Thesis for the Degree of

Master of International Relations

The Exploration of Critical Education for

Empowerment and Its Implication in Community

Development in Cambodia and Ethiopia

Chanwook PARK

Department of Peace and Global Governance

The Graduate Institute of Peace Studies

Kyung Hee University

Seoul, South Korea

August 2015

The Exploration of Critical Education for

Empowerment and Its Implication in Community

Development in Cambodia and Ethiopia

Chanwook PARK

Department of Peace and Global Governance

The Graduate Institute of Peace Studies

Kyung Hee University

Seoul, South Korea

August 2015

The Exploration of Critical Education for

Empowerment and Its Implication in Community

Development in Cambodia and Ethiopia

by

Chanwook PARK

Submitted to the Department of Peace and Global Governance

of the Graduate Institute of Peace Studies of Kyung Hee University

Chairman: Kwan Bong KIM, Ph.D. __________________________________________

Advisor: William M. Timpson, Ph.D. __________________________________________

Referee: Ki Joon HONG, Ph.D. __________________________________________

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

As iron sharpens iron, so one person sharpens another

Proverb 27:17

I‘m grateful that the Lord allows me to walk in the beauty of the world.

First, I thank my beloved family for being supportive of whom I am. Your love makes me a better person

and I feel fulfilled.

Dear Bill & Gailmarie, I want to say that it has been delightful to have you as my thesis advisor. All your

kindness, laughter, and passion will remain in memory as well as your intellectual insights infused within

this thesis.

Thank Rector. Gi Bung Kwon and Prof. Hwa Yol Jung for introducing me to the world of philosophy. This

thesis could begin with the thoughts that were explored, discussed, and shared with the inspirations

embedded in your teaching.

Thank Prof. Kwan Bong Kim and Prof. Ki Joon Hong for your sincere comments, which not only helped

complete this thesis but also opened a door for a new opportunity.

Thank Prof. Yersu Kim for your teaching in academic writing: ―Being precise, simple and logical in what

you write‖, the principles hold this thesis thoroughly.

Prof. Jongwoo Han, you once said that I‘m a person who knows how to think, and for that reason I have to

use it for the good of the world. I will walk upright and live out as learned.

Dear my boss Mr. Yong Geun Choi, your passion, sincerity and wisdom shed a light on the path that I shall

take. Thank you for everything that I learn from you.

And lastly, dear N, thank you for teaching me that commitment is freedom. It has been a genuine honour to

complete a great journey with you. You‘ve believed that I could contribute to making this world a better

place. I promise I‘ll be responsible for that as long as my life allows. Thank you.

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ABSTRACT

How can education empower individuals and communities? This study embarks on exploring, analyzing and

discussing the fundamental questions related to the role of education in empowerment and the implications it

may hold to community development. The study questions contemporary mass education – characterized in

deposing knowledge and repetitive and test-based approach – in relation to a contextualized and

collaborative approach. From this stance, the study unfolds Paulo Freire‘s educational philosophy, in

particular his critical pedagogical methodology that is known for the collective learning method that stresses

the importance of critical thinking within a dialogical relation. Through the theoretical lens of Freire, this

study contextualizes the role of education in empowerment into community development in Cambodia and

Ethiopia.

The study has been conducted through field research in forms of interview, observations, and direct

interactions in both countries. The field research reveals that so-called Village Development Meetings (VDM)

in Ethiopia provides effective spaces for dialogue and joint community development. Moreover, the Self-

Help Group (SHG) and Farmer Field School (FFS) in Cambodia have illustrated that capacity building can

be strengthened through collective critical reflection. In addition, the empirical data stresses the importance

of leadership and in-depth understanding of local realities in order to create progress. The field research also

emphasizes the complicated cultural practices that may hinder community development, such as in the case

of the women‘s group in Ethiopia.

Consequently, this study aims to enlarge the understanding of Freire‘s educational architecture in the context

of two countries that have endured destructive impact deriving from civil conflict and violence. The study

contributes with a more vivid comprehension of how critical education- directly or unintentionally applied –

takes a crucial role in empowering individuals and communities to shape and partake in community

development.

