the key role of cultural preservation in maize diversity conservation in the argentine yungas

Hindawi Publishing CorporationEvidence-Based Complementary and Alternative MedicineVolume 2013 Article ID 732760 10 pageshttpdxdoiorg1011552013732760

Research ArticleThe Key Role of Cultural Preservation in Maize DiversityConservation in the Argentine Yungas

Norma I Hilgert Fernando Zamudio Violeta Furlan and Luciacutea Cariola

Instituto de Biologıa Subtropical CONICET Facultad de Ciencias Forestales Universidad Nacional de MisionesCentro de Investigaciones del Bosque Atlantico Bertoni 85 3370 Puerto Iguazu Argentina

Correspondence should be addressed to Norma I Hilgert normahilgertyahoocomar

Received 4 April 2013 Revised 14 June 2013 Accepted 22 July 2013

Academic Editor Ana H Ladio

Copyright copy 2013 Norma I Hilgert et al This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons AttributionLicense which permits unrestricted use distribution and reproduction in any medium provided the original work is properlycited

Farmersrsquo decisions on what to grow and why can contribute in understanding the conservation of agrobiodiversity Culture andethnicity are indicated as first-class factors leading preservation of heirloom cultivars but this has been little considered in studiesexamining factors that influence the loss or preservation of agrobiodiversity We propose that cornrsquos ethnotaxa of less diverse useswhich are also key partners in local cultural reproduction are usually cultivated by a few households We analyse if there is arelationship between uses and richness of cultivated ethnotaxa at household level and describe cornrsquos medicinal and ritual uses Wefound 25 cultivated ethnotaxa heterogeneously distributed in the region andwe also found that ethnotaxa with less diverse uses arecultivated in fewer households We identified that at regional scale richness is related with food use diversity The most frequentlycited medicinal uses were urinary and tract infections diarrhoea and liver disorders Medicinal recipes involve combinations withother elementsMaize is an indispensable resource in the rituals that propitiate productive activity to augur prosperity ormisfortuneaccording to signals We have identified the vulnerability in preserving the richness of corn in the region and the factors that shapeits cultivation at different scales

1 Introduction

Conservation and loss of agrobiodiversity is a concern toacademics development institutions (governmental or not)and to local populations [1ndash4] facing the modernizationsocioeconomic and environmental changes that occur bothglobally and regionally Migration pests outbreaks and cli-mate changes among other variables promote transforma-tion in the composition and dynamics of agricultural parcelschanges that ultimately alter the functionality of contempo-rary rural landscapes These changes occur in cascadethrough complex mechanisms (top-down and bottom-up)and disseminate simultaneously in different directions andscales [5 6]

Farmersrsquo decisions on what to grow and why can contrib-ute to understand the conservation of agrobiodiversity andcan help scientists to realize farmersrsquo role in this process [2 47]

Until not long ago it was held from academia that thedecisions of local people were guided by economic agro-nomic and ecological variables (see review in Veteto [8])

At present culture and ethnicity are recognized as first-classfactors leading conservation of heirloom cultivars [8ndash12]Among the driving factors behind agrobiodiversity persist-ence cultural salience has been identified in the first place andutilitarian salience in the second The first concept is under-stood as the selection criteria that are specifically relatedto culturally defined preferences and influences such asfoodways cultural heritage andmemory instead the secondone is understood as the selection criteria that are specificallyrelated to market value productivity environment adapta-tion and resistance [8 13ndash16]

The assessment of criteria or the decisions that shapelocal conservation of agrobiodiversity is central to guaranteepeoplersquos food sovereignty and generation of in situ conserva-tion plans which involve local peasants Analytic categoriesused to classify corpus of the local knowledge (religiouseconomic alimentary medicinal) are abstractions of amatrixof interconnected elements that analyzed together explainagricultural decision making and agrobiodiversity persis-tence [8 17]

2 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Indeed the use of resources may differ depending on thecontext or the occasion daily consumption of foodwithin thehousehold use in collective festivities offering to supernatu-ral entities and the act of sharing food with ancestors amongothers [18 19] In this context a given resource alimentarymedicinal material can officiate as a symbol understood as anobject represented by general consensus or something evoca-tive [20]

The approach of this paper is supported by previousresearch in the study area which found that the local healthconcept thatmatches the Andean concept is understood as anholistic balance of a person environment [21ndash25] Accordingto our experience to analyze cultural driving factors behindpersistence of agrobiodiversity it is necessary to develop acomprehensive analysis of the role of corn in the lives of theYungas residents For this reason we considered the generaluses of maize and the uses of herbal medicine which involvesmaize varieties in particular the ritual uses of maize (egmeals prepared in agricultural celebrations or funerals) andthose practices that reflect protective value assigned to maizefor being the legacy of La Pachamama the principal chthonicdeity of the region

In the region of our study a decrease in agrobiodiversitythe gradual abandonment of different production spaces andthe replacement of some species and varieties by others as anadaptive response to these changes in production have beendescribed [26] In relation to this and bearing in mind thatthe selection criteria affect the richness of grown ethnotaxa athousehold and regional levels we propose that ethnotaxa ofless diverse uses which are also key partners in local culturalreproduction for their medicinal value symbolic andor rit-ual are usually cultivated by a few householdsThis is consist-ent with those who assigned a leadership role to ritual valuesfor conservation of agrobiodiversity [27 28] To evaluate thiswe analyze if there is a relationship between the uses assignedto each ethnotaxon and the richness of cultivated ethnotaxaat household level and describe the medicinal and ritual usesof maize in three regions of the Argentine Yungas

2 Background

The inhabitants of the communities under study are descen-dants of Andean cultures Chaco and Hispanic who haveconverged historically and culturally [29] Due to its geopo-litical history and geographical location in the Baritu regionunlike the other two there are established social and com-mercial ties with Bolivian communities [30] At present theyidentify themselves as criollos although this name also iden-tifies people of different cultural roots They maintain a setof practices and beliefs among which the cult of the Pacha-mama a characteristic element of Andean cultures standsout as mentioned above They also profess Catholicism andEvangelism (the lattermore recent and in current expansion)The Spanish language is enriched with Quichua and Guaranıterms (to a lesser extent) [31]

Regional economy is based on a system of shifting agri-culture transhumance and gathering to a lesser extent Shift-ing agriculture and transhumance which consists on the useof different cultivation and cattle breeding areas along altitu-dinal gradients favour vertical use of the environment Each

family moves periodically along the year to the cerro valleand monte where they cultivate and pasture their animals[26] However at present transhumance in some areas hasbeen reduced and abandoned in others [32] This productionsystem is usually complemented with paid work carried outwithin or outside the community in nearby settlements orvillages and allowances granted by the government haveproven to be a useful contribution to household resourcesLocalwomen alsoweavewool blankets saddlebags and craftsfor their own households or for sale as an other mean of get-ting some income Nowadays they are increasingly experi-menting dyeing plant species in search for new colours andcombining different species together which is a newphenom-enon [33]

