the role of coping strategy and experience in predicting music performance anxiety

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2014 18: 189 originally published online 18 February 2014Musicae ScientiaeMichele Biasutti and Eleonora Concina

The role of coping strategy and experience in predicting music performance anxiety

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The role of coping strategy and experience in predicting music performance anxiety

Michele Biasutti and Eleonora ConcinaUniversity of Padova, Italy

AbstractMusic performance anxiety (MPA), a condition common among musicians, consists of an anxious state characterized by cognitive, psychological, and physiological arousal. Musicians often establish strategies for coping with MPA. The aim of the current study is to analyze the correlation between MPA factors and coping strategies, and to determine the relevance of coping strategies and other variables, such as gender, experience, and weekly hours of individual music practice, in predicting MPA. Data on MPA and coping strategies were collected using two questionnaires: the Performance Anxiety Inventory (PAI) and the Coping Orientation to Problems Experienced-New Italian Version (COPE-NVI). The participants were 171 musicians divided into the following two groups: 97 advanced music conservatory students and 74 professional musicians. The results indicate that coping strategies based on demand of social support and avoidance strategies have a positive correlation with MPA. Advanced students reported higher levels of MPA than professional musicians. In addition, regression analysis provides evidence that variance in MPA can be explained in part by experience (professional musicians versus advanced students), hours of individual practice per week and coping strategies based on social support and avoidance strategies. The findings underscore the importance of understanding processes involved in MPA and the need to learn adaptive strategies for coping with stressful events.

Keywordsadvanced music students, coping, music performance, music performance anxiety, professional musicians

During their academic and artistic careers, musicians often face particularly stressful situa-tions, such as solo and ensemble performances and musical festivals. They may feel pressured in these situations, developing music performance anxiety (MPA). MPA consists of an anxious state of mind, characterized by cognitive, psychological, and physiological arousal. MPA is con-sidered an intense and negative form of excitement as characterized by the Yerkes–Dodson-law

Corresponding author:Michele Biasutti, Department of Philosophy, Sociology, Education and Applied Psychology, University of Padova, Via Beato Pellegrino, 28, 35139 Padova, Italy. Email: [email protected]

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190 Musicae Scientiae 18(2)

(Yerkes & Dodson, 1908), which proposes an inverted U relationship between physiological arousal and performance.

Performance anxiety is a specific expression of social anxiety disorder (social phobia), according to the DSM-V (American Psychiatric Association, 2013, p. 202). Performance anxi-ety is conceptualized as “a marked fear or anxiety about one or more social situations in which the individual is exposed to possible scrutiny by others.” When exposed to public performance situations, musicians fear negative appraisal, and they often overestimate the negative conse-quences of social situations. For those with social anxiety disorder, anxiety is out of proportion to the actual threat posed by the social situation, is persistent, and causes significant distress or impairment. The primary diagnostic criteria for this disorder are fear of a particular perfor-mance situation, hypersensitivity to being judged and criticized, and low levels of self-esteem.

MPA is conceptualized as a multidimensional construct persisting over time. Interactions between the following variables determine the arousal level:

(a) the performer’s susceptibility to experiencing anxiety when the commitment to perform is made (which may include individual characteristics such as gender, age, trait anxiety, self-esteem, self-concept and self-efficacy); (b) the performer’s task efficacy (which relates to the process of preparation, learning approach, motivation to learn, task difficulty and value, and anxiety coping strategies); and (c) the characteristics of the specific environment where the individual is expected to perform (which can be influenced by parameters such as audience presence, perceived degree of exposure and venue characteristics). (Papageorgi, Creech & Welch, 2013; p. 20)

MPA is a condition that affects both expert and non-expert musicians (Kenny & Osborne, 2006), and it is a relevant issue for musicians with an artistic career who need to develop strategies for coping with the stress of anxiety and controlling its negative consequences.

