>15.0 ms-1 very strong

At a majority of the sites, although primarily on the Waldemar Glacier and its forefield (LW1, LW2) and at SJ2, in the summer seasons of 2010 and 2011, very light and light winds occurred the most often (Fig. 2.13). The predomi-nance of very light winds was particularly noticeable in the summer of 2010, when this kind of wind was observed at SJ2 and LW1 65.3% and 61.0% of the time, respectively. Slightly faster winds were recorded at the sites located near

21-31 Jul 01-10 Aug 11-20 Aug 21-31 Aug 21 Jul-31 Aug

47

the Forlandsundet (KH, SAT) and on the ridge of Mt. Gråfjellet (GF), ranging from light to moderate. Strong winds seldom occurred at GF (9.4%), KH (9.1%) and SAT (7.5%), mostly in the summer of 2010, and were not observed at SJ2 at all (Fig. 2.13). In the same season, very strong winds were recorded at KH and GF with a frequency of 0.6% and 4.4%, respectively.

Figure 2.13. Relative frequency of occurrence [%] of wind speeds [ms-1] in the division pro-posed by Bartnicki (1930, modified) in the area of the Forlandsundet in the sum-mers of 2010 (A) and 2011 (B).

Only at the GF site did all the wind speed divisions occur. The condition of calm was the most frequent at LW2, both in the summer of 2010 (12.9%) and in 2011 (17.9%). It was the least frequent at the stations situated close to the Forlandsundet (KH, SAT and PK3) – Figure 2.13.

The maximum recorded wind speeds in the area of the Forlandsundet were generally higher than 10 ms-1 in all periods, often exceeding 20 ms-1 (Tab. 2.10).

Table 2.10. Maximum wind speeds (ms-1) in the area of the Forlandsundet in the sum-mers of 2010 and 2011

Site

s 21–31 Jul 01–10 Aug 11–20 Aug 21–31 Aug 21 Jul–31 Aug

2010 2011 2010 2011 2010 2011 2010 2011 2010 2011

KH 13.9 13.4 21.9 16.1 18.8 14.8 12.5 14.8 21.9 16.1

SAT 13.4 14.3 18.8 15.2 18.3 13.9 11.6 14.8 18.8 15.2

ATA 10.3 14.3 19.7 14.8 17.4 16.1 11.2 11.2 19.7 16.1

GF 15.2 – 23.7 – 27.7 – 14.8 – 27.7 –

LW1 10.7 10.3 17.4 14.3 20.1 14.3 8.9 12.1 20.1 14.3

LW2 13.4 10.7 19.7 27.7 14.3 14.8 9.4 14.8 19.7 27.7

PK1 – 11.2 – 17.0 – 17.0 – 10.3 – 17.0

PK3 15.6 11.6 17.9 22.8 25.5 13.0 12.1 13 25.5 22.8

SJ2 8.9 8.9 14.3 13.0 11.2 13.9 7.2 11.6 14.3 13.9


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In the summer season of 2010, the highest absolute wind speed value (27.7 ms- 1) was recorded on Mt. Gråfjellet on 16 August. In 2011, the highest wind speed of the same absolute value was measured on the firn field of the Walde-mar Glacier on 8 August, which was quite surprising, as the average wind speeds recorded at that site were usually some of the lowest. The irregularity of the phenomenon is further emphasised by the fact that it was the only point where the maximum speed of wind was higher at that time than in the summer of 2010 and by as much as 8 ms-1 (Tab. 2.10). What could have caused the strong anomaly? In order to find an explanation, a detailed analysis was per-formed of the wind conditions, as well as of the temperature and humidity in the area of the Waldemar Glacier and at the Kaffiøyra, concerning the time before and after the maximum wind speed was recorded at LW2 (Fig. 2.14).

Figure 2.14. The temperature of air (A), the relative humidity (B) and the maximum speed of wind (C) at the LW2, LW1 and KH sites, 7-10 August 2011

49

The analysis proved beyond doubt that the immediate cause of the high wind was a local foehnic wind, as evidenced by strong rises in the maximum temperature (by 4-5oC) and a drop of relative air humidity (by approx. 30%), which was also recorded at LW1 and KH. The foehnic wind that brought the high wind speed values lasted about 12 hours only; from 3:00 pm on 8 August until 3:00 am on 9 August. Such evidently higher maximum wind speeds in the time frame given above as compared with preceding and following periods (Fig. 2.14) were also recorded at LW1, but not at the Kaffiøyra.

The wind speed in the area of our interest follows a clearly diurnal cycle. Its maximum values at all sites occurred in the afternoon, whereas the minimum values were recorded during ‘night’ hours (Fig. 2.15). The changes usually ranged from 0.5 to 1.5 ms-1. The range was the greatest at the mountain site of GF (approx. 2.5 ms-1), and the smallest on the firn field of the Waldemar Glacier (<0.5 ms-1).

Figure 2.15. Average diurnal course of wind speed (ms-1) in the area of the Forlandsundet: in the summer seasons of 2010 and 2011 (A-C), and in selected summer sea-sons (D) at: GF (2010) and PK1 (2011)

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Niedźwiedź T., 2007b, Warunki cyrkulacyjne na Spitsbergenie w latach 2005–2006, [in:] Przybylak R., Kejna M., Araźny A., Głowacki P. (eds.), Abiotyczne środowisko Spitsbergenu w latach 2005–2006 w warunkach globalnego ocieplenia, UMK, Toruń, 17–32.

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Przybylak R., 1992a, Stosunki termiczno-wilgotnościowe na tle warunków cyrkulacyjnych w Hornsundzie (Spitsbergen) w okresie 1978–1983, Dok. Geogr., 2, 105 pp.

Przybylak R., 1992b, Spatial differentiation of air temperature and relative humidity on west-ern coast of Spitsbergen in 1979–1983, Polish Polar Res., 13 (2), 113–130.

Przybylak R., 1996, Zmienność temperatury powietrza i opadów atmosferycznych w okresie obserwacji instrumentalnych w Arktyce,, Wyd. Uniw. Mikołaja Kopernika, Toruń, 280 pp.

Przybylak R., 2002, Variability of air temperature and atmospheric precipitation in the Arc-tic, Atmospheric and Oceanographic Sciences Library, 25, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht/Boston/London, 330 pp.

Przybylak R., Araźny A., 2007, Warunki meteorologiczne na Równinie Kaffiøyra (NW Spitsber-gen) w okresie od 13 lipca do 20 września 2005 r., [in:] Przybylak R., Kejna M., Araźny A., Głowacki P. (eds.), Abiotyczne środowisko Spitsbergenu w latach 2005–2006 w warunkach globalnego ocieplenia, Toruń, 33–50.

Przybylak R., Araźny A., Ćwiklińska K., 2007b, Warunki meteorologiczne w regionie Lodow-ca Waldemara (NW Spitsbergen) w sezonie letnim 2005 r., [in:] Przybylak R., Kejna M., Araźny A., Głowacki P. (eds.), Abiotyczne środowisko Spitsbergenu w latach 2005–2006 w warunkach globalnego ocieplenia, Toruń, 51–65.

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Chapter 3

RADIATION CONDITIONS

3.1. Cloud cover

The Arctic, and the area of Spitsbergen in particular, is one of the cloudiest places on the globe. It is connected with a very active cyclonic circulation (the Icelandic lows often reach Spitsbergen), and a high saturation of air with water vapour, which promotes the formation of Stratus (St) clouds and fog. The greatest degree of cloudiness occurs in the summer, mainly over the areas left by retreating sea ice (Førland et al. 1997; Kukla and Robinson 1998; Beesley and Moritz 1998; Przybylak 2003). The clouds also affect Arctic radiation conditions (Walsh and Chapman 1998). As the ice cover in the basin of the Arctic Ocean continues to shrink, more cloudiness is expected in the region due to the increased rate of evaporation and intensified transport of humidity in the middle and upper tropo-sphere (Vavrus et al. 2011).

Cloudiness is one of the least analysed meteorological elements because it requires visual observation. Analysing satellite images of cloud cover is unreli-able, considering the similar features of clouds and the snow and glacial sur-faces prevailing in the Arctic.

Literature dealing with the Spitsbergen cloud cover is scarce. A few studies de-scribe the cloudiness in the area of Hornsund (Kosiba 1960; Baranowski 1977; Pereyma 1983). Przybylak (1992) provides an overview of the frequency of occur-rence of cloudless (clear), cloudy and overcast days in relation to the atmospheric circulation. A summary of the nephological conditions in that area can be found in the monograph ‘The climate of the area of the Polish Polar Station in Hornsund’ (Marsz and Styszyńska 2007), in the Chapter ‘Cloud cover and sunshine duration’ (Marsz 2007), where cloud amount and types of clouds over Hornsund are de-scribed in detail. As regards the area of Kaffiøyra, none of the expedition reports referred to in the monograph have devoted much attention to it.

3.1.1. Cloud amount

On the Kaffiøyra Plain, the degree of cloudiness (cloud amount) is determined using a scale of 0–10. The monitoring conditions are most favourable and the clarity of the air makes it possible to observe the clouds in a range of 100 km. Moreover, in the summer season fogs are not frequent.

The summers of 2010 and 2011 were different in terms of circulation condi-tions. In 2010 cyclonic patterns outnumbered (51.7%) anticyclonic patterns (39.7%) and the share of indefinite patterns was quite sizeable (8.6%). In 2011, on the other hand, Spitsbergen was more often under the influence of anticy-clones (53.8%) than cyclones (44.2%), whereas indefinite patterns were record-ed in just 1.9% cases (see Chapter 2 for more details).

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The average cloud amount in 2010 (7 July–2 September) was 8.6 (Tab. 3.1). The greatest amount of clouds in ten-day periods occurred between 11 and 20 July (9.6), and the smallest between 11 and 20 August (7.8). Not a single cloudless day (C ≤ 2) was observed in the whole summer season, whereas there were 13 partly cloudy days and 45 cloudy days (C ≥ 8), including 23 days with an overcast sky.

Table 3.1. Average cloud amount (0-10) on the Kaffiøyra Plain in the summer seasons of 2010 and 2011

Year 7–10 Jul 11–20 Jul 21–31 Jul 1–10 Aug11–20 Aug

21–31 Aug

Summer season

21 Jul–31 Aug

2010 9.4 9.6 8.5 8.8 7.8 7.9 8.6 8.2

2011 7.6 7.8 7.5 6.9 9.6 7.8 8.0

On the Kaffiøyra Plain, in both summer seasons there were sequences of overcast weather, lasting a few days, interrupted by periods of partly cloudy days (Fig. 3.1).

Figure 3.1. Cloudiness on the Kaffiøyra Plain in the summer seasons of 2010 and 2011

In 2011 (11 July–31 August) the average cloud amount was much smaller (7.8), however there were cloudy days, for example in the period of 21–31 Au-gust the degree of cloudiness reached 9.6, as well as sunny days with the cloud amount of 6.9 (between 11 August and 20 August). In the whole summer sea-son there was one clear day, 16 partly cloudy days and 35 cloudy days, includ-ing 12 days of overcast weather. In the period from 21 July to 31 August the sky was slightly more cloudy in 2010 (8.2.) than in 2011 (8.0).

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The smallest degree of cloudiness was characteristic of anticyclonic patterns (8.4 in 2010 and 7.5 in 2011), especially such as E+SEa (5.2 in 2011) and NWa+Na+NEa (7.0 in 2010 and 6.9 in 2011). A very high degree of cloudiness (9.9) occurred with Ca+Ka in 2010, but decreased to 7.0 in the subsequent summer season. With cyclonic patterns the cloud amount was greater, reaching an average of 8.6 in 2010 and 8.1 in 2011. The Sc+SEc+Wc type was particu-larly cloudy (9.8 in both years), just as in the case of Hornsund summers, when the greatest degree of cloudiness and the most cloudy days occurred with this circulation pattern (Przybylak 1992).

Table 3.2. Average cloud amount (0–10) and sunshine duration (h/day) by circulation pat-terns on the Kaffiøyra Plain in the summer seasons of 2010 and 2011

Circulation types*

2010 2011

Days CloudinessSunshine duration

Days CloudinessSunshine duration

NWa+Na+NEa 10 7.0 8.4 6 6.9 6.4

Ea+SEa · · · 5 5.2 12.3

Sa+SWa+Wa 6 9.1 2.4 7 9.0 2.1

Ca+Ka 7 9.9 1.1 10 7.9 5.5

NWc+Nc+NEc 14 7.7 8.2 8 7.8 6.2

Ec+SEc 1 10.0 0.1 5 6.9 10.8

Sc+SWc+Wc 12 9.8 0.8 3 9.8 0.9

Cc+Bc 3 7.9 8.2 7 8.7 1.9

X 5 9.3 3.0 1 9.3 0.3

Antycyclonic 23 8.4 3.9 28 7.5 6.1

Cyclonic 30 8.6 4.5 23 8.1 6.4

Explanations: * - after Przybylak (1992); · - circulation type did not occur

3.1.2. Cloud types

The types of clouds occurring in the Kaffiøyra in summer depends on the pro-cesses in the atmosphere, both on the macro scale and locally. The barometric centre determines the cloud genera, therefore in anticyclonic weather high-level: Cirrus (Ci), Cirrocumulus (Cc) or medium-level: Altocumulus (Ac) clouds are formed. Intensive insolation leads to warming up of the ground surface, particularly in non-glaciated areas, to an unstable equilibrium of the air and ‘cauliflower’ clouds Cumulus (Cu). At a low barometric pressure layered clouds are formed: Cirrostratus (Cs), Altostratus (As) and Nimbostratus (Ns) on the warm atmospheric front and Ns, As and Cs on the cold front. When the cold front moves rapidly, even Cumulonimbus (Cb) clouds may be formed. Kaffiøyra is often subject to an occluded front, where medium- and high-level clouds often occur. High air humidity and stable stratification (sometimes inverse) of

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the air masses inflowing over Spitsbergen support the formation of layered clouds Stratus and advection fog.

The analysed summer seasons differed in terms of their prevalent baromet-ric centres and direction of advection. In 2010 low pressure centres predomi-nated, unlike in 2011 when the area was more often subject to high pressure centres. The consequence was the difference in the cloud genera occurring on the Kaffiøyra (cf. Tab. 3.3, Fig. 3.2). In 2010 the most common were St (33.9%) and Sc (31.4%) clouds, which are rather flat. In 14.6% of the observations Ac clouds were identified, whereas high-level clouds, such as Ci, Cc and Cs made up 8.7% altogether. Other identified cloud types included vertically-developed clouds, Cu (5.9%), and even Cb clouds in three cases (0.7%). Cu clouds are con-nected with intensive insolation and unstable equilibrium of the air over non-glaciated areas, as well as the circulation that develops on sun-warmed moun-tain slopes (valley breezes).

Figure 3.2. Frequency of occurrence (%) of different cloud types on the Kaffiøyra Plain in the summer seasons of 2010 and 2011

In 2011, the most common were Sc clouds (27.9%), followed by Ac clouds (23.5%). As compared to the preceding year, there were less St clouds (21.4%), but more high-level types (13.3%). Cu clouds were observed in just 1.4% cases, and no Cb clouds were identified. However, Ns clouds, which were not ob-served at all in 2010, occurred in 4.5% cases in the following year. Actually, in 2010 clouds of this genus were obscured by the St type. Just as in the case of the Hornsund area (Marsz 2007), an ‘overrepresentation’ of St clouds and an abundance of Ac clouds occurred on the Kaffiøyra.

Some of the cloud types demonstrated a diurnal pattern of occurrence, e.g. the St genus was more frequent at 1:00 am and 7:00 am than on 1:00 pm and 7:00 pm (Tab. 3.3). On the other hand, Cu clouds appeared more often at 1:00 pm and 7:00 pm. The reason was the changes of the surface thermal conditions and the atmospheric stratification, which was stable when the sun was low and became unbalanced in the afternoon and evening.

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Table 3.3. Frequency of occurrence (%) of different cloud types on the Kaffiøyra Plain at main standard times (LMT) in the summer seasons of 2010 and 2011

Clouds1:00 7:00 13:00 19:00 Mean

2010 2011 2010 2011 2010 2011 2010 2011 2010 2011

St 39.6 24.8 38.8 21.9 27.7 18.6 30.7 20.6 33.9 21.4

Sc 34.7 26.7 28.2 27.6 29.4 30.1 33.3 27.1 31.4 27.9

Ns · 4.0 · 5.7 · 4.4 · 3.7 · 4.5

Ac 12.9 23.8 12.6 25.7 16.0 21.2 16.7 23.4 14.6 23.5

As 4.0 5.9 6.8 6.7 5.9 8.8 2.6 10.3 4.8 8.0

Ci 5.9 12.9 6.8 10.5 10.1 8.8 7.9 11.2 7.8 10.8

Cs · 2.0 · 1.9 1.7 2.7 0.9 2.8 0.7 2.3

Cc · · · · · 0.9 0.9 · 0.2 0.2

Cu 3.0 · 5.8 · 8.4 4.4 6.1 0.9 5.9 1.4

Cb · · 1.0 · 0.8 · 0.9 · 0.7 ·

Explanations: · - type did not occur

In the area of the Kaffiøyra and on the whole of Spitsbergen, lens-shaped orographic clouds of the Sc len and Ac len (lenticularis) type are often observed. These occur on the lee side of mountain ranges. The surroundings of the Kaf-fiøyra are favourable for the forming of these types of clouds in different wind directions. The lenticularis clouds are the most often observed at an eastern advection (when the air masses flow over Spitsbergen) and when the wind blows from the west, crossing the mountains on Prins Karls Forland. The clouds occur everywhere on Spitsbergen, as it features considerable relative height dif-ferences, and are often observed in the area of Hornsund (Marsz 2007).

All of the cloud types that occur in the Forlandsundet area have been shown in Photographs 3.1 to 3.12.

Photo 3.1. Cirrus

(Photo by A. Pospieszyńska)

Photo 3.2. Cirrocumulus

(Photo by M. Kejna)

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Photo 3.7. Stratocumulus

(Photo by M. Kejna)

Photo 3.8. Stratus

(Photo by M. Kejna)

Photo 3.5. Altostratus

(Photo by M. Kejna)

Photo 3.6. Nimbostratus

(Photo by M. Kejna)

Photo 3.3. Cirrostratus


Photo 3.4. Altocumulus


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3.2. Sunshine duration

The duration of sunshine on the Kaffiøyra Plain was recorded using two helio-graphs located on the terminal-lateral moraine of the Aavatsmark Glacier, at 11 m a.s.l. The horizon in that location is favourable, as the sun is not obstructed throughout most of the summer season. Only at the end of August do the mountains in the north block the sunrays, which reduces the potential sunshine duration by 2-3 hours. The polar day on the Kaffiøyra occurs until 25 August, and then the day quickly becomes shorter (e.g. 19.4 hours on 31 August). At low angles the sun is often covered by clouds.

The pattern of sunshine duration reveals a substantial influence of cloudi-ness and other phenomena that limit the influx of solar radiation (e.g. fog). In the period of 7 July – 31 August 2010 the recorded duration of sunshine was 259.8 h. The last eleven days of August were the sunniest (76.8 h), whereas the

Photo 3.9. Cumulus

(Photo by M. Kejna)

Photo 3.10. Cumulonimbus, Cumulus

and Altocumulus (Photo by R. Przybylak)

Photo 3.11. Orographic cloud Altocumulus lenticularis

(Photo by M. Kejna)

Photo 3.12. Orographic cloud Stratocumulus lenticularis


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cloudiest period was from 11 July to 20 July (24.5 h) – Table 3.4. The relative sunshine duration was merely 19.6%. The day with the longest sunshine dura-tion was 1 August 2010 (18.7 h). In the whole summer season of 2010 no sunshine was recorded on 14 days altogether (Fig. 3.3).

Table 3.4. Actual (h) and relative (%) sunshine duration on the Kaffiøyra Plain in the sum-mer seasons of 2010 and 2011

Period2010 2011

hours % hours %

7–10 Jul 15.4 16.0

11–20 Jul 24.5 10.2 88.9 37.0

21–31 Jul 55.4 21.0 58.2 22.0

1–10 Aug 37.9 15.8 54.6 22.8

11–20 Aug 49.8 20.8 76.2 31.8

21–31 Aug 76.8 29.1 11.0 4.2

Season 259.8 19.6 288.9 23.5

21 Jul–31 Aug 219.9 22.3 200.0 20.2

In the following year, in the period from 11 July to the end of August 2011, there were 288.9 hours of sunshine and the relative sunshine duration reached 23.5%. The period of 11 July – 20 July was particularly sunny (88.9 h), whereas the least sunshine was recorded in the last eleven days of August (11.0 h). The days with the longest sunshine duration were 5 July and 20 August (22.3 h in both cases), and there were 23 days without sun (Fig. 3.3).

Figure 3.3. Sunshine duration on the Kaffiøyra Plain in the summer seasons of 2010 and 2011

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In a diurnal course, most of the sunshine occurs at the highest positions of the sun over the horizon. For example, sunshine duration averaged 0.36 hours between 12:00 pm and 1:00 pm in the summer of 2010, and 0.27 hours be-tween 1:00 pm and 2:00 pm in 2011 (Fig. 3.4). At the lower culmination the plausibility of sunshine is lower because of the low clouds and the mountains which obstruct the sunrays.

Figure 3.4. Diurnal courses of sunshine duration on the Kaffiøyra Plain in 2010 and 2011 (21 Jul–31 Aug)

In the comparable period of 21 July – 31 August, sunshine duration was somewhat longer in 2010 (219.9 h, 22.3%) than in 2011 (200.0 h, 20.2%) – Table 3.4. This was due to the type of prevalent atmospheric circulation. In 2010, the longest sunshine duration occurred with NWa+Na+NEa patterns (8.4 h/day), and Cc+Bc and NWc+Nc+NEc (8.2 h/day). In 2011, on the other hand, the longest sunshine duration was connected with an easterly and south-westerly advection (Ea+SEa– 12.3 h/day, Ec+SEc– 10.8 h/day). The smallest amount of sunshine was recorded with Sc+SWc+Wc pattern (less than 1 h/day) – Table 3.2.

3.3. Solar radiation

The radiation balance of the surface defines the Earth’s energy budget, or the balance between the incoming and the outgoing shortwave and longwave ra-diation. When the balance is positive the surface becomes warm, and when losses predominate, it cools down. Therefore, the radiation balance affects the temperature of the surface and – indirectly – the temperature of the air and a number of other processes that occur in the atmosphere. It determines the heat balance of the surface, which in turn influences the thermal properties of the ground, such as the depth to which it will freeze over and thaw.

Measurements of solar radiation and the components of the radiation bal-ance have been performed on Spitsbergen in a few regions only. In the area of the Polish Polar Station at Hornsund, actinometric observations were carried

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out by such researchers as Kosiba (1960), Baranowski (1977), and Pereyma (1983). In 1980-1981, the heat balance (including the radiation balance) of the active surface was measured by Głowicki (1985), whereas in the summer season of 1985 actinometric observations in the area of the Werenskiöld Glacier were carried out by Brázdil et al. (1988). In a study from 1993, Niedźwiedź presented the results of albedo measurements, and in 1997 Styszyńska compiled all solar radiation data available at the time and calculated the amount of total radia-tion on the basis of monthly sums of sunshine duration and cloudiness. The data series were subsequently extended to 2006 (Marsz and Styszyńska 2007). In 2009, Budzik et al. presented the results of measurements of the compo-nents of the radiation balance, taken throughout a whole year at Hornsund and on the Hans Glacier.

In the summer of 1988 and 1990, Prošek and Brázdil (1994) carried out actinometric observations in other areas of Spitsbergen – Barentsburg and Reindalen. In 2001, Gluza and Siwek (2005) studied the variability of albedo in the area of Calypsostranda. A study of the spatial diversity of the total ra-diation in the Wedel Jarlsberg Land was then developed using the r.sun mod-el by Kryza et al. (2010). In NW Spitsbergen, observations of solar radiation are performed in Ny-Ålesund. Their results for 1981–1997 were collected in the study by Winther et al. (2002), and the relevant values were compared with satellite data (Ørbaek et al. 1999). Budzik (2004) analysed the Ny-Åle-sund records for 1989–2003, and Kupfer et al. (2003) the components of the radiation balance for the period from 1992 to 2001. These observations were gradually extended to include the neighbouring glaciers, and Arnold and Rees (2009) measured the total amount of radiation on the Midtre Lovén Glacier, using a LIDAR.

In the Kaffiøyra region (Oscar II Land) actinometric measurements, espe-cially as far as direct radiation is concerned, were initiated by Gabriel Wójcik in 1977 (Wójcik 1989) and continued during subsequent expeditions (Wójcik and Marciniak 1993, 2002). In 1999 the amount of albedo on the Waldemar Glacier was measured by Kejna (2000), whereas on the Aavatsmark Glacier the radia-tion balance in the spring season was determined by researchers from the Uni-versity of Silesia (Caputa et al. 2002; Budzik 2003). In 2010, studies of the spa-tial diversity of the radiation balance were commenced as part of the AWAKE project (Kejna et al. 2011).

3.3.1. Research methodology

The radiation balance consists of the sum of shortwave radiation (K*) and of longwave radiation (L*), and is described in the full spectrum by the following equations (Oke 1996):

Q* = K* + L*; K*= K− K; L* = L − LQ*= (K − K) + (L − L)where:Q* − net radiation balance,

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K* − net shortwave solar radiation,L* − net longwave solar radiation,K − incoming shortwave solar radiation (direct and diffuse),K − outgoing shortwave solar radiation, reflected by the active surface,L − incoming longwave radiation,L − outgoing longwave radiation, reflected by the active surface.

The net radiation balance (Q*) is diversified topoclimatically due to various characteristics of the surface, especially its albedo. Moreover, the transparency of the atmosphere changes with absolute height and the content of water va-pour and aerosols in the atmosphere.

The actinometric measurements in the area of Kaffiøyra were taken using a Kipp&Zonen CNR 4 net radiometer, which consisted of two pyranometers and two pyrgeometers, facing upwards and downwards. This set up was used to measure the energy balance of the incoming shortwave and longwave solar radiation, and the outgoing shortwave and longwave solar radiation, reflected by the active surface. All of the instruments were calibrated and verified. The specification of the instruments is shown in Table 3.5. The CNR 4 is also equipped with a Pt-100 temperature sensor, used for the correction of longwave radia-tion. The instruments were not vented.

Table 3.5. Specification of Net Radiometer CNR 4 (Kipp&Zonen)

Specification Pyranometer Pyrgeometer

Spectral range 300-2800 nm 4500-42000 nm

Sensitivity 5 to 20 µV/W.m-2 5 to 20 µV/ W.m-2

Temperature dependence of sensitivity (-10ºC to +40ºC) <4% <4%

Response time <18 s <18 s

Non-linearity <1% <1%

Operating temperature -40 - 80°C -40 to 80°C

International standards (WMO) Good Quality WMO Good Quality WMO

The measurements were taken in four locations (Fig. 1.1) with different sur-faces and absolute heights. In 2010 the sites were located as follows:– Kaffiøyra-Heggodden (KH) - on the terminal-lateral moraine of the Aavats-

mark Glacier, sparsely covered with tundra vegetation, 11.5 m a.s.l.– Front of the Waldemar Glacier (LW1) – on a recent ground moraine, 10 m

from the front of the glacier, 130 m a.s.l.– Firn field of the Waldemar Glacier (LW2) – in melting snow and glacial ice,

375 m a.s.l. A review of the results (Kejna et al. 2011) showed little differ-ences between the data from KH and LW1, therefore in 2011 the latter site was replaced by a measurement point in the tundra:

– Tundra (KHT) – in the tundra, 8 m a.s.l.

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At all sites, the sensors were situated at a height of 2 m over the ground. In 2010, recording was carried out from 16 July to 31 August, and in 2011 from 21 July to 31 August. The individual radiation flux values were registered using a Logbox SD data logger at an interval of 1 minute. The data series at the KH and KHT sites were complete, however at LW1 and LW2 breaks occurred in the periods of 20-24 July 2010, and 2-9 August 2011, respectively. The missing data was provided by records from the KH site, using the strong linear correlation between the two measurement points. Using the radiation flux data, the total amount of energy, both incoming and lost in the surface, was calculated for intervals of 1 minute, 1 hour and 1 day. The albedo, the net shortwave radiation and the net longwave radiation were determined, and then their net radiation balance.

3.3.2. Results

Shortwave radiationIn the parallel period of 21 July–31 August of both years, the mean diurnal sum of incoming shortwave radiation (K) in the Kaffiøyra was comparable, and amounted to 11.12 MJ.m-2 in 2010 and 11.07 MJ.m-2 in 2011 (Tab. 3.6). Simi-larly, at LW2 the respective values were 10.59 MJ.m-2 and 10.36 MJ.m-2. On the other hand, at LW1 Kwas 10.72 MJ.m-2 in 2010, and in 2011 (at KHT) – 11.14 MJ.m-2. There are no significant differences between the comparable sites, ex-cept for LW2, where the values of K were lower due to a greater cloudiness.