The most important crops are Zea mays (Poaceae) andSolanum tuberosum (Solanaceae) In each altitudinal beltdifferent varieties of the same species are produced togetherwith Cucurbita spp (Cucurbitaceae) and several varieties ofPhaseolus vulgaris (Fabaceae) The currently cultivated cropsinclude old maize landraces recently incorporated foreignelements and mixed product of hybridization between someof the above mentioned [26 34]

Regarding local medicine the current ethnomedical sys-tem involves according to the classification proposed byMolina [35] practices such as traditional homemade self-treatment religious and biomedicine practices As appropri-ate health practices are carried out by the rural doctor whohas no formal education or degree of specialization or bypeople with graduate studies or degrees as the local doctorand the nurse at the sanitary post

Local people recognize three origins for ailments naturalsociocultural (ie when a food taboo is not respected) andsupernatural (ie witchcraft air diseases templar diseases)[32 36 37] The last two types can be diagnosed and treatedonly by a rural doctor (called curandero locally) Diseases ofnatural origin like cough dyspepsia headache and postpar-tum pain are usually solved within the family environmentand it is not necessary to have any formal training or carryout any ritual process [36] The diagnosis is made by therural doctor based on an interview with the patient othertechniques may be also applied These techniques agree ingeneral with the divinatory practices described by Amodio[38] they include the ldquoreadingrdquo of Erythroxylum coca leavesthe ldquoreadingrdquo of the urine the pulseo (or diagnosis by thepulse) the alumbriada and rubbing of a body with alumwhich is later burnt to interpret the ashes among others Thelatter consists of simultaneous diagnosis and treatment as theaffection is considered to be transmitted to the mineral anddestroyed through burning [30 36 37]

3 Material and Methods

The study area covers three groups of settlements settlementslocated in the surroundings of Baritu National Park (Deptart-ment Santa Victoria Salta) settlements located in the formerlarge farm of San Andres (Deptartment Oran Salta) andthose above the Calilegua National Park (hereinafter LosToldos San Andres and Valle Colorado) (Figure 1)The sam-pling unit was the nuclear family Households were randomly

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 3

N

Bolivia

Los Toldos

3

2

1

Jujuy

Valle Colorado

Salta

BoliviaParaguay

N

0 10 20 40 60 80(km)

(km)0 145 290 580 870 1160

ArgentinaBoliviaProvincial borderlineStudy area

123

CalileguaLaguna Pintascayo

Towns

65∘09984000998400998400W 64∘09984000998400998400W

23∘

0998400

0998400998400

S

International borderline Protected areas

PN Baritu

San Andr es

Figure 1 Studied area

selected within the group of people willing to participate inthe study

Data were collected in three steps covering a total of118 informants (in 150 surveys) Visits to the study areawere carried out from 1994 to 2000 on the first stage ofthe investigation at that moment global ethnobotanicalpractices of local medicinal knowledge were summarizedin 59 surveys the second stage visits took place from2006 to 2008 accomplishing a total of 91 surveys the thirdstage was made in 2012 and 10 surveys were carried outIn the first stage of the project a semistructured interviewwas directed to the domestic uses of maize In subsequentstages the interview deepened in different aspects of localmaize varieties in each household (richness of cultivatedethnotaxa and assigned uses) In particular the respondentswere asked about medicinal and ritual uses of maize aswell as the plants they used to combine with it the plantparts used the methods of preparation and administrationdosage treatment time and illness duration We took alsointo account observations made in festivals and religious andpropitiatory rituals developed in the context of agriculturallabor

The plant specimens were collected in the presence ofthe study participantsThen voucher specimens were identi-fied by Norma Hilgert and were deposited in the herbariumof theMuseo deCienciasNaturales of theUniversidadNacio-nal de Salta Argentina The nomenclature used followsFlora del Cono-Sur (httpwww2darwineduarProyectosFloraArgentinaFAasp) and Tropicos (httpwwwtropicosorgHomeaspx) data base

The majority of the collected maize varieties were iden-tified by Camara Hernandez researcher of the AgronomicalFaculty of the National University of Buenos Aires and

the remaining others were identified by the authors The col-lected samples were deposited in the Banco de Germoplasmadel INTA Pergamino (Argentina)

Regarding race andor varieties of maize in this paperwe consider maize populations distinguished by farmers aslandraces according to the proposal by Perales et al [11]populations that are often known locally as criollos indicatingthat it is local corn while all landraces which have local namein the region are hereinafter referred to as ethnotaxa Weconsidered only those ethnotaxa that have been cited bymorethan 5 people In such ethnotaxa besides vernacular namethey recognize special characters (such as colour cookingandormedicinal properties and plant size) Moreover underthe category of commercial maize there is a pool of differentethnotaxa that were marked as purchased in markets (eghard corn yellow corn yellow corn Abajeno Cuban Cornand Corn mule) Other ethnotaxa considered here as theovero or chesgua among others although identified as hybridsby taxonomists were considered a taxonomic unit in inter-views because there was uniformity of criteria at selecting andnaming them and in their usage

Two variables were measured at household level richnessofmaize grown at present (ie number of grown ethnotaxa ineach household) and diversity of cited uses Maize uses weregrouped in three general categories alimentary fodder andmedicinalritualThe latter group includes citations of uses ofpreparation ofmedicaments preparation of ritual food ritualpractices andor propitiatory practices (such as a particularcultivation of an ethnotaxon as other protective element ofcrops or housing) Considering these categories we estimatedthe diversity of use by ethnotaxa (ie number assigned toeach ethnotaxon use as food fodder and medicinalritualresp)


To analyze whether there is a relationship between theethnotaxa with less diverse uses and the number of house-holds that cultivate them we performed a diverse Spearmancorrelation between the true diversity of uses of each ethno-taxon as ln119863 = (Shannon-Wiener index) in Garcıa-Moraleset al [39] and the number of households where each ethno-taxon is grown To identify the types of uses that model therichness of cultivated ethnotaxa we performed a multipleregression using the richness of crops by household as depen-dent variable and the number of uses assigned to each ethno-taxon by household for categories food fodder and medic-inalritual as independent variable In both cases we usedExcel spreadsheets and StatSoft Inc [40]

Formore details onmedicinal and therapeutic conditionsnamed in the current paper see Hilgert [36] and Hilgert andGil [37] where a thorough analysis of ritual aspects can befound Finally more details of culinary preparations namedin the present paper can be found in Hilgert [41]

4 Results

We have found 25 ethnotaxa of cultivated maize heteroge-neously distributed in the region 23 in Valle Colorado 19 inLos Toldos and 12 in San Andres There is a low average ofethnotaxa cultivated by a household 12 23 and 3 respec-tively Also the range of ethnotaxa grown in each location(1ndash10 1ndash5 and 1ndash17 resp) reflects an unequal distribution ofvarieties within each locality