Various methods have been used to conduct research on MPA, and various results have emerged (Fehm & Schmidt, 2006). The main differences between the studies are in the theoreti-cal definitions and methods for measuring MPA (which involved different theoretical frame-works), in the participants’ characteristics (e.g., professional musicians or music students), and in the focus on particular anxiety factors (e.g., cognitive, behavioral or physiological). MPA has been studied in students and professional musicians, but less attention has been paid to analyz-ing what they have in common, determining what is unique to either group and considering the developmental aspects of MPA. Few data are available on the use of strategies to prevent and control anxiety in musicians (Fehm & Schmidt, 2006; Kobori, Yoshie, Kudo & Ohtszuki, 2011; Steptoe, 1989). Fehm and Schmidt (2006) reported that no data on the use of coping strategies among adolescent musicians are available and that variations in the coping strate-gies used by students versus professional musicians have not been considered. The present research analyzed the role of coping, experience, and other variables in predicting MPA. These issues may impact educational strategies, informing better practices for the control and preven-tion of MPA. The literature reviewed relates to coping strategies and social aspects of MPA in students and professional musicians, as well as gender differences.

Performance anxiety and coping strategies

The relevance of coping strategies has been explored in many research fields but has rarely been applied to music performance. The links between performance anxiety and coping strate-gies have been explored by Steptoe (1989), Fehm and Schmidt (2006), and Kobori et al. (2011). Steptoe (1989) was the first to propose a link between coping strategy and MPA. Coping was



Biasutti and Concina 191

defined as a musician’s behavioral and cognitive efforts to avoid and reduce the effects of poten-tially stressful situations (Steptoe, 1989, p. 9). These efforts may change in response to different variables such as context, individual predisposition and condition. In the study, 65 members of the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra and the London Philharmonic Orchestra were asked about their methods for coping with MPA. Participants reported strategies such as deep breathing (38%), distraction (28%), muscle relaxation (23%), alcohol intake (22%), and the use of seda-tives (12%). With regard to cognitive efforts, professionals with moderate levels of MPA demon-strated a greater predisposition to realistic appraisal of their performance than did their colleagues with lower and higher MPA.

Fehm and Schmidt (2006) analyzed MPA in young music students, relating primary MPA characteristics to short-term and long-term coping strategies as well as perceived needs and expressed desire for support. MPA was assessed with a validated questionnaire, while the other aspects were assessed using questions about situational influences on performance anxiety, coping strategies, and open questions regarding unmet needs for coping assistance. Rehearsing, positive thinking, praying, smoking, relaxation, and using calming substances were considered short-term coping strategies, while talking with classmates, talking with friends, talking with teachers, practicing, relaxation, and counselling therapy were considered long-term coping strategies. The findings indicated that rehearsing and positive thinking were the most common short-term coping strategies, as students found them to be useful, while technique practice was the most frequently used long-term strategy. Other long-term strategies reported by many par-ticipants included talking to teachers, classmates, or friends. Fehm and Schmidt (2006) con-cluded that many music students develop individual strategies and tend to cope with their anxiety by asking for social support from their teachers or from people outside school. In addi-tion, students expressed their need for help in facing emotions and controlling anxiety during musical performances.

Kobori et al. (2011) focused on traits and cognitions of perfectionism in relation to coping style, effort (hours of practice), achievement and performance anxiety in professional and ama-teur musicians. Their findings indicate that experience is not a significant factor in performance anxiety, whereas significant correlations were found between performance anxiety and task- and emotion-oriented coping methods. However, no significant correlation was found between performance anxiety and avoidance-oriented coping. Kobori et al. (2011, p. 678) commented on the coping measure that they adopted as follows:

the avoidance-oriented coping employed in the present study only reflects disengagement with other activities that serve as a distraction (e.g. shopping, meeting friends). It would be interesting to examine the relationship between the facets of perfectionism and avoidance coping that include more risky behaviours, such as drug use, binge drinking and eating, and gambling.

In this statement, the authors recognize the limitation of the questionnaire adopted for meas-uring coping strategies, indicating possible directions for future research. Coping is a com-plex concept that incorporates several dimensions, including a social component that impacts performance anxiety. Social MPA aspects were considered by several researchers, as reported below.

Social aspects of performance anxiety

Fear of negative evaluation is considered a core component of MPA (Kenny, 2011). In their research on students’ perceptions of public master classes, Long, Creech, Gaunt, Hallam, and




Robertson (2012) reported that some performers were annoyed by performance anxiety, which they imputed to peer examination. Yondem (2007) analyzed MPA, perfectionism and dysfunc-tional attitudes in students of instruments. Their findings provided evidence that performers with high levels of anxiety more frequently showed dysfunctional attitudes (e.g., the need for approval) than did their colleagues who reported lower levels of MPA. Osborne and Kenny (2008) found that young musicians who suffer high levels of anxiety during musical perfor-mances attach too much importance to negative social evaluations.