Table 3.6. Daily K (MJ.m-2) in the Kaffiøyra region in the summer seasons 2010 and 2011

Period2010 2011

KH LW1 LW2 KH KHT LW2

16–20 Jul 10.31 8.30 10.67

21–31 Jul 13.43 11.39 11.72 15.44 16.00 14.00

1–10 Aug 10.66 10.34 10.86 12.45 12.63 11.58

11–20 Aug 10.87 10.99 10.07 11.94 11.64 11.22

21–31 Aug 9.47 10.13 9.68 4.65 4.48 4.84

21 Jul–31 Aug 11.12 10.72 10.59 11.07 11.14 10.36

In the second half of the summer season, the amount of solar energy reach-ing the ground becomes smaller and smaller as the position of the sun lowers. For example, in 2011 at KH the sum of energy fell from 15.44 MJ.m-2, in the period of 21–31 July, to 4.65 MJ.m-2 towards the end of August. Besides, peri-ods of limited cloud amount were quite frequent, which created favourable conditions for the solar radiation to reach the ground, for example on 1 August 2010 the diurnal sum of K at KH was 22.9 MJ.m-2, and on 26 July 2011 even 25.51 MJ.m-2. On cloudy days the diurnal sums of K went below 5 MJ.m-2, dropping to, for example, 2.20 MJ.m-2 on 29 August 2011 (Fig. 3.5).

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Figure 3.5. Courses of cloudiness (0-10) and sunshine duration (hours) at the KH site and diur-nal sums of shortwave solar radiation (MJ.m-2) at KH, LW1, KHT and LW2, in the summer seasons of 2010 and 2011

The maximum intensity of total incoming solar radiation reached 709 W.m-2

at KH in 2010, and the following year even 881 W.m-2 (Tab. 3.7). It was also high at the other sites, reaching 882 W.m-2 at LW1 (2010), 881 W.m-2 at LW2 (2011) and 805 W.m-2 at KHT (2011).

A portion of solar radiation is reflected by the surface. The average diurnal sum of outgoing shortwave solar radiation (K) in the Kaffiøyra in the two pe-riods of 21 Jul – 31 Aug amounted to 1.66 MJ.m-2 in 2010, and 2.56 MJ.m-2 in 2011 (Tab. 3.8). Similar values (1.22 MJ.m-2 and 2.09 MJ.m-2) were recorded at LW1 in 2010 and at KHT in 2011. At LW2, however, the values of outgoing ra-diation were much greater, reaching 7.25 MJ.m-2 in 2010 and 6.05 MJ.m-2 in 2011.This was due to the different reflective characteristics of the active sur-faces, i.e. the moraine (KH, LW1), the tundra (KHT) and the snow and glacial ice (LW2).

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Table 3.7. Maximum of K (W.m-2) in the Kaffiøyra region in the summer seasons of 2010 and 2011

Period2010 2011


16–20 Jul 709 299 364

21–31 Jul 709 882 836 881 805 880

1–10 Aug 521 829 744 601 580 622

11–20 Aug 609 838 763 622 677 440

21–31 Aug 475 552 603 435 342 601

21 Jul–31 Aug 709 882 836 881 805 881

Table 3.8. Daily K (MJm-2) in the Kaffiøyra region in the summer seasons of 2010 and 2011

Period2010 2011


16–20 Jul 1.24 0.82 6.63

21–31 Jul 1.85 1.41 7.54 2.56 2.09 6.05

1–10 Aug 1.46 1.28 4.93 2.37 1.75 5.49

11–20 Aug 1.57 1.60 7.11 2.33 1.58 6.38

21–31 Aug 1.38 1.47 5.37 0.79 0.61 1.70

21 Jul–31 Aug 1.66 1.22 7.25 2.56 2.09 6.05

Table 3.9. Albedo (%) in the Kaffiøyra region in the summer seasons of 2010 and 2011

Period2010 2011


16–20 Jul 13.0 10.6 62.6

21–31 Jul 14.2 12.5 67.3 16.3 12.8 41.5

1–10 Aug 14.5 12.6 46.1 19.5 13.8 48.9

11–20 Aug 15.7 15.2 69.4 19.4 13.4 61.4

21–31 Aug 15.3 13.7 60.4 17.4 13.9 35.3

21 Jul–31 Aug 14.9 13.5 60.9 18.1 13.5 46.7

The amount of reflected radiation in relation to the amount of incoming radiation is called an albedo. At the KH site the average albedo was 14.9% in 2010 and 18.1% in 2011. It was slightly lower at LW1 and KHT (13.5% at each site) (Tab. 3.9). The highest value of albedo was recorded on the snow/ice cover

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of the firn field of the Waldemar Glacier (LW2). However, there were some dif-ferences in the analysed seasons: in 2010 the albedo reached 60.9%, whereas in 2011 it fell to 46.7%.This was connected with the degree of ablation, which caused the winter snow to melt quickly in 2011, and the uncovered blue ice was built up by dark rock material from the surrounding hills. Also, in 2010 summer snowfalls were more frequent, which increased the surface albedo (Fig. 3.6). After the snowfalls the albedo increased to 80-90%. Comparable results of al-bedo measurements on the firn field of the Waldemar Glacier were obtained by Kejna in 1999 (Kejna 2000). At that time, the albedo changed in the range from 40 to 75%, depending on the snowfalls and the extent of “contamination” of the glacier’s surface by dust carried from the surrounding hills.

Figure 3.6. Courses of albedo in the Kaffiøyra region in the summer seasons of 2010 and 2011

Longwave radiationThe ground surface emits longwave radiation (L) to the atmosphere and the in-tensity of the radiation depends on the temperature of the active surface. The average diurnal sum of the upward terrestrial radiation, L, at the KH site amount-ed to 30.25 MJ.m-2 in 2010, and 30.30 MJ.m-2 in 2011 (Tab. 3.10). Higher values were recorded at KHT (31.28 MJ.m-2), and lower ones at LW1 (29.86 MJ.m-2) and on the firn field of LW2 (30.05 MJ.m-2 in 2010 and 28.54 MJ.m-2 in 2011).

A substantial portion of infrared radiation emitted from the ground surface is absorbed by the atmosphere and – in particular – water vapour, carbon dio-xide and other greenhouse gases. In this way the atmosphere becomes a sec-ondary source of longwave radiation. Some of the energy is returned to the surface as downward atmospheric radiation (L). The average diurnal sum of L reaches 27-28 MJ.m-2, for example, at the KH site it was 27.26 MJ.m-2 in 2010, and 27.01 MJ.m-2 in 2011 (Tab. 3.11).

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Table 3.10. Fluxes of L (MJ.m-2) in the Kaffiøyra region in the summer seasons of 2010 and 2011

Period2010 2011


16–20 Jul 30.85 30.05 30.47

21–31 Jul 30.87 30.24 30.28 31.09 31.93 28.47

1–10 Aug 30.70 30.21 30.14 30.70 31.26 28.54

11–20 Aug 29.55 29.26 29.80 29.55 31.41 28.64

21–31 Aug 29.84 29.72 29.97 29.84 30.54 28.51

21 Jul–31 Aug 30.25 29.86 30.05 30.30 31.28 28.54

Table 3.11. Fluxes of L (MJ.m-2) in the Kaffiøyra region in the summer seasons of 2010 and 2011

Period2010 2011


16–20 Jul 29.30 29.27 29.09

21–31 Jul 27.82 28.20 28.11 27.83 28.20 27.37

1–10 Aug 28.28 28.37 28.24 28.28 27.12 26.38

11–20 Aug 25.83 26.23 26.32 25.83 27.45 26.98

21–31 Aug 26.13 26.22 26.02 26.13 29.41 28.70

21 Jul–31 Aug 27.26 27.25 27.17 27.01 28.08 27.39

Radiation balance

In the Kaffiøyra region, between the moraine sites (KH, LW1) and the Waldemar Glacier (LW2) there are significant differences in net shortwave solar radiation (K*). In 2010 at KH the average amount of K* was +9.56 MJ.m-2, and in 2011 +9.07 MJ.m-2 (Tab. 3.12). Similar values were recorded at LW1: +9.09 MJ.m-2 (2010) and KHT +9.64 MJ.m-2 (2011). The much less favourable values of K* were observed in the snow and ice areas, ranging from +4.31 MJ.m-2at LW2 in 2010 to +5.40 MJ.m-2 in 2011. The reason for this was, firstly, the differences in the amount of incoming solar radiation due to cloudiness in the upper parts of the glacier, and chiefly the high albedo of that area.

The average values of net longwave solar radiation (L*) are negative and the greatest losses of radiation occurred on the coast: -3.05 MJ.m-2 in 2010 and -3.29 MJ.m-2 in 2011 at KH, and -3.20 MJ.m-2 at KHT in 2011(Tab. 3.13).The low-est values were recorded at LW1 (-2.61 MJ.m-2 in 2010) and at LW2 (2.89 MJ.m-2 in 2010 and -1.14 MJ.m-2 in 2011). Particularly low levels of longwave radiation occurred on sunny days, when the amount of radiation returned by heated

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surfaces was much greater than the amount of pure downward radiation from a clear, cloudless sky. On the other hand, the values of L* at LW2 and cloudy weather were small and, on some days, L even exceeded the surface energy losses (L* became positive).

Table 3.12. Net shortwave radiation values (K*, MJ.m-2) in the Kaffiøyra region in the summer seasons of 2010 and 2011

Period2010 2011


16–20 Jul 9.06 7.49 4.04

21–31 Jul 11.58 9.98 4.18 12.88 13.92 7.94

1–10 Aug 9.20 9.06 5.93 10.08 10.88 6.09

11–20 Aug 9.30 9.40 2.96 9.61 10.06 4.84

21–31 Aug 8.09 8.66 4.31 3.86 3.87 3.14

21 Jul–31 Aug 9.56 9.28 4.34 9.07 9.64 5.40

Table 3.13. Net longwave radiation values (L*, MJ.m-2) in the Kaffiøyra region in the sum-mer seasons of 2010 and 2011

Period2010 2011


16–20 Jul -1.55 -0.78 -1.38

21–31 Jul -3.05 -2.04 -2.18 -3.27 -3.73 -1.10

1–10 Aug -2.42 -1.84 -1.90 -2.42 -4.14 -2.15

11–20 Aug -3.72 -3.03 -3.48 -3.72 -3.95 -1.66

21–31 Aug -3.71 -3.50 -3.95 -3.71 -1.13 0.19

21 Jul–31 Aug -3.23 -2.61 -2.89 -3.29 -3.20 -1.14

The surface net radiation balance (Q*), encompassing all energy fluxes across the whole spectrum, was the most favourable in the moraine area at the front of the Waldemar Glacier (LW1 +6.67 MJ.m-2 in 2011 and KH +6.45 MJ.m-2 in 2010 and 5.78 MJ.m-2 in 2011, Tab. 3.14). The least favourable balance oc-curred on the snowy firn field of the Waldemar Glacier (1.58 MJ.m-2 in 2010 and 4.36 MJ.m-2 in 2011).The almost tripled value of Q* in 2011 resulted from a lower albedo. In the analysed period, considerable changes of Q* occurred there, due to the cloudiness. On sunny days, the net radiation balance for the moraine surface exceeded 10-15 MJ.m-2, for example, on 28 July 2010 Q* at KH was 13.6 MJ.m-2 (while K* was 18.9 MJ.m-2, and L* -5.3 MJ.m-2), at LW1 it was 16.5 MJ.m-2 (while K* was 21.2 MJ.m-2, and L* -4.7 MJ.m-2) (Figs 4 and 5). On the

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same day, the net radiation balance for the snow/ice surface (LW2) was only 2.5 MJ.m-2 (while K* was 7.6 MJ.m-2, and L* -5.1 MJ.m-2). A higher value of Q* at LW2 (6.0 MJ.m-2) was recorded on 3 August when the sky was overcast.

Table 3.14. Surface radiation balance values (Q*, MJ.m-2) in the Kaffiøyra region in the summer seasons of 2010 and 2011

Period2010 2011


16–20 Jul 7.51 6.70 2.66

21–31 Jul 8.53 7.94 2.00 9.62 10.19 6.84

1–10 Aug 6.78 7.22 4.03 7.67 6.74 3.93

11–20 Aug 5.58 6.37 -0.52 5.89 6.10 3.18

21–31 Aug 4.38 5.17 0.37 0.14 2.74 3.33

21 Jul–31 Aug 6.32 6.67 1.46 5.78 6.44 4.36

In sunny weather the highest values of Q* occurred on the moraine surfaces (KH and LW1) and in the tundra (KHT), whereas for the snow and glacial ice-covered surfaces the net radiation balance was greatly influenced by longwave radiation (L*), whose highest values coincided with cloudy days.

Figure 3.7. Course of surface radiation balance (Q*), net shortwave radiation (K*) and net longwave radiation (L*) at KH in the summer seasons of 2010 and 2011

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At all measurement points the surface radiation balance gradually fell to the point of negative values occurring at LW2, and even at KH, which was con-nected with the decreasing influx of solar radiation and the end of the polar day (Fig. 3.7). This marks the end of the time of positive net radiation balance of the surface, Q*, which – according to Budzik (2003) – begins on the neighbouring Aavatsmark Glacier at the end of April and the beginning of May.

Changes in the structure of the radiation balance in diurnal cycles

In a diurnal pattern of radiation balance components, the influence of the chang-ing solar altitude can be observed. The obtained diurnal cycles of all fluxes are symmetrical to the solar noon (Fig. 3.8), with the flux of K reaching its highest mean values at midday hours, for example in 2010 at KH: 278.7 W.m-2, LW1: 275.9 W.m-2, and LW2: 295.2 W.m-2. Similar values were recorded in 2011: at KH 239.0 W.m-2, KHT 235.8 W.m-2 and LW2 182.6 W.m-2. Around midnight the values fell respectively to: 27.2 W.m-2, 19.2 W.m-2 and 23.2 W.m-2 in 2010 and to 25.5 W.m-2, 23.9 W.m-2 and 15.4 W.m-2 in 2011. The albedo changes in a diur-nal cycle with the solar altitude; it was the lowest at the upper culmination of the sun (in 2010 KH-12.5%, LW1-12.2% and LW2 – 55.2%, and in 2011: KH 13.3%, KHT 12.1% and LW2 44.1%). The fluxes of longwave radiation L and L in a di-urnal cycle increased with the temperature of the surface and of the atmosphere.

Figure 3.8. Average courses of radiation fluxes (K, K, L, L) and surface radiation balance (Q*), net shortwave radiation (K*) and net longwave radiation (L*) in the Kaffiøyra in the period of 21 July–31 August 2010 and 2011

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The averaged net shortwave radiation K* reached its peaks at midday (in 2010: KH +243.5 W.m-2, LW1 +240.2 W.m-2, LW2 +124.0 W.m-2, and in 2011: KH +200.0 W.m-2, KHT +207.2 W.m-2, and LW2 +99.7 W.m-2) (Fig. 3.9). At the lower culmination of the sun K* decreased to approx. 10-20 W.m-2. The net longwave radiation L* was negative and reached its peaks in the afternoon (in 2010: KH -50.0 W.m-2, LW1 -40.1 W.m-2 and LW2 -47.5 W.m-2, and in 2011: KH - 44.6 W.m-2, KHT -51.0 W.m-2 and LW2 -7.9 W.m-2).The total net radiation balance of the active surface Q* was the highest during midday hours, particu-larly on the moraine (in 2010: KH +194.8 W.m-2 and LW1 +201.5 W.m-2, and in: KH +155.4 W.m-2), and in the tundra (KHT +160.9 W.m-2). The snow/ice surface, on the other hand, showed a much less favourable balance (in 2010: LW2 +79.1 W.m-2 and 92.3 W.m-2 in 2011). At low solar altitudes Q* became nega-tive, and in 2010 amounted to -6.8 W.m-2 (KH), -5.4 W.m-2 ( LW1) and -19.4 W.m-2

(LW2) (Fig. 3.10). In 2011 Q* was -7.4 W.m-2 (KH) and -3.1 W.m-2 (KHT). It is in-teresting to note the positive values of Q* at the LW2 site during ‘night’ hours in 2011. The reason for that was the enormous cloudiness that occurred during the ‘night’ of the last ten days of August that year, while the values of Q* were quite high on the negative side. With a high degree of cloudiness the incoming longwave radiation Lrises, which increases the long-term balance of L* and Q*. In polar regions the occurrence of clouds stimulates growth in the tempera-ture of the ground-atmosphere system. It is the so-called ‘radiation paradox’ (Bintanja and van den Broeke 1995). Clouds limit the flux of effective radiation, whereas the downward atmospheric radiation increases.

Figure 3.9. Average diurnal course of surface radiation balance in the Kaffiøyra region in the summer seasons of 2010 and 2011

On the basis of the published results concerning the components of the ra-diation balance of Spitsbergen (Winther et al. 2002; Kupfer et al. 2003; Budzik 2004; Gluza and Siwek 2005; Marsz and Styszyńska 2007; Budzik et al. 2009; Kejna et al. 2011), it was concluded that the values obtained in the Kaffiøyra region were similar. Comparing the values for August the maximum amounts of radiation on Spitsbergen in August ranged from 626.6 W.m-2 in Hornsund (in 2008) to 928 W.m-2 at Ny-Ålesund (1993–2001). In August 2010 in the Kaffiøyra

73

the maximum value of K was 608.7 W.m-2 and 622.2 W.m-2 in 2011. In 2010, the value at LW1 was 838.1 W.m-2 and at LW2 – 762.7 W.m-2 in 2010, and 621.2 W.m-2 in 2011, whereas at KHT it was 676.5 W.m-2 in 2011.The monthly sums of K in Hornsund amounted to 300.3 MJ.m-2 (in the years 1978–2006), and at Ny-Ålesund – 267.6 MJ.m-2 (in the years 1989-2003). In the analysed years, the sums at KH amounted to 319.5 MJ.m-2 (2010) and 295.0 W.m-2 (2011). On the glaciers the values of K are higher, for example 363 MJ.m-2 (2008) and 353 MJ.m-2 (2009) on the Hans Glacier, 361.5 MJ.m-2 (1957-1960) on the Werenskiöld Glacier, and 315.8 MJ.m-2 (2010) and 281.2 MJ.m-2 at the Waldemar Glacier (LW2).

The albedo values depend on the local characteristics of the surface. At KH the albedo was 15.2% in 2010 and 18.7% in 2011, and in the tundra (KHT)13.7% in 2011. Comparable albedos occurred in Hornsund (16% in 2008), Calyp-sostranda (8.5-21.2%), or at Ny-Ålesund (16.3% in the years of 1993-2001). The albedo on glaciers was definitely higher and reached 58.7% at the Waldemar Glacier (LW2) in 2010, and 48.4% in 2011. Similar levels were also reached on the Hans Glacier (58% in 2008).

The radiation balance (including shortwave and longwave radiation) in the Kaffiøyra region was considerably high, as compared to the results obtained for Spitsbergen. At KH it was 171.8 MJ.m-2 in 2010 and 137.2 MJ.m-2 in 2011. It was also very high in the tundra, reaching 158.6 MJ.m-2 in 2011, whereas in Horn-sund it was 131 MJ.m-2, and at Ny-Ålesund only 120.4 MJ.m-2. On the glaciers it was much lower, and amounted to 39.1 MJ.m-2 at LW2 in 2010 and 107.1 MJ.m-2

in 2011, whereas in August 2008 the value of Q* on the Hans Glacier reached 131 MJ.m-2.

The analysis demonstrates significant differences between the summer sea-sons of 2010 and 2011. The amount of energy that reaches the surface affects the patterns of all other meteorological elements and influences the condition of the environment, especially the mass balance of the glaciers, the ground temperature and others. The Arctic ecosystem of Spitsbergen is particularly sen-sitive to any such disturbances (Aguilera et al. 1999; Svendsen et al. 2002).

References

Aguilera J., Karsten U., Lippert H., Vogele B., Philipp E., Hanelt D., Wiencke C., 1999, Effects of solar radiation on growth, photosynthesis and respiration of marine macroalgae from the Arctic, Marine Ecol. Progress Ser., 191, 109–119.

Arnold N., Rees G., 2009, Effects of digital elevation model spatial resolution on distributed calculations of solar radiation loading on a High Arctic glacier, J. Glaciol., 55 (194), 973-984.

Baranowski S., 1977, The subpolar glaciers of Spitsbergen seen against the climate of this region, Acta Univ. Wratisl., Results of Investigations of the Polish Scientific Spitsbergen Expeditions, 410, III, 94 pp.

Beesley J. A., Moritz R. E., 1998, Toward an explanation of the annual cycle of cloudiness over the Arctic Ocean, J. Climate, 12, 395–415.

Bintanja R., van den Broeke M.R., 1996, The surface energy balance of Antarctic snow and blue ice, J. Appl. Meteorol., 34, 902–926.

Brázdil R., Chmal H., Kidawa J., Klementowski J., Konečny M., Pereyma J., Piasecki J., Prošek P., Sobik M., Szczepankiewicz-Szmyrka A., 1988, Results of investigation of the geographical research expedition Spitsbergen 1985, Univerzita J.E. Purkynĕ, Brno, 337 pp.

74

Budzik T., 2003, Struktura bilansu promieniowania słonecznego na obszarze lodowca Aavats-marka w dniach 13.IV–04.V.2002, Probl. Klimatol. Pol., 13, 151–160.

Budzik T., 2004, Struktura bilansu promieniowania słonecznego w Ny-Ålesund (NW Spitsber-gen) w latach 1989– 2003, Probl. Klimatol. Pol., 14, 189–197.

Budzik T., Sikora S., Araźny A., 2009, Przebieg roczny salda promieniowania powierzchni czyn-nej w Hornsundzie (V 2008–IV 2009), Probl. Klimatol. Pol., 19, 233–246.

Caputa Z., Grabiec M., Lulek A., 2002, Struktura salda promieniowania na Lodowcu Aavats-marka w dniach 11–30.04.2001 r., [in:] Kostrzewski A., Rachlewicz G. (eds.), Funkcjono-wanie i monitoring geoekosystemów obszarów polarnych, Poznań, 96–103.

Førland, E. J., Hanssen–Bauer, I., and Nordli, P.Ø., 1997, Climate Statistics and Long-Term Series of Temperature and Precipitation at Svalbard and Jan Mayen, Norwegian Meteorol. Inst. Report, 21/97 KLIMA, 72 pp.

Gluza A., Siwek K., 2005, Zróżnicowanie albedo Calypsostrandy (Zachodni Spitsbergen) w se-zonie letnim 2001, Probl. Klimatol. Pol., 15, 113–117.

Głowicki B., 1985, Radiation conditions in the Hornsund area (Spitsbergen), Polish Polar Re-search 6 (3), 301–318.

Kejna M., 2000, Albedo of the Waldemar glacier surface (Spitsbergen) in summer season 1999. Polish Polar Studies, 27th International Polar Symposium, Toruń, 181–190.

Kejna M., Przybylak R., Araźny A., 2011, Spatial differentiation of radiation balance in the Kaffiøyra region (Svalbard, Arctic) in the summer season 2010, Probl. Klimatol. Pol., 21, 173–186.

Kosiba A., 1960, Some of results of glaciological investigations in SW-Spitsbergen, Zesz. Nauk. Uniw. Wrocł., B4, 30 pp.

Kukla G.J., Robinson D.A., 1988, Variability of summer cloudiness in the Arctic Basin, Meteorol. Atmos. Phys., 39, 42–50.

Kupfer H., Herber A., König–Langlo G., 2003, Radiation Measurements and Synoptic Observa-tions at Ny-Ålesund, Report is a continuing work basing of the diploma thesis „Variation der Strahlungsgrößen und meteorologischen Parameter an der BSRN-Station Ny–Ålesund/Spitzbergen 1993–2002“ by Heike Kupfer, Friedrich–Schiller–University in Jena, 115 pp.

Kryza M., Szymanowski M, Migała K., 2010, Spatial information on total solar radiation: Ap-plication and evaluation of the r.sun model for the Wedel Jarlsberg Land, Svalbard, Polish Polar Res., 31, 17–32.

Marsz A. A., 2007, Zachmurzenie i usłonecznienie, [in:] Marsz A. A., Styszyńska A. (eds.), Kli-mat rejonu Polskiej Stacji Polarnej w Hornsundzie, Gdynia, 87–113.

Marsz A. A., Styszyńska A., 2007, Klimat rejonu Polskiej Stacji Polarnej w Hornsundzie. Wydawnictwo Akademii Morskiej w Gdyni, Gdynia, 376 pp.

Niedźwiedź T., 1993, The main factors forming the climate of the Hornsund (Spitsbergen), Zesz. Nauk. Uniw. Jagiell., MXCVIII, 94, 49–63.

Nordino M., Georgiadis T., 2003, Cloud type and cloud cover effects on the surface radiative balance at several polar sites, Theor. Appl. Climatol., 74, 203–215.

Oke T.R., 1996, Boundary layer climates. Routledge, London New York, 464 pp. Ørbaek J.B., Hisdal V., Svaasand L.E., 1999, Radiation climate variability in Svalbard: surface

and satelite observations, Polar Res., 18(2), 127–134.Prošek P., Brázdil R., 1994, Energy balance of the tundra at the Spitsbergen Island (Svalbard)

in the summer seasons of 1988 and 1990, Scripta Fac. Sci. Nat. Univ. Masaryk. Brun., 24 (Geography), 43–60.

Przybylak R., 1992, Stosunki termiczno–wilgotnościowe na tle warunków cyrkulacyjnych w Hornsundzie (Spitsbergen) w okresie 1978–1983, Dok. Geograf., 2, 105 pp.

Przybylak R., 2003, The Climate of the Arctic. Atmospheric and Oceanographic Sciences Library, 26, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht/Boston/London, 288 pp.

Pereyma J., 1983, Climatological problems of the Hornsund area, Spitsbergen, Acta Univ. Wratisl., No 714, Results of Investigations of the Polish Scientific Expeditions, vol. V, Wrocław, 134 pp.

Styszyńska A., 1997, Valuation of the monthly sum of the total sun radiation in Hornsund (SW Spitsbergen), [in:] Repelewska–Pękalowa J., Pękala K. (eds.), Spitsbergen Geographical Ex-peditions of M. Curie–Skłodowska University, UMCS Lublin, 163–172.

Svendsen H., Beszczynska–Møller A., Hagen J.O., Lefauconnier B., Tverberg V., Gerland S., Ørbøk J.B., Bischof K., Papucci C., Zajaczkowski M., Azzolini R., Bruland O., Wiencke C., Winther J–G., Dallmann W., 2002, The physical environment of Kongsfjorden–Krossfjorden, an Arctic fjord system in Svalbard, Polar Res., 21(1), 133–166.

75

Walsh J.E., Chapman W.L., 1998, Arctic cloud-radiation-temperature associations in observa-tional data and atmospheric reanalyses, J. Climate, 11, 3030–3043.

Vavrus S.J., Bhatt U.S., Alexeev V.A, 2011, Factors influencing simulated changes in future Arctic cloudiness, J. Climate, 11, 3030–3043.

Winther J–G., Godtliebsen F., Gerland S., Isachsen P.E., 2002, Surface albedo in Ny–Ålesund, Svalbard: variability and trends during 1981–1997, Global Planet. Change, 32, 127–139.

Wójcik G., 1989, Przeźroczystość atmosfery i natężenie bezpośredniego promieniowania słonecznego w Arktyce i Antarktydzie. XVI Sympozjum Polarne, Toruń, 19–20 września 1989 r., 149–151.

Wójcik G., Marciniak K., 1993, Dzienny przebieg bezpośredniego promieniowania słonecznego w lecie na Spitsbergenie, [in:] Działalność naukowa Profesora Władysława Gorczyńskiego i jej kontynuacja, Sympozjum w Uniwersytecie M. Kopernika, Toruń 16–17 września 1993 r., Streszczenia referatów, 121–123.

Wójcik G., Marciniak K., 2002, Przezroczystość atmosfery i natężenia bezpośredniego promie-niowania słonecznego na Równinie Kaffiöyra (NW Spitsbergen) w lecie 1979 roku, Probl. Klimatol. Pol., 8, 105–110.

77

Chapter 4

THERMAL CONDITIONS

4.1. Ground temperature

4.1.1. Introduction

Ground temperature is just one of the climate controls determining the climate of a given region. It exhibits spatial diversity depending on the state and char-acter of the surface and its thermal properties, such as the ability to absorb and conduct heat, and on the thermal capacity of the ground, which includes both its permanent components and the air and water content. In polar areas, solar radiation reaching the ground has to penetrate the barrier of frozen surfaces. Overcoming the boundary temperature of 0oC requires large amounts of heat, which is used to melt the ice, therefore the surface (layer), which has the transi-tion temperature, at which water changes its state to solid (ice) or vice versa, is often referred to as the ‘zero-curtain effect’. In the heat balance of the ground sensible heat is just as significant as latent heat, generated or consumed in phase transition processes. Infiltration of water brings heat into the ground and substantially increases its heat conductivity. Therefore, heat permeates deeper in wet ground, but this kind of ground warms up less and gives up less heat than dry ground (Kejna et al. 1993).

The literature dealing with ground temperature studies on the Kaffiøyra Plain is plentiful and can be found as references in articles describing general weather conditions during specific expeditions, for example: Leszkiewicz 1977; Wójcik 1982; Marciniak and Przybylak 1983, 1991; Wójcik and Marciniak 1983; Kejna and Dzieniszewski 1993; Wójcik et al. 1997 and Araźny 1999, 2002. De-tailed studies of the ground temperature have also been published by, for ex-ample: Wójcik and Marciniak 1987; Wójcik et al. 1988, 1990; Kejna 1990, 1991; Kejna et al. 1993; Marciniak et al. 1991; Araźny 2001, and Przybylak et al. 2010.