When analyzing whether there is a relationship betweenthe ethnotaxawith less diverse uses and the number of house-holds that grow them at regional scale we found (consideringthe three areas together) that ethnotaxa with less diverse usesare grown in less households (coefficient 0888 (119875 lt 0001))The same relationship was found locally (Los Toldos Coef0908 119875 lt 0001 San Andres Coef 0638 119875 lt 005 ValleColorado Coef 0816 119875 lt 0001)This is consistent with theproposed hypothesis

Moreover we identified the types of uses that modelethnotaxa richness of households cultivated in different situa-tions We found that richness of ethnotaxa cultivated by ahousehold is related (adjusted 1199032 0626 119865(3104) = 60715119875 lt 0001 ES 2219 120573 0788 119875 lt 0001) to food usesdiversity at regional scale

For settlements in Los Toldos richness of ethnotaxa cul-tivated by a household is related (adjusted 1199032 0739119865(339) =40722 119875 lt 0001 ES 1625) to food uses diversity (120573 0602119875 lt 0001) as fodder (120573 0264 119875 lt 001) and in medicinalritual (120573 0240 119875 lt 005)

For settlements in San Andres richness of ethnotaxacultivated by a household is related (adjusted 1199032 0304119865(3 39) = 7136 119875 lt 0001 ES 1268) to the diversity of usesas fodder (120573 0365 119875 lt 001) and food (120573 0375 119875 lt 005)

Finally for settlements in Valle Colorado richness of eth-notaxa cultivated by a household is related (adjusted 1199032 0932119865(328) = 14269 119875 lt 0001 ES 1477 120573 0937 119875 lt 0001) todiversity of food uses

In relation to its medicinal uses maize is often used asthe only component in preparations but the most common

recipes involve its use in combination with other plants andor different resources These mixtures include the use of twoor more species We registered the use of 25 plant speciesbelonging to 18 families The affections most frequentlytreated were urinary infections (6 different recipes) diar-rhoea and liver disorders (3) for limpias and alumbriadasfor fever and to avoid air and cold diseases (2) againstcangrena (intensive urinary pain caused by hot imbalance)against general pains as dietary supplement as a stimulantto heal pimples and to remove the placenta (1) Toastedflour andor stigma are used in different modes of prepara-tion administrated orally (infusions decoctions masticatoryinhalation and foods) and in topics (poultices rubbing andointment) (Table 1) Indistinct ethnotaxa is generally used inthese preparations except for some ailments or particularcultural practices described in the following section

5 Maize Symbolism

In the study regionmaize is considered the representation (ormaterialization) of the Pachamama and it is an indispensableresource in the rituals that propitiate or thank the productiveactivity for example (1) in carnival dances where localpeople brandish maize plants as a flag or handkerchief and(2) in San Isidro Labrador (patron of farmers) festivity inmid-May which celebrates the harvest and calls for work andprosperity in future harvests On this saint day a pilgrimage isperformed from the temple to the household responsible forthe cornfield celebration There in the field the image of thesaint is placed on the altar prepared for this particular pur-pose In the vicinity of the altar the cobs are stacked cropped(in a mound called era) in its middle and one maize plantis left standing with two corn cobs During the celebrationaround that era people dance and sing in gratitude for theproduction (Figure 2)

Culli landrace has a particular assigned property theability to protect the cornfield and housing In the first casethe culli is always grown in a plotmdashthis sector can be in themiddle a cross side or somewhere else in the cornfield inorder to prevent the winds and summer storms from pullingdown the cornfield (process called locally as el volteo de lachacra) Culli is more often cultivated for its benefiting actionrather than for its culinary properties The surface of the cullicultivated by each household is small in relation to its totalproduction of corn Moreover when it is used for symbolicprotection of the housing it is hanged on the outer frame ofthe kitchen dooras an eraquita or simbita that is to say as apair of cobs tied through the braided husk

In addition the listed benefactor properties are theunderlying use of this ethnotaxon in limpias and alumbriadasand in preparing chicha (fermented beverage made fromcorn) to be used in ritual contexts A limpia is a curative pro-cedure that involves scrubbing the patientrsquos body with a mix-ture of coca tabaco culli cornmeal and alum (see Table 1) Inthis case this ethnotaxon is considered capable of providingprotection to repel or remove bad airwitchcraft and coldness(seen from templar medicine) of the patientrsquos body


Table 1 Medicinal corn uses

Species Family (herbarium) Local name Use Administration

Adesmia inflexa GrisebFabaceae (1224 1714) anagua To remove the

placenta

A handful of roots is boiled in 5 L of water with about5 cm of Cortaderia selloana roots Seven successivepoultices are placed in the back with this mixture nextto a hot corn cob tied with a black cloth Eachapplication is left until it gets cold This treatment iscompleted covering the back with two warm saddlecloth (one heated in the stove and the other in the backof a horse)

Artemisia absinthium L(2433) Tanacetum parthenium(L) Sch Bip (1479)Asteraceae

carqueja

Against urinaryaffections

An infusion is prepared in half a liter of water withthree or five fresh leaves combined with a piece ofEquisetum bogotense (or E giganteum) three freshleaves of Pluchea sagittalis and a tablespoon of cornflour It is drunk several times for several days

Against diarrhea

A decoction in half a liter of water with three leavesmixed with three leaves of Erythroxylum coca var coca apiece of Cinnamomum zeylanicum and handful ofseeds of Pimpinella anisum is prepared After beingwithdrawn from the fire a little of cornflour is added Itis drunk lukewarm or cold several times for severaldays until symptoms disappear

Cinnamomum zeylanicumBlume Lauraceae (1575 2330) canela

Against diarrhea See full recipe under Artemisia absinthium

Against hepaticaffections

A piece is boiled in 1 L of water after being withdrawnfrom the fire a little of flour is added It is drunklukewarm or cold several times for several days untilsymptoms disappear

Citrus x limon (L) OsbeckRutaceae (1590) limon Against fever

A few drops of juice are mixed in warm water with aspoon of corn flour and a handful of ground flax(Linum usitatissimum) seeds It is drunk several timesuntil symptoms disappear

Citrus x sinensis (L) OsbeckRutaceae (2053)

naranja ndulce


A few drops of juice are mixed with a spoon of cornflour in warm water It is drunk several times for severaldays until symptoms disappear

Against diarrhea See full recipe under Artemisia absinthiumCortaderia selloana (Schultand Schult f) Asch andGraebn Poaceae (1722)

cortadera To remove theplacenta See full recipe under Adesmia inflexa

Dolichandra unguis-cati (L)LG Lohmann Bignoniaceae(2015 2192)

una de gato Against urinaryaffections

A piece of the plant with the stigmas of two spikes oneor two roots of Plantago australismdashor P major or Pmyosurusmdasha piece of Equisetum bogotense (or Egiganteum) and handful of ground flax (Linumusitatissimum) seeds are boiled When it reaches theboiling point add half grated potato (Solanumtuberosum) It is drunk lukewarm or cold several timesfor several days until symptoms disappear