According to Havas (1973, p. 104), “fear of not being good enough” may produce an anx-ious condition in music performers, but they can build a positive self-evaluation based on posi-tive social feedback, especially from friends, parents and relatives. Dews and Williams (1989) reported that students seek help from friends when they are dealing with troubles related to music. Conversely, there is research that suggests that musicians tend to perceive less social support from peers or teachers for facing music performance anxiety. Schneider and Chesky (2011) considered the relevance of the social dimension to MPA in advanced music students, analyzing both perceived social support and performance anxiety in college music students and in college non-music students. Although college music students perceived less social support than their non-music colleagues, the material and emotional help that music students obtained from others seemed to be an important strategy for coping with MPA.

MPA: Experience and gender differences

Considerable research has been carried out on the subject of anxiety in students (Fehm & Schmidt, 2006; Kenny & Osborne, 2006) and in professional musicians (Kobori et al., 2011); however, the findings are contradictory. The research to date has focused on factors such as variability in levels of experience, and few studies have compared anxiety in students to anxiety in professional musicians (Papageorgi et al., 2013). In a research study on MPA among semi-professional vocalists, Ryan and Andrews (2009) found that experienced choral singers have lower levels of MPA and that experience, rather than age, was a significant variable of anxiety. Kenny and Osborne (2006) reported that scholars with little musical training reported lower levels of MPA than did students of the same age who had more training. Conversely, Fehm and Schmidt (2006) found that experience with public performance was not associated with perfor-mance anxiety. Papageorgi et al. (2013) carried out research contrasting 170 undergraduates with 74 portfolio career musicians with diverse musical genre specializations (classical, Scottish traditional, popular and jazz). The findings indicated a small, significant interaction between the variables gender × professional experience for solo performance anxiety, with female port-folio musicians reporting higher anxiety levels than males; the gender effect was not significant in the student participants. In addition, experience was not a significant predictor of solo per-formance anxiety.

With regard to MPA treatment, Kenny (2005) hypothesized that MPA may be impacted by different variables in music students versus professional musicians and that the differences may impact clinical treatment of anxiety and training. Kenny (2005, p. 192) reported, “Given that the aetiology of MPA may differ for students and professional musicians, effective treatment approaches may need to be tailored to the needs of each sub-group.”

Several MPA research studies have confirmed gender differences. Osborne and Kenny (2008) found that, among adolescent music students with negative performance experiences, females showed higher levels of MPA than males. In general, research findings report higher levels of MPA for female musicians than for male musicians (Dews & Williams, 1989; Fishbein,




Middlestadt, Ottati, Strauss & Ellis, 1988; Kenny & Osborne, 2006; Papageorgi et al., 2013; Rae & McCambridge, 2004; Yondem, 2007).

Literature summary

In the literature reviewed above, different measures were used for assessing coping strategies. In some cases, no standardized questionnaires were adopted (Fehm & Schmidt, 2006), and fur-ther research is needed to clarify the role of coping strategies. Social aspects seem to be a crucial component because a link between perceived social support and performance anxiety in music students was found.

The literature also shows that MPA occurs in both students and professional musicians. Experience was considered in the research, but the results are divergent: whilst some research-ers found experience to be linked to anxiety (Ryan & Andrews, 2009), others (Kobori et al., 2011; Papageorgi et al., 2013) found that experience was not significantly correlated with MPA. With regard to gender, female musicians reported higher levels of MPA than their male counterparts do. The literature reviewed showed a lack of data and research on coping and experience as predictors of MPA.

Method

Rationale and hypothesis

The aim of the current research was to examine the relevance of a number of factors that may predict MPA. Based on the prior literature, it was hypothesized that anxiety during music activ-ity would be impacted by a specific pattern of variables, such as coping strategies, experience (professional musicians versus advanced students), hours of practice per week, and gender. Prior research has shown that coping strategies are frequently used by musicians to manage MPA (Fehm & Schmidt, 2006; Kobori et al., 2011; and Steptoe, 1989). The relevance of experi-ence and effort (hours of practice) were also considered in the research, but contrasting find-ings emerged (Fehm & Schmidt, 2006; Kobori et al., 2011; Papageorgi et al., 2013; Ryan & Andrews, 2009). With regard to gender, differences were shown between females and males in the research, and so gender was considered a relevant variable (Dews & Williams, 1989; Fishbein et al., 1988; Kenny & Osborne, 2006; Papageorgi et al., 2013; Rae & McCambridge, 2004; Yondem, 2007).