In the summer seasons of 2010 and 2011, studies of the spatial diversity of ground temperature were continued on the basis of sites located in three eco-topes on the Kaffiøyra Plain, all characteristic of the polar zone (terminology after Wójcik and Marciniak 1987): on a sandy beach, on the flat top of the ter-minal-lateral moraine of the Aavatsmark Glacier and in the tundra:– The beach site (P) is located on a coastal accumulation plain out of reach of

the strongest tidal motions of the Greenland Sea (Photos 1.5 and 1.6 in Sec-tion 1.2). The beach consists of sand and gravel, which is characterised by low thermal conductivity and thermal capacity, and high albedo. The high degree of porosity of sand and gravel contributes to substantial drying-up of the surface layer of the ground.

– The tundra site (T) is located on an outwash fan, 70% covered with tundra plants, which protrudes from the morainal arc of the Aavatsmark Glacier.

78

The ground at this site is moist (Photos 1.5 and 1.8 in Section 1.2).– The moraine site (M) is located on the terminal-lateral moraine of the Aavats-

mark Glacier, which consists of sandy clay, gravelly clay and loamy clay. The surface of the moraine is dark and thus has a low albedo. It is covered with vegetation to approximately 20% (Photos 1.5 and 1.7 in Section 1.2).

4.1.2. The course of ground temperature

In the summer seasons of 2010 and 2011 the values of ground temperature in all studied ecotopes were associated with the courses of the prevailing mete-orological conditions. The thermal conditions of the ground depended on the heat balance of its surface, in which the most important factor is the radiation balance. Moreover, ground temperature is affected by air temperature, sun-shine duration, cloudiness and precipitation. All these meteorological variables have been described in detail elsewhere in this work (Chapters 2-5).

Other significant factors include the albedo of the surface, the vegetation cov-er, thermal characteristics and humidity of the ground, and the thickness of the permafrost. Results of measurements conducted for many years have demonstra-ted that the active layer of the permafrost at the end of the summer season is the thickest on the moraine (> 2 m), and the thinnest on the beach (a little more than 1 m) (Araźny and Grześ 2000). Observations carried out in the most recent seasons have verified these findings. At the end of summer in 2010 and 2011, the maxi-mum thaw depth was measured on the beach (131 and 130 cm, respectively), in the tundra (140 and 157 cm) and on the moraine (213 and 198 cm).

It is the surface layer of the ground that undergoes temperature fluctuations the most, both throughout the day and on a daily basis (see Appendixes 5 and 6, and Figs. 4.1 and 4.2). These fluctuations are caused by a quicker exchange of heat between the ground and the near-ground layer of air. Comparing the ground temperature in the analysed ecotopes it was observed that the average temperature at a depth of 1 cm (i.e. in the active layer) in the comparable pe-riod (21 July – 31 August), was the highest on the beach and on the moraine. In the summers, the temperature was 5.8 and 5.9oC at the respective sites in 2010, and 7.3 and 7.2oC in 2011. The lowest temperature of the two analysed seasons at 1 cm below ground level was in the tundra (5.5 and 6.7oC). This di-versity was due to the poor heat conductivity and limited capacity of the sand and gravel deposits on the beach and the morainal forms on the moraine, which enabled warming up of the surface ground layers, whereas in the tundra the vegetation prevents the ground from such warming. In both summer sea-sons, the temperatures recorded at all sites at a depth of 1 cm (Tab. 4.1, Figs. 4.1 and 4.2) show that the first and second ten-day periods of July were the warmest. In 2010, in the second ten-day period of August the ground was sub-ject to substantial cooling as a result of an advection of cold air from the north. On 16 August 2010, the mean diurnal temperature reached only 0.8oC in the tundra, 1.0oC on the moraine and 1.1oC on the beach. Later, in the period from 19 to 24 August, the area of the Forlandsundet came under the influence of

79

Tab

le 4

.1. M

ean

ten-

day

tem

per

atur

es (

°C)

of t

he g

roun

d in

sel

ecte

d e

coto

pes

on

the

Kaf

fiøy

ra a

t 4

tim

es o

f ob

serv

atio

n (0

1:00

, 07:

00, 1

3:00

, an

d 1

9:00

LM

T) a

nd d

iurn

al m

eans

(m

) in

the

per

iod

fro

m 7

Jul

y to

02

Sep

tem

ber

201

0

Beac

h1

cm5

cm10

cm

20 c

m50

cm

100

cm

Peri

od1

713

19m

17

1319

m1

713

19m

17

1319

m1

713

19m

17

1319

m

11–2

0 Ju

l6.

77.

29.

18.

37.

86.

46.

78.

38.

07.

46.

46.

37.

67.

67.

05.

95.

35.

96.

05.

82.

92.

82.

82.

82.

80.

10.

20.

20.

20.

2

21–3

1 Ju

l5.

46.

08.

77.

97.

05.

45.

77.

87.

56.

65.

55.

47.

17.

26.

35.

34.

65.

36.

05.

32.

82.

82.

82.

82.

80.

30.

30.

30.

30.

3

1–10

Aug

5.3

6.3

9.0

6.9

6.8

5.2

5.8

7.8

6.7

6.4

5.4

5.4

6.9

6.6

6.1

5.2

4.6

5.2

5.7

5.2

3.0

3.0

2.9

2.9

3.0

0.6

0.5

0.5

0.6

0.5

11–2

0 A

ug1.

53.

96.

34.

84.

11.

72.

75.

14.

53.

52.

22.

64.

44.

43.

42.

22.

02.

83.

52.

61.

71.

61.

61.

61.

60.

40.

40.

40.

40.

4

21–3

1 A

ug2.

94.

77.

75.

55.

23.

23.

66.

05.

44.

63.

63.

45.

15.

24.

33.

73.

13.

54.

13.

62.

42.

42.

32.

32.

40.

60.

60.

60.

70.

6

21 J

ul–3

1 A

ug3.

85.

27.

96.

35.

83.

94.

46.

76.

15.

34.

24.

25.

95.

95.

04.

13.

64.

24.

84.

22.

52.

52.

42.

42.

40.

50.

50.

50.

50.

5

7 Ju

l–2

Sep

4.5

5.9

8.5

6.9

6.5

4.6

5.1

7.3

6.7

5.9

4.8

4.8

6.4

6.4

5.6

4.6

4.1

4.7

5.2

4.6

2.6

2.6

2.5

2.5

2.5

0.4

0.4

0.4

0.4

0.4

Tund

ra1

cm5

cm10

cm

20 c

m50

cm

100

cm

Peri

od1

713

19m

17

1319

m1

713

19m

17

1319

m1

713

19m

17

1319

m

11–2

0 Ju

l6.

57.

18.

57.

97.

56.

66.

47.

37.

77.

06.

56.

17.

07.

46.

75.

85.

45.

76.

25.

83.

93.

83.

83.

83.

81.

61.

61.

61.

71.

6

21–3

1 Ju

l5.

66.

17.

87.

86.

85.

85.

56.

97.

26.

45.

85.

46.

67.

16.

25.

34.

85.

45.

95.

33.

63.

53.

53.

63.

61.

71.

81.

81.

91.

8

1–10

Aug

5.2

6.1

8.1

6.7

6.5

5.5

5.4

6.8

6.6

6.1

5.6

5.3

6.5

6.5

6.0

5.2

4.7

5.3

5.7

5.2

3.8

3.7

3.6

3.7

3.7

2.0

2.0

2.0

2.0

2.0

11–2

0 A

ug1.

83.

35.

24.

43.

72.

62.

64.

24.

53.

52.

72.

43.

94.

33.

32.

62.

13.

03.

52.

82.

22.

12.

02.

12.

11.

31.

31.

21.

21.

2

21–3

1 A

ug3.

14.

06.

55.

24.

74.

03.

75.

35.

44.

64.

03.

64.

95.

34.

44.

03.

34.

04.

64.

03.

13.

03.

03.

03.

01.

71.

71.

71.

71.

7

21 J

ul–3

1 A

ug4.

04.

96.

96.

05.

54.

54.

35.

85.

95.

14.

54.

25.

55.

85.

04.

33.

74.

45.

04.

43.

23.

13.

03.

13.

11.

71.

71.

71.

71.

7

7 Ju

l–2

Sep

4.6

5.4

7.4

6.5

6.0

5.0

4.8

6.2

6.4

5.6

5.0

4.7

5.9

6.2

5.4

4.7

4.1

4.8

5.3

4.7

3.3

3.2

3.2

3.3

3.2

1.6

1.6

1.6

1.6

1.6

Mor

aine

1 cm

5 cm

10 c

m20

cm

50 c

m10

0 cm

Peri

od1

713

19m

17

1319

m1

713

19m

17

1319

m1

713

19m

17

1319

m

11–2

0 Ju

l6.

87.

38.

88.

37.

87.

57.

38.

48.

47.

97.

77.

38.

08.

37.

87.

97.

47.

78.

17.

87.

47.

27.

17.

17.

26.

06.

06.

05.

96.

0

21–3

1 Ju

l5.

56.

28.

87.

77.

06.

06.

18.

17.

77.

06.

56.

17.

47.

66.

96.

76.

16.

87.

46.

86.

16.

15.

96.

06.

05.

04.

95.

05.

05.

0

1–10

Aug

5.2

6.3

8.9

6.5

6.7

5.6

6.0

8.1

6.8

6.6

6.1

5.9

7.3

7.1

6.6

6.4

5.9

6.8

7.0

6.5

6.0

5.9

5.8

5.9

5.9

4.8

4.8

4.8

4.8

4.8

11–2

0 A

ug2.

03.

86.

54.

84.

32.

53.

15.

54.

94.

03.

43.

24.

94.

94.

13.

53.

14.

04.

63.

83.

73.

63.

43.

63.

63.

23.

23.

23.

13.

2

21–3

1 A

ug3.

54.

48.

05.

65.

44.

24.

27.

06.

15.

44.

94.

46.

16.

25.

45.

24.

55.

26.

05.

24.

94.

74.

64.

64.

73.

83.

83.

83.

83.

8

21 J

ul–3

1 A

ug4.

05.

28.

06.

25.

94.

64.

97.

26.

45.

85.

34.

96.

46.

55.

85.

54.

95.

76.

35.

65.

25.

14.

95.

05.

14.

24.

24.

24.

24.

2

7 Ju

l–2

Sep

4.7

5.8

8.4

6.8

6.4

5.3

5.5

7.7

7.0

6.4

5.9

5.6

6.9

7.0

6.4

6.1

5.6

6.3

6.8

6.2

5.7

5.6

5.5

5.6

5.6

4.6

4.6

4.6

4.6

4.6

80

Table 4.2. M

ean ten-day tem

peratures (°C

) of the ground in selected

ecotopes on the K

affiøyra at 4 tim

es of observation (01:00, 07:00, 13:00,

and 19:00 LM

T) and d

iurnal means (m

) in the period

from 11 July to 31 A

ugust 2011

Beach1 cm

5 cm

10 cm20 cm

50 cm

100 cm

Period1

713

19m

17

1319

m1

713

19m

17

1319

m1

713

19m

13

11–20 Jul7.5

9.311.5

11.09.8

7.77.8

9.510.0

8.77.7

7.38.8

9.58.3

7.36.7

7.88.5

7.64.3

4.44.2

4.34.4

0.5

21–31 Jul7.1

8.410.5

8.98.7

7.47.3

8.68.7

8.07.8

7.28.1

8.57.9

7.66.9

7.47.8

7.44.8

4.84.6

4.74.6

1.1

1–10 Aug

5.87.1

9.37.7

7.56.0

6.07.6

7.36.7

6.05.7

6.67.0

6.35.8

5.35.8

6.35.8

3.53.7

3.53.6

3.61.3

11–20 Aug

4.86.5

9.18.2

7.25.2

5.68.1

8.06.7

5.65.3

7.07.3

6.35.5

5.05.8

6.65.7

3.43.6

3.53.5

3.61.4

21–31 Aug

4.65.3

7.36.3

5.95.0

5.06.4

6.15.6

5.35.0

5.86.0

5.55.3

4.85.1

5.65.2

3.83.7

3.73.7

3.71.6

21 Jul–31 Aug

5.66.8

9.07.8

7.35.9

6.07.7

7.56.8

6.25.8

6.97.2

6.56.1

5.56.1

6.66.0

3.93.9

3.83.9

3.91.4

11 Jul–31 Aug

6.07.3

9.58.4

7.86.3

6.38.0

8.07.2

6.56.1

7.37.6

6.96.3

5.76.4

6.96.3

4.04.0

3.94.0

4.01.2

Tundra

1 cm5 cm

10 cm20 cm

50 cm

100 cm

Period1

713

19m

17

1319

m1

713

19m

17

1319

m1

713

19m

13

11–20 Jul6.8

8.610.2

10.39.0

7.07.3

8.69.3

8.17.1

6.78.0

8.97.7

6.86.0

7.17.7

6.94.8

4.85.0

4.95.0

2.6

21–31 Jul7.0

7.39.0

8.57.9

7.47.0

7.88.3

7.67.3

6.87.5

8.07.4

7.16.3

6.97.3

6.95.5

5.35.2

5.35.3

3.1

1–10 Aug

5.56.1

7.66.8

6.55.6

5.26.3

6.55.9

5.65.1

6.16.5

5.85.5

4.95.4

6.05.5

4.34.1

4.14.2

4.32.5

11–20 Aug

5.15.6

8.07.7

6.65.3

5.16.7

7.36.1

5.34.9

6.37.0

5.95.4

4.75.6

6.25.5

4.14.2

4.14.2

4.32.5

21–31 Aug

5.15.2

6.66.2

5.85.2

5.05.9

6.05.5

5.24.9

5.65.8

5.45.2

4.85.1

5.55.2

4.44.3

4.14.3

4.22.9

21 Jul–31 Aug

5.76.1

7.87.3

6.75.9

5.66.7

7.06.3

5.95.5

6.46.8

6.15.8

5.25.8

6.35.8

4.64.5

4.44.5

4.52.8

11 Jul–31 Aug

5.96.5

8.37.9

7.16.1

5.97.1

7.56.6

6.15.7

6.77.2

6.46.0

5.46.0

6.56.0

4.64.6

4.54.6

4.62.7

Moraine

1 cm5 cm

10 cm20 cm

50 cm

100 cm

Period1

713

19m

17

1319

m1

713

19m

17

1319

m1

713

19m

13

11–20 Jul7.5

9.011.8

10.99.8

7.68.0

10.710.7

9.37.9

7.710.0

10.39.0

7.87.3

7.79.0

7.97.1

6.96.9

7.07.1

5.6

21–31 Jul7.1

7.710.2

8.78.4

7.47.7

9.99.0

8.57.9

7.69.5

9.38.6

8.57.7

8.28.6

8.38.0

8.07.8

7.97.7

6.8

1–10 Aug

5.66.4

8.57.1

6.95.8

5.97.7

7.06.6

6.15.9

7.37.1

6.66.0

5.66.1

6.56.0

5.65.6

5.65.6

5.65.0

11–20 Aug

5.46.5

9.78.3

7.45.5

5.88.4

8.27.0

5.85.7

7.78.2

6.95.9

5.26.2

7.06.1

5.25.3

5.35.3

5.34.7

21–31 Aug

5.25.5

7.16.5

6.15.4

5.36.6

6.45.9

5.75.5

6.46.6

6.05.7

5.45.7

6.05.7

5.75.7

5.65.7

5.65.4

21 Jul–31 Aug

5.86.5

8.97.6

7.26.0

6.28.2

7.67.0

6.46.2

7.77.8

7.06.6

6.06.6

7.06.5

6.26.2

6.16.1

6.15.5

11 Jul–31 Aug

6.17.0

9.48.3

7.76.3

6.58.6

8.27.4

6.76.5

8.28.3

7.46.8

6.36.8

7.46.8

6.46.3

6.36.3

6.35.5

81

anticyclonic circulation systems with extensive sunshine duration (cf. Section 3.2 of this work), which was reflected in a rise of temperature in the subsurface layer of the ground layer. From that moment onwards, the temperature gradu-ally fell until the last days of August (Fig. 4.1). In August 2011, the observed pattern in the course of the temperature of the active layer was similar. The minimum temperatures at 1 cm b.g.l. were recorded on 11 August, when the diurnal mean was 2.6oC on the moraine, 3.0oC on the beach and 3.2oC in the tundra. In the following days, from 16 to 20 August, the ground became con-siderably warmer due to an advection of warm air (Fig. 4.2).

In a diurnal course, the lowest temperature at a depth of 1 cm (in the pe-riod of 21 July – 31 August) was recorded at 01:00, the coldest place being the beach: 3.8oC (2010) and 5.6oC (2011), and the highest at 13:00, when the warmest places were the beach (7.9 and 9.0oC, resp.) and the moraine (8.0 and 8.9oC). The mean diurnal range of ground temperature, based on four fixed-time observations, reached the highest value in the summers of 2010 and 2011 on the beach (4.1 and 3.5oC, resp.), and the lowest in both seasons in the tundra (3.0 and 2.1oC). The thermal diversity in the ground surface in individual ecotopes rose on sunny days and fell substantially in cloudy and overcast weather. In the analysed times of observation, the ground reached its maximum temperature (19.5oC) at 13:00 on 20 July 2011, and the minimum (0.0oC) at 01:00 on 16 August 2010. Both these values were measured on the beach.

The ground temperature at greater depths (5, 10, 20, 50 and 100 cm) is cor-related with the temperature measured at 1 cm b.g.l., however the heat/cold propagation rate decreases with depth (Figs. 4.1 and 4.2). As a consequence, at greater depths the range of temperature fluctuations weakened in the whole period of observations, reaching, for example, the following values at the beach (in 2010): 13.9oC (at 5 cm), 12.2oC (at 10 cm) and 9.1oC (at 20 cm); similar cor-relations can be seen at the other sites in both summer seasons.

The times at which the highest and the lowest temperatures occur (re-corded during four fixed-time observations) shift with depth, as the heat/cold takes time to reach deeper ground layers. Of all the depths, the highest diur-nal temperatures were recorded at 5 cm b.g.l. on the moraine (7.9oC) and beach (7.7oC) at 13:00 (2011), and the maximum temperature (7.0oC) oc-curred in the coldest tundra in the evening measuring time. The highest diur-nal temperatures at 10 cm b.g.l. occurred at 19:00: 7.8oC at the (warmest) moraine site and 6.8oC at the (coldest) tundra site; at the same time at 20 cm b.g.l., the temperatures were 7.0oC at the (warmest) moraine site and 6.3oC at the (coldest) tundra site. In the analysed summer season of 2011, the lowest mean diurnal temperatures at 5 cm b.g.l. on the beach (5.9oC) and on the moraine (6.0oC) occurred at 01:00 LMT, however in the moist tundra ground the diurnal minimum (5.6oC) shifted to the morning time. At depths of 10 and 20 cm the lowest observed ground temperature at all sites occurred at 07:00 LMT, when the warmest of the three ecotopes was the moraine, and the cold-est the tundra.

82

Figure 4.1. Courses of ground temperature at the depths of 1, 5, 10, 20, 50 and 100 cm meas-ured on the beach site (B), in the tundra (T) and on the moraine (M) of the Kaf-fiøyra in the period from 7 July to 2 September 2010

83

Figure 4.2. Courses of ground temperature at the depths of 1, 5, 10, 20, 50 and 100 cm meas-ured on the beach site (B), in the tundra (T) and on the moraine (M) of the Kaf-fiøyra in the period from 11 July to 31 August 2011

84

The thermal conditions of the ground at depths of 50 and 100 cm, depend mainly on the heat conductivity and capacity and the thickness of permafrost (Kejna et al. 1993). At 50 cm b.g.l., the terrain most susceptible to changes in weather is the moraine, which was the warmest site at this depth, both in 2010 (5.1oC) and in 2011 (6.1oC), because good conditions for heat penetration de-termine the greatest depth at which permafrost occurs. The temperatures of the beach and tundra at 50 cm b.g.l. are similar. As the permafrost lies near the surface, its cooling effect is strong and the layer exhibits little susceptibility to external weather stimuli, and therefore its seasonal temperature range is minor. The mean temperature for the whole period of observations and all times is comparable, and the highest value occurred at 01:00 LMT. This means that the diurnal course of temperature is reversed at that depth.

At 100 cm b.g.l., the most evident influence on the ground temperature is that of permafrost. At this depth the warmest site was at the moraine (approx. 4-5oC), whereas the sites on the beach and in the tundra recorded approx. 0.5 to 2.8oC, depending on the measurement point and the season. In 2010 the thermal conditions of the ground were measured at four main times of obser-vation. The mean temperature for the whole period of the observations and all times was the same at all three sites, thus it lacks a diurnal course. Therefore, in 2011 measurements at 100 cm b.g.l. were taken only at 13:00 LMT, which is a common practice at synoptic stations in Poland.

Vertical temperature profiles at individual times of observation for the three ecotopes have been shown in Table 4.3 and Figure 4.3. The upper layer of the ground, readily responding to the changing angle of solar rays and to daily solar radiation, exhibits a diurnal course to a depth of 20 cm. The vertical tem-perature profile depends on the amount of heat from the surface, and the dif-ferences at individual sites result from the structural diversity and the moisture content of the analysed ecotopes. The upper layer, from 1 to 20 cm b.g.l. also responds to atmospheric influences and undergoes the greatest variability, both in a diurnal course and day by day. Deeper, at 20–100 cm b.g.l., climate controls have a smaller influence on the ground layers, and the temperature variability is either insignificant or non-existent (Fig. 4.3). The smallest differ-ences between the ecotopes occur at night, whereas the greatest are observed in the afternoon.

At 01:00 LMT, at all sites an inversion occurs, which reaches a depth of 20 cm on the moraine, and 10 cm on the beach and in the tundra (Tab. 4.3, Fig. 4.3). The inversion pattern recedes at 07:00 LMT and a regular pattern begins to form, most evidently at around midday. At 13:00 LMT, at all sites the high-est vertical gradients are observed, which reach, for example, in the 1–10 cm b.g.l layer on the beach: γ = -2.2 ÷ -2.4oC/10 cm (in 2010 and 2011, resp.), on the moraine: γ = -1.3 ÷ -1.8oC/10 cm and in the tundra: γ = -1.6oC/10 cm. In the evening, at 19:00 LMT, the regular pattern evolves into isothermy and inclines towards inversion. In the deeper layer of the ground (20-100 cm b.g.l.) the regular pattern continues throughout the day and night (Tab. 4.3, Fig. 4.3).

85

Table 4.3. Vertical gradients of ground temperature (°C/10 cm) at the following sites: the beach (B), the tundra (T) and the moraine (M), on the Kaffiøyra Plain, in the main times of observation (01:00, 07:00, 13:00 and 19:00 LMT) and the sea-sonal means (m) in the period from 21 July to 31 August 2010 and 2011

Year/sites2010

Beach Tundra Moraine

Hours 1 7 13 19 m 1 7 13 19 m 1 7 13 19 m

1–5 cm -0.2 1.9 3.1 0.6 1.3 -1.3 1.4 2.7 0.3 0.8 -1.4 0.8 2.1 -0.6 0.2

1–10 cm -0.5 1.2 2.2 0.5 0.9 -0.6 0.8 1.6 0.3 0.5 -1.3 0.3 1.8 -0.3 0.1

10–20 cm 0.1 0.6 1.7 1.0 0.8 0.2 0.5 1.0 0.9 0.6 -0.2 0.0 0.7 0.2 0.2

20–50 cm 0.5 0.4 0.6 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.5 0.6 0.4 0.1 -0.1 0.3 0.4 0.2

1–50 cm 0.3 0.6 1.1 0.8 0.7 0.2 0.4 0.8 0.6 0.5 -0.2 0.0 0.6 0.2 0.2

50–100 cm 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.2

1–100 cm 0.3 0.5 0.8 0.6 0.5 0.2 0.3 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.0 0.1 0.4 0.2 0.2

Year/sites2011

Beach Tundra Moraine

Hours 1 7 13 19 m 1 7 13 19 m 1 7 13 19 m

1–5 cm -0.9 2.2 3.4 0.6 1.3 -0.6 1.2 2.7 0.7 1.0 -0.5 0.9 1.8 0.0 0.5

1–10 cm -0.7 1.1 2.4 0.6 0.9 -0.2 0.7 1.6 0.5 0.6 -0.7 0.4 1.3 -0.2 0.2

10–20 cm 0.1 0.3 0.8 0.6 0.5 0.1 0.3 0.6 0.5 0.4 -0.1 0.2 1.2 0.8 0.5

20–50 cm 0.7 0.5 0.7 0.9 0.7 0.4 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.4 0.1 0.0 0.2 0.3 0.2

1–50 cm 0.3 0.6 1.1 0.8 0.7 0.2 0.3 0.7 0.6 0.4 -0.1 0.1 0.6 0.3 0.2

50–100 cm 0.5 0.3 0.1

1–100 cm 0.8 0.5 0.3

An analysis of thermo-isopleths makes it possible to see the whole picture of the distribution of ground temperature, not only at the specified levels, but also in the whole profile (1-100 cm b.g.l.) in the period of observations. The ground at individual sites demonstrates warm and cold thermal periods, caused by changes in the cloud cover and the directions of advection of air masses. There is a clear-cut delay in the transfer of heat from the surface into the deeper ground layers.

86

Figure 4.3. Vertical profiles of mean seasonal ground temperature at the following sites: the beach (B), the tundra (T) and the moraine (M), on the Kaffiøyra Plain, in the main times of observation (01:00, 07:00, 13:00 and 19:00 LMT) and the daily means (m) in the period from od 21 July to 31 August 2010 and 2011

87

Figure 4.3. cont.

88

The isopleths of the ground temperature at the beach site for the sum-mers of 2010 and 2011 have been shown in Figures 4.4 and 4.5. The ar-rangement of the thermo-isopleths reflects the type of weather and preva-lent meteorological conditions at the time. In the season of 2010, there are four, and a year later, three periods of intense heat penetration into the ground (determined using the course of the 6.0°C isotherm). These periods were caused by a sudden increase in solar radiation, as compared to the previous periods (cf. Section 3.3 of this work). The warmer periods are sepa-rated by advective cooling of the ground. Particularly conspicuous are the periods from 14 to 17 August 2010, from 21 to 23 July 2011, and from 10 to 14 August 2011, when the ground gave up great amounts of heat within just few days. For example, in 2010 the diurnal ground temperature on the beach reached 5.7°C at 1 cm b.g.l. on 10 August, and fell to 1.1°C only 6 days later, whereas at 20 cm b.g.l. it dropped from 3.8°C to 1.2°C in the same period. A similar situation was observed on 21–23 July 2011, when the mean diurnal ground temperature on the beach reached 14.0°C at 1 cm b.g.l. on 21 July, only to drop to 8.8°C on 23 July, whereas at 20 cm b.g.l., the respective values were 10.9°C and 8.7°C. The other sites experienced a similar situation. The greatest heat loss in the period occurred in the sub-surface layers of the ground (to 20 cm b.g.l.), after which cooling penetrates from the surface and affects the whole layer, as confirmed by the arrange-ment of the isopleths (Figs. 4.4 and 4.5).

Figure 4.4. Isopleths of the ground temperature on the beach (B) site of the Kaffiøyra in the period from 7 July to 2 September 2010

89

Figure 4.5. Isopleths of the ground temperature on the beach (B) site of the Kaffiøyra in the period from 11 July to 31 August 2011

4.2. Air temperature

4.2.1. Introduction

The spatial diversity of the air temperature (and a number of other meteoro-logical elements) on a local scale was first looked into by Polish scientists during the national expedition to Hornsund, within the framework of the International Geophysical Year (IGY), in 1957. On that occasion, besides the measurements taken at a meteorological site situated near the established station, observa-tions were conducted at a glaciological station set up in the upper part of the Werenskiöld Glacier (Kosiba 1960). At both sites, observations continued every year until 1960, however year-long measurements and observations were per-formed only at the time of the IGY, and were later limited to the summer season (Marsz and Styszyńska 2007).

The first topoclimatic research on Spitsbergen took place as early as be-tween July 1899 and August 1900, during a Swedish-Russian scientific expedi-tion to the north-eastern part of the island. Although its primary goal was to participate in the measurement of the curvature of the Prime Meridian, mete-orological observations were carried out regularly at two sites: on the coast of the Treurenberg Bay, at the station building (21.9 m a.s.l.) and on the west slope of the Olimp Massif (408 m a.s.l.) (Przybylak and Dzierżawski 2004).

In the area of Hornsund, topoclimatic observations, were much more ex-tended in space, as compared with the period of 1957-1960, and were resumed

90

in 1970-1974 during a series of so-called ‘Wrocław expeditions’ (e.g. Baranow-ski and Głowicki 1975; Baranowski 1977; Pereyma 1983; Pereyma and Piasecki 1984). Observations there have been carried out by scientists and researchers of the University of Wrocław (either during individual projects or general expedi-tions, re-launched in 1978) until the present, however their time frames and range have changed from time to time. The observations have not been regular, either (e.g. Pereyma and Piasecki 1988; Pereyma and Nasiółkowski 2007; Migała et al. 2008).

The other Polish academic centre which pioneered the studies of spatial di-versity of air temperature on Spitsbergen (the area of Kaffiøyra), is the Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń (NCU). Topoclimatic studies started in the sum-mer of 1975, as part of the first TPE. The history of the investigations has been presented in detail in the Introduction to this monograph (Section 1.1).

In the decades that followed, topoclimatic studies which included measure-ments of air temperature were taken up by other academic centres, organising polar expeditions to Spitsbergen: the Maria Curie-Skłodowska University in Lu-blin (MCSU) in 1987 (e.g. Gluza and Piasecki 1989; Brázdil et al. 1991; Gluza et al. 2004) and the Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań (AMU) in 2001 (e.g. Rachlewicz 2009; Bednorz and Kolendowicz 2010).