Equisetum bogotense Kunth(1394) E giganteum L (1617)Equisetaceae

cola de caballo Against urinaryaffections

See full recipe under Adesmia inflexaSee full recipe under Dolichandra unguis-catiA piece of the plants combined with the stigmas of twospikes is boiled in 500mL of water It is drunk at owndiscretion as a cold soft drink during the day

Erythroxylum coca Lam varcoca Erythroxylaceae (2108) coca For limpias and

alumbriadas

An ointment is prepared with leaves ofacullicomdashinsalivated cocamdashand cornflour of culliroasted This must be rubbed in the patientrsquos body andburn it If treatment is alumbriada then to this pastealum is added This metal when burned takes the formof the element that is causing the condition and orientto doctor about the treatment


Table 1 Continued


Iresine diffusaHumb amp Bonplex Willd Amaranthaceae(1897)

sacha arboritoAs dietary

supplement as astimulant

The grounded ashes of the burned branches are mixedwith mote resulting in a paste known as lye Thisproduct is used during the coca leaves insalivationknown as coqueo

Linum usitatissimum LLinaceae (1621 2317) linaza

Against fever See full recipe under Citrus limonAgainst urinary

affections See full recipe under Dolichandra unguis-cati

Nicotiana tabacum LSolanaceae (1474 1487) tabaco For limpias and

alumbriadas

A cigar is prepared with dry crushed leaves of snuffbundled in corn husks and smoked with the smokeexhale on the body of the patient during the treatment

Pimpinella anisum LApiaceae (manufacturedproduct)

anıs castilla Against diarrhea See full recipe under Artemisia absinthium

Plantago australis Lam (2534)P major L (2439) P myosurusLam (2222) Plantaginaceae

llanten Against urinaryaffections

The stigmas of two spikes are boiled in 500mL of waterwith two fresh leaves It is drunk at own discretion as acold soft drink during the daySee full recipe under Dolichandra unguis-cati

Pluchea sagittalis (Lam)Cabrera Asteraceae (23922571 2530 2179)

cuatro cantos Against urinaryaffections See full recipe under Artemisia absinthium

Prunus amygdalus BatschRosaceae (manufacturedproduct)

almendraAgainst fever

An ointment with a few drops of almonds oil is mixedwith a spoon of cornflour in warm water It is put in thebrow until fever disappear

To heal pimple Motemdashcornmdashand seeds of almonds are crushed Thisointment is placed on the pimple

Punica granatum LLythraceae (2469) Passifloratenuifolia Killip Passifloraceae(1515)

grandagranadilla Against diarrhea

An infusion is prepared with two or three pieces of theskin of the dry fruit with two spoonfuls of flour in250mL of water It is drunk lukewarm once or twice ifsymptoms persist the treatment is repeated for twoconsecutive days

Sambucus nigra L subspperuviana (Kunth) R BolliAdoxaceae (2142)

mololo

Against cangrena(intensive urinarypains caused by hot

imbalance)

Two or three flowers are boiled in 500mL of water Aspoon of corn flour and honey is added It is drunk atown discretion as a cold soft drink during the day

Solanum tuberosum LSolanaceae (1924 1933 1907) papa Against urinary


Origanum x appli (Domin)Boros Lamiaceae (1448 2242) oregano To avoid air and cold

diseases

During the puerperal it is advisable for the mother toeat corn-based foods seasoned with oregano This isdone to avoid coldness and the entrance of air whichcould cause a general weakness

Zea mays L Poaceae (13861711 2423 2424) maız

For all diseases citedabove See full recipes under all species above mentioned

Against general painsThe cornflour is mixed with egg yolk salt and pork fator chicken excrement It is used as an ointment indifferent painful parts of the body

Against hepatic andurinary affections

The stigmas of two spikes are boiled in 500mL of waterIt is drunk at own discretion as a cold soft drink duringthe day

For templarimbalances

manifested in urinaryaffections

See recipe above mentioned


Figure 2 In this picture the era of cobs is observed The completeupright corn plant in the center of this mound represents thePachamama

It was also recorded that cullirsquos strength to scare the badair and misfortunes probably comes probably from its blackor dark colour However its dark colour is oftenmentioned asan undesirable feature for everyday kitchenuse (except for thechichi see below) as it is considered an unpleasant ingredientwhich turns everything black

Another particular feature assigned tomaize is the capac-ity to augur prosperity or misfortune according to certainsignals Among the positive signs is the appearance in thecornfield of unusual cobs with more than two cobs together(like a basket) (Figure 3)These cobs are calledPachamama orSara and are interpreted as Mother Earth and her children Ifthere are only two cobs together one larger than the otherit is interpreted as a representation of the semillera whichis the woman in charge of seeding The explanation of localpeople is that the cob is the representation of the motherwith the baby carried on the back (as mothers carry usuallytheir young children in the region) It is interpreted that thepresence of these corns in a cornfield predicts good harvestin coming years These rare cobs are stored in a special placein the house without removing the husk that is with la ropitade la Pachamama (the clothes of Pachamama)

Among the negative signals the infection of corn plantswith musura (Ustilago maydis) is frequently mentioned It isbelieved that when this fungus appears in the cornfield itis a sign that a family member will die To avert the omeninfected plants are removed and pigs are fed with them apractice that also prevents the spread of the fungus

Finally in all religious rituals or celebrations corn is pre-pared in differentmeals and serves to entertain people for thedeceased (on the feast of Todos los Santos) and Pachamamaincluding the following

Figure 3 In this picture an unusual cob corn is observed calledPachamama or Sara It is interpreted that the presence of thesestructures in a cornfield predicts good harvest in the coming years

(i) Chicha The use of 12 ethnotaxa was registered withthe highest number of citations for culli andmorochoIn the case of culli landrace since the preparation ofthis drink requires a lot of flour when the availablevolume is scarce medicinal preparation or any of theother ritual dishes is given priority rather than chicha

(ii) Tistinchas It is a stew prepared with cobs for whichthree alternate rows of grains are extracted (corn usedis morocho blanco boliviano overo tucumano andcolorado) Lamb or beef are added as well as broadbeans (Vicia faba) beans (Phaseolus spp) peppers(Capsicum spp) green potatoes (Oxalis tuberosa) andpotatoes (Solanum tuberosum) among other ingre-dients The preparation is boiled overnight and pre-pared especially for the first of August the day of thePachamama

(iii) Pire (or Piri) It is prepared from roasted cornflourwater and onion the last one is fried with abundantoil or fatThe dish is a kind of soup It can be seasonedwith salt sugar or both Culli corn is employedtogether with sauceno and overito It is prepared espe-cially for the day of the Pachamama That day atdawn the pire is placed on the roof of the kitchen inorder to feed the birds On that day approaching birdsare considered mythical beings able to intercede forthe good fortune of householdswhich have offered up