The current study aimed to address the shortcomings of prior research analyzing correla-tions between MPA and coping strategies and to define the relevance of coping strategies and other variables in predicting MPA. In particular, it was hypothesized that MPA would be corre-lated with and predicted by individual factors, such as experience, gender, hours of practice per week, and particular coping styles, such as social support and avoidance strategies.

Method

The method of data collection adopted in the current research was a one-shot survey. A quantitative approach was followed, and two close-ended standardized questionnaires (the Performance Anxiety Inventory (PAI) and Coping Orientation to Problems Experienced-New Italian Version (COPE-NVI)) with parametric statistical analyses were used. The main fea-tures included (a) adopting a measure of MPA and multidimensional coping strategies and




(b) conducting one regression analysis to verify the optimal factors for predicting MPA. In addition, descriptive statistics and intercorrelation coefficients were calculated.

Participants

The participants were 171 musicians divided into the following two groups: advanced music students and professional musicians.

The advanced student group included 97 students from four conservatories in the north-east of Italy who had studied for at least five years in a music conservatory. All of the stu-dents studied a musical instrument as their main subject. Most students were attending medium or superior classes in instrumental music education. The students’ ages ranged from 14 to 26 years (mean age = 18.99 years; standard deviation (SD) = 3.12). There were 54 females (55.67%) and 43 males (44.33%), dedicating between 1.5 and 48 hours per week to individual instrumental music practice (mean practice per week = 14.23 hours; SD = 10.22).

The professional musician group included 74 Italian professional musicians with at least five years of experience in musical performance after earning their music diploma (mean years of experience = 18.67; SD = 8.09). Approximately 25 performers were engaged permanently as orchestral members in music institutions and in state orchestras. The others were active performers in symphonic bands, orchestras, and chamber ensembles, and they were employed at the same time as private music teachers or in music schools. There were 24 females (32.43%) and 49 males (66.21%), ranging in age between 27 and 68 years (mean age = 41.89 years; SD = 8.54); they spent from 1 to 40 hours per week in individual instrumental practice (mean practice per week = 13.6 hours; SD = 8.98).

The main instruments played by the participants were strings (violin, viola, cello, and double bass played by 40 students and 19 professionals); plucked strings (guitar, and man-dolin played by 14 students and 4 professionals); percussion (played by 2 students and 2 professionals); keyboards (piano, and pipe organ played by 27 students and 26 profession-als) and wind instruments (wood and brass instrument, played by 13 students and 22 pro-fessionals). Two participants (1 student and 1 professional) did not provide any information on the type of instruments they played. The genre most practiced by the participants was classical music.

Self-report questionnaires

The following two self-report questionnaires were used for this study: the PAI and the COPE-NVI. In addition, the following demographic variables were also collected: age, gender, weekly hours of individual musical practice, and instrument.

PAI

The PAI by Nagel, Himle and Papsdorf (1989), is a 20-item self-report scale used to assess MPA. It is based on Spielberg’s Test Anxiety Inventory (Spielberg, 1980) and assesses the three com-ponents (cognitive, emotional/behavioural, and physiological) that are considered to constitute MPA. The items describe different feelings connected to anxiety that may be experienced during musical performances. The emotional/behavioural (e.g., item 8: ‘I feel very jittery when giving an important recital’), cognitive (e.g., item 5:’During a recital I find myself thinking about whether I’ll even get through it’), and physiological (e.g., item 2:’While giving a recital my




hands are cold’) characteristics of anxiety are evaluated. Using a five-point Likert scale, partici-pants indicate the frequency with which they experience those feelings during a musical perfor-mance situation. It should be noted that neither a validated Italian version of the PAI nor any other Italian survey for MPA was available. The two researchers produced an Italian translation of the PAI using the following procedure. The second author translated the scale into Italian and the first author revised the translation. The two researchers discussed any possible disa-greements relating to the translation, and changes were made accordingly. Nagel et al. (1989) reported a total Cronbach’s alpha value for the PAI of .89.