4.2.2. The complete period of observations (July 2010–August 2011)

A complete year-long cycle of measurements of topoclimatic conditions to the extent accomplished within the AWAKE project for the Forlandsundet had never been performed in Svalbard before. In the area of the Kaffiøyra, such long-term observations, although at 4 sites only (KH, ATA, LW1 and LW2), have been carried out even longer, since the summer of 2005, but have not been worked out and published yet. Therefore, this Subsection contains the first results of topoclimatic diversity in the area of the Forlandsundet, covering all the months and seasons of the year. The seasons were distinguished as proposed in the work of Putnins et al. (1959) and Gavrilova and Sokolov (1969), who defined the winter season as the period from November to March, the spring as April – May, the summer as June – August and the autumn as September and October.

The basic monthly and seasonal statistical data concerning the air temperature at 14 measuring points (sites) were collected in Tables 4.4-4.5 and Figures 4.6-4.7. At 4 of the sites the data could not be obtained due to sensor faults or damage.

The annual course of air temperature in the Forlandsundet between August 2010 and August 2011 shows three evident minimums in November, January and March. Definitely, the lowest values of monthly means at all of the sites were obtained for January (Tab. 4.4, Fig. 4.6). They ranged from -12.4oC at the PK1 site, with the highest temperatures in January, to -13.9oC at PH1. From November until March the air temperature changes were moderate. Significant temperature drops/rises are visible in the transitory seasons, autumn and spring. The temperature becomes stabilised again in the summer. The highest average monthly temperatures at most of the sites were recorded in August 2011, with

91

the highest mean at KT (6.5oC), and the lowest on the Waldemar Glacier (LW2, 4.5oC) and in the mountains (PH1, 4.7oC).

Table 4.4. Mean monthly air temperatures (oC) in the Forlandsundet area in the period from 1 August 2010 to 31 August 2011

SitesAug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug

2010 2011

KH 3.8 1.9 -2.2 -9.4 -9.2 -13.6 -10.5 -10.5 -4.2 -1.4 4.0 5.9 5.5

SAT 3.9 2.3 -1.5 -8.6 -8.8 -13.7 -11.3 -9.8 -3.8 -1.1 4.1 6.0 5.5

SAO 3.9 1.8 -2.8 -10.6 -10.2 -13.6 -10.1 -11.1 -4.8 -1.6 3.9 6.3 6.0

KT 3.9 2.0 -2.3 -9.9 -9.3 -12.5 -8.4 -10.0 -3.7 -1.2 4.3 6.4 6.5

ATA 3.7 1.6 -2.9 -10.8 -9.9 -13.2 -8.9 -10.5 -4.2 -1.2 4.2 6.2 6.1

KU 3.3 1.4 -3.0 -10.4 -9.8 -12.6 -8.6 -10.7 -4.5 -2.3 3.3 5.4 5.8

GF 2.1 0.8 -3.9 -11.1 -10.6 -13.0 -9.4 -12.0 -5.7 -3.7 2.0 4.3 5.2

LW1 3.5 1.6 -2.9 -10.4 -9.7 -12.7 -8.7 -10.5 -4.1 -1.1 3.7 5.4 6.0

LW2 1.4 0.8 -4.1 -11.6 -10.9 -13.3 -9.3 -11.8 -5.1 -2.2 3.3 4.2 4.5

PH1 2.2 0.3 -5.3 -12.5 -12.1 -13.9 -10.5 -13.1 -5.9 -2.6 3.8 4.5 4.7

PK1 4.3 2.4 -2.0 -9.5 -9.2 -12.4 -9.0 -10.4 -4.2 -1.4 3.9 6.4 6.5

PK4 4.2 2.3 -1.8 -9.2 -8.9 -12.9 -9.5 -10.1 -4.2 -1.4 3.7 6.4 6.3

SJ1 4.2 2.5 -2.2 -9.7 -10.2 -12.7 -9.2 – – – – – 5.5

SJ3 3.3 2.2 -2.4 -10.4 -10.3 -13.3 -9.5 -11.3 -4.4 -1.4 3.5 5.6 5.7

Explanation: „ – „ - denotes lack of data

Figure 4.6. Annual course of air temperature in the Forlandsundet area in the period from August 2010 to August 2011

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This is an anomaly, as the warmest month on Spitsbergen is usually July (cf. Przybylak 1992a). Discussing the annual pattern of air temperature, it is inte-resting to note the anomaly observed in February at such sites as KH, SAO, and – particularly – SAT, where the lowest monthly mean of all analysed sites was recorded (Tab. 4.4, Fig. 4.6). The extremely low temperatures in February at those sites were likely caused by the ice condition of the Forlandsundet and the frequent advective inversion connected with foehnic winds, whose occurrence should have been very common due to the considerably high positive anomaly of the frequency of influx of SE air masses (see Chapter 2).

In the other months, the coldest places were the Prins Heinrichfjella massif (September – April, without the February), Mt. Gråfjellet (May and June), and the firn area of the Waldemar Glacier (at the height of summer, in July and Au-gust). Naturally, the absolute height determined the occurrence of the lowest temperature at PH1, whereas at GF a significant factor contributing to the tem-perature decrease with height was the regular occurrence of low-level clouds, such as St and Sc, wreathing the mountain top. In the case of the Waldemar Glacier, the melting snow and ice surface added to the effect (a high inherent albedo and substantial energy expenditure due to the melting).

Table 4.5. Mean seasonal air temperature in the autumn (Sep-Oct), winter (Nov-Mar), spring (Apr-May), and summer (Jun-Aug), and in the period from September 2010 to August 2011

Sites Autumn Winter Spring Summer Sep-Aug

KH -0.1 -10.6 -2.8 5.1 -3.6

SAT 0.4 -10.4 -2.4 5.2 -3.4

SAO -0.5 -11.1 -3.2 5.4 -3.9

KT -0.1 -10.0 -2.4 5.7 -3.2

ATA -0.7 -10.7 -2.7 5.5 -3.6

KU -0.8 -10.4 -3.4 4.9 -3.8

GF -1.6 -11.2 -4.7 3.9 -4.8

LW1 -0.7 -10.4 -2.6 5.0 -3.6

LW2 -1.7 -11.4 -3.6 4.0 -4.6

PH1 -2.5 -12.4 -4.2 4.3 -5.2

PK1 0.2 -10.1 -2.8 5.6 -3.2

PK4 0.2 -10.1 -2.8 5.5 -3.3

SJ1 0.1 -10.5* – – –

SJ3 -0.1 -10.9 -2.9 4.9 -3.8

Explanations: * - Nov 2010 - Feb 2011; „ – „ - denotes lack of data

An analysis of the mean monthly values shows that in the cold half of the year (in autumn and winter) the coldest site was PH1, and – in the warm half – the GF site (Tab. 4.5). The average lowest temperature in the year was

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recorded at PH1 (-5.4oC). The areas with the highest temperatures, maintained over a few months, were: SAT (Oct-Dec, March and April), KT (February, April and Jun-Aug) and PK1 (January, Jul-Aug). Considering seasonal means, the markedly warmest was the site located on a coastal terrace, approx. 2 km from the shore (KT), except for autumn, in which the warmest site was the one on the Sarstangen Peninsula (SAT).

Figure 4.7. Annual course of the differences of air temperature (oC) between the sites situated in the area of the Forlandsundet and the Base Station (KH) in the period of August 2010–August 2011

In the spring, the mean value there was identical with the one recorded at KT (Tab. 4.5). The place with the highest average temperatures in the year was Prins Karls Forland island and the area around the KT site. The correlation be-tween the temperature in the Forlandsundet area and the reference station at the Kaffiøyra is shown in Figure 4.7. The differences, both positive and nega-tive, are generally limited to 2oC. In January and February, the spatial distribu-tion of temperature clearly deviated from the standard, as the measurement points around the glacier (except for PH1) recorded higher temperatures than those situated on the coast, including the KH site. It is interesting to compare the thermal conditions at the sites located in close proximity (KH and SAT) with the one situated near the Forlandsundet (SAO). The SAT site, due to its position on the cape of a narrow peninsula which juts far into the Forlandsundet, is

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generally warmer than the Kaffiøyra site, whereas SAO, despite being sited slightly lower, is colder, which is possibly caused by the coastal cliffs hindering the influx of maritime air masses from the Sound. This effect is particularly vis-ible in the cold half of the year, disappearing in the summer when more impact comes from the tundra vegetation, which intensely absorbs solar radiation. For that reason, and because of the flat ground surface, in the summer the site is warmer than KH (Fig. 4.7), with a convex base in the form of the terminal-later-al moraine of the Aavatsmark Glacier.

All sites located at 100 m a.s.l. or higher, which are mostly colder than the reference site throughout the year (Fig. 4.8A), become notably warmer when the influence of absolute height is removed using a gradient of 0.6oC/100 m (Fig. 4.8B). Therefore, having reduced the temperature to sea level the sites that were actually colder than the Kaffiøyra site are only SAO (except for summer) and SJ3 (except for autumn). In the autumn, the highest values of such reduced temperature were observed on the firn field of the Waldemar Glacier, and in the winter (besides LW2), also on Mt. Gråfjellet. In the spring, and the summer in particular, the warmest was the PH1 site. Differences in the mean seasonal val-ues of air temperature between the sites, either actual or reduced to sea level, reached 2-3oC; considering their geographic proximity, they are therefore very significant.

Figure 4.8. Differences in mean seasonal values of air temperature (oC) between the sites situ-ated in the area of the Forlandsundet and the Base Station (KH) in the autumn (Sep-Oct) of 2010, winter (Nov-Mar) of 2010/2011, spring (Apr-May) of 2011, and summer (Jun-Aug) of 2011 A) – actual temperature recorded, B) – temperature re-duced to sea level

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Figure 4.9. Values of absolute maximum (a), absolute minimum (b) and mean diurnal range (c) of air temperature in the area of the Forlandsundet in the autumn (Sep–Oct) of 2010 (A), winter (Nov–Dec) of 2010/2011 (B), spring (Apr–May) of 2011 (C) and summer (Jun–Aug) of 2011 (D)

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The range of changes in the absolute values of air temperature (maximum and minimum) recorded at the measuring points in all four seasons of the year has been shown in Figure 4.9.

The highest values of maximum temperature in the summer at all sites con-siderably exceeded 10oC, ranging from 12.4oC at the SAT site (characterised by the most oceanic climate), to 16.8oC (on 17 August 2011) on the west coast of Prins Karls Forland (PK1). In the winter, the absolute maximum temperature changed in a similar pattern, ranging from 0.2oC at PH1 to 5.0oC at SJ3. In the spring, the diversity of the temperatures was the greatest, reaching 6.5oC and ranging from 3.5oC (SAO) to 10.0oC (PK1). In the autumn, the highest values of air temperature did not exceed 10oC, and their distribution was comparable to the summer pattern. Extreme values were recorded in the summer at SAT (5.2oC) and PH1 (9.2oC). Both the lowest and the highest seasonal absolute minimum temperatures were recorded at the SAT site: -32.0oC in the winter (31 January and 1 February 2011) and 0.4oC in the summer. At the same site, the lowest minimum temperature was also recorded in the spring (-20.3oC), and the high-est in the autumn (-9.5oC). As a consequence, SAT can be considered as charac-terised by the most extreme temperature conditions. The other site distin-guished by such conditions is the Prins Heinrichfjella, where the lowest air temperatures were recorded in the autumn (-13.4oC) and summer (-3.4oC). The minimum temperature decreased the least in the winter at KU (to -22.5oC only), and in the spring at PK4 (-15.5oC) (Fig. 4.9). In the winter the range of changes is more than twice as great as in the other seasons of the year.

The diurnal course of air temperature in the area of the Forlandsundet is considerably diversified, as shown in Figure 4.10. In the autumn, mean courses (Fig. 4.10A) at most of the sites display clear rises in value in the afternoon, as well as drops in the ‘night’ hours from 21:00 to 06:00. A lack of diversity in the diurnal course of temperature is noticeable at the SAT site (with the greatest oceanicity of the climate) and at GF (where the measuring point is located at the height of low-level clouds). In the winter, the diurnal courses are balanced and the occurrence of any highest or lowest hourly values of air temperature is random (Fig. 4.10B). However, the diurnal ranges of the air temperature are the greatest in the winter, typically exceeding 5oC, except for LW1, LW2 and PH1, where the greatest ranges were observed in the spring (Fig. 4.9). The spring ranges at the remaining sites are greater than those observed in the summer or autumn. In the spring, the highest seasonal mean range of 6.6oC was recorded at the LW2 site. Mean diurnal courses of air temperature were the most evident in that season (Fig. 4.10C), even at the sites located at Mt. Gråfjellet and on the Sarstangen. In the summer, diurnal courses of air temperature were still well-developed, with the exception of the SAT and PH1 sites, where the range was exceptionally uniform. The mean highest temperatures, as well as the lowest, occurred at the same times of the day as in the autumn, described above. Al-though the mean diurnal courses in the summer are much more clear-cut than in the autumn (Fig. 4.10D), their mean diurnal ranges are similar, however the summer is characterised by a greater spatial diversity (Fig. 4.9).

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Figure 4.10A. Mean diurnal course of air temperature in the autumn (Sep–Oct) of 2010 in the area of the Forlandsundet

Figure 4.10B. Mean diurnal course of air temperature in the winter (Nov–Mar) of 2010/2011 in the area of the Forlandsundet

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Figure 4.10C. Mean diurnal course of air temperature in the spring (Apr–May) of 2011 in the area of the Forlandsundet

Figure 4.10D. Mean diurnal course of air temperature in the summer (Jun–Aug) of 2011 in the area of the Forlandsundet

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In order to better understand the topoclimatic characteristics of the area of Forlandsundet the frequency of occurrence of the so-called ‘characteristic days’ was also determined, according to the proposition presented for the Canadian Arctic by Przybylak and Vizi (2005). In the winter, frost days (Tmax < 0oC) oc-curred with a frequency of 27.9% of all days at SJ1 to 41.7% at PH1 and slight frost days (Tmax > 0oC and Tmin ≤ 0oC) between 18% at SAT and 42.6% at LW2. These two types were the most frequent (Fig. 4.11A).

Figure 4.11A. Relative frequency of occurrence (%) of characteristic days in the area of the Forlandsundet in the autumn (Sep–Oct) of 2010

Figure 4.11B. Relative frequency of occurrence (%) of characteristic days in the area of the Forlandsundet in the winter (Nov–Mar) of 2010/2011

Figure 4.11C. Relative frequency of occurrence (%) of characteristic days in the area of the Forlandsundet in the spring (Apr–May) of 2011

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Figure 4.11D. Relative frequency of occurrence (%) of characteristic days in the area of the Forlandsundet in the summer (Jun–Aug) of 2011

The number of days on which the maximum temperature exceeded 5oC (from 3.3% at SAT to 18% at SJ1 and SJ3) were quite frequent. Cold days (Tmax < -10oC) occurred only at the highest elevated site, PH1, yet even there only with a very low frequency (1.7%). In the winter, at all sites frost days prevailed (>90%) and there were a lot of cold days, as well (Fig. 4.11B). As expected, cold days were noted the most often at the PH1 site (47%), and the least often at SJ1 (31.1%). Very cold days (Tmax < -20oC) occurred at all of the sites, however with a low frequency. Also, there were very few days with slight frost (< 10%). In the spring, like in the autumn, at most of the sites frost days prevailed, with the maximum frequency observed at Mt. Gråfjellet (83.6%), and the minimum at LW1 (36.1%) (Fig. 4.11C). Slight frost days were a little less frequent, ranging from 52.5% at LW1 to 14.8% at Mt. Gråfjellet. Positive temperature values of 5oC or more occurred with the frequency of <10%, and at a few of the sites (KH, SAT, SAO and PK4), which were subject to the greatest oceanicity of the climate, did not occur at all. Cold days were occasionally noted. In the summer, the most common of the characteristic days were warm days (Tmax > 5oC), whose frequency ranged from 45.7% at SJ1 to 80.4% at PK4 (Fig. 4.11D). Very warm days were also common – from 7.6% at SAT to as much as 22.8% at the highest situated measuring point, PH1. At 5 sites (KH, KT, ATA, KU and PK1) exceptionally warm days (Tmax > 15oC) were observed. At most of the sites slight frost days were noted, and their highest frequency was recorded at PH1. Frost days occurred at 4 sites only (KU, GF, LW2 and PH1).

4.2.3. The summer period (21 July–31 August)

The description of the spatial diversity of air temperature in the area of the Forlandsundet mainly utilises the data concerning individual ten-day periods and the whole common period of observations for all sites. The information in Table 4.6 clearly shows that the summer of 2011 was much warmer (by approx. 1.5 – 2.5oC) at all analysed sites in comparison with the summer of 2010 (see also Appendixes 1 and 2). The main reason for that was the influence of atmos-

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pheric circulation, which in 2011 was generally close to its long-term standard, but in 2010 exhibited a major positive anomaly in the occurrence of air masses from the north (Section 2.1). The biggest difference was observed at the GF site (2.7oC), and the smallest at SAT and SJ (1.2oC). The noted significant seasonal diversity between individual sites can be explained by:

i) Different radiation balance trends in both seasons at the KH site (de-crease), representing well-ventilated coastal areas, and at the LW2 site (in-crease), representing the interior of the island with restricted access of air mass-es, inflowing as part of the general atmospheric circulation (Chapter 3, Tab. 3.13), and

ii) The considerable influence of local conditions on radiation and circulation relations shaping the weather in the area of the Forlandsundet.

Most of the sites located below 100 m a.s.l. were warmer in the summer of 2010 than the reference site at the Base Station (KH), with the exception of PK2 (middle of Prins Karls Forland) and SJ3 (cooling influence of the nearby glaciers) (Tab. 4.6). The highest mean values of air temperature were recorded on the west coast of Prins Karls Forland (PK1, 4.6oC) in 2010, but on the east coast in 2011 (PK3, 6.5oC). It was also notably warmer, compared to the area of the Kaffiøyra, at St. Jonsfjorden. All the sites located above 100 m a.s.l. had mean temperatures lower than 4.0oC (in 2010) and 5.0oC in 2011 (Tab. 4.6). However, the coldest place in both years was not the highest elevated mountain ridge (i.e. PH1 and PH2), but the firn field of the Waldemar Glacier (LW2 – 1.6oC and 4.1oC in the summers of 2010 and 2011, respectively). This means that on Spitsbergen the cooling power of the ice cover is more significant in the summer than the cooling effect of the absolute height. It is also noteworthy that the air temperature at Mt. Gråfjellet (GF), situated at a height of 345 m a.s.l., was relatively low (2.2oC) in 2010. In that year, it was the same as at the PH1 site (500 m a.s.l.) and only slightly lower (by 0.2oC) than at the PH2 site (590 m a.s.l.). The low temperature at the mountain site was likely caused by frequent covering of the ridge with St or Sc clouds of modest thickness, which might not always reach the higher parts of the Prins Heinrichfjella, where the PH1 and PH2 sites are situated.

It is interesting to look into the spatial diversity of air temperature when the influence of absolute height is removed using a gradient of 0.6oC/100 m. Except for two sites (SJ3 and LW2) in 2010 and one (SAT) in 2011, all the others were warmer than on the Kaffiøyra Plain (Tab. 4.7, Fig. 4.12). In the case of ten-day values of the differences in air temperature, there were a little more situations where the reference station was warmer than some other sites. Such cases were markedly more common in the summer of 2010 than in the following summer (Fig. 4.12). The highest-located sites, i.e. those situated on the ridge of the Prins Henrichfjella (PH1 and PH2), turned out to be notably warmer. In comparison with the Kaffiøyra, the air temperature there was higher, on average, by 1.0-1.3oC in the analysed period of 2010, and by as much as 1.9-2.3oC in 2011. Furthermore, in some of the ten-day periods, it reached nearly 3oC in both sum-mer seasons (Fig. 4.12).

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Table 4.6. Mean values of air temperature (oC) in the area of the Forlandsundet in the summer seasons of 2010 and 2011


2010 2011 2010 2011 2010 2011 2010 2011 2010 2011

KH 5.1 5.4 4.9 5.4 3.1 6.4 3.5 4.8 4.1 5.5

SAT 5.3 5.6 5.0 5.4 3.4 6.0 3.6 5.0 4.3 5.5

SAO 5.2 5.8 4.9 6.1 3.3 6.9 3.6 5.1 4.3 5.9

KT 4.9 6.1 4.7 6.6 3.4 7.7 3.8 5.4 4.2 6.4

ATA 4.6 5.5 4.5 6.6 3.1 7.2 3.5 4.8 3.9 6.0

KU 4.0 5.0 3.9 5.9 2.8 7.1 3.2 4.6 3.5 5.6

GF 2.6 3.9 2.5 5.2 1.5 6.5 2.2 4.1 2.2 4.9

LW1 4.4 5.2 4.2 6.5 3.0 6.9 3.3 4.8 3.7 5.8

LW2 1.9 3.2 1.8 4.7 0.9 5.7 1.6 3.0 1.6 4.1

PH1 2.2 3.7 2.3 4.9 1.4 5.7 2.8 3.6 2.2 4.4

PH2 1.8 3.8 2.4 4.7 1.0 5.3 2.8 3.5 2.0 4.3

PK1 5.3 5.4 4.8 6.9 3.9 7.1 4.2 5.4 4.6 6.2

PK2 4.6 5.0 4.3 6.2 3.3 6.6 3.6 4.7 4.0 5.6

PK3 5.3 6.3 5.1 7.3 3.8 7.1 4.0 5.5 4.5 6.5

PK4 5.3 6.0 4.7 6.6 4.1 6.9 3.4 5.5 4.4 6.2

SJ1 5.4 6.3 5.4 6.4 3.6 6.2 3.6 4.1 4.5 5.7

SJ2 5.1 6.7 5.1 7.0 3.4 7.0 3.3 4.8 4.3 6.4

SJ3 4.5 5.3 4.2 6.3 3.0 6.9 2.8 3.9 3.6 5.6

Table 4.7. Mean values of air temperature reduced to sea level (oC) at the Base Station (KH) and their differences in relation to the other analysed sites in the area of the Forlandsundet in the summer seasons of 2010 and 2011


2010 2011 2010 2011 2010 2011 2010 2011 2010 2011

KH 5.1 5.5 4.9 5.5 3.2 6.4 3.6 4.8 4.2 5.5

SAT-KH 0.1 0.1 0.1 -0.1 0.3 -0.5 0.0 0.2 0.1 0.0

SAO-KH 0.2 0.4 0.1 0.7 0.2 0.5 0.0 0.3 0.1 0.5

KT-KH 0.3 1.2 0.3 1.6 0.8 1.8 0.7 1.1 0.5 1.4

ATA-KH 0.3 0.8 0.4 1.9 0.7 1.6 0.7 0.8 0.5 1.3

KU-KH 0.1 0.7 0.2 1.6 0.8 1.8 0.8 1.0 0.5 1.2

GF-KH -0.4 0.5 -0.3 1.8 0.4 2.1 0.7 1.3 0.1 1.4

LW1-KH 0.0 0.5 0.0 1.9 0.6 1.2 0.5 0.7 0.3 1.0

LW2-KH -1.0 0.0 -0.8 1.5 0.0 1.5 0.2 0.5 -0.4 0.8

PH1-KH 0.0 1.2 0.4 2.4 1.2 2.2 2.2 1.8 1.0 1.9

PH2-KH 0.2 1.9 1.0 2.7 1.4 2.4 2.7 2.2 1.3 2.3

PK1-KH 0.2 0.0 0.0 1.5 0.8 0.7 0.7 0.6 0.4 0.7

PK2-KH -0.1 -0.1 -0.2 1.1 0.6 0.6 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.5

PK3-KH 0.2 0.8 0.2 1.9 0.6 0.7 0.4 0.8 0.4 1.0

PK4-KH 0.2 0.5 -0.2 1.2 1.0 0.5 -0.2 0.7 0.2 0.7

SJ1-KH 0.3 0.9 0.4 0.9 0.4 -0.2 0.1 -0.7 0.3 0.2

SJ2-KH 0.0 1.3 0.2 1.6 0.3 0.6 -0.2 0.0 0.1 0.8

SJ3-KH -0.5 -0.1 -0.6 1.0 -0.1 0.6 -0.8 -0.8 -0.5 0.1

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The fact that the differences in the air temperature in the mountains and on the glaciers (or in areas subject to glacial influences) were much greater, as compared with the reference site values (KH), in 2011 than in 2010 is probably connected with the specific radiation balance which – in 2011 – was much more favourable in the inner part of the island (LW2) than on the coast (KH) (see Chapter 3, Tab. 3.13 of this work). Comparable or lower values of air tem-perature than on the Kaffiøyra Plain, recorded at the sites referred to earlier, resulted from a similar influence of maritime air masses and/or cool weather associated with the glacial surfaces (direct at LW2, or indirect at SJ3, through katabatic wind).

Figure 4.12. Differences in mean ten-day values of air temperature (oC) reduced to sea level between the observation sites in the area of the Forlandsundet and the Base Sta-tion (KH) in the summer seasons of 2010 (A) and 2011 (B)

The highest and the lowest recorded values of air temperature, as well as the mean temperature ranges in the reference period are shown in Tables 4.8-4.10 and Figure 4.13.

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Figure 4.13. Air temperature values: absolute maximum (a), absolute minimum (b) and diurnal mean range (c) in the area of the Forlandsundet in the periods of 21Jul–31 Aug in 2010 (A) and 2011 (B)

Prominently higher absolute maximum values of air temperature occurred at the mountain sites (particularly in 2010) and those located far from the sea, and the lowest temperatures were observed at glaciated sites and/or those ly-ing near glaciers or the open sea (except for the KH site in 2011, where an ex-ceptionally high maximum temperature was recorded, prompted by a strong foehnic wind). The highest maximum temperature of 13.9oC in the summer of 2010 was noted at PH1 on 20 August. In the following year, the highest tem-perature was 16.8oC and occurred at PK1 on 17 August. The lowest maximum temperatures (9.6oC in 2010 and 12.4oC in 2011) were recorded at SJ3 on 20 August 2010, and at SAT (17 August 2011) and SJ1 (18 August 2011). As ex-pected, the lowest values of the minimum temperature in both years were not-ed at PH2: in the summer of 2010 it was -4.3oC (16 August), and in the follow-ing summer, -2.3oC (11 August). The highest values of minimum temperature exceeded 0oC, reaching 0.3oC in the summer of 2010 (at PK4 on 16 August), and 1.9oC in the summer of 2011 (at SJ2 on 11 August). The range of diversity of absolute temperatures at individual sites exceeds 4oC and is greater than in the case of mean values (Tables 4.8-4.9, Fig. 4.13).

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An analysis of mean diurnal ranges of air temperature yields some inte-resting observations. The highest values of the temperature ranges in the summer of 2010 were evidently recorded at the highest-elevated sites (PH1 and PH2), where they reached 4.5 and 4.8oC, respectively (Tab. 4.10, Fig. 4.13A). Most probably, the reason for this was intense warming of the mountain ridges situated relatively often above the reach of low clouds, which prevents the lower-lying areas from such warming. In the summer of 2011, on the other hand, the diurnal range was not as high there (Fig. 4.13B). Increased values of air temperature ranges occurred in the forefield of the Waldemar Glacier and in the central part of the St. Jonsfjorden (SJ2, southern exposure). As anticipated, the lowest diurnal ranges were noted at the sites under the strongest maritime influences, i.e. at SAT (2.4-2.5oC), PK3 (2.8oC) and SJ3 (2.8oC, only in 2010). The SAT site, located at the end of a narrow peninsula jutted far into the Forlandsundet (Fig. 1.1, Section 1.2), has a notably lower range (by approx. 0.6-1.0oC on average) than the nearby two coastal sites of SAO and KH.