(iv) Tulpo It is a Type of stew made with cornflour andlocally produced vegetables (similar to tistinchas)Morochos and maız blanco are preferred This dishis prepared especially for summer parties (Christmasand Carnival)

6 Discussion

In our study area the maize is present in different contexts offamily life community ritual life and the agricultural cycleIn the literature there are numerous examples with a similarpicture to the one found here where the same resources areredefined as everyday food medicine and ritual resource incollective festivities and offerings [3 18 21 42ndash44]


The observed relationship between the diversity of usesand the number of households that cultivate them can beinterpreted as an indicator of regional vulnerability of con-servation of less versatile ethnotaxa This is consistent withthe asymmetry in the number of cultivated ethnotaxa perfamily and the high number of very rare ethnotaxa foundby Velasquez-Milla et al [3] in Andean towns in PeruOur records also partially match with those observed inneighboring communities by Pinotti et al [45]These authorsnoted a positive relationship between factors such as diet andconservation of local resources like us but identified theinformal trade and exchange networks as the main means ofobtaining different corns to the detriment of local agricul-ture

We found that at the regional level alimentary uses are theones which influence mostly the cultivation of ethnotaxa sotheir conservation is strongly associated with the traditionalcuisine conservationThis aspect has been pointed out previ-ously in numerous occasionsDıaz et al [46] definemaize andpotato as diacritic elements of present regional food (bothtraditional and tourism-related innovations) In line with thediversity of food uses found in the present Camara Hernan-dez et al [34] Velasquez-Milla et al [3] and Dıaz et al [46]explain the preferential and alternative uses of ethnotaxa indifferent preparations consistent with the particular charac-teristics of each ethnotaxon (oily mealy hard or soft etc)

Instead we found that local crop modellers of ethnotaxavary by region We have noted that Los Toldos is the onlyregion in which themedicinal and ritual uses have significantimportance in the conservation of ethnotaxa This could beinterpreted as an indicator of greater conservation of medici-nal and ritual practices associatedwith corn although it couldalso be a result of the long association between villagers andresearchers which facilitates the obtention of informationnot typically shared with outsiders in accordance with theexperienced by Pinotti et al [45] in neighbouring regions

In San Andres for a change the use of maize as a fodderhas the principal application among the cultivated ethnotaxaThis is probably due to the changes in land use experiencedduring the last 20 years It is specially evident in the aban-donment of the vertical use of the environment and the slowabandonment of transhumance [26 43]

Regarding the medicinal applications it has beenobserved that the corn is used in many recipes that includeother plant species (Table 1) In these recipes we observedindiscriminate frequent employment of marketed cornstarchor flour of any ethnotaxon This suggests that the corn isused as a binder or thickener rather than for its medicinalproperties In other regions this flexibility and replacementof products in medicinal preparations have been recordedas common in domestic medical practice and is generallyassociated with the availability of products [47ndash49]Therefore it is important to conduct in the future moreinvestigations on the role assigned to different resources toprepare medicines and identify the ethnotaxa with preferen-tial medicinal use and also those which function as replace-ment alternatives for the most important ones In respect tothe protective or propitiatory role assigned to corn cullisimilar uses have been cited for other ethnotaxa in Mexico[50]

In relation to the positive (in the case of medicinalritualuses) and negative (in everyday culinary uses assigned toculli due to its black colour) assessments at present there isincreasing evidence of the importance of sensory perceptionwhen selecting resources both cultivated and medicinal [351ndash54] According to Leonti et al [55] and Boster [56] thesecharacteristics also officiate as mnemonic resources for thesocial transmission of knowledge and selection criteriaUndoubtedly in the case of maize visual appearance ofethnotaxa is an essential tool when selecting seeds for thenext planting although further studies would be necessaryto define what other aspects are involved

Acknowledgments

The authors wish to dedicate this paper to the inhabitants ofthe settlements under study in recognition of their valuablecooperation patience and goodwill The authors thankCONICET (PIP 191) and INTA (Project Filogeografıa eimplementacion de un sistema de monitoreo molecular de laidentidad genetica de cultivos andinos) for their financialsupport to Norma Hilgert Special thanks go to MonikaKujawska and Haydee Gonzalez for their valuable idiomaticcontributions to Guillermo Gil for advise in statistical anal-yses and to anonymous reviewers for improving the paper

References

[1] F Wolff ldquoLegal factors driving agrobiodiversity lossrdquo ELNIReview vol 1 11 pages 2004 httpwwwagrobiodiversitaetnetsitepagedownloadsdateienABDElnipdf

[2] S B BrushM B Corrales and E Schmidt ldquoAgricultural devel-opment andmaize diversity inMexicordquoHuman Ecology vol 16no 3 pp 307ndash328 1988

[3] D Velasquez-Milla A Casas J Torres-Guevara and A Cruz-Soriano ldquoEcological and socio-cultural factors influencing insitu conservation of crop diversity by traditional Andean house-holds in Perurdquo Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol7 article no 40 2011

[4] D Louette A Charrier and J Berthaud ldquoIn situ conservation ofmaize inMexico genetic diversity andmaize seedmanagementin a traditional communityrdquo Economic Botany vol 51 no 1 pp20ndash38 1997

[5] A E Izquierdo and H R Grau ldquoAgriculture adjustment land-use transition and protected areas in Northwestern ArgentinardquoJournal of Environmental Management vol 90 no 2 pp 858ndash865 2009

[6] J W Janusek and A L Kolata ldquoTop-down or bottom-up ruralsettlement and raised field agriculture in the Lake TiticacaBasin Boliviardquo Journal of Anthropological Archaeology vol 23no 4 pp 404ndash430 2004

[7] F Berkes J Colding and C Folke ldquoRediscovery of traditionalecological knowledge as adaptive managementrdquo EcologicalApplications vol 10 no 5 pp 1251ndash1262 2000

[8] J R Veteto Seeds of persistence agrobiodiversity culture andconservation in the American Mountanin South [PhD disserta-tion] University of Georgia Athens 2010

[9] V D Nazarea ldquoLocal knowledge and memory in biodiversityconservationrdquo Annual Review of Anthropology vol 35 pp 317ndash335 2006


[10] V D Nazarea Cultural Memory and Biodiversity University ofArizona Press Tucson Ariz USA 1998

[11] H R Perales B F Benz and S B Brush ldquoMaize diversity andethnolinguistic diversity in Chiapas Mexicordquo Proceedings of theNational Academy of Sciences of the United States of Americavol 102 no 3 pp 949ndash954 2005

[12] G P Nabhan ldquoAgrobiodiversity change in a Saharan desertoasis 1919ndash2006 historic shifts in Tasiwit (Berber) and Bedouincrop inventories of Siwa Egyptrdquo Economic Botany vol 61 no 1pp 31ndash43 2007