COPE-NVI

The COPE-NVI (Sica et al., 2008) is the most recent Italian version of the COPE scale (Carver, Scheier & Weintraub, 1989). It is a 60-item questionnaire that assesses behavioral strategies used when facing a stressful event. The respondents indicate (on a four-point Likert scale) the frequency with which they used various behavioral strategies in stressful situations. The COPE-NVI has a five-factor structure: (1) social support (strategies based on searching for help and emotional sharing with others); (2) avoidance strategies (various strategies such as denial, drugs and alcohol use, and detachment); (3) positive attitude (acceptance and positive re-interpretation of the situation); (4) focus on problem (active problem solving); (5) transcend-ence (strategies based on seeking comfort in religion and absence of humor). Positive attitude and focus on problems are confirmed strategies that protect against psychological distress and facilitate well-being, as opposed to avoidance strategies. With regard to the other two factors—social support and transcendence—it is interesting to note that, when used in the process of coping, these do not seem to promote well-being. Sica et al. (2008) reported that using only social support or religious comfort as coping strategies in a stressful condition may foster a generally passive attitude in the individual. The Cronbach’s alpha values reported by Sica et al. (2008) ranged from .70 (avoidance strategies) to .91 (social support).

Procedure

Advanced students and professional musicians participated voluntarily. They were informed that their answers would remain anonymous and would be used only for research purposes. For the advanced student group, authorizations from heads of conservatories were obtained. The questionnaires were given to the advanced students individually before class. The profes-sional musicians were recruited in state orchestras and music institutions, and were asked to fill out the questionnaire before a rehearsal.

Results

The data were analyzed with the statistical program IBM SPSS Statistics 20. First, descriptive statistics were computed comparing the student and professional groups, and female and male groups using ANOVA. Second, Cronbach’s alpha internal consistency for all factor scales was calculated. Third, intercorrelations (point-biserial correlation and Pearson’s r) between gender (codified as 0 = male; 1 = female), experience (codified as 0 = advanced students, 1 = profes-sional musicians), hours of practice per week (codified as 1 = up to 7 hours/week; 2 = between 8 and 14 hours/week; 3 = 15 hours and over/week), coping strategy factors, and performance anxiety factors were calculated. Finally, a stepwise regression analysis was performed to iden-tify the best predictors of MPA.




Descriptive statistics and mean comparisons (ANOVA)

Means and SD for each factor of the COPE-NVI and PAI questionnaires were computed for advanced students’ and professional musicians’ groups, for female and male groups and for the whole sample. Both advanced students and professional musicians indicated “focus on prob-lem” as the most frequently used coping strategy employed during musical activity. Moreover, the strategies least used for both groups were those based on avoidance (avoidance strategies). For the PAI, both advanced students and professional musicians as well as both male and female participants considered the cognitive aspects of anxiety to be the most relevant to their experi-ence of MPA.

To understand the main differences in coping styles and in MPA, ANOVA was performed for contrasting participants according to experience and gender, including Cohen’s d as the effect size index. The results showed the following significant differences: advanced students used coping strategies based on social support more frequently than did professional musicians (F(1,169) = 6.69, p < .05, d = .40). Advanced students also reported a higher impact on their performance than did professional musicians of all dimensions of anxiety (for PAI emotional/behavioral aspects, F(1,169) = 19.70, p < .01, d = .69; for PAI cognitive aspects F(1,169) = 11.95, p < .01, d = .54; for PAI physiological aspects, F(1,169) = 24.32, p < .01, d = .77; and for the total score of the PAI F(1,169) = 21.58, p < .01, d = .72). With respect to gender, female participants reported higher rates of social support coping strategies than males (F(1,169) = 8.96, p < .01, d = .47); moreover, females tended to experience higher levels of emotional/behavioral aspects (F(1,169) = 7.61, p < .01, d = .45) and physiological aspects (F(1,169) = 7.86, p < .01, d = .43) of MPA than males did. There was also a significant difference for gender in the total score of the PAI (F(1,169) = 7.08, p < .01, d = .41). However, according to Cohen’s criteria (1988), effect size indexes for all gender comparisons were small. The results are reported in Table 1.

Internal consistency

Internal consistency (Cronbach’s alpha) was calculated for each factor on the two question-naires and for the total score from the PAI questionnaire. As reported in Table 1, Cronbach’s alpha was acceptable or good for most of the two questionnaire factors because it was equal to or higher than .7. However, the physiological aspects factor alpha from the PAI was .63. Therefore, we conclude overall that these two sets of questionnaire results are quite reliable. The Cronbach’s alphas are reported in Table 1.