Table 4.8. Maximum values of air temperature (oC) in the area of the Forlandsundet in the summer seasons of 2010 and 2011


2010 2011 2010 2011 2010 2011 2010 2011 2010 2011

KH 7.2 10.4 8.4 11.6 11.4 16.6 10.2 8.4 11.4 16.6

SAT 7.8 10.6 8.1 10.6 10.4 12.4 9.1 7.6 10.4 12.4

SAO 7.6 10.1 8.0 11.4 12.6 14.0 10.5 7.9 12.6 14.0

KT 8.2 11.4 9.6 12.2 13.5 16.5 12.8 10.5 13.5 16.5

ATA 7.7 10.9 9.4 11.8 12.1 15.8 11.8 9.8 12.1 15.8

KU 6.8 9.5 8.4 11.1 13.6 15.4 11.8 10.0 13.6 15.4

GF 5.8 8.9 7.3 10.2 12.1 14.1 10.6 9.8 12.1 14.1

LW1 8.2 10.6 8.7 11.6 12.1 14.6 10.6 9.5 12.1 14.6

LW2 7.1 7.3 6.3 8.8 9.8 13.0 9.2 8.6 9.8 13.0

PH1 8.4 10.6 8.0 11.8 13.9 13.3 12.2 10.8 13.9 13.3

PH2 8.3 9.3 8.0 10.8 13.0 13.2 12.7 10.2 13.0 13.2

PK1 7.9 11.0 8.9 11.8 13.6 16.8 12.3 9.2 13.6 16.8

PK2 7.6 9.4 8.4 10.6 12.8 16.2 10.9 8.8 12.8 16.2

PK3 7.6 11.4 9.9 11.2 13.8 15.2 11.4 9.6 13.8 15.2

PK4 8.3 11.0 7.1 10.9 12.7 12.8 7.9 8.2 12.7 12.8

SJ1 7.7 10.0 9.5 11.6 10.2 12.4 9.3 7.1 10.2 12.4

SJ2 8.3 10.6 9.5 13.2 10.7 14.2 9.6 8.9 10.7 14.2

SJ3 7.0 9.1 6.8 12.2 9.6 14.1 9.0 7.9 9.6 14.1

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Table 4.9. Minimum values of air temperature (oC) in the area of the Forlandsundet in the summer seasons of 2010 and 2011


2010 2011 2010 2011 2010 2011 2010 2011 2010 2011

KH 2.8 1.3 1.4 1.9 -0.4 0.8 0.6 2.4 -0.4 0.8

SAT 2.8 2.0 1.6 2.6 -0.2 1.4 1.3 3.4 -0.2 1.4

SAO 3.0 1.9 1.5 1.8 -0.2 1.2 0.4 2.8 -0.2 1.2

KT 2.3 1.5 0.9 1.6 -1.0 0.6 0.0 2.1 -1.0 0.6

ATA 2.3 1.4 0.8 1.1 -1.1 0.1 -0.3 1.7 -1.1 0.1

KU 1.4 1.1 0.2 0.6 -1.7 -0.2 -0.6 1.3 -1.7 -0.2

GF 0.1 -0.2 -1.4 -0.5 -3.7 -0.9 -1.8 0.4 -3.7 -0.9

LW1 2.3 1.2 0.7 1.3 -1.1 0.5 -0.4 1.7 -1.1 0.5

LW2 -0.2 -0.7 -1.6 -1.1 -3.9 -1.8 -2.9 -0.3 -3.9 -1.8

PH1 -0.6 -0.3 -1.5 -1.2 -4.1 -1.8 -2.5 -0.5 -4.1 -1.8

PH2 -0.8 0.6 -2.0 -1.5 -4.3 -2.3 -3.0 -0.5 -4.3 -2.3

PK1 3.4 0.7 1.4 2.0 0.2 0.8 0.8 2.5 0.2 0.7

PK2 2.4 0.4 0.9 1.4 -0.8 0.0 0.1 1.5 -0.8 0.0

PK3 3.2 1.4 1.4 2.9 0.1 1.1 0.6 2.6 0.1 1.1

PK4 3.2 2.1 1.4 2.8 0.3 1.0 0.7 2.7 0.3 1.0

SJ1 3.8 3.7 2.5 2.5 0.3 1.1 -0.3 1.7 -0.3 1.1

SJ2 3.3 2.7 1.9 3.6 0.2 1.9 -1.0 2.3 -1.0 1.9

SJ3 3.1 2.0 1.6 2.4 0.2 1.6 -1.3 1.6 -1.3 1.6

Table 4.10. Mean diurnal ranges of air temperature (oC) in the area of the Forlandsundet in the summer seasons of 2010 and 2011


2010 2011 2010 2011 2010 2011 2010 2011 2010 2011

KH 2.4 2.9 3.0 4.3 3.3 4.8 3.2 2.3 3.0 3.5

SAT 2.0 2.4 2.6 3.1 2.6 3.0 2.6 1.4 2.4 2.5

SAO 2.3 2.9 3.0 4.1 3.5 3.8 3.1 2.0 3.0 3.2

KT 3.1 3.3 3.8 5.0 4.5 4.5 4.1 2.6 3.8 3.8

ATA 3.1 3.2 3.8 4.9 4.0 4.4 4.2 2.7 3.8 3.7

KU 2.9 2.8 3.5 4.5 3.7 3.1 3.7 2.3 3.4 3.1

GF 3.2 2.5 3.3 4.0 3.8 3.2 3.0 2.3 3.3 3.0

LW1 3.3 3.4 3.6 5.0 3.7 3.4 4.0 2.8 3.6 3.6

LW2 3.1 3.1 3.6 4.4 3.8 3.1 3.8 2.4 3.6 3.2

PH1 4.0 3.5 4.1 4.2 5.1 2.9 5.0 2.4 4.5 3.2

PH2 3.8 3.2 4.6 3.6 5.3 3.1 5.5 2.2 4.8 3.0

PK1 2.5 3.4 2.7 5.2 4.1 5.3 3.9 2.5 3.3 4.0

PK2 2.9 3.0 3.2 4.2 4.0 4.6 3.7 2.2 3.4 3.4

PK3 2.8 3.2 3.4 4.4 3.8 4.3 3.7 2.4 3.4 3.5

PK4 2.6 3.0 2.9 3.5 3.1 3.1 2.7 1.7 2.8 2.8

SJ1 2.3 3.2 3.2 4.3 3.0 3.4 3.0 2.4 2.9 3.3

SJ2 2.8 3.6 3.9 5.0 4.6 4.6 4.1 3.2 3.8 4.1

SJ3 2.4 3.0 2.5 5.0 3.3 3.9 2.8 2.3 2.8 3.5

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In individual ten-day periods, and particularly on individual days, the ge-neral outline of spatial diversity presented so far may be substantially different (Tables 4.6-4.9, Figs. 4.12-4.16), as the differences between the coldest and the warmest areas on any given day range from 3 to 4oC (Fig. 4.14).

Figure 4.14. Course of mean diurnal air temperature in the area of the Forlandsundet in the summer seasons of 2010 (A) and 2011 (B)

In comparison to the reference point, the greatest differences, whether positive or negative, do not exceed 4oC (Figs. 4.15-4.16). In 2010, the dif-ferences are distinctly more stable than in the summer of 2011. In both sum-mer seasons, they are the smallest, on average, at the SAT and SAO sites, and the greatest at the highest sites (LW2, GF, PH1 and PH2). In the former case, the differences usually range from -1 to +1oC, and from -3 to +3oC, in the latter. The pattern of spatial diversity of air temperature undergoes sig-nificant changes in the periods of sudden warming, which in both seasons occurred at a similar time, namely at the beginning of the second half of August (Figs. 4.14-4.16).

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Figure 4.15. Differences in mean diurnal values of air temperature (oC) between the measuring points in the area of Forlandsundet and the Base Station (KH) in the summer sea-son of 2010

In 2010 nearly the whole area covered by the observations, except for St. Jonsfjorden, was subject to warming, which requires a short account: the phe-nomenon was noted to have an enhanced intensity predominantly in the moun-tainous areas, which triggered strong inversions of air temperature. The rise in the mean air temperature between the second and the third ten-day period of August, ranged from 0.2 to 0.4oC at low situated sites, whereas at higher situ-

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ated sites it reached 0.7oC (at GF and LW2), and 1.4 and 1.8oC at PH1 and PH2, respectively. The mean diurnal temperature at PH1 and PH2 increased by as much as about 6oC at that time (Fig. 4.15). Then, in the last week of August, the temperature values were approximately 2oC higher there than at KH (Fig. 4.15). Similar cases of strong inversions of air temperature in Hornsund were also noted by Migała et al. (2008).

Figure 4.16. Differences in mean diurnal values of air temperature (oC) between the measuring points in the area of Forlandsundet and the Base Station (KH) in the summer sea-son of 2011

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Figure 4.17. Mean diurnal course of air temperature in the area of the Forlandsundet in the summer seasons of 2010 and 2011

An analysis of mean diurnal courses of air temperature also provides some interesting results. It is evident that the proximity of glacial surfaces cools the air more at daytime than at the ‘night’ hours (Fig. 4.17). Essentially, the diver-sity of temperature among the sites is also greater at day than at night. Also, it is much greater and more complex on days with good weather than on cloudy days (due to a stronger influence of local conditions). At all of the sites the highest air temperature was observed, on average, in the afternoon (13:00 – 17:00), and the lowest during the corresponding ‘night’ hours (Fig. 4.17).

4.2.4. Comparison with Ny-Ålesund

Until recently the thermal conditions on the Kaffiøyra Plain have only been com-pared with the conditions in Ny-Ålesund for a part of the summer season (21 July – 31 August, Przybylak and Araźny 2006; Przybylak et al. 2011). Today though, it is possible to do this for the whole year. One of the goals of such a comparison is to verify the correctness of measurements taken in the area of the Forlandsundet, particularly in the parts of the year when unfavourable weather conditions prevailed and it was impossible to inspect the measuring points. Established correlations may be used to supplement or reconstruct the missing data. The synoptic station in Ny-Ålesund is situated merely 30 km north of our area of observations.

For the comparison, data from the Base Station (KH) was used. As shown in Fig. 4.18, the air temperature at Ny-Ålesund is lower by approximately 0.9oC on average.

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The greatest differences were noted in the winter months, except for Janu-ary and February, when the difference was 2oC. The mean winter temperature at Ny-Ålesund (-12.0oC) was 1.4oC lower than the temperature calculated for KH. In the spring and autumn, the difference was 0.9oC, and in the summer the mean temperature was identical at both stations (5.1oC). Diagrams showing the annual courses of temperature at the two stations are therefore very similar to each other. This similarity was confirmed by correlations of mean diurnal values of air temperature at the two stations, calculated for individual seasons of the year. The correlations proved to be very high, as was verified in an analysis of determination coefficients, whose highest values were obtained for the autumn (r2 = 0.991), and the lowest for the summer (r2 = 0.890) (Fig. 4.19).

Figure 4.18. Annual course of air temperature at Ny-Ålesund and at the Base Station (KH) in the period from August 2010 to August 2011

Figure 4.19. Correlation of mean diurnal values of air temperature at the Base Station (KH) with the data from the Ny–Ålesund station in the autumn (Sep–Oct) of 2010, winter (Nov–Mar) of 2010/2011, spring (Apr–May) of 2011, and summer (Jun–Aug) of 2011

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Przybylak R., Kejna M., Araźny A., 2011, Air temperature and precipitation changes in the Kaffiøyra Region (NW Spitsbergen) from 1975 to 2010, Papers on Global Changes IGBP, 18, 7–21.

Przybylak R., Vizi Z., 2005, Ocena dokładności stosowanych metod obliczania średnich i eks-tremalnych dobowych wartości temperatury powietrza w Arktyce Amerykańskiej w XIX wieku, Probl. Klimatol. Pol., 15, 27–39.

Putnins P., Schallert W., et al., 1959, Some meteorological and climatological problems of the Greenland area, Final Rep., June 20, 1958–July 31, 1959, Sponsored by U.S. Army Signal Research and Development Laboratory, Fort Monmouth, New Jersey, United States, Weather Bureau, Washington D.C.

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Wójcik G., 1982, Meteorological conditions at the Kaffiöyra Plain – Spitsbergen from 21st July

to 28th August 1977, Act. Univ. Nic. Copernici, Geogr., 16, 151–166.

Wójcik G., Kejna M., Marciniak K., Przybylak R., Vizi Z., 1997, Obserwacje meteorologicz– ne na Ziemi Oskara II (Spitsbergen) i w Oazie Bungera (Antarktyda), Zakład Klimatologii, Toruń, 1–412.

Wójcik G., Marciniak K., 1983, Meteorological conditions in the Kaffiöyra Plain (NW Spitsber-gen) since 21st

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September 1978, Act. Univ. Nic. Copernici, Geogr., 18, 99–111.

Wójcik G., Marciniak K., 1987, Ground temperature of main ecotopes of Kaffiöyra, Spitsber-gen, summer 1978, Polish Polar Res., 8 (1), 25–46.

Wójcik G., Marciniak K., Przybylak R., 1988, Time and spatial variation of temperature of active layer in summer on the Kaffiöyra Plain (NW Spitsbergen), V International Conference on Permafrost, Proceedings, vol. 1, Trondheim, Norway, 499–504.

Wójcik G., Marciniak K., Przybylak R., Kejna M., 1990, Year–to–year changes of ground tem-perature in the period 1975–1989 on the Kaffiöyra Plain (NW Spitsbergen), [in:] Periglacial phenomena of Western Spitsbergen, Sesja Polarna, UMCS, Lublin, 233–243.

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Chapter 5

HIGRIC CONDITIONS

5.1. Relative air humidity

5.1.1. Introduction

The humidity of air is a very sensitive topoclimatic element, subject to spatial diversity to a greater extent than the temperature of air. Changes result from a number of reasons, including the influences of ground moisture, absolute height, surface relief features and vegetation on the water vapour content in the near-ground layer of the air. General and local atmospheric circulation plays a significant role, as well. Learning about the temporal and spatial vari-ability of air humidity (described with the example of relative humidity in this Chapter) is very useful for bioclimatic and topoclimatic research. Too-low air humidity, just as too-high, disturbs the process of heat release by the human body (Kozłowska-Szczęsna et al. 1997).

Information about air humidity can be found in monographic studies of the Arctic climate (for example, Vowinckel and Orvig 1970; Przybylak 2003; Marsz 2007; Araźny 2008). Relative humidity on Spitsbergen has rarely been the core of thorough analysis (e.g. Niedźwiedź and Ustrnul 1989; Przybylak 1992a, b; Araźny 2003). In the area of the Forlandsundet, the problem of spatial diversity in air humidity has only been researched since summer 1978 (Wójcik et al. 1997). Results from this research work have been published in numerous books and articles, for example Wójcik et al. 1983, 1993; Kejna 2001; Kejna et al. 2010; Kejna and Maszewski 2007; Przybylak et al. 2007; Araźny et al. 2011.

5.1.2. Annual course (August 2010–August 2011)

Extensive observations of relative air humidity had never been conducted on Spitsbergen before. In this Section then, initial results are presented, show-ing the diversity in relative air humidity in the area of the Forlandsundet (NW Spitsbergen). From July 2010 until August 2011, relevant measurement data were collected at 12 sites. The data were complete, except for one site, where a recorder fault or site damage made it impossible to collect neces-sary information about relative air humidity.

Monthly and seasonal values of relative humidity at the measurement points located in the area of the Forlandsundet are shown in Tables 5.1 and 5.2 and Figures 5.1 and 5.2, for all months and seasons of the year. The sea-sons have been distinguished according to the proposition offered by Putnins et al. (1959) and Gavrilova and Sokolov (1969) (cf. Section 4.2 of this work),

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which defines autumn as the months of September and October, winter as the period from November to March, spring as April and May, and summer as the three months of June, July and August.

Table 5.1. Mean monthly values of relative humidity (%) in the area of the Forlandsundet in the period from 1 August 2010 to 31 August 2011

Sites2010 2011

Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug

SAT 95 96 83 81 82 84 81 80 84 86 91 91 92

SAO 92 95 83 81 81 82 87 88 89 89 92 93 92

KT 90 91 79 74 77 76 77 78 80 77 79 82 82

ATA 86 93 82 78 77 79 79 81 83 81 85 87 86

KU 90 94 81 76 77 78 77 80 85 85 89 91 88

GF 93 94 87 85 84 84 84 90 92 95 93 94 89

LW1 87 92 81 78 78 77 78 82 83 80 85 89 87

LW2 87 93 86 81 81 80 81 84 87 83 86 94 90

PK1 90 92 84 82 82 83 84 90 89 88 87 89 89

PK4 90 93 83 81 80 83 84 88 87 85 85 89 89

SJ1 89 89 81 76 78 79 – – – – – – 86

SJ3 88 87 79 75 72 73 77 77 79 77 82 85 84

Table 5.2. Mean seasonal values of relative humidity (%) in the autumn, winter, spring, summer, and in the period from September 2010 to August 2011

Sites Autumn Winter Spring Summer Year

SAT 90 81 85 91 86

SAO 89 84 89 92 88

KT 85 76 79 81 79

ATA 87 79 82 86 83

KU 88 78 85 89 83

GF 90 85 94 92 89

LW1 87 79 81 87 82

LW2 90 82 85 90 86

PK1 88 84 88 88 86

PK4 88 83 86 88 86

SJ3 83 75 78 84 79

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The values of relative humidity are correlated with the course of air tem-perature (cf. Section 4.2 of this work). Based on the monthly mean data from the Ny-Ålesund station (situated approx. 30 km from Kaffiøyra station), it was observed that in an annual course, the lowest mean values of relative humidity (72%) occurred in November and December (Araźny 2008). This is connected with an advection of dry Arctic air masses. A similar situation took place in the area of the Forlandsundet in the period from August 2010 to August 2011 (Tab. 5.1, Fig. 5.1). In November 2010, the highest mean relative humidity oc-curred at the mountain top (GF; 85%), and the lowest – on the terrace in front of the Waldemar Glacier (KT; 74%). Relative humidity gradually increased from the beginning of winter through the summer months, with its highest long-term mean values (86%) recorded in that area (Ny-Ålesund) in July (Araźny 2008). The reason for this is the south-westerly influx of warm and humid air masses from the sea to the cold land. In an annual course, the relative humidity of air in the area of the Forlandsundet was the greatest in September, while in 2010, the highest mean value was recorded at the sites located near the sea (SAT 96% and SAO 95%), and the lowest in the southern part of the area of observations, the St. Jonsfjorden, in front of the Konow and Osborne glaciers (SJ3; 87%).

Figure 5.1. Annual course of relative humidity (%) in the area of the Forlandsundet in the pe-riod from August 2010 to August 2011

During the year, the most humid air was generally observed at the GF site (a mountain top at 345 m a.s.l.) and the SAO site (on the coast) (Tab. 5.2), whereas the lowest humidity values were measured at the SJ3 site (on glacial polish in front of the Konow and Osborne glaciers) and at KT (on a terrace in front of the Waldemar Glacier). The lowest air humidity was observed in the winter season, when it is usually a dozen or so per cent lower than in the au-tumn or the summer (Tab. 5.2). In the area of Spitsbergen, full-bodied maritime air masses exhibit a relative humidity of 80-85% (Marsz 2007). The mean

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monthly and seasonal values shown in Tables 5.1 and 5.2 come within the range, or tend to be a little higher. This means that fresh masses of maritime air prevail in the area of the Forlandsundet.

The smallest spatial diversity (8%) of this humidity index (according to mean monthly values) was observed in October between the mountain site, GF, and the terrace site, KT, whereas the greatest (18%) was seen in May, be-tween the same measurement points. Based on the mean seasonal values, the diversity was the smallest (8%) in the autumn, between the GF and the SJ3 sites, and the greatest (15%) in the spring, at the same pair of measurement points.

Over the whole year, the mean diurnal and fixed-interval values of relative humidity in the area of the Forlandsundet reached 100% at all sites. The lowest diurnal means were observed at that time at the region of the Waldemar Glacier (KU, GF, KT and LW1: 42%, 42%, 44% and 45%, respectively). Also, absolute fixed-interval value drops (to 27-29%) were mainly noted in that area (Fig. 5.2), both during the warm and the cold season, during the polar day and during the polar night alike. However, relative humidity did not decrease so significantly in the autumn. The summer drops were predominantly a result of the foehnic ef-fect, whereas those that occurred during the polar night can be explained by a flow of chilled air from the uppermost areas of the Waldemar and Aavatsmark glaciers. Cold air flowing down undergoes adiabatic warming, which can lead to a decrease in relative air humidity.

On Spitsbergen, both in a multi-annual period (Araźny 2008) and in the period analysed here, the greatest variability of relative humidity in an annual course occurred in the winter months. This is due to a considerable irregularity of the baric systems, which bring – often alternating – influxes of dry and wet air masses. The standard deviation determined on the basis of the diurnal means reaches the highest value during the year at KU (13%), and the most balanced environment as regards humidity was found at SAT (9%) and at PK1 and PK4 (9%).

On individual days the pattern of spatial diversity of air humidity may reveal considerable differences. In a day-by-day course, the relative humidity in the area of the Forlandsundet, even at the same temperature, shows var-ious values depending on the direction of advection. More details of the influence of atmospheric circulation on relative humidity have been provid-ed in Chapter 6.

The mean diurnal course of relative humidity in the area of the Forlandsun-det is opposite to the mean diurnal course of air temperature (cf. Section 4.2), and is quite diversified in the analysed area. In the autumn and winter, when the amount of solar radiation is largely reduced or absent, mean courses (Figs. 5.3 and 5.4) show a lack of daily variability of relative humidity at all sites. The diurnal ranges in the two seasons do not exceed 1-2% at all sites. In the autumn and winter months, the occurrence of average highest and lowest values of air humidity at fixed hours is random, as it is in the case of air temperature (Figs. 5.3 and 5.4).

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Figure 5.2. Values of relative humidity: absolute maximum (a), absolute minimum (b) and mean diurnal range (c) in the area of the Forlandsundet in the autumn (Sep-Oct) of 2010, winter (Nov-Mar) of 2010/2011, spring (Apr-May) of 2011, summer (Jun-Aug) of 2011 and in the year (Sep 2010 – Aug 2011)

In the spring, mean diurnal ranges of relative humidity were the highest of all seasons. The mean diurnal courses of this element in the spring were also the most evident (Fig. 5.5), as their range exceeded the 5% of the relative humidity range observed in the area of the Waldemar Glacier (ATA, LW1 and LW2 - 6, 7 and 11%, respectively). At the other sites, the ranges were greater in the spring than in the autumn or winter (except for SAT, GF and PK4). In the summer sea-son, diurnal courses of air humidity were still developed, but to a lesser degree than in the spring, with the exception of the SAT and GF sites. At the latter, an inversed pattern could even be observed (Fig. 5.6).

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Figure 5.3. Mean diurnal course of relative humidity (%) in the autumn (Sep–Oct) of 2010 in the area of the Forlandsundet

Figure 5.4. Mean diurnal course of relative humidity (%) in the winter (Nov-Mar) of 2010/2011 in the area of the Forlandsundet

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Figure 5.5. Mean diurnal course of relative humidity (%) in the spring (Apr-May) of 2011 in the area of the Forlandsundet

Figure 5.6. Mean diurnal course of relative humidity (%) in the summer (Jun-Aug) of 2011 in the area of the Forlandsundet

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On the basis of mean diurnal values of relative humidity, an analysis of the frequency of days with different characteristic values that occurred throughout the year. Kozłowska-Szczęsna et al. (1997) assumed that with relative humidity below 56% the air is dry; between 56 and 70% it is moderately dry; between 71 and 85% it is humid, and above 85% - very humid. Long-lasting days of high relative humidity impair bioclimatic conditions, particularly with low air tem-peratures and high wind speeds (Araźny 2008).

Figure 5.7. Relative frequency of occurrence (%) of dry air (a), moderately dry air (b), humid air (c) and very humid air (d) in the area of the Forlandsundet in the autumn (Sep-Oct) of 2010, in the winter (Nov-Mar) of 2010/2011, in the spring (Apr-May) of 2011, in the summer (Jun-Aug) of 2011, and in the year (Sep 2010 – Aug 2011)

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According to the classification described above, in the period from Septem-ber 2010 to August 2011, the air in the area of the Forlandsundet was pre-dominantly very humid (Fig. 5.7). On average, throughout the year, this kind of air occurred at all sites for 50% of days. Very humid air was the most uncom-mon at the SJ3 site (29% of days), located on muton in the forefield of the Konow and Osborne glaciers. On the other hand, this type of air was the most frequent (70% of days) at the mountainous GF site, which is often covered by low-level clouds of the Stratus and Stratocumulus types. In the area of the For-landsundet, very humid air was the least common in the winter (36%), and the most recurrent in the autumn (66%) and summer (64%).

Humid air occurred in the analysed area, on average, in 35% of days through-out the year. It was mostly observed at SJ3 (48%), and was least common at GF (19%). In individual seasons, this type of air was the least frequent in the au-tumn (20%), and the most frequent in winter (43%).

Moderately dry air was less common than humid air (Fig. 5.7), occurring at all sites in the area of the Forlandsundet during 14% days of the year. A considerable spatial diversity in the frequency of occurrence of this type of air was observed at individual sites (ranging from 6% at PK1 to 25% at KT). Moderately dry air was observed the least in the summer (6%), and the most in winter (20%).

Dry air occurred in the area of the Forlandsundet only occasionally, averag-ing at 1% throughout the year. In the autumn and spring, dry air was not ob-served on any one day at the sites. On the other hand, occasional days with this type of air were noted in the winter and in the summer.

5.1.3. Summer season (21 July–31 August)

Values for individual ten-day periods and for the whole common period (21 July - 31 August) at all observation sites in the area of the Forlandsundet, in the summer seasons of 2010 and 2011, are presented in Table 5.3 and Figures 5.8 and 5.9. The spatial distribution of relative humidity is correlated with the cor-responding pattern of air temperature (cf. Section 4.2 of this work; Przybylak et al. 2011). The seasonal mean value of the parameter at the Base Station (KH) in the summers of 2010 and 2011 was similar and reached 89 and 90%, respec-tively (Tab. 5.3).

In the summer season of 2010, higher values than those measured at KH (by at least 2% in a season) were recorded at the sites located near the sea (SAT and SAO) or in the mountains, at a distance from the sea (KU, GF, PH1, PH2 and PK2). At mountain sites, due to the recurrence of lower temperatures and low-level clouds (Stratus and Stratocumulus), elevated values of relative humidity were observed (Araźny et al. 2011). The lowest saturation of air with water va-pour (86%) occurred at the ATA site, located at the front of the Waldemar Gla-cier, where the ground is a rocky and dry moraine. The low humidity observed at that site was also connected with adiabatic warming of air masses carried by glacial winds (Kejna et al. 2010). Negative differences in relative humidity, cal-culated for the whole season between KH and the other sites in the area of the

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Forlandsundet, were also observed at five other sites (Tab. 5.3), all of which were situated immediately above glacial surfaces (LW2) or in close proximity of the glaciers (LW1, SJ1, SJ2 and SJ3).

Table 5.3. Mean values of relative humidity (%) in the area of the Forlandsundet in the summer seasons of 2010 and 2011

Sites21-31 Jul 01-10 Aug 11-20 Aug 21-31 Aug 21 Jul-31 Aug

2010 2011 2010 2011 2010 2011 2010 2011 2010 2011

KH 91 92 92 88 85 84 89 96 89 90

SAT 94 94 98 91 91 88 96 97 95 92

SAO 94 95 96 90 89 85 92 100 93 93

KT 93 84 95 78 85 75 89 92 90 83

ATA 89 90 90 80 82 80 85 98 86 87

KU 95 94 97 83 86 81 89 99 92 90

GF 99 97 99 84 91 82 88 99 94 91

LW1 90 92 92 81 83 82 86 98 88 88

LW2 93 98 95 85 84 86 83 99 89 92

PH1 99 95 99 86 92 83 84 98 93 91

PH2 99 91 94 81 94 81 80 96 92 87

PK1 94 94 97 81 85 85 88 99 91 90

PK2 95 92 98 78 86 80 89 98 92 88

PK3 93 89 96 74 84 79 90 96 91 85

PK4 93 92 95 83 84 84 92 98 91 90

SJ1 88 84 92 81 84 81 91 95 89 85

SJ2 89 85 92 80 81 79 89 92 88 84

SJ3 89 88 93 78 83 78 88 95 88 85

The weather conditions in the summer season of 2011 were substantially different from those observed in the preceding year. In 2011, the observed average cloud amount was smaller and the mean values of air temperature were much higher than the mean value for the whole summer season of 2010, and the values recorded during all previous expeditions (cf. Chapter 7 of this work). As a result, in the summer season of 2011, the values of relative air humidity at certain sites, for example those with a dry, rocky ground surface (e.g. terraces or moraines), were definitely lower (even by a few per cent) than in the preceding season. Examples of such sites include those located on the terrace in the forefield of the Waldemar Glacier (KT), or the mountain sites

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(PH1, PH2 and GF). However, changes of the above-mentioned meteorological conditions did not affect the values of relative humidity at the coastal sites: KH, SAT, SAO, PK1 and PK4.

In the analysed seasons, the highest mean diurnal values of relative hu-midity at most of the sites reached 100%. In 2010, the lowest mean diurnal values ranged from 50% (at the highest-located PH2 site, on 22 August) to 80% (at the coastal SAT site, on 20 August), while the lowest mean diurnal values of relative humidity in 2011 changed from 43% (at the highest-locat-ed site on Prins Karls Forland, on 18 August) to 73% (at SAT, on 18 August). The highest range of relative humidity (i.e. the difference between the high-est and the lowest mean diurnal value in the studied period) in 2010 was noted at the top of the Prins Heinrichfjella (PH2), and in 2011 – at the site located in the middle of Prins Karls Forland (50 and 57%, respectively). The reason for this must be the strong warming-up of the top parts of the moun-tain ranges, often situated beyond the reach of low-level clouds, which – on the other hand – prevent the lower situated areas from such warming. The smallest difference between the days with the highest diurnal mean and those with the lowest was, predictably, the SAT site, located at the station with the greatest influence of the sea. The difference in the two subsequent summer seasons was 20 and 26%, respectively. The SAT site is located at the end of the narrow Sarstangen Peninsula, cutting into the Forlandsundet, and therefore is continuously subject to humid air.

The diversity of absolute values of relative humidity is greater than in the case of diurnal means. In the summer season of 2010 it exceeded 38% at all sites, and at 10 measurement points (mostly situated high in the mountains) even 55%. In 2011, the diversity was greater, exceeding 40% at all sites, at 12 of which it reached 60%.

The standard deviation, calculated from the diurnal means of the sum-mer of 2010, reached the highest values (approx. 14%) at the mountain sites (PH1 and PH2), whereas the environment with the most balanced humidity conditions (up to approx. 5%), was found at the sites located near the sea (SAT and KH). These correlations were confirmed by the results obtained in the summer of 2011, where the highest values (approx. 13-14%) were calcu-lated for the mountainous or most elevated sites (PH1, PH2, GF, KU, LW1, ATA and PK2), whereas the most balanced deviation values (approx. 6-8%) were observed for the coastal sites (SAT and KH).