Key words: Critical pedagogy, Empowerment, Community development, Paulo Freire, Cambodia,

Ethiopia

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ABBREVIATIONS

Corporate Social Responsibility CSR

Ethiopian Peoples Liberation Front EPLF

Farmers Field School FFS

Global Social Corp GSC

International Vaccine Institute IVI

Korea International Cooperation Agency KOICA

Non-Governmental Organization NGO

Rural Economic and Agricultural Development Agency READA

Self-Help Group SHG

Technical Vocational Education and Training TVET

Tigrey Peoples Liberation Front TPLF

Village Development Meeting VDM

Women‘s Initiative WI

World Together International WTI

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Acknowledgement 1

Abstract 1

Abbreviations 2

Chapter 1 Introduction 4

1.1 Education for what and for whom 4

1.2 Objectives of study 5

1.3 Methodology 6

1.3.1 Background of case study research 6

1.3.2 Selection criteria of case study units 8

1.3.3 Data collection and analysis 9

1.3.4 Ethical stance 11

1.3.5 Scope and Limitations 12

1.4 Terminology 14

Chapter 2 Theoretical Framework 17

2.1 Critical pedagogy for empowerment 17

2.2 Theoretical foundation of Freire’s educational model 21

2.3 Freire’s notion of empowerment 23

2.4 Community development according to Freire’s worldview 27

Chapter 3 Case studies 32

3.1 Case study profiles 32

3.1.1 Cambodia and the Khnar Cheung Village 32

3.1.2 Ethiopia and Dugededera village 35

3.2 Findings 38

3.3 Discussion and Analysis 48

Chapter 4 Conclusion 55

4.1 Why Freire matters today 55

4.2 Future research 58

Appendix 1 Baseline survey for village leaders conducted in Khnar Cheung, Cambodia 59

Appendix 2 Baseline survey for villagers conducted in Khnar Chueng, Cambodia 62

Appendix 3 Baseline survey for Villagers conducted in Dugededera, Ethiopia 65

Appendix 4 Interview questions with villagers from Dugededera, Ethiopia 67

Appendix 5 Interview questions with villagers from Khnar Cheung, Cambodia 68

Appendix 6 Profiles of interviewees 69

Bibliography 70

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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

The first chapter of this study introduces the research objectives of studying Paulo Freire‘s educational

philosophy in relation to empowerment and community development, and the contextualization of his theory

in the two case studies of Cambodia and Ethiopia. The chapter also presents the methodological framework,

which is foremost based on field research, as well as the used terminology.

1.1 EDUCATION FOR WHAT AND FOR WHOM

―There is no such thing as neutral educational process... Education becomes ‗the practice of freedom,‘

the means by which men and women deal critically and creatively with reality and discover how to

participate in the transformation of their world‖

– Paulo Freire

What function does public education have for the masses? An answer for the question calls for the

fundamental approach to address ―what education is‖ and ―whom it serves‖. A leading thinker on the topic

was Paulo Freire (1921-1997) who grew up observing how poverty and structural oppression undermined the

empowerment of individuals in Brazil.

For Freire, education is a method that enables the liberation of individuals from oppression towards a

path of self-realization of oneself and its environment. According to Freire, self-realization is crucial as it is

ontological vocation for each individual. Consequently, Freire‘s answer to why education is important and

how it should be utilized is closely related to the methods of framing education – and for him, education is a

vital tool that aims to develop a critical consciousness and thereby empower individuals to obtain self-

awareness within the world without being imposed by particular identities or ideologies.

This study dissects the work and thoughts of Freire, mainly through his most renowned work Pedagogy of

the Oppressed and analyzes the existence, relevance and applicability of his philosophy on the two case

studies of the Khnar Cheung village in Cambodia and Dugededera village in Ethiopia. The study investigates

Freire‘s philosophical architecture in which the fundamental challenges and potential solutions of how

education serves as a path towards empowerment, especially among the poor and illiterate.

Furthermore, the study targets to apply Freire‘s educational philosophy in the context of Cambodia and

Ethiopia mainly due to lack of theoretical and practical understanding of his teaching in these two regions.