Correlation matrix

Correlation coefficients were calculated to analyze intercorrelations between gender, experi-ence, hours of practice per week, different aspects of MPA, total MPA scores, and coping strate-gies. As gender and experience are dichotomous variables, intercorrelations between these two dimensions and hours of practice per week, MPA aspects and total score, and coping strategies were computed using the point biserial correlation coefficient. For correlations between MPA aspects, MPA total score, and coping strategies, Pearson’s r was used as the correlation coeffi-cient. Gender was moderately correlated with emotional/behavioral aspects, physiological aspects, and the PAI total score, and the social support factor from the COPE-NVI showed that females scored higher than males. Experience showed negative correlations with all PAI factors, underlining that advanced students tend to report higher scores on the PAI questionnaire than professional musicians. In addition, level of experience correlated negatively with social support




Tab

le 1

. D

escr

iptiv

e st

atis

tics

and

Cro

nbac

h’s

alph

a fo

r ad

vanc

ed s

tude

nts

and

prof

essi

onal

mus

icia

ns g

roup

s, fe

mal

es a

nd m

ales

gro

ups

and

for

the

who

le

sam

ple.

Adv

ance

d st

ude

nts

(n =

97

)P

rofe

ssio

nal

m

usi

cian

s (n

= 7

4)

Fem

ale

(n

=7

8 )

Mal

e

(n =

93

)T

otal

sam

ple

(n =

17

1)

Cro

nbac

h’s α

CO

PE-

NV

I fac

tors

*M

(SD

)M

(SD

)M

(SD

)M

(SD

)M

(SD

)

Soci

al s

upp

ort

2.3

7 (.

60

)2

.13

(.6

1)

2.4

2 (.

61

)2

.14

(.6

0)

2.2

6 (.

62

).8

8A

void

ing

stra

tegi

es1

.36

(.2

5)

1.3

0 (.

29

)1

.33

(.2

6)

1.3

4 (.

28

)1

.33

(.2

7)

.70

Pos

itiv

e at

titu

de2

.50

(.4

4)

2.4

7 (.

48

)2

.54

(.4

5)

2.4

5 (.

46

)2

.49

(.4

6)

.75

Focu

s on

pro

blem

2.7

2 (.

48

)2

.81

(.5

6)

2.7

2 (.

49

)2

.79

(.5

3)

2.7

6 (.

51

).8

1T

ran

scen

den

ce2

.46

(.5

1)

2.5

2 (.

49

)2

.48

(.5

5)

2.4

9 (.

46

)2

.48

(.5

0)

.73

PA

I fac

tors

**

Emot

ion

al/b

ehav

iora

l2

.71

(.8

9)

2.1

6 (.

68

)2

.68

(.9

7)

2.3

1 (.

70

)2

.47

(.8

5)

.87

Cog

nit

ive

3.0

3 (.

78

)2

.61

(.7

9)

2.9

7 (.

89

)2

.74

(.7

3)

2.8

5 (.

81

).8

0P

hys

iolo

gica

l2

.67

(.6

4)

2.1

6 (.

70

)2

.61

(.8

0)

2.3

1 (.

60

)2

.45

(.7

1)

.63

Tot

al2

.80

(.7

2)

2.3

0 (.

66

)2

.74

(.8

5)

2.4

4 (.

61

)2

.58

(.7

4)

.92

Not

e. *

scor

e ra

nge

1–4;

**s

core

ran

ge 1

–5.




on the COPE-NVI, showing that advanced students reported higher scores than professional musicians did on this factor. Hours of practice per week correlated positively with focus on prob-lem and negatively with transcendence. Two factors of the COPE-NVI (social support and avoid-ance strategies) had significant positive correlations with all of the anxiety factors. However, it should be noted that these correlations were significant but moderate; the highest reported r coefficient was .46 (p < .01) for the correlation between the COPE-NVI social support factor and PAI physiological aspects. The complete results for Pearson’s r values for gender, experience, hours of practice per week, the PAI, and the COPE-NVI are reported in Table 2.

Regression analysis

A stepwise regression analysis was computed to identify the main predictors of MPA in a pos-sible prediction model. In the current study, gender, experience, hours of practice per week, and COPE-NVI factors were introduced as possible predictor variables for MPA levels. R² and adjusted R² were calculated. In accordance with Ellis (2010), the adjusted R² was reported because it represents the effect size index that resulted after the statistical correction considering the num-ber of participants and the variables in the prediction model.