On individual observation days, the characteristics of the spatial diversity of the air humidity can be considerably different (see Appendixes 1 and 2). In a day-by-day course the relative humidity, even at the same air temperature, ex-hibited various values in the area of the Forlandsundet, depending on the direc-tion of advection of air masses. More information about the influence of atmos-pheric circulation on relative humidity can be found in Chapter 6 of this work.

A significant anomaly in the humidity conditions was observed, for exam-ple, in the last eleven days of August 2010 (Tab. 5.3). At that time, an unu-sual warming occurred, particularly intensively in the mountainous areas

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(except the St. Jonsfjorden) (Przybylak et al. 2011). Then, an increase in air temperature and sunny weather between the second and the third ten-day period of August caused a sudden drop in relative air humidity at the highest-elevated sites, i.e. GF, LW2, PH1 and PH2 (Araźny et al. 2011). This example shows that the spatial diversity of relative humidity is modified by weather. In cloudy and cool weather, this diversity decreases, whereas in radiation wea-ther it intensifies.

The mean diurnal course of relative humidity is the opposite of the mean diurnal course of air temperature. The latter is presented in Section 4.2 of this work and describes the summer seasons of 2010 and 2011. The diversity of air temperature between individual sites is greater at the daytime than during the ‘night’ hours. It is also much greater and more complex (being more influ-enced by local conditions) on sunny days than on cloudy days. The averaged diurnal courses of relative humidity at individual sites revealed one diurnal minimum and one maximum value (Figs. 5.8 and 5.9). In the two analysed periods, the smallest mean hourly value of relative humidity usually fell be-tween 13:00 and 17:00 LMT, when the highest air temperature was also measured. The maximum relative humidity during the ‘night’ hours and in the morning was connected with a cooling-off of the air. The mean diurnal ranges in 2010 and 2011 were small (< 8% at all sites), with the smallest values ob-served at the mountain sites of GF and PH1 (up to approx. 3%). At all analysed sites and at all times of observation, the mean relative humidity exceeded 83% (Figs. 5.8 and 5.9). The averaged diagrams of the diurnal course in the analysed summer seasons are asymmetrical and show that a greater relative humidity occurred at all sites in the first half of the day (except for GF and LW2 in 2010, and PK1 in 2011), which is connected with lower air tempera-ture in that part of the day.

On individual days, the diurnal courses of relative humidity often mark-edly deviated from the average course, which was basically caused by the occurrence of various synoptic situations. Measurements taken on two spe-cific days, 5 August 2010 and 18 August 2011 were selected for a detailed analysis. The first day was characterised by overcast weather with a Ka syn-optic pattern, and the other was very sunny (18.9 h of effective sunshine duration) with an SEa pattern (Fig. 5.10).

On the overcast day (5 August 2010), the values of relative humidity barely changed during the 24 hours, and the recorded diurnal ranges of air tempera-ture at all sites were up to approx. 2°C. On that day, considering the lack of di-rect solar radiation at the sites, the instantaneous values of relative humidity recorded were similar and its range did not exceed a few per cent in the whole area of observations (Araźny et al. 2011). An exception to this was the area of the St. Jonsfjorden, where the cloud cover must have been smaller, because on 5 August the relative humidity ranges reached approximately 15% there (Fig. 5.10). An analysis verified earlier observations (e.g. Przybylak 1992b), that the distinctiveness of diurnal courses of relative humidity increased with decreasing cloudiness.

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Figure 5.8. Mean diurnal course of relative humidity (%) in the area of the Forlandsundet in the summer season (21 July–31 August) of 2010

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Figure 5.9. Mean diurnal course of relative humidity (%) in the area of the Forlandsundet in the summer season (21 July–31 August) of 2011

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Figure 5.10. Diurnal courses of relative humidity (%) on selected days with overcast weather (5 August 2010), and with little cloudiness (18 August 2011) in the area of the Forlandsundet

On the sunny day, 18 August 2011, the air temperature increased from the ‘night’ hours until the midday hours. On that day, foehnic wind occurred in the area of the Kaffiøyra Plain and the Waldemar Glacier. Between 09:00 and 10:00

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LMT the air temperature rose from 7.8°C to 14.1°C. In the afternoon, the high-est temperature values were recorded in that area (e.g. at 15:00 LMT 16.6°C at KH, and 16.5°C at KT). These were the maximum values observed in the whole area of observations on that day, and caused the relative humidity to change dramatically at the sites located in the area of the Kaffiøyra and the Waldemar Glacier (Fig. 5.10). On 18 August 2011, a very great range of relative humidity was noted at KH (57%). At the St. Jonsfjorden site, drops in relative humidity were smaller (max. up to 45% at SJ3). In the area of the last research zone, situ-ated on Prins Karls Forland island, the weather was different - the diurnal cour-ses of relative humidity observed on the island on that day had a very small range (several per cent) and high values (>80%).

The mean diurnal values of relative humidity in the summers of 2010 and 2011 provided the basis for an analysis of frequency of characteristic days. The classification showed that, in the two analysed summer seasons in the area of the Forlandsundet, very humid air prevailed (Fig. 5.11). This type of air occurred there, on average, for 77% (2010) and 68% (2011) of days. Very humid air was the least frequent in the summers of 2010 and 2011 at the ATA and the KT sites (60-71% and 55-67% of days, respectively). The two sites were located on rocky and mo-raine ground, which warmed considerably, especially in the periods of sunny weather. Very humid air clearly prevailed at the SAT site (95% and 79% of days in respective summer seasons), located near the sea. Such a high frequency of oc-currence of very humid air in the area in summer was due to increased evapora-tion of uncovered bodies of water.

Figure 5.11. Relative frequency of occurrence (%) of dry air (a), moderately dry air (b), humid air (c) and very humid air (d) in the area of the Forlandsundet in the summer sea-sons (21 July–31 August) of 2010 and 2011

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In the summer of 2010, humid air was observed, on average, for 18%, and in 2011 for 22% of the days in the whole area of observations. In the two sea-sons, humid air was the least common at the sites located on mountain tops or at greater absolute heights (several days). On the other hand, such air was the most frequent (15 days) at ATA in 2010 and at SJ3 in 2011. Overall in 2010, there were only 4% of days on which the air was moderately dry; in 2011 the share of such days increased to 9%. Moderately dry air was not observed at three sites in 2010 (KH, SJ1 and SJ3), and at two in 2011 (SAT and SAO). This type of air was the most common in the mountains and the foothills (10% of the days in the season). Dry air in the area of the Forlandsundet was very infre-quent and was observed on single days, only at higher elevations, far from maritime influences.

5.2. Precipitation

The Arctic experiences quite small amounts of precipitation due to the low water vapour content in the air, the stability of the prevalent atmospheric mass-es and the consequential predominance of such cloud types as Stratus and Stratocumulus. On Spitsbergen, however, the amount of precipitation is evi-dently greater (Przybylak 2003). This is due to the considerable influence of the atmospheric circulation on the studied area, connected with the movement of lows fronts along the Icelandic-Kara Trough, which make the area ‘privileged’ as regards temperature and humidity conditions. The precipitation on Spitsbergen is strongly diversified spatially (Marciniak and Przybylak 1985; Araźny 2008; Przybylak et al. 2009). It is an essential element for the development of the biosphere and for the glacier mass balance (Przybylak 1996; Hagen et al. 2003; Sobota 2007). Precipitation participates in the forming of snow cover, whose presence affects the net solar radiation of the polar areas.

General studies of precipitation in the Arctic can be found in works by Przy-bylak (1996, 1997, 2003). There are also a number of studies describing the meteorological element in the Norwegian Arctic (Hanssen-Bauer and Førland 1998, 2000; Førland and Hanssen-Bauer 2000, 2001, 2002) and on Spitsbergen (Markin 1975; Baranowski 1977; Marciniak and Przybylak 1985; Przybylak and Marciniak 1992; Førland et al. 1997; Hanssen-Bauer 2002; Łupikasza 2002, 2003, 2007, 2008, 2010; Łupikasza and Niedźwiedź 2002). In the area of the Forlandsundet the problem of the spatial diversity of precipitation has been studied since the summer of 1978 (Wójcik et al. 1997). The results have been published in numerous works and articles, for example: Wójcik et al. 1983, 1992, 1993; Marciniak and Przybylak 1985; Kejna 2001, 2010; Kejna and Masze-wski 2007; Przybylak et al. 2007, 2009.

The summer seasons of 2010 and 2011 were very deficient in precipitation. In the summer of 2010, the main measurement point (KHm) at the Base of the TPE recorded the smallest amount of precipitation of all the summer observa-tions carried out in the area of Forlandsundet. Between 21 July and 31 August, total precipitation amounted to merely 8.5 mm (Tab. 5.3), whereas in the

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summer of 2011 it was three times higher (28.1 mm). Nevertheless, the values remained below the mean calculated from all 19 TPEs (40.0 mm). The maximum diurnal amount of precipitation in the two summers was 5.7 mm (11 July 2010) and 22.7 mm (1 September 2011) (Fig. 5.12).

Table 5.3. Precipitation totals (mm) in the area of Forlandsundet in the summer seasons of 2010 and 2011

Site Period11-15

Jul16-20

Jul21-25

Jul26-31

Jul1-5 Aug

6-10 Aug

11-15 Aug

16-20 Aug

21-25 Aug

26-31 Aug

21 Jul-31 Aug

KHp 2010 4.9 2.8 1.2 0.6 1.2 1.5 0.0 0.0 0.2 7.5

KHp 2011 1.3 0.1 0.2 1.4 0.4 0.6 10.9 1.8 3.7 7.1 26.1

KHm 2010 5.3 3.1 1.6 0.8 1.7 1.2 0.0 0.0 0.1 8.5

KHm 2011 1.5 0.1 0.2 2.3 0.6 0.4 10.2 1.8 3.4 9.2 28.1

SAT 2011 0.6 · · 0.4 0.2 0.8 10.8 0.6 2.8 12.6 28.2

KT 2010 14.5 2.5 12.1 1.1 4.6 2.9 0.0 0.0 2.1 25.3

KT 2011 0.3 0.1 0.3 3.4 0.2 0.0 27.8 2.1 4.6 7.1 45.5

ATA 2010 6.0 2.5 6.4 0.2 0.3 5.6 0.0 0.1 3.9 19.0

ATA 2011 0.9 0.1 0.7 2.7 0.8 0.0 20.9 2.3 4.0 8.1 39.5

LW1 2010 7.1 4.0 9.7 0.6 2.6 5.4 0.0 0.1 3.5 25.9

LW1 2011 1.2 0.1 0.9 4.7 2.0 0.1 20.1 2.5 4.8 9.6 44.7

LW m 2010 7.8 4.6 8.5 0.7 1.1 5.4 0.0 0.2 4.1 24.6

LW m 2011 0.2 0.1 2.4 3.7 1.7 0.1 22.7 2.8 5.4 11.1 49.9

LW2 2010 9.6 7.8 11.2 0.6 2.0 8.2 0.0 1.0 5.7 36.5

LW2 2011 0.2 3.3 6.2 1.2 0.2 46.9 3.4 6.5 13.5 81.2

GF 2010 11.0 4.2 6.8 1.0 11.2 1.6 0.0 0.0 0.2 25.0

PK1 2011 1.5 · 0.8 2.8 1.5 1.0 12.9 6.3 4.3 23.6 53.2

PK2 2010 9.0 3.2 8.2 5.2 13.0 6.2 0.0 0.0 1.0 36.8

PK3 2010 4.2 1.8 4.8 1.0 4.0 5.8 0.0 0.0 0.8 18.2

PK3 2011 3.2 · 0.4 1.0 · 0.6 12.0 1.8 0.2 20.8 36.8

SJ2 2010 1.6 3.4 0.0 1.0 6.2 0.0 0.0 0.4 12.6

SJ2 2011 0.6 · 0.2 0.4 0.4 0.2 10.4 0.4 2.0 5.0 19.0

Explanations: KHp – Kaffiøyra – Heggodden beach, KHm – Kaffiøyra – Heggodden moraine, · - denotes that precipitation did not occur; for other explanations see Table 1.1.

Photo 5.1. Stratus drizzle at St. Jonsfjorden (left) and Altostratus snow fall in the Kaffiøyra and at the Waldemar Glacier (right) in the summer


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Figure 5.12. Diurnal course of precipitation totals at the Kaffiøyra-Heggodden (KHm) from 11 July to 1 September 2010 and 2011

The Forlandsundet summer of 2010 was characterised by frequent, yet sparse precipitation. At the KHm station, in the period from 11 July to 1 Sep-tember there were 17 days (32.1%) of trace precipitation (0.0 mm), 20 days (37.7 %) of precipitation (≥ 0.1 mm) and 16 days (30.2%) without precipitation. In the same period of 2011, the following statistics were obtained: 3 days (5.7%) of trace precipitation (0.0 mm), 22 days (41.5%) of precipitation (≥ 0.1 mm) and 28 days (52.8%) without precipitation (Figs. 5.12 and 5.13).

Figure 5.13. Frequency of precipitation (%) at the Base Station, Kaffiøyra-Heggodden (KHm), from 11 July to 1 September 2010 and 2011

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The amount of precipitation increases with the altitude, as the air masses rise and get cold over hills and mountains. Similarly to other summertime observa-tions (e.g. in: Marciniak and Przybylak 1985; Kejna and Maszewski 2007; Przyby-lak et al. 2007, 2009), the measurements taken in 2010 and 2011 confirmed a significant increase in precipitation with the elevation of the measurement point above sea level. Figure 5.14 shows correlations between series of absolute heights (m a.s.l.) and seasonal precipitation totals obtained at operational sites in the common periods of 2010 and 2011. The observed correlations were evident-ly stronger (r = 0.849) in the wetter season of 2011 than in the dryer summer of 2010 (r = 0.639). Both values are statistically relevant at p < 0.05.

Figure 5.14. Correlations between summer precipitation totals (21 July–31 August) at indivi-dual sites and their absolute heights in 2010 and 2011

At the sites located in the mountains (GF) or on the firn field of the Walde-mar Glacier (LW2), the measured precipitation was approximately 3-4 times greater than at the coastal lowland sites. In the summer of 2010, in the area of the Kaffiøyra and the Waldemar Glacier the vertical gradient of precipitation between KH and LW1 was twice as large as between KH and LW2 (14.7 and 7.7 mm/100 m, respectively). However in the summer of 2011 it was quite compa-rable (14.0 and 14.6 mm/100 m, respectively). Substantial differences were found in the values of the vertical gradient of precipitation in the analysed seasons between the lower (LW1) and the higher (LW2) glacier sites. In 2010 it amounted to 4.3 mm/100 m, whereas in 2011 14.9 mm/100 m.

In 2010 the greatest amount of precipitation (36.8 mm) in the whole season was recorded in the central part of Prins Karls Forland (PK2). The precipitation at that station is generally abundant, because it is situated at the highest point of movement of humid air masses along the studied profile (N-S) on Prins Karls Forland (Fig. 1.1 in Chapter 1 of this work). Unfortunately, it was not possible to repeat measurements at that site in the wetter season of 2011. In shorter periods, for example, individual series of 5 or 10 days, one can see relationships that are in opposition to that of the whole season. In 2010, for example, the greatest amounts of precipitation in 5-day periods (14.5 and 12.1 mm) were

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observed in the middle and at the end of July (Tab. 5.3) on a terrace in front of the Waldemar Glacier (KT). Such elevated values of this meteorological element at that particular location on the interface of the Kaffiøyra Plain and the Walde-mar Glacier were caused by the more frequent occurrence of low-level clouds, as mentioned earlier.

In the summer seasons of 2010 and 2011, on the coast of the Forlandsundet the predominant type of precipitation was rain (mainly rain and drizzle), where-as in the mountain areas and on the glaciers, apart from rainfall, snowfall also occurred, forming a snow cover of a few centimetres.

The amount of precipitation is also significantly affected by the direction of air mass advection and the type of baric system. Most of the precipitation on Spitsbergen occurs when the air masses come from the southern and western sector (Niedźwiedź and Ustrnul 1988; Przybylak and Marciniak 1992; Wójcik et al. 1992; Niedźwiedź 2002; Łupikasza and Niedźwiedź 2002). This is due, ac-cording to Niedźwiedź (2002), to increased transfer of great amounts of humid-ity by warmer air incoming from above the vastness of the Atlantic Ocean. The wind directions observed in the area of the Forlandsundet, determined by the atmospheric circulation, show a close correlation with the local orography (cf. Chapter 2 of this work).

The atmospheric circulation and its influence on the precipitation on se-lected days was characterised using a calendar of circulation types for Spits-bergen (Niedźwiedź 2011). According to Przybylak et al. (2009), the highest diurnal precipitation totals in the summer at KH, in the years of 1980-2008, were recorded at advection of air masses from the southern and south-west-ern sectors (Sa – 6.4 mm, Sc – 4.7 mm, SWc – 3.8 mm). The relationship was verified by the results from two recent summers in the Forlandsundet. In 2010 and 2011, the highest diurnal precipitation total was observed when the air was coming from the south-west at SWc (5.7 and 22.7 mm, respectively). On the other hand, incoming air masses from the north and east bring much less precipitation to Spitsbergen (Przybylak and Marciniak 1992). In the two sum-mer seasons of 2010 and 2011, generally no precipitation was recorded in such circumstances.

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Łupikasza E., 2003, Zmienność występowania opadów deszczu i śniegu w Hornsundzie w okre-sie lipiec 1978–grudzień 2002, Probl. Klimatol. Pol., 13, 93–105.

Łupikasza E., 2007, Opady atmosferyczne, [in:] Marsz A. A. i Styszyńska A. (eds.), Klimat rejonu Polskiej Stacji Polarnej w Hornsundzie – stan, i ich przyczyny, Wyd. Akad. Morskiej, Gdynia, 185–196.

Łupikasza E., 2008, Zależność występowania rodzajów opadów od temperatury powietrza w Hornsundzie (Spitsbergen) w okresie 1978–2007, Probl. Klimatol. Pol., 18, 99–112.

Łupikasza E., 2010, Long-term variability of precipitation form in Hornsund (Spitsbergen) in relation to atmospheric circulation (1979–2009), Bull. Geogr. Phys. Geogr. Ser., 3, 65–86.

Łupikasza E., Niedźwiedź T., 2002, Wpływ cyrkulacji na opady atmosferyczne w Hornsundzie. [in:] Kostrzewski A., Rachlewicz G. (eds.), Polish Polar Stud., Funkcjonowanie i monitoring Geoekosystemów obszarów polarnych, Poznań, 203–216.

Marciniak K., Przybylak R., 1985, Atmospheric precipitation of the summer season in the Kaf-fiöyra region (North–West Spitsbergen), Polish Polar Res., 6 (4), 543–559.

Markin V. A., 1975, Klimat oblasti sovremennogo oledenenija, [in:] Oledenenije Spitsbergena (Svalbard), Rezultaty Issledovanij po Meždunarodnym Geofizičeskim Projektam, Izd. „Nau-ka”, Moskwa, 42–105.

Marsz A.A., 2007, Wilgotność względna, [in:] Marsz A. A., Styszyńska A. (eds.), Klimat re-jonu Polskiej Stacji Polarnej w Hornsundzie, stan, zmiany i przyczyny, Wyd. Akad, Morskiej, Gdynia, 178–183.

Niedźwiedź T., 2002, Wpływ cyrkulacji atmosfery na wysokie opady w Hornsundzie (Spitsber-gen), Probl. Klimatol. Pol., 12, 65–75.

Niedźwiedź T., 2011, Katalog typów cyrkulacji atmosferycznej na Spitsbergenie, Komputerowa baza danych, Katedra Klimatologii, Uniwersytet Śląski.

Niedźwiedź T., Ustrnul Z., 1988, Wpływ sytuacji synoptycznych na stosunki opadowe w Hornsundzie (Spitsbergen), XV Symp. Polar., Wrocław, 196–202.

Niedźwiedź T., Ustrnul Z., 1989, Wpływ sytuacji synoptycznych na wilgotność powietrza w Hornsundzie (Spitsbergen), Maszynopis w IMGW, Oddział w Krakowie.

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Przybylak R., 1992a, Spatial differentiation of air temperature and relative humidity on western coast of Spitsbergen in 1979–1983, Polish Polar Res., 13 (2), 113–130.

Przybylak R., 1992b, Stosunki termiczno-wilgotnościowe na tle warunków cyrkulacyjnych w Hornsundzie (Spitsbergen) w okresie 1978-1983, Dok. Geogr. 2, Wyd. PAN, 105 pp.

Przybylak R., 1996, Zmienność temperatury powietrza i opadów atmosferycznych w okresie obserwacji instrumentalnych w Arktyce, Toruń, 279 pp.

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Przybylak R., 2003, The Climate of the Arctic, Atmospheric and Oceanographic Sciences Library, 26, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht/Boston/London, 270 pp.

Przybylak R., Araźny A., Ćwiklińska K., 2007, Warunki meteorologiczne w rejonie Lodowca Wal-demara (NW Spitsbergen) w sezonie letnim 2005 r., [in:] Przybylak R., Kejna M., Araźny A., Głowacki P. (eds.), Abiotyczne środowisko Spitsbergenu w latach 2005–2006 w warunkach globalnego ocieplenia, Toruń, 51–65.

Przybylak R., Araźny A., Kejna M., Maszewski R., Wyszyński P., 2009, Zróżnicowanie opadów atmosferycznych w rejonie Kaffiøyry (NW Spitsbergen) w sezonie letnim w latach 1980-2008, Probl. Klimatol. Pol., 19, 189–202.

Przybylak R., Araźny A., Kejna M., Pospieszyńska A., 2011, Zróżnicowanie warunków termicz- nych w rejonie Forlandsundet (NW Spitsbergen) w sezonie letnim 2010, Prace i Studia Geogr., 47, 451–462.

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Kaffiöyra i Lodowcu Waldemara (NW Spitsbergen), [in:] Olszewski A, Wójcik G. (eds.), X Symp. Polarne Pol. Bad. Polar., 1970–1982, Toruń, 187–199.

Wójcik G., Marciniak K., Przybylak R., Kejna M., 1992, Temperatura i opady a cyrkulacja at-mosferyczna w rejonie Kaffiøyry (NW Spitsbergen) w sezonie letnim w okresie 1975–1989, Probl. Klimatol. Pol., 2, 96–102.

Wójcik G., Marciniak K. Przybylak R., Kejna M., 1993, Mezo- i topoklimaty północnej części rejonu Kaffiöyry (Ziemia Oskara II, NW Spitsbergen), Wyniki Badań VIII Toruńskiej Wyprawy Polarnej Spitsbergen 89, UMK, Toruń, 83–111.

Wójcik G., Kejna M., Marciniak K., Przybylak R., Vizi Z., 1997, Obserwacje meteorologiczne na Ziemi Oscara II (Spitsbergen) i w Oazie Bungera (Antarktyda), Oficyna Wydawnicza „Tur-press”, Toruń, 412 pp.

Vowinckel E., Orvig S., 1970, The climate of the North Polar Basin, [in:] Landsberg H. E. (eds.), Climates of the polar rejons, World Survey of Climat., 14, Elsevier Publish. Company Inc.: 129–252.

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Chapter 6

THE INFLUENCE OF ATMOSPHERIC CIRCULATION ON TEMPERATURE AND HUMIDITY CONDITIONS

Atmospheric circulation plays a crucial role in the shaping of the Spitsbergen climate. As regards the area of the Kaffiøyra, only four studies have been pub-lished so far, tackling the effects of atmospheric circulation on air temperature and precipitation (Wójcik et al. 1992; Araźny 1998; Przybylak and Araźny 2006 and Przybylak et al. 2012), nevertheless there is a deficiency of detailed studies on the influence of circulation on air humidity.

The data used in this Chapter comprises mean diurnal values of air tempera-ture from the Base Station (KH) and mean values of relative humidity from the SAO site, as the sensor installed at KH failed. The SAO site was chosen because of its proximity to KH and the similar topoclimatic conditions at both places. Due to a lack of certain circulation types in the spring and autumn season, a decision was made to incorporate them as proposed by Przybylak (1992), and thus all identified circulation types have been included in the analysis of the influence of atmospheric circulation on temperature conditions.

6.1. The influence of atmospheric circulation on temperature conditions

Mean, maximum and minimum diurnal values of air temperature and absolute diurnal ranges for specific atmospheric circulation types on Spitsbergen are pre-sented in Table 6.1 and Figure 6.1.

In the winter, the lowest values of mean diurnal air temperature were re-corded during advection from the northern sector (NW+N+NE), both at anticy-clonic circulation (-14.3oC), and - to a lesser extent - at the cyclonic type (-13.1oC) (Fig. 6.1). Inflowing air masses from the north contributed to prominent nega-tive anomalies in air temperature (for NWa+Na+NEa, the anomaly reached -3.7oC, and for NWc+Nc+NEc, -2.5oC). The highest mean diurnal air tempera-tures were connected with an occurrence of the S+SW+W pattern, particularly with cyclonic circulation (-4.1oC) and, to a lesser extent, the anticyclonic type (-5.3oC). For the Sc+SWc+Wc pattern, the positive anomaly in air temperature reached 6.5oC, which was the highest of all the anomalies. The lowest mean temperatures were characteristic for the Ea+SEa pattern, occurring at anticy-clonic and cyclonic circulation types (-29.1oC and -28.3oC, resp.). The highest recorded maximum temperature in the winter (3.6oC) was associated with the Sc+SWc+Wc pattern (Fig. 6.1).

Similarly to the mean diurnal values of air temperature, the lowest mean maximum temperatures (-11.7oC) and minimum temperatures (-16.8oC) oc-curred with the combined pattern of NWa+Na+NEa (Tab. 6.1).

140

Table 6.1. Mean diurnal maximum (Tmax) and minimum (Tmin) values and diurnal ranges (A) of air temperature (oC) observed during synoptic situation types identified at the KH site in the winter (November 2010 – March 2011), spring and au-tumn (April – May of 2011, September – October of 2010), and in the summer (June – August of 2011)

Types of circulation*Winter Spring and Autumn Summer

Ti Tmax Tmin A Ti Tmax Tmin A Ti Tmax Tmin A

NWa+Na+NEa -14.3 -11.7 -16.8 5.0 -1.8 -0.7 -2.8 2.2 5.0 6.3 3.7 2.6

Ea+SEa -12.7 -10.1 -15.4 5.3 0.7 1.7 -0.6 2.2 8.2 10.9 5.2 5.7

Sa+SWa+Wa -5.3 -2.3 -8.9 6.5 0.1 1.6 -1.5 3.1 5.3 6.9 3.9 3.0

Ca+Ka -10.1 -7.5 -12.6 5.0 -0.5 0.7 -2.2 3.0 4.7 5.9 3.4 2.5

NWc+Nc+NEc -13.1 -11.0 -15.4 4.4 -3.5 -2.0 -4.9 2.9 5.3 7.7 3.8 3.9

Ec+SEc -11.4 -8.6 -14.4 5.8 -2.1 -0.3 -4.0 3.8 6.0 7.4 4.6 2.8

Sc+SWc+Wc -4.1 -1.1 -7.6 6.6 0.8 2.9 -1.0 3.9 2.2 2.9 1.4 1.5

Cc+Bc -8.5 -5.0 -12.9 7.8 -1.4 0.4 -3.3 3.7 4.7 6.1 3.3 2.8

X -11.8 -8.9 -14.3 5.3 -2.0 -0.1 -4.1 4.0 5.3 5.8 4.3 1.6

m -10.6 -7.9 -13.6 5.7 -1.5 0.2 -3.1 3.3 5.1 6.7 3.7 2.9

Explanation: m – seasonal mean; * circulation type division acc. to Przybylak (1992)

In the transitional periods, unquestionably the lowest mean diurnal air tem-peratures (-3.5oC) occurred during advection from the northern sector (NW+N+NE), mostly in cyclonic circulation, but also the anticyclonic type (-1.8oC). The highest negative anomaly for the NWc+Nc+NEc pattern was -2.0oC. A characteristic feature of the above-mentioned combined patterns is the occurrence of relatively high values of absolute minimum temperature.

In the summer season, the diversity in maximum and minimum tempera-tures was much smaller. The highest mean diurnal air temperatures (8.2oC) and the highest measured maximum temperature (16.6oC) were associated with the Ea+SEa pattern (Tab. 6.1, Fig. 6.1). Such high values of air temperature are less characteristic of the Ec+SEc pattern. The occurrence of Ea+SEa was connected with a substantial positive anomaly in temperature (+3.1oC). One possible rea-son for this was the appearance of foehnic phenomena with that type of circu-lation. Also, in the case of mean maximum and minimum temperatures their highest values, 10.9oC and 5.2oC, respectively, coincided with the Ea+SEa pat-tern (Tab. 6.1). The Sc+SWc+Wc pattern exhibited low values of air tempera-ture (with the lowest minimum air temperature recorded at KH, -0.2oC). In the winter, this pattern contributed to great positive anomalies in air temperature, however in the summer it caused a negative anomaly of -2.9oC.

141

Figure 6.1. Values of diurnal mean (Ti), absolute maximum (Tmaxabs ) and absolute minimum (Tminabs ) air temperature at the Base Station (KH) during the winter (November 2010 – March 2011) (A), spring and autumn (April – May of 2011, September – Oc-tober of 2010) (B), and summer (June – August of 2011) (C)

142

Atmospheric circulation also affects the diurnal ranges of air temperature (Tab. 6.1). In the winter, the highest diurnal ranges were typical for the Cc+Bc (7.8oC) and the S+SW+W patterns in anticyclonic and cyclonic circulation types (6.5oC and 6.6oC, respectively). This is probably due to the increased advection of usually warm and humid air, accompanying the above-men-tioned patterns and, consequently, dramatic daily changes in air temperature. On the other hand, the lowest diurnal ranges of air temperature were ob-served during advection of cold and thermally stable arctic air masses, incom-ing from the northern sector, both in anticyclonic and cyclonic circulation types (5.0oC and 4.4oC, respectively) (Tab. 6.1).