Freire is known for his work and practices predominantly in Latin America, especially Brazil and Chile

(Freire and Macedo 1996; Kirkendall 2004). Yet, this study wishes to employ Freire‘s educational theory –

that strongly emphasizes education as a process of raising consciousness among large populations of the

illiterate and impoverished in different environments as a way to lay the ground for empowerment. By

studying Freire in the light of Cambodia and Ethiopia this study does not solely expand Freire‘s theoretical

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pillars, but also provides uniqueness on efforts and outcomes of community development for empowerment

in Cambodia and Ethiopia (Donald 2000).

To study Freire through a wider lens beyond Latin America allows this study to apply his so-called critical

pedagogy – which is influenced by a Marxist theory that aims to challenge the mass-produced treadmill of

education and promote individual critical consciousness – transcending the previous geographic boundary of

his theory.

The study connects the dots between Freire and grassroots voices and initiatives through observatory

field research. For instance, Freire‘s concept of cultural circles1 has been observed to take place in an

empowerment group of grassroots initiative such as Women Initiative (WI) in Ethiopia. The study looks into

how such initiative potentially hold any characteristics of Freire‘s theoretical concepts and discusses why it

is of any matter.

Consequently, this study unfolds Freire‘s core messages, with assistance from the academic supporters of

his theory, and discusses the correlations, challenges and differences within and between the findings in

Cambodia and Ethiopia. The author has used his direct experiences in the two countries together with his

wide readings on Freire not to challenge the notion of neither empowerment nor community development,

but rather to expand how these share mutual support through critical education.

1.2 OBJECTIVES OF STUDY

This study questions whether and how Paulo Freire‘s educational model is related to the empowerment-

process and community development work led in Cambodia and Ethiopia. Hence, the aim of the study is to

explore and examine Freire‘s theory related to education and empowerment and apply it in the context of the

two countries through field research.

The study approaches the concept of empowerment – especially with the practice of empowerment in

community development - as a term which has been widely popularized among practitioners and actively

cited in academic works, but remains ambiguous in meaning. In this respect, this study undertakes Freire‘s

educational philosophy as it offers a theoretical perspective on how to create a pragmatic approach to

empowerment.

1 The cultural circles hold a key role in the process of critical consciousness as coordinators and participants jointly

address and explore contemporary issues in a dialogic process in reflection of the context of the participants (Freire

2000). The cultural circles were set up in locations where conventional education was either poor or non-existent.

According to Freire, each circle must include the local context and reflect each participant's needs (Wallerstein and

Bernstein 1988). Freire was convinced that the learning process should be based on the concrete social reality of the

participants assuming that man‘s ontological vocation is to be a Subject who acts upon and transform his world (Freire

2000).

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Consequently, the study contributes a unique insight on how empowerment and community development

in Cambodia and Ethiopia can be contextualized in Freire‘s framework, as no study has previously dealt with

these case studies. Contributing to theoretical development of Freire‘s ideas for community development,

this study also identifies the possibilities and limitations of his theory by reflecting them in empirical

observations of the author during the fieldwork in both countries.

Thus, the main objectives and contributions of this study are to:

provide better understanding of Freire‘s theory of education through a broader contextualization with

two case studies, both conducted through field research;

pursue a pragmatic observation of how the theory of empowerment behaves on a grassroots level

through the collected empirical data in Cambodia and Ethiopia;

utilize two different countries in one theoretical framework as an approach to widen the

understanding of Freire‘s work in relation to community development;

contribute with an alternative understanding of how critical education is relevant in the field of

community development, empowerment and education studies;

share inputs for practitioners on alternative practices and how community development programs

can be developed through the sharing of the practices found in the two case study countries;

benefit students and teachers under the contemporary educational system by introducing dialogic

process of education in which context-based learning and teaching based on mutual understanding

and respect are accomplished.

1.3 METHODOLOGY

As this study targets to grasp the theoretical foundation of Freire‘s educational ideas in the context of

Cambodia and Ethiopia, the empirical data are based on field research, including interviews,

observations and direct engagement with the presented case studies. The methodology is central in this

study as it captures the experiences, interactions, and voices of the local villagers from the two countries.

The case studies, in which the author has had a direct professional participation in, are examined

through the main pillars of education, empowerment and community development.