[13] V D Nazarea Local Knowledge and Agricultural Decision Mak-ing in the Philippines Class Gender and Resistance CornellUniversity Press Ithaca NY USA 1995

[14] S B Brush ldquoCultural research on the origin and maintenanceof agricultural diversityrdquo in Nature Knowledge EthnoscienceCognition and Utility G Sanga and G Ortalli Eds pp 379ndash385 Berghahn Books New York NY USA 2005

[15] S B Brush H J Carney and Z Human ldquoDynamics of Andeanpotato agriculturerdquo Economic Botany vol 35 no 1 pp 70ndash881981

[16] R ERhoades BreakingNewGround Agricultural AnthropologyInternational Potato Center Lima Peru 1984

[17] T Ingold The Perception of the Environment Essays in Liveli-hood Dwelling and Skill Routledge London UK 2000

[18] G S Torino ldquoEl ritual del dıa de las almas como una forma decomunicacion social Ya vienen las almitas esperemos la senalpreparemos comidita con hambre han de llegarrdquo Cuadernos dela Facultad deHumanidades y Ciencias Sociales vol 36 pp 109ndash120 2009

[19] M P Babot M Marschodd and F Pazzarelli Las manos en lamasa arqueologıas antropologıas e historias de la alimentacionen Suramerica Facultad de Filosofıa y Humanidades Univer-sidad Nacional de Cordoba Museo de Antropologıa UNCInstituto Superior de Estudios Sociales UNT Cordoba Spain1st edition 2012

[20] V W Turner La Selva de los Sımbolos Aspectos del ritualndembu Siglo Veintiuno Ediciones Madrid Spain 1980

[21] O Sturzenegger ldquoArea de la Selva Tucumano-Oranense SanAndres actividades de subsistencia tradicionales y ritual prop-iciatoriordquo in Programa de Investigaciones sobre EpidemiologıaPsiquiatrica Documenta Laboris 27 Consejo Nacional deInvestigacionesCientıficas yTecnicas BuenosAires Argentina1982

[22] G Torres ldquoCuranderismo y Brujerıa en el area de la selva Tucu-mano-Oranenserdquo in Programa de Investigaciones sobre Epidemi-ologıa Psiquiatrica (PEPSI-CONICET) vol 2 pp 1ndash38 Docu-menta Laboris Buenos Aires Argentina 1982

[23] M C Bianchetti Cosmovision sobrenatural de la locura pautaspopulares de salud mental en la puna argentina Vıctor ManuelHanne Salta Argentina 1999

[24] N I Hilgert ldquoLas plantas en las festividades religiosas de la selvaandina argentinardquo Societe suisse des Americanistes vol 68 pp37ndash49 2004

[25] I Lantos M Maier and N Ratto ldquoRecreando recetas primerosresultados de una experimentacion con variedades nativas demaız del noroeste argentinordquo in Lasmanos en lamasa arqueolo-gıas antropologıas e historias de la alimentacion en SuramericaM P Babot M Marschodd and F Pazzarelli Eds pp 527ndash552Facultad de Filosofıa y Humanidades Universidad Nacional deCordoba Museo de Antropologıa UNC Instituto Superior deEstudios Sociales UNT Cordoba Spain 1st edition 2012

[26] N I Hilgert and G E Gil ldquoTraditional andean agriculture andchanging processes in theZenta river basin SaltaNorthwesternArgentinardquo Darwiniana vol 43 no 1ndash4 pp 30ndash43 2005

[27] J Tuxill Agrarian change and crop diversity in Mayan milpas ofYucatan Mexico implications for in situ conservation [PhD dis-sertation] Yale School of Forestry and Environmental StudiesandThe New York Botanical Garden 2005

[28] B C CampbellDeveloping dependence encountering resistancethe historical ethnoecology of farming in the Missouri Ozarks[PhD dissertation] Department of Anthropology Universityof Georgia 2005

[29] VNunez Regueiro andM Tartusi ldquoAproximacion al estudio delarea pedemontana de Sudamericardquo Cuadernos del INA vol 12pp 125ndash160 1990

[30] N I Hilgert and G E Gil ldquoMedicinal plants of the ArgentineYungas plants of the Las Yungas biosphere reserve Northwest ofArgentina used in health carerdquo Biodiversity and Conservationvol 15 no 8 pp 2565ndash2594 2006

[31] N I Hilgert ldquoLa salud en las Yungas iquestCuales son los principalesproblemas segun la medicina tradicional y la formalrdquo in Avan-ces Sobre Plantas Medicinales Andinas V N Dora and P MLelia Eds vol 1 pp 1ndash43 RISAPRETCYTED S S de JujuyArgentina 2009

[32] N I Hilgert and G E Gil ldquoLos cambios de uso del ambiente yla medicina herbolaria Estudio de caso en Yungas ArgentinardquoBLACPMA vol 7 no 3 pp 130ndash140 2008

[33] D A Lambare N I Hilgert and R S Ramos ldquoDyeing plantsand knowledge transfer in the yungas communities of North-west Argentinardquo Economic Botany vol 65 no 3 pp 315ndash3282011

[34] J Camara Hernandez A M Miante Alzogaray R Bellon andJ A Galmarini Razas de maız nativas de la Argentina Facultadde Agronomıa UBA Buenos Aires Argentina 2012

[35] I Molina ldquoReflexiones sobre la clasificacion de medicinasAnalisis de una propuesta conceptualrdquo Scripta Ethnologica vol27 pp 111ndash147 2005

[36] N I Hilgert ldquoPlants used in home medicine in the Zenta Riverbasin Northwest Argentinardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacologyvol 76 no 1 pp 11ndash34 2001

[37] N I Hilgert andG E Gil ldquoReproductivemedicine in northwestArgentina traditional and institutional systemsrdquo Journal ofEthnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 3 article 19 2007

[38] E Amodio ldquoCocachamamacha Practicas adivinatorias ymito-logıa de la coca entre los quechuas del Perurdquo Societe suisse desAmericanistes vol 57-58 pp 123ndash137 1993

[39] R Garcıa-Morales C E Moreno and J Bello-Gutierrez ldquoRen-ovando las medidas para evaluar la diversidad en comunidadesecologicas el numero de especies efectivas de murcielagos en elsureste de Tabasco Mexicordquo Therya vol 2 no 3 pp 205ndash2152011

[40] StatSoft STATISTICA (data analysis software system) version80 2007 httpwwwstatsoftcom

[41] N I Hilgert ldquoLas plantas comestibles en una zona de las Yun-gas meridionales (Argentina)rdquo Anales del Jardın Botanico deMadrid vol 55 no 1 pp 117ndash138 1999

[42] J C Hernandez andD A de CabezasMaıces andinos y sus usosen la Quebrada de Humahuaca Facultad de Agronomıa UBABuenos Aires Argentina 2007