In the spring, diurnal ranges of air temperature are slightly lower than in the winter, therefore the differences between the identified circulation types are smaller than in the winter. The highest ranges coincided with the X type (4.0oC) and with advection of air masses from the south and west in the cy-clonic circulation pattern of Sc+SWc+Wc (3.9oC). The lowest spring and win-ter ranges occurred during advection of air masses from the northern sector in anticyclonic and cyclonic circulation (2.2oC and 2.9oC, respectively), and with the Ea+SEa pattern (2.2oC).

In the summer, the highest ranges were associated with the Ea+SEa pattern (5.7oC), which can be connected with a foehnic effect occurring with this circu-lation pattern, causing sudden fluctuations of air temperature.

6.2. The influence of atmospheric circulation on humidity conditions

Table 6.2 and Figure 6.2 show the diurnal mean, maximum and minimum values of relative humidity of air and its maximum and minimum absolute values at the SAO station, related to the type of atmospheric circulation on Spitsbergen.

In the winter, the lowest diurnal values of relative humidity occurred with the combined pattern of E+SE during anticyclonic (74%) and cyclonic circula-tion (79%) (Tab. 6.2). The negative anomaly of relative humidity at anticy-clonic circulation connected with this pattern reached -10%. The E+SE pat-tern also exhibits the lowest values of mean minimum humidity (67% for anticyclonic circulation and 71% for the other). Moreover, the Ec+SEc and NWc+Nc+NEc patterns coincided with a low value of absolute minimum hu-midity (42%) – Figure 6.2. The low relative humidity during the occurrence of the E+SE pattern resulted from noticeable rises in air temperature and the drying of air under foehnic influence. The highest mean diurnal values of rela-tive humidity were typical for the combined pattern of S+SW+W, both with cyclonic and anticyclonic circulation (94% and 90%, resp.), and contributed to positive anomalies in air humidity reaching +10% (cyclonic circulation). Ad-ditionally, the Sc+SWc+Wc pattern displayed the highest mean maximum humidity (100%). Except for Ea+SEa, other maximum absolute values of air humidity were 100% (Fig. 6.2).

143

Table 6.2. Values of diurnal mean (fi), maximum (fmax) and minimum (fmin) relative humidity (%) observed during synoptic situation types identified at the SAO site in the winter (November 2010 – March 2011), spring and autumn (April – May of 2011, September – October of 2010) and in the summer (June – August of 2011)

Types of circulation*Winter Spring and Autumn Summer

fi fmax fmin fi fmax fmin fi fmax fmin

NWa+Na+NEa 80 89 72 86 93 78 91 97 83

Ea+SEa 74 81 67 91 97 84 80 91 70

Sa+SWa+Wa 90 97 82 94 99 88 97 100 92

Ca+Ka 85 93 76 91 97 83 96 100 92

NWc+Nc+NEc 80 89 71 83 91 77 90 97 78

Ec+SEc 79 86 71 84 91 75 94 99 87

Sc+SWc+Wc 94 100 82 95 99 89 98 100 91

Cc+Bc 90 97 79 95 99 88 94 98 88

X 88 95 80 94 99 86 96 99 93

m 84 91 75 89 95 82 92 98 85

Explanation: m – seasonal mean; * circulation type division acc. to Przybylak (1992)

In the transitional seasons, unlike in the winter and summer, the lowest val-ues for the diurnal mean and minimum absolute humidity were recorded dur-ing advection from the northern sector (NW+N+NE) and cyclonic circulation (83% and 55% in 2010 and 2011, respectively) and anticyclonic circulation (86% and 58%) (Tab. 6.2). Negative anomalies caused by advection of arctic air masses from the northern sector did not exceed 6%. Similarly low values of relative humidity were observed in the Ec+SEc pattern, which was character-ised by the lowest mean minimum value as well (75%). The highest relative air humidity (the diurnal mean and the mean maximum value) was typical for the combined S+SW+W pattern, with both types of circulation (cyclonic - 95% and 99%, anticyclonic – 94% and 99% in the both years). The two patterns contri-buted to positive anomalies in relative humidity of the air (6%), whereas the maximum absolute humidity at all circulation types reached 100% (Fig. 6.2).

In the summer, as it was in the winter, the lowest values of diurnal mean (80%) and minimum (70%) relative humidity of the air, and its minimum absolute value (41%) were connected with the Ea+SEa pattern (Tab. 6.2, Fig. 6.2). For this pattern, therefore, the highest negative anomaly in air humidity, -12%, was obtained (Tab. 6.2). The highest values of diurnal mean and maximum humidity, as in the winter, occurred in the analysed years with the combined type S+SW+W, during cyclonic (98% and 100%, respectively) and anticyclonic circulation (97% and 100%). The maximum absolute values of air humidity for all circulation types reached 100%.

144

Figure 6.2. Relative air humidity: diurnal mean (fi), absolute maximum (fmaxabs ) and absolute minimum (fminabs ) values at the SAO site in the winter (November 2010 – March 2011) (A), in the transitional seasons (April–May of 2011, September–October of 2010) (B), and in the summer (June–August of 2011) (C)

145

References

Araźny A., 1998, The connection of air temperature and precipitation with the atmospheric circulation in the summer season 1997 in the Kaffiöyra Plain (Spitsbergen), [in:] Głowacki P., Bednarek J., (eds.), Polish Polar Studies, 25th International Polar Symposium, Warszawa, 1998, Institute of Geophysics of the Polish Academy of Sciences, Warszawa, 43–50.

Przybylak R., 1992, Stosunki termiczno-wilgotnościowe na tle warunków cyrkulacyjnych w Hornsundzie (Spitsbergen) w okresie 1978–1983, Dok. Geogr., 2, 1–105.

Przybylak R., Araźny A., 2006, Climatic conditions of the north–western part of Oscar II Land (Spitsbergen) in the period between 1975 and 2000, Polish Polar Res., 27 (2), 133–152.

Przybylak R., Araźny A., Kejna M., 2012, Wpływ cyrkulacji atmosferycznej na temperaturę po-wietrza w regionie Kafiøyry (NW Spitsbergen) w okresie od lipca 2005 r. do sierpnia 2010 r., [in:] Bielec-Bąkowska Z., Łupikasza A., Widawski A., (eds.), Rola cyrkulacji atmosfery w kształtowaniu klimatu, Sosnowiec, 195–208.

Wójcik G., Marciniak K., Przybylak R., Kejna M., 1992, Temperatura i opady a cyrkulacja atmos-feryczna w regionie Kaffiöyry (NW Spitsbergen) w sezonie letnim w okresie 1975–1989, Probl. Klimatol. Pol., 2, 96–102.

147

Chapter 7

COMPARISON OF METEOROLOGICAL CONDITIONS IN THE AREA OF FORLANDSUNDET IN THE SUMMER SEASONS OF 2010-2011 WITH METEOROLOGICAL CONDITIONS IN THE YEARS OF 1975–2011

7.1. Introduction

In the years of 1975–2011 meteorological observations and measurements in the area of Kaffiøyra were conducted during the 19 TPEs. As far as polar areas are concerned, a data acquisition period like this is long enough to justify clima-tological summaries, and so, a number of synthetic works of this kind have re-cently been published (for example, Przybylak and Szczeblewska 2002; Przyby-lak et al. 2004, 2009, 2010, 2011; Przybylak and Araźny 2006). For the area of Hornsund, a similar study has been developed by Araźny et al. (2010).

In this Chapter we described the meteorological conditions occurring during the two summer seasons of 2010 and 2011, when the observations were car-ried out as part of the AWAKE project, and compared them with long-term conditions existing in the area. The analysis concerned two diametrically oppo-site natural environments in the area of Kaffiøyra: non-glaciated in the case of the Base Station (KH), and glaciated, as represented by sites located on the Waldemar Glacier (LW2) and immediately at its front (LW1).

7.2. Kaffiøyra

The Base Station on the Kaffiøyra Plain has always been our most important site for meteorological observations in the area of Forlandsundet, and the one for which the amount of collected data is the most complete. The available long-term series of temperature and precipitation records have made it possible to supplement some missing data for the years when observations were not car-ried out. For that purpose, the data collected at the Norwegian station in Ny-Ålesund, just 30 km north of our station, were used (Przybylak et al. 2011).

An integrated overview of the weather conditions occurring during the 19th TPE in the common period has been shown in Table 7.1. It shows that the last two years, compared with the others, were characterised by notably greater values of wind speed, slightly lesser cloudiness, longer sunshine duration and considerable dryness of the air, also evident in the very small precipitation amounts. The year 2010 was particularly extreme with its highest average wind speed (5.8 ms-1), and the smallest precipitation (only 8.5 mm), compared with the other 18 periods of observation. It was also the second coldest summer season (sharing the record with 1980). The summer of 2011 was apparently

148

warmer than the previous one (by 1.6oC on average) and the long-term stand-ard (Tab. 7.1). However, the other meteorological elements displayed similar characteristics as in the summer of 2010, although they lacked such extreme values. The reason for the dissimilarities was the substantially different atmo-spheric circulation types in the two seasons, and the exceptionally high fre-quency of influxes of air masses from the northern sector in 2010 against its typical frequency structure in 2011 (for more details of the atmospheric circula-tion and its relationship with the climate, see Chapters 2 and 6). In the case of averaged data from both seasons the conditions are close to the long-term standard. Therefore, an assumption can be made that the combined data are representative of the average conditions in the area of Kaffiøyra, and thus a similar conclusion can be offered for the wider area of Forlandsundet, as stud-ied during the last two years.

As regards the ground temperatures, measured on the Kaffiøyra Plain in all summer seasons at 5 depths, the two summers of interest to us here differed substantially from long-term average temperatures, yet did not display any par-ticularly extreme values. In the summer of 2010 the ground temperature was below standard, and in 2011 it was above (Tab. 7.2). Unquestionably, the warm-est conditions in the ground occurred in the summer of 2007, whereas the lowest ground temperatures were recorded in the summer of 1997 (except for at a depth of 0.5 m, where it was the coldest in 1982).

Detailed relationships between the weather conditions and ground temper-ature in day-to-day courses in the summers of 2010 and 2011, compared with the long-term standard of 1975-2011, have been shown in Figure 7.1 and Fig-ure 7.2, respectively. The last eleven days of July in both summer seasons barely missed the long-term average of air temperature (being slightly colder), and water vapour content (Fig. 7.1). The wind speed and relative humidity were mostly higher and the diurnal precipitation totals were lower, but the cloudi-ness and sunshine both greatly departed from the standard, in plus and in mi-nus. At that time, the ground temperature was distinctly lower in 2010, but in 2011 it was either near the standard or higher, depending on the depth of measurement (Fig. 7.2).

Sunshine duration and the cloud amount in August of those two years also displayed considerable day-to-day variability. On many days, the diurnal sums of sunshine duration and average cloud amount were close to standard or their respective maximum or minimum values recorded in the years of 1975-2011 (overlapping or running close to the dashed line). The values of diurnal sums of zero sunshine duration (or the lack of sunshine) and of the average overcast for weather are typical for the climate conditions on Spitsbergen, therefore they are not identified as being extreme. For this reason they were excluded from the long-term data in Figure 7.1A. The first half of August was very windy in both summer seasons, however in 2010 particularly high values were recorded and lasted a little longer, until 17 August. A period of exceptionally strong winds fell on 15–17 August, with the maximum average diurnal value (14 ms-1) recorded on 16 August. This was the highest ever average diurnal wind speed calculated

149

Expl

anat

ions

: * -

21.

07-2

8.08

; **

- 28

.07-

31.0

8 (V

, Tm

ax ab

s, T

max

, Tm

in, T

min

abs);

V –

win

d ve

loci

ty; C

– cl

oudi

ness

; SS–

sun

shin

e du

rati

on; T

––

air

tem

pera

ture

; DTR

- di

urna

l ra

nge

of a

ir te

mpe

ratu

re, e

– w

ater

vap

our

pres

sure

; f –

rel

ativ

e ai

r hu

mid

ity;

∆e

– sa

tura

tion

defi

cit;

P –

atm

osph

eric

pre

cipi

tati

on

Tab

le 7

.1. M

ean

(or

sum

s) o

f se

lect

ed m

eteo

rolo

gica

l ele

men

ts o

n th

e K

affi

øyra

in t

he s

umm

er s

easo

ns (

21 J

uly

– 31

Aug

ust)

of

1975

-201

1

Elem

ent

V[m

s-1]

C[0

-10]

SS [h]

SS [%]

Tmax

ab

s[o C

]

Tmax

[o C]

Ti [o C]

Tmin

[o C]

Tmin

ab

s[o C

]

DTR

[°C

]e

[hPa

]f [%

]Δe [hPa

]P

[mm

]

1975

4.3

8.7

112.

911

.511

.56.

74.

93.

31.

43.

47.

890

0.9

66.5

1977

*3.

28.

714

6.6

15.9

13.5

7.0

5.0

3.5

0.6

3.5

7.8

891.

044

.4

1978

4.6

8.8

119.

912

.110

.06.

34.

73.

10.

73.

27.

789

0.9

44.2

1979

5.0

7.3

281.

929

.018

.96.

64.

52.

5-0

.54.

17.

689

0.9

17.7

1980

5.5

9.1

90.9

9.1

12.5

5.6

4.1

2.6

-0.8

3.0

7.3

880.

910

8.0

1982

4.2

8.8

91.3

9.2

10.4

4.8

3.3

1.8

-4.2

3.0

6.8

881.

054

.5

1985

3.2

7.2

309.

532

.216

.06.

95.

44.

00.

92.

98.

189

1.0

13.9

1989

5.0

8.3

203.

020

.511

.55.

54.

02.

7-3

.62.

87.

490

0.8

27.0

1997

**5.

48.

416

5.0

16.8

10.8

5.4

4.2

2.7

-0.2

2.7

7.5

900.

812

2.5

1998

4.0

9.1

93.5

9.5

14.0

7.6

6.3

5.0

1.8

2.6

8.7

910.

916

.0

1999

3.8

8.9

150.

115

.210

.36.

44.

93.

50.

02.

97.

385

1.3

58.4

2000

4.6

7.2

213.

321

.68.

85.

93.

92.

2-3

.63.

77.

288

1.0

29.1

2005

3.8

9.1

149.

415

.112

.17.

55.

84.

11.

43.

48.

187

1.2

49.9

2006

4.9

8.3

158.

816

.011

.97.

05.

23.

91.

03.

18.

191

0.8

25.0

2007

3.7

8.7

132.

013

.314

.97.

45.

54.

0-1

.33.

67.

885

1.4

12.3

2008

5.4

8.9

131.

713

.312

.46.

14.

52.

9-0

.83.

27.

588

1.0

22.2

2009

3.1

8.0

220.

022

.213

.07.

66.

14.

10.

93.

57.

987

1.0

12.5

2010

5.8

8.2

219.

922

.210

.86.

14.

12.

7-0

.63.

47.

287

1.1

8.5

2011

5.0

8.1

200.

020

.216

.87.

45.

73.

61.

03.

87.

989

1.2

28.1

1975

-201

14.

48.

416

7.9

17.1

18.9

6.5

4.8

3.3

-4.2

3.3

7.7

881.

040

.0

150

on the Kaffiøyra. Besides the two days of August 2010, in the rest of the second half of August the wind conditions were usually below standard in both ana-lysed seasons (Fig. 7.1A).

Table 7.2. Mean values of ground temperature (ºC) at the beach site on the Kaffiøyra in the period from 21 July to 31 August (1975-2011)

Depth 1 cm 5 cm 10 cm 20 cm 50 cm

1975 6.3 5.7 5.4 4.2 2.6

1977 6.7 6.1 5.8 4.9 2.7

1978 5.8 5.2 4.4 4.1 1.8

1979 6.3 5.8 5.4 4.5 2.2

1980 5.7 5.1 4.8 4,0 2.2

1982 5.2 4.7 4.2 3.6 1.7

1985 7.2 6.8 6.6 5.8 3.4

1989 6,0 5.6 5.2 4.4 2.2

1997 4.6 4.2 4.1 3.4 1.9

1998 8.1 7.5 6.6 5.4 2.4

1999 6.7 6.4 5.9 5.2 3.4

2000 5.6 5.5 5,0 4.4 2.1

2005 8.0 7.4 6.9 5.9 3.5

2006 7.1 6.7 6.8 5.9 4.2

2007 8.3 7.8 7.4 6.4 4.4

2008 6.0 5.7 5.4 4.7 2.8

2009 7.9 7.1 6.6 5.9 3.5

2010 5.8 5.3 5.0 4.2 2.4

2011 7.3 6.8 6.5 6.0 3.9

1975–2011 6.6 6.1 5.7 4.9 2.8

Explanations: statistically approximated value is shown using italic font

Thermally, August was considerably different in both summer seasons. In 2010, except for a few days around 20 August, the month was colder than usual, particularly in the middle. August 2011 was the opposite, being dis-tinctly warmer than the long-term standard suggests, except for a few days at the beginning of its second ten-day part. A substantial warming was noted im-mediately after the above-mentioned cooler period, i.e. in mid-August. The

151

positive anomaly, Ti, exceeded 6oC, and Tmax even 8oC (Fig. 7.1B). At the end of August the temperature in both summer seasons approached the long-term standard values. It is also noteworthy that on certain days in those two years, mainly in the second half of the month, the highest values of the three tem-perature parameters recorded were the record values for all 19 summer seasons (solid lines overlapping dashed lines).

The average diurnal values of air humidity in August 2010 and 2011 were marked by their dissimilarity with the long-term values, depending on the param-eter in question, i.e. the water vapour pressure or the relative humidity (Fig. 7.1C). The content of water vapour in the air is a more stable parameter, therefore it was similar to the reference value on the first days of August and in July of both years. However, at the end of the first ten-day part of August it evidently dropped, re-maining below the long-term value on nearly all subsequent days of August 2010. Between 14 and 17 August it reached the bottom range of all low values recorded for that period during all TPEs. At the same time they were some of the lowest di-urnal values recorded in the whole summer season (Fig. 7.1C). In 2011, on the other hand, the water vapour pressure drop ceased after 14 August, and the amount of water vapour considerably exceeded (usually by more than 2 hPa) the long-term standard, remaining high until the end of the month. On 19 and 21 August, its record values were observed, reaching 8.7 hPa and 9.3 hPa, respectively.

Day-to-day changes in the air humidity are more complex in an analysis of relative humidity. In 2010, in the first ten-day period of August the air was, on average, generally more saturated than usual, but on subsequent days of Au-gust it became less saturated (Fig. 7.1C). In 2011, on the other hand, it under-went dramatic changes, reaching both the highest and the lowest diurnal val-ues recorded during all the TPEs. For that time, we were able to distinguish three periods of substantially increased and three periods of greatly decreased vapour content in the air, as compared with long-term values.

The diurnal precipitation totals in August, similarly to the last eleven days of July, were usually below the long-term standard in both seasons. On only one day in 2010, 5 August, on five days in 2011 did the diurnal totals exceed the average long-term values (Fig. 7.1C). No precipitation was observed on as many as 24 and 18 days, respectively.

Throughout most of August 2010 the ground temperature at the ‘beach’ site was below the standard (which was particularly evident at the beginning of the second half of the month) or close to it (Fig. 7.2). Noticeably warmer weath-er was observed only on a few days after 20 August. In 2011 the situation was completely different, with the ground being much warmer than the standard value on most days. A particular warming occurred in the second part of Au-gust. From 17 August until the end of the month the mean temperature at a depth of 50 cm was mainly at least 1.5oC higher than the long-term average, with the maximum difference of 2.6oC falling on 20 August. It is interesting to point out that on all days between 18 and 28 August the average diurnal ground temperatures at that depth were the highest of all such values ever calculated for the same periods in 1975-2011.

152

Figure 7.1A. Course of diurnal sums of sunshine (SS) and mean diurnal values of cloudiness (C) and wind speed at 2 m a.s.l. (V) in the summer season (21 July–31 August) of 2010 and 2011, and in 1975–2011

Explanations: m – mean diurnal values (or sums), H – highest diurnal values (or sums), L – lowest diurnal values (or sums)

153

Figure 7.1B. Diurnal courses of mean temperature (Ti), maximum temperature (Tmax) and minimum temperature (Tmin) in the summer seasons (21 July–31 August) of 2010 and 2011, and in 1975–2011

Explanations: m – mean diurnal values, H – highest diurnal values, L – lowest diurnal values

154

Figure 7.1C. Course of water vapour pressure (e) and relative humidity (f), and diurnal values of precipitation totals (P) in the summer seasons (21 July–31 August) of 2010 and 2011, and in 1975–2011

Explanations: m – mean diurnal values (or sums), H – highest diurnal values (or sums), L – lowest diurnal values (or sums)

155

Figure 7.2. Diurnal courses of ground temperature: mean (Tg m), highest (Tg H) and lowest (Tg L) at the beach site in the summer seasons (21 July–31 August) of 2010 and 2011, and in 1975–2011

Explanations: m – mean diurnal values, H – highest diurnal values, L – lowest diurnal values

156

7.3. Waldemar Glacier

The possibility to provide a full comparison of the weather conditions on the Waldemar Glacier in the summer seasons of 2010 and 2011 with the conditions observed during all TPEs is limited. Therefore, only two the most significant meteorological elements have been addressed below, namely the air tempera-ture and precipitation, for which there are enough data from most of the sum-mer seasons, during which meteorological observations were conducted.

From the point of view of temperature, the summer seasons of 2010 and 2011 were substantially different. The summer of 2010 on the glacier was much colder than average. Thermal anomalies at two observation sites, LW1 and LW2, reached -0.7 and -1.3oC, respectively (Tab. 7.3, Fig. 7.3A). On the other hand, the air on the Waldemar Glacier was much warmer in 2011 than the average. Positive thermal anomalies at the above-mentioned sites were 1.4 and 1.2oC, respectively. At the site located immedi-ately at the glacier front, the mean temperature of the air in that season (and the 2009 season, as well) was the highest of all analysed TPE seasons (Tab. 7.3, Fig. 7.3A). Never-theless, on the firn field the mean temperature was only 0.1oC lower than in the warm-est summer at that site (in 2009). Figure 7.3A clearly shows that the Waldemar Glacier has become considerably warmer in the last few dozen years.

Table 7. 3. Mean values of air temperature (Ti) and its lapse rates (LR) on the Kaffiøyra (KH) and at the Waldemar Glacier (LW1 and LW2) in the period from 21 July to 31 August, during the TPEs

YearTi (°C) LR (°C/100m)

KH LW1 LW2 KH-LW2 KH-LW1 LW1-LW2

1978# 4.4 3.5 2.1 0.63 0.76 0.57

1979 4.5 3.7 2.6 0.52 0.68 0.45

1980 4.1 3.0 1.9 0.61 0.93 0.45

1982 3.3 2.6 1.3 0.55 0.59 0.53

1985 5.4 4.6 3.3 0.58 0.68 0.53

1989 4.0 3.4 1.9 0.58 0.51 0.61

1997* 4.0 3.3 1.6 0.66 0.59 0.69

1998 6.3 5.5 4.1 0.61 0.68 0.57

1999 4.9 3.9 2.5 0.66 0.84 0.57

2005 5.8 4.6 3.0 0.77 1.01 0.65

2006 5.2 4.4 2.4 0.77 0.68 0.82

2007 5.5 4.3 2.7 0.77 1.01 0.65

2008 4.5 3.6 2.3 0.60 0.75 0.53

2009 6.1 5.8 4.2 0.52 0.25 0.65

2010 4.1 3.7 1.6 0.69 0.34 0.86

2011 5.7 5.8 4.1 0.45 -0.06 0.69

1978-2011 4.9 4.4 2.9 0.62 0.64 0.61

Explanations: # -2-31.08, * - 28.07-31.08

157

The relationships between the air temperature at the analysed glacier sites (LW1 and LW2) and the reference sites on the Kaffiøyra Plain (KH) are nonstand-ard in both summer seasons (Tab. 7.3, Fig. 7.3B). In 2010, the difference in the air temperature between the firn field of the glacier and the coast was close to the long-term average; the temperature lapse rate was 0.69oC/100 m with the long-term lapse rate showing 0.62oC/100 m. However, there was exceptionally small thermal diversity between the LW1 and the KH site. The temperature lapse rate for these sites was twice as small as the average calculated using long-term data. Then, in 2010, the temperature decrease along the longitudinal profile of the Waldemar Glacier was the greatest of all the summer seasons, during which the TPEs operated. The temperature lapse rate reached as much as 0.86oC/100 m, considering that the average was 0.61oC/100 m (Tab. 7.3, Fig. 7.3B). In the sum-mer of 2011, the lapse rate on the glacier was close to the average, however the temperature differences between the glacier and the coast (the Base Station) evidently deviated from the long-term standard (Tab. 7.3, Fig. 7.3B). The lapse rates calculated for the LW2 and LW1 sites and for the KH site were markedly the lowest of all seasons studied during the TPEs. Negative anomalies of the lapse rates reached 0.17oC/100 m and 0.70oC/100 m, respectively. Table 7.3 indicates that, in that summer season, the higher-situated LW1 site was slightly warmer than KH. This had never happened during any of the TPEs before. The reason for such a big thermal anomaly was most probably the frequency of occurrence of foehnic winds, which significantly exceeded the average, as in this kind of wind conditions air temperature inversions are common in the analysed area.

Table 7.4. Precipitation totals (P) and their lapse rates (LR) on the Kaffiøyra (KH) and at the Waldemar Glacier (LW1 and LW2) in the period from 21 July to 31 August, during the TPEs

YearP (mm) LR (mm/100 m)

KH LW1 LW2 LW2-KH LW1-KH LW2-LW1

1980* 92.8 172.3 256.5 45.0 67.1 34.4

1989 27.0 44.2 69.0 11.6 14.5 10.1

1997 122.5 129.8 195.5 20.1 6.2 26.8

1998 16.0 23.1 43.8 7.6 6.0 8.4

1999 58.4 85.3 108.9 13.9 22.7 9.6

2005 49.9 60.8 71.7 6.0 9.2 4.4

2006 25.0 39.8 56.2 8.6 12.5 6.7

2007 12.3 9.5 15.1 0.8 -2.4 2.3

2008 22.2 39.5 53.6 8.6 14.6 5.8

2009 12.5 15.9 25.4 3.5 2.9 3.9

2010 8.5 25.9 36.5 7.7 14.7 4.3

2011 28.1 44.7 81.2 14.6 14.0 14.9

1980–2011 39.6 57.6 84.5 12.3 15.2 11.0

Explanation: * 1-31.08

158

Figure 7.3. Anomalies in mean values of air temperature (A) and lapse rates (B) on the Kaf-fiøyra (KH) and at the Waldemar Glacier (LW1 and LW2) in the period from 21 July to 31 August, during the TPEs

Studies of the diversity of precipitation in the area of the Kaffiøyra were conducted during 12 TPEs (Tab. 7.4). In the summer season of 2010, at the Waldemar Glacier the precipitation was half the long-term total, however, un-like at KH, the recorded amounts were not the lowest in that area (Tab. 7.4, Fig. 7.4A).

The calculated precipitation lapse rates when comparing the KH site with the glacier sites are below average. However, the anomalies of the lapse rates are clearly negative for the site located in the firn field (4.6 mm/100 m) as com-pared to the one at the front of the Waldemar Glacier (0.5 mm/100 m). In the summer season of 2011, precipitation on the glacier remained below the long-term average, but its negative anomalies were not great, especially in the case

159

of the LW2 site (Tab. 7.4, Fig. 7.4A). The precipitation lapse rates, however, were greater than the average, with the exception of the LW1 site (Tab. 7.4, Fig. 7.4B), and reached 14.9 mm/100 m between the two glacier sites, while the average long-term lapse rate was 11.0 mm/100 m. Evidently, the precipitation in the area of the Kaffiøyra was found to have been closer to the standard conditions in the summer of 2011.

Figure 7.4. Anomalies in precipitation totals (A) and lapse rates (B) on the Kaffiøyra (KH) and at the Waldemar Glacier (LW1 and LW2) in the period from 21 July to 31 August, during the TPEs

160

References

Araźny A., Migała K., Sikora S., Budzik T., 2010, Meteorological and biometeorological condi-tions in the Hornsund area (Spitsbergen) during the warm season, Polish Polar Res., 31(3), 217–238.

Przybylak R., Araźny A., 2006, Climatic conditions of the north-western part of Oscar II Land (Spitsbergen) in the period between 1975 and 2000, Polish Polar Res., 27(2), 133–152.

Przybylak R., Araźny A., Kejna M., 2010, Zróżnicowanie przestrzenne i wieloletnia zmienność temperatury gruntu w rejonie Stacji Polarnej UMK (NW Spitsbergen) w okresie letnim (1975-2009), Probl. Klimatol. Pol., 20, 103–120.

Przybylak R., Araźny A., Kejna M., Maszewski R., Wyszyński P., 2009, Zróżnicowanie opadów atmosferycznych w regionie Kaffiøyry (NW Spitsbergen) w sezonie letnim w latach 1980–2008, Probl. Klimatol. Pol., 19, 189–202.