1.3.1 BACKGROUND OF CASE STUDY RESEARCH

The author of this research has actively worked in the field of community development since 2013, when

joining the Global Social Corp (GSC) in Siem Reap, Cambodia, which was a collaboration between Kyung

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Hee University, South Korea, and Korea International Cooperation Agency (KOICA). As of May 2015, the

author is located in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, where he works for LG Electronics Corporate Social

Responsibility (CSR) branch in Ethiopia.

The fieldwork for the Cambodia case study of this research was conducted from 22 January 2013 to 31

August 2013, focusing on capacity building of the community members in the Khnar Cheung village in

Cambodia. The author worked closely with the local villagers in various activities and programs including

enhancing primary educational environment, water and sanitation and capacity building programs. Rural

Economic and Agricultural Development Agency (READA) was the local Cambodian non-governmental

organization (NGO), participating in the capacity building efforts as well as with support in facilitating the

programs and activities implemented in the village. Both GSC and READA advocate self-governing

principles in their community development work.

In addition, the author was an active member participating and supporting the development of the Self-

help Group (SHG) and Farmers Field School (FFS) where he contributed in the:

organization of two integrated FFSs in the Khnar Cheung village, including trainings and follow-up

support on vegetable cultivation, chicken raising and pig raising;

establishment two SHGs in the Khnar Cheung village;

selection of beneficiaries and installation of 8 cheap drip irrigation systems;

capacity building of the SHGs members;

follow up and monitoring of the SHGs in order to assure the function and success of the on-going

operation;

SHGs exchange visit for mutual learning of experiences.

From 12 September 2014 to the present (May 2015), the author has been working as a CSR Manager for LG

Electronics Ethiopia. The official title of the CSR program is LG Hope Community Project which was

initiated by LG Electronics in 2012. The core objective of LG‘s CSR efforts is to pragmatically assist

Ethiopians through establishing a structure of self-reliance by capacity building on the individual and

community level. These aims are met through four different sub-programs:

LG Hope Village (seeks to establish and operate a sustainable and self-reliant agricultural village)

LG-KOICA Hope TVET College (aims to contribute to the industrial development of Ethiopia by

fostering skilled engineers)

LG Descendant Program (acknowledges the Korean War veterans and build capacity among the

veterans‘ descendants)

Vaccination Program (aims to promote the health of Ethiopians by providing vaccine and delivering

sanitation programs)

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The empirical data of this study have been collected through direct professional work involvement, informal

relations with the local villagers and supporting organizations as well as interviews and indirect observations.

With the experience of working with local communities in two different societies, this thesis is enriched with

grassroots insights, cultural and social diversities, and respect and trust among individuals. Each presented

project has been a learning experience, both for the author, his colleagues and the local villagers, especially

in terms of cultural exchange and a wider understanding of diversity of livelihoods. Knowledge and practices

of the communities passed down through generations have challenged the author to be humble in working

with those from different cultural and social contexts.

Moreover, on a personal basis, the work and life experience of the author in both countries have led him

to a critical point in which he continuously reflects on the theoretical links of community development with

the practical implementation of community empowerment and progress. Although the study reflects only

three thematic areas, the author wishes to express that the range of work led by the involved organizations

has reached beyond the scope presented here.

1.3.2 SELECTION CRITERIA OF CASE STUDY UNITS

The two countries involved in the case studies were selected due to the author‘s direct involvement in the

community development projects in these countries. Through the fieldwork the author has continuously

encountered the question: ―What does empowerment mean and how can it be practiced?‖ In pursuit of

understanding community development, the author came to reflect on empowerment not solely as a transfer

of resources but rather a process of transformation within individuals. Moreover, while working directly with

the presented communities, the author experienced similar situations attesting to the descriptions and

philosophy of Freire‘s educational methodology. Consequently, the author found the theoretical relations

between Freire, the other scholars working in the same context, and the practices on a grassroots level in

Cambodia and Ethiopia. In order to meet the complexities embedded in the theoretical concepts of this study

and to extract relevant empirical data, the study considered the following three factors when selecting the

study units:

1. Compatibility

The first factor of selection relates to the compatibility of each village project, in which the

presented cases can be understood and reflected upon Freire‘s educational ideas. Thus, compatibility

is important in terms of utilizing empirical data that can be applicable and contextualized within a

Freireian framework, such as critical consciousness, dialogue, and praxis. This required the author to

hold an in-depth understanding of Freire‘s philosophy during the time of extracting data in order to

analyze, map and allocate the theoretical framework in relation to the case studies.