[43] M G Moritan and A D Brown ldquoOrganizacion social conflic-tos sociales y diversidad de actoresrdquo in Finca San Andres Unespacio de cambios ambientales y sociales en el Alto Bermejo


A D Brown M Garcıa Moritan B N Ventura N I Hilgertand L R Malizia Eds vol 5 pp 129ndash158 2007

[44] V M Toledo and N Barrera-Bassols Agroecologıa y SabidurıasTradicionales Un Panorama Mundial en la Memoria Biocul-tural Icaria editorial Barcelona Spain 2008

[45] L V Pinotti R L Pinto M A Ferrari et al ldquoModalidades ali-mentarias en la quebrada de humahuaca patrimonializadardquo inLas manos en la masa arqueologıas antropologıas e historias dela alimentacion en Suramerica M P Babot M Marschoddand F Pazzarelli Eds pp 185ndash205 Facultad de Filosofıa yHumanidades Universidad Nacional de Cordoba Museo deAntropologıa UNC Instituto Superior de Estudios SocialesUNT Cordoba Spain 1st edition 2012

[46] D Dıaz S Guerrero S Naumann and G Sammartino ldquoAli-mentacion en la quebrada de humahuaca continuidad y discon-tinuidades desde el poblamiento hasta nuestros dıas Un aportedesde la antropologıa alimentariardquo in Las manos en la masaarqueologıas antropologıas e historias de la alimentacion enSuramerica M P Babot M Marschodd and F Pazzarelli Edspp 163ndash184 Facultad de Filosofıa y Humanidades UniversidadNacional de Cordoba Museo de Antropologıa UNC InstitutoSuperior de Estudios Sociales UNT Cordoba Spain 1st edition2012

[47] K C Ford Las Yerbas de la Gente A Study of Hispano-AmericanMedicinal Plants vol 60 of Anthropological Papers Museum ofAnthropology University of Michigan Ann Arbor Mich USA1975

[48] F Zamudio and N I Hilgert ldquoMieles y plantas en la medicinacriolla del Norte de Misiones Argentinardquo Bonplandia vol 20no 2 pp 165ndash184 2011

[49] M Kujawska F Zamudio andN I Hilgert ldquoHoney-basedmix-tures used in home medicine by nonindigenous populationof Misiones Argentinardquo Evidence-based Complementary andAlternative Medicine vol 2012 Article ID 579350 15 pages2012

[50] E Hernandez X ldquoMaize and man in the greater southwestrdquoEconomic Botany vol 39 no 4 pp 416ndash430 1985

[51] B FreiO Sticher T CarlosViesca andMHeinrich ldquoMedicinaland food plants isthmus Sierra Zapotec criteria for selectionrdquoJournal of Applied Botany vol 72 no 3-4 pp 82ndash86 1998

[52] B Frei O Sticher and M Heinrich ldquoZapotec and mixe use oftropical habitats for securing medicinal plants in Mexicordquo Eco-nomic Botany vol 54 no 1 pp 73ndash81 2000

[53] A Ankli O Sticher andM Heinrich ldquoYucatecMayamedicinalplants versus nonmedicinal plants indigenous characterizationand selectionrdquoHuman Ecology vol 27 no 4 pp 557ndash580 1999

[54] S Molares Flora medicinal aromatica de la Patagonia carac-terısticas anatomicas y propiedades organolepticas utilizadas enel reconocimiento por parte de la terapeutica popular [PhD the-sis] Universidad Nacional del Comahue Bariloche Argentina2010

[55] M Leonti O Sticher andM Heinrich ldquoMedicinal plants of thePopoluca Mexico organoleptic properties as indigenous selec-tion criteriardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 81 no 3 pp307ndash315 2002

[56] J S Boster ldquoSelection for perceptual distinctiveness evidencefrom aguaruna cultivars of manihot esculentardquo Economic Bot-any vol 39 no 3 pp 310ndash325 1985

Submit your manuscripts athttpwwwhindawicom

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2013

Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity

Hindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom Volume 2013Hindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom Volume 2013

The Scientific World Journal

International Journal of

EndocrinologyHindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom

Volume 2013

ISRN Anesthesiology


Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom

OncologyJournal of

Volume 2013

PPARRe sea rch


OphthalmologyJournal of


ISRN Allergy


BioMed Research International



ObesityJournal of

ISRN Addiction



Computational and Mathematical Methods in Medicine

ISRN AIDS


Clinical ampDevelopmentalImmunology


Volume 2013

Diabetes ResearchJournal of


Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Volume 2013Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom


Gastroenterology Research and Practice


ISRN Biomarkers


MEDIATORSINFLAMMATION

of


Indeed the use of resources may differ depending on thecontext or the occasion daily consumption of foodwithin thehousehold use in collective festivities offering to supernatu-ral entities and the act of sharing food with ancestors amongothers [18 19] In this context a given resource alimentarymedicinal material can officiate as a symbol understood as anobject represented by general consensus or something evoca-tive [20]

The approach of this paper is supported by previousresearch in the study area which found that the local healthconcept thatmatches the Andean concept is understood as anholistic balance of a person environment [21ndash25] Accordingto our experience to analyze cultural driving factors behindpersistence of agrobiodiversity it is necessary to develop acomprehensive analysis of the role of corn in the lives of theYungas residents For this reason we considered the generaluses of maize and the uses of herbal medicine which involvesmaize varieties in particular the ritual uses of maize (egmeals prepared in agricultural celebrations or funerals) andthose practices that reflect protective value assigned to maizefor being the legacy of La Pachamama the principal chthonicdeity of the region

In the region of our study a decrease in agrobiodiversitythe gradual abandonment of different production spaces andthe replacement of some species and varieties by others as anadaptive response to these changes in production have beendescribed [26] In relation to this and bearing in mind thatthe selection criteria affect the richness of grown ethnotaxa athousehold and regional levels we propose that ethnotaxa ofless diverse uses which are also key partners in local culturalreproduction for their medicinal value symbolic andor rit-ual are usually cultivated by a few householdsThis is consist-ent with those who assigned a leadership role to ritual valuesfor conservation of agrobiodiversity [27 28] To evaluate thiswe analyze if there is a relationship between the uses assignedto each ethnotaxon and the richness of cultivated ethnotaxaat household level and describe the medicinal and ritual usesof maize in three regions of the Argentine Yungas

2 Background

The inhabitants of the communities under study are descen-dants of Andean cultures Chaco and Hispanic who haveconverged historically and culturally [29] Due to its geopo-litical history and geographical location in the Baritu regionunlike the other two there are established social and com-mercial ties with Bolivian communities [30] At present theyidentify themselves as criollos although this name also iden-tifies people of different cultural roots They maintain a setof practices and beliefs among which the cult of the Pacha-mama a characteristic element of Andean cultures standsout as mentioned above They also profess Catholicism andEvangelism (the lattermore recent and in current expansion)The Spanish language is enriched with Quichua and Guaranıterms (to a lesser extent) [31]