Przybylak R., Araźny A., Szczeblewska E., 2004, Klimat tundry w północnej części Ziemi Oskara II (NW Spitsbergen) w okresie 1975–2000, [in:] Kostrzewski A., Pulina M., Zwoliński Zb. (eds.), Warsztaty Glacjologiczne Spitsbergen 2004; Glacjologia, geomorfologia i sedymen-tologia środowiska polarnego Spitsbergenu, CD-ROM: Przybylak_i_in. pdf, 1,1 MB, 1–21.

Przybylak R., Kejna M., Araźny A., 2011, Air temperature and precipitation changes in the Kaf-fiøyra region (NW Spitsbergen) from 1975 to 2010, Papers on Global Change IGBP, 18(1), 7–22.

Przybylak R., Szczeblewska E., 2002, Warunki meteorologiczne na Kaffiöyrze (NW Spitsber-gen) w czasie trwania Toruńskich Wypraw Polarnych, 1975–2000. Polish Polar Stud., Funk-cjonowanie i monitoring geoekosystemów obszarów polarnych, 2002, 217–237.

161

Appendix 1

Mean (or sums) diurnal values of the meteorological elements on the Kaffiøyra (KH) from 7 July to 2 September 2010

Data*AP V C SS Ti Tmax Tmin e f Δe P

[hPa] [ms-1] [0-10] [h] [°C] [°C] [°C] [hPa] [%] [hPa] [mm]

7-Jul 1011.6 4.6 8.8 11.4 5.4 8.5 3.4 8.4 93 0.7 ·

8-Jul 1010.1 3.4 9.3 2.0 6.7 9.5 5.0 8.9 91 0.9 0.0

9-Jul 1011.5 2.6 9.5 2.0 7.8 9.4 6.3 9.3 89 1.3 0.0

10-Jul 1009.1 2.7 10.0 · 7.5 8.7 7.0 9.7 94 0.7 2.3

11-Jul 1006.7 7.4 10.0 · 7.2 9.0 6.4 9.9 98 0.2 5.7

12-Jul 1010.4 5.3 10.0 3.0 6.4 7.5 6.0 9.3 97 0.3 ·

13-Jul 1010.7 6.1 6.0 18.5 6.5 9.1 4.9 9.4 97 0.3 ·

14-Jul 1014.3 3.9 10.0 2.2 5.3 8.9 4.6 8.7 98 0.2 0.0

15-Jul 1014.9 5.0 10.0 · 5.0 6.0 4.3 8.2 95 0.5 0.0

16-Jul 1014.6 13.0 10.0 · 4.9 7.0 4.5 8.4 98 0.2 0.4

17-Jul 1012.8 10.8 10.0 0.1 5.3 6.5 4.5 8.8 99 0.1 0.2

18-Jul 1009.2 5.6 10.0 0.1 5.1 6.5 4.5 8.5 97 0.3 1.5

19-Jul 1001.8 1.1 9.5 0.2 6.1 7.6 4.8 8.5 91 0.9 3.1

20-Jul 1004.6 1.8 10.0 0.4 5.0 6.3 4.6 7.8 90 1.0 0.1

21-Jul 1007.2 1.8 9.0 7.6 5.7 7.4 4.8 7.8 85 1.4 ·

22-Jul 1008.0 5.3 9.8 0.1 5.3 7.1 5.0 7.0 79 1.9 ·

23-Jul 1004.6 8.1 9.5 2.4 4.9 6.3 4.0 7.1 82 1.6 0.5

24-Jul 1006.7 6.7 10.0 0.3 4.8 6.5 4.2 8.1 95 0.5 0.0

25-Jul 1010.6 6.1 10.0 0.6 5.1 7.0 4.2 8.1 92 0.7 2.6

26-Jul 1008.9 5.0 9.3 2.7 5.3 7.0 4.0 8.5 95 0.5 0.4

27-Jul 1010.2 7.9 10.0 · 4.3 5.4 3.4 7.6 91 0.7 0.7

28-Jul 1011.6 8.1 5.0 16.2 4.5 6.5 2.9 7.4 88 1.0 ·

29-Jul 1015.1 5.2 5.0 12.0 5.5 7.5 4.5 7.3 81 1.7 0.2

30-Jul 1011.7 8.9 10.0 0.7 5.3 7.6 4.4 8.8 98 0.2 0.3

31-Jul 1005.8 4.8 5.8 12.8 4.7 6.6 3.6 7.4 87 1.1 ·

1-Aug 1007.0 4.9 3.0 18.7 6.6 8.9 5.0 8.5 87 1.3 ·

2-Aug 1013.6 3.9 9.8 · 5.7 7.5 4.9 8.3 91 0.8 ·

3-Aug 1013.0 6.3 10.0 · 4.0 6.0 3.2 7.3 91 0.9 ·

4-Aug 1012.3 5.6 10.0 0.5 3.9 6.3 1.9 7.6 93 0.6 0.0

5-Aug 1015.1 12.4 10.0 · 5.8 6.6 5.0 9.0 97 0.3 0.8

6-Aug 1019.4 6.2 10.0 · 5.4 6.5 4.7 8.6 96 0.4 0.0

162

7-Aug 1018.3 5.9 10.0 · 5.0 6.7 3.5 8.2 93 0.6 0.4

8-Aug 1010.7 7.6 9.5 0.1 4.9 6.5 1.5 8.5 97 0.2 0.7

9-Aug 1006.2 9.8 9.8 · 3.6 5.8 1.3 7.7 96 0.3 0.6

10-Aug 1007.1 4.7 5.5 18.6 3.6 5.7 1.7 5.9 75 2.1 ·

11-Aug 1007.7 6.5 6.8 6.8 2.7 3.8 1.5 5.7 76 1.8 1.1

12-Aug 1009.1 4.5 9.8 0.9 3.9 5.6 2.3 6.6 82 1.5 0.1

13-Aug 1008.2 6.6 9.3 0.3 3.2 5.1 1.4 6.8 88 0.9 0.0

14-Aug 1010.3 4.2 9.8 0.5 0.9 2.3 0.4 5.6 86 1.0 0.0

15-Aug 1011.1 9.9 7.0 8.1 1.6 3.1 0.2 5.2 76 1.7 0.0

16-Aug 1017.5 14.0 8.0 2.8 0.3 2.9 -0.6 5.0 80 1.3 ·

17-Aug 1017.5 12.4 8.3 5.4 1.5 2.4 0.9 6.0 89 0.8 0.0

18-Aug 1020.1 2.0 7.8 5.9 3.4 5.8 0.4 6.6 86 1.2 0.0

19-Aug 1020.5 1.6 3.0 13.5 5.0 7.9 1.9 7.2 84 1.5 ·

20-Aug 1022.7 1.5 8.3 5.6 8.0 10.8 4.8 7.6 72 3.2 ·

21-Aug 1022.4 2.5 6.3 13.4 6.9 10.1 5.3 7.9 80 2.1 ·

22-Aug 1020.1 0.7 5.5 18.1 6.9 9.0 4.2 7.5 76 2.5 ·

23-Aug 1013.8 8.4 3.5 13.0 3.9 8.6 2.0 7.2 89 1.0 0.0

24-Aug 1012.0 5.7 5.5 14.1 3.4 6.5 0.8 7.4 94 0.6 0.0

25-Aug 1012.6 2.6 10.0 · 2.4 6.5 1.8 7.0 97 0.3 0.0

26-Aug 1012.8 2.1 10.0 · 2.3 3.5 0.8 6.7 94 0.5 ·

27-Aug 1014.6 4.6 10.0 · 3.1 4.0 2.7 6.9 90 0.8 0.0

28-Aug 1017.0 4.3 9.3 7.2 2.0 3.5 0.8 6.0 86 1.1 0.0

29-Aug 1015.3 2.5 9.5 1.4 2.6 4.6 1.0 6.1 83 1.3 0.0

30-Aug 1011.9 4.0 8.8 3.7 2.2 4.0 1.7 6.3 88 0.9 0.0

31-Aug 1010.6 7.0 8.5 5.9 2.5 4.0 1.4 6.3 87 1.1 0.1

1-Sep 1010.3 7.1 10.0 · 2.3 3.2 2.0 6.8 94 0.5 0.4

2-Sep 1013.0 6.2 10.0 · 1.5 3.3 0.3 6.6 97 0.3 2.9

11-20 Jul 1010.0 6.0 9.6 24.5 5.7 7.4 4.9 8.8 96 0.4 11.0

21-31 Jul 1009.1 6.2 8.5 55.4 5.0 6.8 4.1 7.7 88 1.0 4.7

1-10 Aug 1012.3 6.7 8.8 37.9 4.8 6.7 3.3 7.9 92 0.7 2.5

11-20 Aug 1014.5 6.3 7.8 49.8 3.0 5.0 1.3 6.2 82 1.5 1.2

21-31 Aug 1014.8 4.0 7.9 76.8 3.5 5.8 2.0 6.8 87 1.1 0.1

21 Jul-31 Aug 1012.6 5.8 8.2 219.9 4.1 6.1 2.7 7.2 87 1.1 8.5

7 Jul-2 Sep 1012.0 5.7 8.6 259.8 4.5 6.4 3.2 7.6 89 0.9 25.1

Explanations: * – mean diurnal values are calculated using observations from hours (01:00, 07:00, 13:00, and 19:00 LMT); AP – air pressure; V – wind velocity; C – cloudiness; SS – sunshine duration; T – air temperature; f – relative air humidity; e – water vapour pressure; Δe – saturation defi-cit; P – atmospheric precipitation.

163

Appendix 2

Mean (or sums) diurnal values of the meteorological elements on the Kaffiøyra (KH) from 11 July to 31 August 2011

Date*AP V C SS Ti Tmax Tmin e f Δe P

[hPa] [ms-1] [0-10] [h] [°C] [°C] [°C] [hPa] [%] [hPa] [mm]

11-Jul 1009.5 3.4 10.0 · 5.7 6.3 5.6 8.6 94 1.0 0.7

12-Jul 1011.9 2.8 9.3 0.3 4.8 6.0 3.9 8.1 94 0.5 0.7

13-Jul 1010.7 4.3 9.3 1.3 5.1 6.3 4.1 7.4 85 1.1 ·

14-Jul 1006.2 9.9 9.3 0.9 6.1 11.1 3.6 7.7 83 4.1 0.1

15-Jul 999.0 6.0 6.0 13.4 11.0 11.8 8.0 7.2 55 7.6 ·

16-Jul 1005.4 3.5 6.5 14.7 8.1 10.8 6.8 8.1 75 2.5 0.0

17-Jul 1010.6 7.4 8.8 4.3 6.6 8.5 6.0 8.3 85 1.2 0.1

18-Jul 1011.8 6.6 9.5 11.2 6.5 8.3 5.1 8.3 87 2.8 ·

19-Jul 1013.8 5.9 2.8 20.5 6.6 8.2 4.6 8.6 88 1.3 ·

20-Jul 1009.3 4.1 4.3 22.3 8.8 11.4 4.8 8.4 74 3.7 ·

21-Jul 1005.2 2.7 6.0 7.9 8.6 11.0 7.0 8.3 75 3.8 ·

22-Jul 1006.9 2.9 7.8 3.7 7.4 9.4 6.1 8.7 85 1.0 ·

23-Jul 1008.8 7.0 9.5 2.8 5.4 7.5 5.5 8.1 90 0.5 0.2

24-Jul 1010.8 5.0 10.0 · 5.2 6.1 3.5 8.1 92 1.0 ·

25-Jul 1013.1 5.4 5.3 13.7 6.9 8.5 5.0 8.9 90 1.1 ·

26-Jul 1018.0 7.4 3.8 17.3 4.7 7.9 2.9 8.0 94 0.6 ·

27-Jul 1023.1 6.6 3.8 12.8 3.9 5.8 1.4 7.1 88 1.1 0.0

28-Jul 1022.6 7.4 10.0 · 4.7 6.2 2.8 8.3 97 0.3 ·

29-Jul 1021.5 6.9 9.5 · 5.1 6.5 4.0 8.3 95 0.3 0.9

30-Jul 1020.9 8.4 10.0 · 5.5 6.5 4.2 9.0 100 0.2 1.2

31-Jul 1022.3 7.0 10.0 · 5.5 6.3 4.0 8.9 99 0.0 0.2

1-Aug 1021.4 7.5 10.0 · 3.9 5.7 2.2 7.8 96 0.2 0.6

2-Aug 1017.4 5.3 8.3 3.4 4.8 7.2 2.2 8.0 94 1.9 ·

3-Aug 1017.6 9.8 8.3 1.0 5.8 7.6 3.4 7.8 85 0.5 ·

4-Aug 1022.6 9.8 8.8 · 4.7 6.2 4.6 7.8 91 0.6 ·

5-Aug 1020.9 4.6 3.0 22.3 5.9 10.2 3.8 8.1 90 1.5 ·

6-Aug 1021.1 4.2 4.8 6.7 7.3 9.1 5.6 7.9 78 1.1 ·

7-Aug 1017.1 2.6 7.8 1.9 8.3 11.1 5.8 7.7 71 1.9 ·

8-Aug 1015.1 5.5 8.3 3.8 7.3 10.0 6.5 7.5 72 4.8 ·

9-Aug 1008.7 8.0 4.0 15.5 6.1 12.1 4.6 7.7 85 0.2 ·

10-Aug 1008.1 7.2 9.8 · 3.5 5.8 1.0 7.0 90 1.0 0.4

164

11-Aug 998.2 7.2 10.0 · 1.7 3.8 1.3 6.6 96 0.4 1.4

12-Aug 988.8 9.5 9.5 0.4 2.8 3.6 1.0 6.8 92 0.8 4.7

13-Aug 1001.6 7.8 9.8 · 3.2 4.1 1.8 7.3 95 0.4 2.0

14-Aug 1012.5 3.0 9.3 · 4.5 6.2 2.8 7.3 86 1.1 2.1

15-Aug 1021.4 3.7 9.8 · 5.9 8.5 3.7 8.7 95 1.4 ·

16-Aug 1023.3 3.3 8.0 7.6 8.8 13.0 4.0 8.9 79 2.3 ·

17-Aug 1024.6 1.2 2.3 20.2 8.8 11.6 5.0 9.2 81 2.9 ·

18-Aug 1023.5 5.3 1.5 18.9 11.8 16.8 6.4 7.8 64 10.6 ·

19-Aug 1021.4 5.3 4.5 14.7 10.7 16.1 7.4 8.7 69 3.4 ·

20-Aug 1019.5 2.1 4.3 14.4 7.8 9.6 5.5 8.3 79 2.4 1.8

21-Aug 1016.9 5.6 10.0 · 6.2 10.6 5.6 9.3 99 0.2 1.7

22-Aug 1017.6 2.8 9.8 · 5.6 7.2 4.3 9.0 99 0.3 1.1

23-Aug 1017.8 1.1 8.0 11.0 5.5 7.5 4.1 8.7 97 0.9 ·

24-Aug 1019.1 1.2 8.5 · 5.9 8.0 4.8 8.5 92 0.5 0.6

25-Aug 1018.4 0.2 10.0 · 5.9 7.4 5.0 8.7 94 0.7 0.0

26-Aug 1020.9 3.7 9.5 · 5.4 7.0 5.0 8.7 97 0.4 ·

27-Aug 1021.0 1.9 10.0 · 5.0 6.1 4.0 8.1 71 0.3 ·

28-Aug 1014.9 2.0 9.8 · 4.3 5.2 4.1 8.1 97 0.2 ·

29-Aug 1012.0 1.6 7.5 · 4.1 4.9 3.5 8.0 97 0.6 0.2

30-Aug 1012.1 1.5 10.0 · 3.9 5.1 3.5 7.6 94 0.9 0.3

31-Aug 1014.7 7.7 10.0 · 3.3 4.6 2.5 7.4 95 0.4 8.7

11-20 Jul 1008.8 5.4 7.6 88.9 6.9 8.9 5.3 8.0 82 2.6 1.6

21-31 Jul 1015.7 6.0 7.8 58.2 5.7 7.4 4.2 8.3 91 0.9 2.5

11-31 Jul 1012.4 5.7 7.7 147.1 6.3 8.1 4.7 8.2 87 1.7 4.1

1-10 Aug 1017.0 6.4 7.3 54.6 5.7 8.5 4.0 7.7 85 1.4 1.0

11-20 Aug 1013.5 4.8 6.9 76.2 6.6 9.3 3.9 8.0 83 2.6 12.0

21-31 Aug 1016.8 2.6 9.4 11.0 5.0 6.7 4.2 8.4 94 0.5 12.6

1-31 Aug 1015.8 4.6 7.9 141.8 5.7 8.1 4.0 8.0 88 1.4 25.6

21 Jul-31 Aug 1015.8 5.0 8.1 200.0 5.7 7.4 3.6 7.9 89 1.2 28.1

11 Jul-31 Aug 1014.4 5.0 7.8 288.9 6.0 8.1 4.3 8.1 87 1.5 29.7

Explanations: * – mean diurnal values are calculated using observations from hours (01:00, 07:00, 13:00, and 19:00 LMT); AP – air pressure; V – wind velocity; C – cloudiness; SS – sunshine duration; T – air temperature; f – relative air humidity; e – water vapour pressure; Δe – saturation deficit; P – atmospheric precipitation

165

Appendix 3

Mean daily values of balance radiation fluxes on the Kaffiøyra (KH) from 16 July to 31 August 2011

DateKMax K K A(%) L L K* L* Q*

W m-2 MJ m-2 MJ m-2 % MJ m-2 MJ m-2 MJ m-2 MJ m-2 MJ m-2

16-Jul 709.0 11.2 1.2 11.7 30.5 29.6 10.0 -0.9 9.1

17-Jul 494.5 11.1 1.3 12.4 30.6 29.7 9.7 -0.9 8.8

18-Jul 361.1 11.0 1.3 12.3 30.9 29.4 9.7 -1.5 8.2

19-Jul 223.6 8.7 1.1 14.2 31.4 29.1 7.5 -2.3 5.2

20-Jul 346.0 9.6 1.2 14.5 30.9 28.7 8.4 -2.2 6.2

21-Jul 673.0 19.4 2.7 14.6 31.9 26.6 16.7 -5.3 11.4

22-Jul 229.9 9.3 1.3 14.9 30.9 28.3 7.9 -2.7 5.2

23-Jul 666.9 15.6 2.1 14.7 31.0 27.7 13.4 -3.4 10.0

24-Jul 523.3 11.9 1.5 13.2 30.8 29.2 10.4 -1.6 8.8

25-Jul 709.4 8.9 1.2 14.1 30.7 29.3 7.7 -1.3 6.4

26-Jul 553.1 10.6 1.4 13.4 30.8 29.1 9.2 -1.8 7.4

27-Jul 328.2 5.9 0.8 13.9 30.2 29.3 5.1 -0.8 4.3

28-Jul 668.7 22.0 3.1 14.7 30.4 25.2 18.9 -5.3 13.6

29-Jul 570.8 17.4 2.4 15.2 31.1 25.8 15.0 -5.3 9.6

30-Jul 592.3 8.4 1.1 13.1 30.6 29.6 7.4 -1.0 6.4

31-Jul 642.2 18.2 2.6 15.1 31.0 25.9 15.6 -5.1 10.5

1-Aug 513.4 22.9 3.3 15.4 32.0 24.9 19.6 -7.1 12.5

2-Aug 405.0 10.3 1.4 15.1 31.5 29.3 8.9 -2.2 6.6

3-Aug 469.3 8.9 1.3 15.5 30.6 29.0 7.7 -1.6 6.1

4-Aug 494.0 11.5 1.6 15.2 30.9 28.7 9.9 -2.1 7.8

5-Aug 184.0 6.1 0.7 12.8 30.8 30.1 5.4 -0.7 4.7

6-Aug 368.9 8.1 1.1 13.8 30.8 29.7 7.0 -1.1 5.9

7-Aug 283.6 7.6 1.0 13.7 30.5 29.6 6.6 -0.9 5.7

8-Aug 285.3 5.8 0.7 13.5 30.2 29.3 5.1 -0.9 4.2

9-Aug 317.4 5.5 0.7 14.3 29.9 29.0 4.8 -0.9 3.8

10-Aug 521.4 19.9 2.9 16.1 29.9 23.3 17.0 -6.6 10.4

11-Aug 564.7 13.3 1.9 15.5 29.4 25.4 11.5 -4.1 7.4

12-Aug 582.8 9.7 1.3 14.6 30.3 28.1 8.3 -2.1 6.2

13-Aug 308.6 8.5 1.1 14.2 29.7 27.9 7.3 -1.8 5.5

14-Aug 167.5 6.0 0.9 15.2 28.8 26.4 5.1 -2.4 2.7

15-Aug 529.2 15.5 2.3 16.4 28.8 23.2 13.2 -5.5 7.6

166

16-Aug 587.3 10.8 1.6 16.3 28.4 24.6 9.2 -3.8 5.4

17-Aug 608.7 11.3 1.6 15.9 28.7 25.2 9.6 -3.6 6.1

18-Aug 317.7 7.0 1.1 17.6 29.6 26.7 5.9 -2.9 3.0

19-Aug 420.8 15.3 2.1 15.0 30.6 24.5 13.2 -6.0 7.2

20-Aug 351.2 11.4 1.7 15.8 31.2 26.3 9.7 -4.9 4.8

21-Aug 412.1 14.5 2.1 16.6 31.4 25.5 12.4 -5.9 6.5

22-Aug 416.0 14.0 2.0 16.7 31.1 23.6 11.9 -7.5 4.4

23-Aug 374.8 14.3 2.1 14.8 29.8 24.2 12.3 -5.5 6.7

24-Aug 372.2 13.3 1.9 15.7 30.1 24.6 11.5 -5.5 5.9

25-Aug 148.4 3.6 0.6 14.9 29.6 28.5 3.0 -1.1 1.9

26-Aug 140.9 3.9 0.6 14.8 29.5 28.1 3.3 -1.4 1.9

27-Aug 132.7 3.7 0.6 15.2 29.5 28.6 3.1 -0.9 2.2

28-Aug 464.0 10.3 1.5 15.3 29.2 25.9 8.7 -3.3 5.4

29-Aug 398.9 7.8 1.1 14.7 29.5 27.1 6.7 -2.5 4.2

30-Aug 474.9 9.7 1.4 14.8 29.4 25.8 8.3 -3.5 4.8

31-Aug 370.9 9.2 1.3 14.9 29.2 25.5 7.8 -3.6 4.2

16-20 Jul 709.0 51.5 6.2 65.1 154.3 146.5 45.3 -7.7 37.6

21-31 Jul 709.4 147.7 20.3 156.7 339.6 306.0 127.4 -33.6 93.8

16-31 Jul 709.4 199.2 26.5 221.9 493.9 452.6 172.7 -41.3 131.4

1-10 Aug 521.4 106.6 14.6 145.4 307.0 282.8 92.0 -24.2 67.8

11-20 Aug 608.7 108.7 15.7 156.5 295.5 258.3 93.0 -37.2 55.8

21-31 Aug 474.9 104.2 15.2 168.4 328.3 287.4 89.0 -40.8 48.1

1-31 Aug 608.7 319.5 45.5 470.3 930.7 828.5 274.0 -102.2 171.8

21 Jul-31 Aug 709.4 467.2 65.8 627.1 1270.4 1134.6 401.4 -135.8 265.6

16 Jul-31 Aug 709.4 518.7 72.0 692.2 1424.6 1281.1 446.7 -143.5 303.2

Explanations: KMax − maximum of shortwave solar radiation, K − shortwave solar radiation, K − re-flected shortwave solar radiation, L − longwave surface radiation, L − longwave atmos-phere radiation, K* − net shortwave radiation, L* − net longwave radiation, Q* − radiation balance.

167

Appendix 4

Mean daily values of balance radiation fluxes on the Kaffiøyra (KH) from 21 July to 31 August 2011

DateKMax K K A(%) L L K* L* Q*

Wm-2 MJ m-2 MJ m-2 % MJ m-2 MJ m-2 MJ m-2 MJ m-2 MJ m-2

21-Jul 660.1 24.1 3.7 15.3 34.3 26.7 20.4 -7.7 12.8

22-Jul 746.4 16.2 2.2 13.8 30.9 28.3 14.0 -2.7 11.3

23-Jul 880.8 13.3 2.0 15.2 31.0 27.7 11.3 -3.4 7.9

24-Jul 387.5 11.7 1.6 13.4 30.8 29.2 10.2 -1.6 8.6

25-Jul 550.7 21.5 2.9 13.6 30.7 29.3 18.6 -1.3 17.2

26-Jul 554.6 25.5 5.7 22.4 30.8 29.1 19.8 -1.8 18.0

27-Jul 646.2 23.3 4.0 17.1 30.2 29.3 19.3 -0.8 18.5

28-Jul 412.4 11.9 2.2 18.8 30.4 25.2 9.6 -5.3 4.4

29-Jul 255.4 9.1 1.6 17.9 31.1 25.8 7.4 -5.3 2.1

30-Jul 162.5 5.6 0.6 10.8 30.6 29.6 5.0 -1.0 4.0

31-Jul 195.6 7.6 1.5 20.5 31.0 25.9 6.0 -5.1 0.9

1-Aug 409.1 8.7 1.2 13.2 32.0 24.9 7.6 -7.1 0.5

2-Aug 459.4 13.3 2.3 17.1 31.5 29.3 11.0 -2.2 8.8

3-Aug 350.4 9.6 1.9 20.3 30.6 29.0 7.6 -1.6 6.1

4-Aug 517.3 11.4 2.4 20.8 30.9 28.7 9.0 -2.1 6.9

5-Aug 519.3 23.0 3.3 14.2 30.8 30.1 19.7 -0.7 19.0

6-Aug 601.1 11.9 3.4 28.6 30.8 29.7 8.5 -1.1 7.4

7-Aug 418.0 11.8 2.7 22.6 30.5 29.6 9.1 -0.9 8.2

8-Aug 254.7 7.6 1.7 21.9 30.2 29.3 5.9 -0.9 5.0

9-Aug 509.2 19.6 3.5 17.8 29.9 29.0 16.1 -0.9 15.2

10-Aug 392.9 7.6 1.4 18.8 29.9 23.3 6.2 -6.6 -0.4

11-Aug 261.3 5.8 1.3 22.0 29.4 25.4 4.5 -4.1 0.4

12-Aug 560.3 9.4 1.7 18.5 30.3 28.1 7.7 -2.1 5.5

13-Aug 337.2 7.9 1.4 17.3 29.7 27.9 6.6 -1.8 4.8

14-Aug 586.8 12.2 2.7 22.5 28.8 26.4 9.4 -2.4 7.0

15-Aug 227.4 7.1 1.1 16.0 28.8 23.2 5.9 -5.5 0.4

16-Aug 622.2 16.0 2.4 15.1 28.4 24.6 13.6 -3.8 9.8

17-Aug 446.2 17.5 2.8 16.0 28.7 25.2 14.7 -3.6 11.2

18-Aug 450.8 18.0 4.5 24.9 29.6 26.7 13.5 -2.9 10.6

19-Aug 512.1 12.0 2.1 17.1 30.6 24.5 9.9 -6.0 3.9

20-Aug 440.0 13.5 3.3 24.2 31.2 26.3 10.3 -4.9 5.3

168

21-Aug 96.0 2.6 0.4 13.7 31.4 25.5 2.3 -5.9 -3.6

22-Aug 119.0 3.8 0.5 13.5 31.1 23.6 3.3 -7.5 -4.2

23-Aug 434.8 11.5 2.0 17.0 29.8 24.2 9.6 -5.5 4.0

24-Aug 208.4 4.6 0.8 16.3 30.1 24.6 3.9 -5.5 -1.6

25-Aug 153.3 4.7 1.0 20.9 29.6 28.5 3.7 -1.1 2.6

26-Aug 239.1 5.7 0.9 15.2 29.5 28.1 4.8 -1.4 3.4

27-Aug 143.9 3.4 0.6 17.0 29.5 28.6 2.8 -0.9 1.9

28-Aug 133.0 4.4 1.0 21.9 29.2 25.9 3.4 -3.3 0.1

29-Aug 78.2 2.2 0.6 26.4 29.5 27.1 1.6 -2.5 -0.8

30-Aug 202.5 4.6 0.7 14.7 29.4 25.8 3.9 -3.5 0.4

31-Aug 116.1 3.6 0.5 14.5 29.2 25.5 3.1 -3.6 -0.5

21-31 Jul 880.8 169.9 28.2 178.8 342.0 306.1 141.7 -35.9 105.8

1-10 Aug 601.1 124.5 23.7 195.3 307.0 282.8 100.8 -24.2 76.7

11-20 Aug 622.2 119.4 23.3 193.6 295.5 258.3 96.1 -37.2 58.9

21-31 Aug 434.8 51.2 8.7 190.9 328.3 287.4 42.4 -40.8 1.6

1-31 Aug 622.2 295.0 55.7 579.9 930.7 828.5 239.4 -102.2 137.2

21 Jul-31 Aug 880.8 464.9 83.8 758.7 1272.8 1134.6 381.1 -138.2 242.9

Explanations: KMax − maximum of shortwave solar radiation. K − shortwave solar radiation. K − reflect-ed shortwave solar radiation. L − longwave surface radiation. L − longwave atmosphere radiation. K* − net shortwave radiation. L* − net longwave radiation. Q* − radiation balance.

Appendix 4 cont.

169

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Dep

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5 cm

10 cm

20 cm

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21 J

ul-3

1 A

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36.

86.

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11 J

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04.

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35.

5

topoclimatic diversity in forlandsundet region (nw spitsbergen) in global warming conditions

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