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2. Relevance

The second selection criteria of case studies is the relevance of each community group in line with

empowerment and education. The author has carefully chosen village groups that are directly or

indirectly working on community development, such as raising quality of livelihood, capacity

building, income generation or basic human rights – all themes widely acknowledged as factors for

an individual and collective empowerment.

For instance, the GSC-KOICA rural development project and LG Hope Village both worked

actively in promoting improved livelihoods. This allowed the case studies to represent the two major

programs engaged in advocating self-reliance and sustainability through participation and self-

achievement – elements which this study considers as connected to the empowerment process.

Therefore, the study units may vary in forms, as they are all in pursuit of self-realization at a

community level.

3. Diversity

The third criteria is on the basis of demographic diversity for the purpose of providing a more vivid

approach of Freire‘s school of thought as well as enriching the analysis of this study in variety.

Moreover, by having diverse groups to analyze, this study aims to assure a variety of empirical data

linked with the theoretical framework – consequently providing validity in terms of supporting

statements. Hence, the diversity is accomplished by assuring the different social and political roles

and positions of the participants of the study groups. This diversity ranges from a group of female

members, village leaders, government officials, NGO workers, private corporate representatives to

educators. The character of the study groups also vary from decision making body, learning group,

self-operating group and socially discriminated group.

1.3.3 DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

The findings of this study are based upon field research, including observations, participation in group

discussions, personal interviews, questionnaires and reports by READA and World Together International

(WTI). Consequently, the data collection conducted in the two countries provides diverse approaches of

employing empirical evidence.

The author has been fortunate to work closely with both his Korean colleagues as well as with the local

staff and the villagers in Cambodia and Ethiopia. Through this direct interaction, the author has had first-

hand insights on the community development projects and observed closely the cultural, historical, economic

and educational phenomenon presented in this study.

This study utilized the baseline survey (see Appendix 1 and 2) conducted by the project teams in Ethiopia

and Cambodia. Although the survey captures information beyond the scope of this study, the benefits of

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using the quantitative data is to comprehend the current status among villagers. The survey was distributed

with support from the local coordinators from READA and WTI, who helped both in communicating the

objectives of the survey to the respondents as well as to translate the answers into English. The total number

of respondents was 140 in Ethiopia and 74 in Cambodia. In addition, the quantitative data have also been

extracted from the research led by the Yonam Collage students in Ethiopia in 2014.

The observations and direct communication with the local inhabitants put a strong methodological element

of the study, as it offers an in-depth understanding of what occurs on a grassroots level.

While working with the projects in both countries the author observed, learned, exchanged views,

questioned and discussed with the village members and local staff. The observations and discussions were at

most times spontaneous and with no direct framework. Nonetheless, the observatory and participating field

research have empowered the author to have a closer relationship with the local population and as a

consequence, he could broaden the perspective on how local villagers may think and behave.

In addition, this study tapped onto minutes of meetings that reflect the discussions taking place in all the

presented projects in both countries. The local coordinators helped the author in translating the discussions

and capturing the main points through the minutes. This approach has assisted the author extensively as it

gave him a written evidence of the actual matters that were raised during the meetings.

1.3.3.1 Interview setting and design of questions

The interviews hold a central role in this study, as they both complement the quantitative data from the

surveys and the observations and spontaneous discussions with the villagers and local staffs. The interviews

conducted offer the elaborated understanding of the circumstances described.

The choice of interviewees is based on the diversity of the target groups involved in this research,

ranging from village members, local staffs, project coordinators and academics. The interviews have been

conducted in various manners according to the conditions deriving from time, space and language barrier.

Not all interviews were conducted in English, but required a translator on-site. The interviews were face-to-

face meetings and lasted approximately 30 minutes each.