Regional economy is based on a system of shifting agri-culture transhumance and gathering to a lesser extent Shift-ing agriculture and transhumance which consists on the useof different cultivation and cattle breeding areas along altitu-dinal gradients favour vertical use of the environment Each

family moves periodically along the year to the cerro valleand monte where they cultivate and pasture their animals[26] However at present transhumance in some areas hasbeen reduced and abandoned in others [32] This productionsystem is usually complemented with paid work carried outwithin or outside the community in nearby settlements orvillages and allowances granted by the government haveproven to be a useful contribution to household resourcesLocalwomen alsoweavewool blankets saddlebags and craftsfor their own households or for sale as an other mean of get-ting some income Nowadays they are increasingly experi-menting dyeing plant species in search for new colours andcombining different species together which is a newphenom-enon [33]

The most important crops are Zea mays (Poaceae) andSolanum tuberosum (Solanaceae) In each altitudinal beltdifferent varieties of the same species are produced togetherwith Cucurbita spp (Cucurbitaceae) and several varieties ofPhaseolus vulgaris (Fabaceae) The currently cultivated cropsinclude old maize landraces recently incorporated foreignelements and mixed product of hybridization between someof the above mentioned [26 34]

Regarding local medicine the current ethnomedical sys-tem involves according to the classification proposed byMolina [35] practices such as traditional homemade self-treatment religious and biomedicine practices As appropri-ate health practices are carried out by the rural doctor whohas no formal education or degree of specialization or bypeople with graduate studies or degrees as the local doctorand the nurse at the sanitary post

Local people recognize three origins for ailments naturalsociocultural (ie when a food taboo is not respected) andsupernatural (ie witchcraft air diseases templar diseases)[32 36 37] The last two types can be diagnosed and treatedonly by a rural doctor (called curandero locally) Diseases ofnatural origin like cough dyspepsia headache and postpar-tum pain are usually solved within the family environmentand it is not necessary to have any formal training or carryout any ritual process [36] The diagnosis is made by therural doctor based on an interview with the patient othertechniques may be also applied These techniques agree ingeneral with the divinatory practices described by Amodio[38] they include the ldquoreadingrdquo of Erythroxylum coca leavesthe ldquoreadingrdquo of the urine the pulseo (or diagnosis by thepulse) the alumbriada and rubbing of a body with alumwhich is later burnt to interpret the ashes among others Thelatter consists of simultaneous diagnosis and treatment as theaffection is considered to be transmitted to the mineral anddestroyed through burning [30 36 37]

3 Material and Methods

The study area covers three groups of settlements settlementslocated in the surroundings of Baritu National Park (Deptart-ment Santa Victoria Salta) settlements located in the formerlarge farm of San Andres (Deptartment Oran Salta) andthose above the Calilegua National Park (hereinafter LosToldos San Andres and Valle Colorado) (Figure 1)The sam-pling unit was the nuclear family Households were randomly


N

Bolivia

Los Toldos

3

2

1

Jujuy

Valle Colorado

Salta

BoliviaParaguay

N

0 10 20 40 60 80(km)

(km)0 145 290 580 870 1160


123


Towns

65∘09984000998400998400W 64∘09984000998400998400W

23∘

0998400

0998400998400

S


PN Baritu

San Andr es












4 Results









5 Maize Symbolism








placenta



carqueja



Against diarrhea









naranja ndulce












alumbriadas



Table 1 Continued










alumbriadas

















mololo


imbalance)





diseases





















6 Discussion









Acknowledgments


References



































































Volume 2013

ISRN Anesthesiology



OncologyJournal of

Volume 2013

PPARRe sea rch




ISRN Allergy





ObesityJournal of

ISRN Addiction




ISRN AIDS




Volume 2013








ISRN Biomarkers



of


N

Bolivia

Los Toldos

3

2

1

Jujuy

Valle Colorado

Salta

BoliviaParaguay

N

0 10 20 40 60 80(km)

(km)0 145 290 580 870 1160


123


Towns

65∘09984000998400998400W 64∘09984000998400998400W

23∘

0998400

0998400998400

S


PN Baritu

San Andr es












4 Results









5 Maize Symbolism








placenta



carqueja



Against diarrhea









naranja ndulce












alumbriadas



Table 1 Continued










alumbriadas

















mololo


imbalance)





diseases





















6 Discussion









Acknowledgments


References



































































Volume 2013

ISRN Anesthesiology



OncologyJournal of

Volume 2013

PPARRe sea rch




ISRN Allergy





ObesityJournal of

ISRN Addiction




ISRN AIDS




Volume 2013








ISRN Biomarkers



of




4 Results









5 Maize Symbolism








placenta



carqueja



Against diarrhea









naranja ndulce












alumbriadas



Table 1 Continued










alumbriadas

















mololo


imbalance)





diseases





















6 Discussion









Acknowledgments


References



































































Volume 2013

ISRN Anesthesiology



OncologyJournal of

Volume 2013

PPARRe sea rch




ISRN Allergy





ObesityJournal of

ISRN Addiction




ISRN AIDS




Volume 2013








ISRN Biomarkers



of





placenta



carqueja



Against diarrhea









naranja ndulce












alumbriadas



Table 1 Continued










alumbriadas

















mololo


imbalance)





diseases





















6 Discussion









Acknowledgments


References



































































Volume 2013

ISRN Anesthesiology



OncologyJournal of

Volume 2013

PPARRe sea rch




ISRN Allergy





ObesityJournal of

ISRN Addiction




ISRN AIDS




Volume 2013








ISRN Biomarkers



of


Table 1 Continued










alumbriadas

















mololo


imbalance)





diseases





















6 Discussion









Acknowledgments


References



































































Volume 2013

ISRN Anesthesiology



OncologyJournal of

Volume 2013

PPARRe sea rch




ISRN Allergy





ObesityJournal of

ISRN Addiction




ISRN AIDS




Volume 2013








ISRN Biomarkers



of












6 Discussion









Acknowledgments


References



































































Volume 2013

ISRN Anesthesiology



OncologyJournal of

Volume 2013

PPARRe sea rch




ISRN Allergy





ObesityJournal of

ISRN Addiction




ISRN AIDS




Volume 2013








ISRN Biomarkers



of








Acknowledgments


References



































































Volume 2013

ISRN Anesthesiology



OncologyJournal of

Volume 2013

PPARRe sea rch




ISRN Allergy





ObesityJournal of

ISRN Addiction




ISRN AIDS




Volume 2013








ISRN Biomarkers



of


























































Volume 2013

ISRN Anesthesiology



OncologyJournal of

Volume 2013

PPARRe sea rch




ISRN Allergy





ObesityJournal of

ISRN Addiction




ISRN AIDS




Volume 2013








ISRN Biomarkers



of

the key role of cultural preservation in maize diversity conservation in the argentine yungas

Documents