Table 2. Intercorrelations among gender, experience, hours of practice per week and COPE-NVI and PAI factors.

Variablesa 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

1. Gender 2. Experience –.23** 3. Hours of practice

per week–.15 .06

4. PAI emotional-behavioural

.21** –.32** –.09

5. PAI cognitive .14 –.26** –.09 .85** 6. PAI physiological .21** –.35** –.10 .76** .72** 7. PAI total .20** –.34** –.10 .96** .93** .87** 8. COPE-NVI social

support .22** –.19** .15 .41** .38** .46** .45**

9. COPE-NVI avoiding strategies

–.02 –.10 .01 .19* .15* .23** .21** .14

10. COPE-NVI positive attitude

.10 –.03 .08 .02 .01 –.02 .01 .14 .19*

11. COPE-NVI focus on problem

–.07 .09 .22** –.05 –.03 –.03 –.04 .24** –.01 .51**

12. COPE-NVI transcendence

–.01 .06 –.20** .09 .10 .15 .12 .12 .01 .00 .05

Note. As gender and experience are dichotomous variables, intercorrelation between these and hours of practice, MPA and COPE factors are computed using point biserial correlation coefficient. The other correlations coefficients were computed using Pearson’s r.Gender groups were codified as “0 = male; 1 = female”; experience groups were codified as “0 = advanced students; 1 = professional musicians”; hours of practice groups were codified as “1 = up to 7 hours/week; 2 = between 8 and 14 hours/week; 3 = 15 hours and over/week.”an = 171; *p < .05; **p < .01.




Results of the final prediction model from the regression analysis are reported in Table 3. R² was significant (adjR² = .30; F(4,160) = 18.42, p < .01) and explained approximately 30% of the variability observed in PAI total scores. The final model included four predictors of PAI total score: experience, hours of practice per week, and the following two factors from the COPE-NVI: social support and avoidance strategies. The first variable that appeared in the model was coping using social support (β =. 41, p < .01). Experience in musical activity emerged as a sec-ond variable in the regression model; experience had a significant negative coefficient (β = –.24, p < .01), indicating that professional musicians tend to experience lower levels of MPA than advanced students. Additionally, hours of practice per week played a role in predicting levels of MPA (β = –.14, p < .05), showing that the less musicians practice, the higher PAI scores they reported. Coping strategies based on avoidance also played a role in predicting PAI scores (for COPE-NVI avoidance strategies β = .14, p < .05). Other variables such as gender and the other COPE-NVI factors were also introduced in the present stepwise regression analysis. Although some influences of these elements on PAI total score emerged from previous intercorrelation analyses (as reported in Table 2), they were not recognized as significant predictors of MPA in the regression model.

Discussion

This study examined relationships between coping strategies and MPA in advanced music stu-dents and professional musicians. In addition, the following concurrent variables were consid-ered in predicting MPA: coping, gender, experience, and hours of practice per week. Our results provide evidence of significant intercorrelations between most PAI factors and both social sup-port and avoidance strategies assessed using the COPE-NVI. The regression analysis showed that MPA is influenced by experience, hours of practice per week, social support, and avoidance strategies from the COPE-NVI.

With regard to the intercorrelation analysis, statistically significant values were found for PAI and two factors representing dysfunctional coping: social support and avoidance strategies from the COPE-NVI. The correlation between social support on the COPE-NVI and the PAI (all factors) could be explained by linking social judgment with experiences of anxiety because fear of negative judgment is considered a central constituent of MPA (Kenny, 2011). This result is consistent with findings by Havas (1973) and Osborne and Kenny (2008), who reported the importance of social aspects in determining MPA. The correlation between the PAI and avoid-ance strategies supported the contention that behaviour such as “I refuse to believe that it has happened” (item 27) or “I admit to myself that I can’t deal with it and quit trying” (item 9) were relevant for predicting levels of anxiety. There is a contrast between the current findings and

Table 3. Final model of the stepwise regression analysis for predicting MPA (PAI total score).

Predictors adjR2 β t F

1. COPE-NVI social support .20 .41** 6.00** 41.74**2. Experience .26 –.24** –3.65** 30.61**3. Hours of practice per week .28 –.14* –2.19* 22.46**4. COPE-NVI avoiding strategies .30 .14* 2.17* 18.42**

Note. Experience groups were codified as “0=advanced students; 1 = professional musicians”; hours of practice groups were codified as “1 = up to 7 hours/week; 2 = between 8 and 14 hours/week; 3 = 15 hours and over/week.”*p < .05; **p < .01.




previous research findings by Kobori et al. (2011), where no significant correlation was found between avoidance-oriented coping and MPA, although there was a trend toward significance. These results could be explained by the different characteristics of the participants and the methodology of the two studies as well as the different measures adopted. The PAI was also significantly correlated with gender, with females having higher levels of MPA than males. These results are consistent with the findings of other research reporting female musicians experiencing higher levels of MPA (Dews & Williams, 1989; Fishbein et al., 1988; Kenny & Osborne, 2006; Papageorgi et al., 2013; Rae & McCambridge, 2004; and Yondem, 2007). Level of experience was negatively correlated with PAI score, with the advanced students scoring higher in anxiety than the professional musicians. Experience was also positively correlated with social support. It must be noted that aspects such as focus on problem and positive attitude were not correlated with experience; advanced students’ scores on these scales were similar to those of professional performers. Hours of practice per week was significantly correlated with the focus on problem and transcendence COPE-NVI factors but with a different trend: partici-pants with more hours of practice had a task problem orientation, while participants who prac-ticed less preferred transcendence. It would be interesting to analyze these results in further research and to explore how practicing could influence the development of a method of study and an attitude to solving problems. According to Kobori et al. (2011), perfectionists are inclined to dedicate more time to practice and to use focus on problem strategies in stressful conditions. However, Kobori et al. (2011) found that effort (hours of practice per week) was not a significant factor in predicting MPA. In the current study, transcendence, a dysfunctional aspect of coping, was highly developed in participants with fewer hours of practice.

With regard to the regression analysis, the first variable extracted was social support. The results of this research are consistent with the findings by Dews and Williams (1989) and Fehm and Schmidt (2006), who found social support to be one request that students coping with anxi-ety were asking for. For this reason, students could use social support as a possible coping strategy for controlling MPA. Experience was also a significant variable influencing PAI, with advanced students scoring higher than professional musicians. The lower level of anxiety in professional musicians could be explained by more experience. This result contrasts with the research by Papageorgi et al. (2013), in which experience was not a significant predictor in solo performance anxiety, and research by Kobori et al. (2011), who found that experience was not a significant factor predicting MPA in amateur and professional musicians. The result is consistent with the findings of Ryan and Andrews (2009), who found that experience was a significant variable of MPA among semi-professional vocalists. These contrasting findings could be accounted for by considering the different participants involved in the studies. The results of the current research provide evidence that experience may predict MPA, and this aspect could be used as a basis for developing further research on other MPA factors. Two other variables, hours of practice per week and coping strategies based on avoidance, were also significant. These findings contrast with the results of Kobori et al. (2011), who found that effort and avoidance-oriented coping were not significant factors predicting MPA. Finally, the current study is limited in two ways. First, experience and gender were not perfectly balanced within the two groups. Second, an Italian vali-dated version of the PAI questionnaire was not yet available at the time of our research.

Conclusions

Educational implications

This research provides evidence of the links between anxiety and coping strategies in advanced students and professional musicians, and it has some educational implications. These findings




underscore the importance of psychological factors in musical instrument training and perfor-mance, which must be considered in education (Osborne & Kenny, 2008). The findings regard-ing coping abilities support the idea that music teachers should promote the use of adaptive coping strategies during musical activity among their pupils. To improve self-awareness of per-sonal musical skills and self-control of emotional learning components, music lessons should include the development of students’ meta-cognitive abilities (Biasutti, 2012, 2013; Biasutti & Frezza, 2009). Instrument training should also focus on the development of students’ psycho-logical skills that can be used to cope with MPA and to minimize its negative effects on music performance and personal well-being. Instrumental music curricula should offer opportunities (e.g., lectures, workshops) for students to learn to cope with MPA (Fehm & Schmidt, 2006). Although students already showed a certain capacity for controlling MPA, educational training based on the development of meta-cognition skills would likely further enhance this control.

Implications for further research

The current research results provide insight into aspects of MPA that justify further longitudi-nal research into the understanding of MPA. It would be interesting to explore differences between beginners and advanced students on the PAI and COPE-NVI, as well as to research other developmental aspects, such as the stage at which students develop specific strategies to control or prevent MPA.

Funding

This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

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the role of coping strategy and experience in predicting music performance anxiety

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