The places of interviews were dependent on the living circumstances of the interviewees. For instance,

for the village member interviews, it was inconvenient and inappropriate to request the interviewee to meet

in the city, as it didn‘t allow the author to see the local setting and was difficult to arrange with transportation.

Thus, the interviews were for most part conducted on-site of each interviewee‘s home or workplace.

The author also followed up with 3 interviewees afterwards with additional questions in form of email

correspondence.

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The interview questions were designed in consideration of the local circumstances and objective of the

project in which the interviewee participated in. For instance, the author wished to understand the process of

how SHG group participants organize their activities with special attention to their capacity building in self-

governance.

In addition, for the members of FFS, the author asked a question about how collective action and

reflection have had any impact on their skill development. Therefore the questions were directed to capture

changes of perspective while working with others in achieving a shared goal and what kind of challenges

they were faced and how they reacted to them.

The questions for VDM were constructed to capture the development of critical consciousness of the

participants in the process of discussion on their own generative themes. The author wanted to understand

how the participants‘ perception of reality extends into identifying other limit-situations and taking action

accordingly to solve them.

In designing the questions for WI interviewees, the author intended to understand whether the female

members are conscious of social and cultural discrimination against them and any change in perceiving their

living conditions could lead into actual transformation in praxis (see Appendix 4 and 5 for interview

questions).

It shall also be stated that several interviewees are illiterate, which required special attention by the author in

terms of providing translation through a solely verbal communication. Moreover, the author realized in the

process of the interviews that some concepts and terminologies that were used in the questions might be

difficult and abstract for the village members to understand. In this context, the author distributed the

questions to the project managers, project coordinators and individuals who gave advice or directions in

interpreting the questions based on the local perspective.

1.3.4 ETHICAL STANCE

The author abides to five ethical research principles, which includes (1) properly handling intellectual rights,

(2) understanding the multiple roles as a researcher, especially during the field research, (3) following

informed-based consent, (4) respecting privacy and confidentiality and, (5) actively researching ethical

guidelines in research (Smith 2003).

These five principles are of crucial importance as they highlight the author‘s thorough mapping of existing

research within the relevant topics of this study and to refer to the due source and origin of each presented

research. Moreover, as the study takes place on a grassroots level in close interaction with local villagers, the

author has aimed to hold a conscious stance when interacting, discussing, observing and interviewing the

villagers - in which the personal opinions may be inappropriate to disclose. Thus, the author aimed to pursue

a self-critical approach before, during and after the research - including the time of collecting the empirical

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data, reviewing literature, presenting the case study material and analyzing the literature in relation to the

findings.

The author believes this self-critical approach can be practiced through continuous reflections in what

sort of data is referenced; what limitations the case studies hold; to what extent the participating parties

consent to share their private information; or what sort of implications the presentation of the data may entail.

Consequently, it is the author‘s responsibility to uphold an ethical relation to the work and stress the

importance of maintaining respect and integrity of participating individuals and villagers involved in this

study.

The study touches upon several sensitive issues, such as cultural implications on gender equality, equal

participation in village meetings or hierarchy within the society. The author wishes to be culturally sensitive

and not rely on his personal cultural framework; however, it may not always be possible to differentiate good

intentions in holding a neutral position with subconscious impact of previous personal experiences, values

and opinions. In addition, the author never imposed any questions or expected any answers; instead, the

emphasis during the conducted observations and interviews was to listen carefully and not to pose questions

with given answers. All participants of this study were always given the liberty to interrupt in meetings with

the author or object to the publication of any related research information which concerns them.

The author of the study takes into account the unexpected, subconscious or unforeseen implications from

an ethical point of view, particularly the cultural differences and the power relation between the author‘s role

as an employee and that of village members as the subjects of the study.

1.3.5 SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS

This study deals with the realm of education, community development and empowerment as the three

main pillars to be linked. Freire‘s educational philosophy poses the theoretical framework wherein the

two case studies in community development on Cambodia and Ethiopia constitute the collected

empirical data. However, there are several embedded limitations in this study, both from a theoretical

and practical perspective.

Theoretical Limitations

Firstly, this study undertakes Freire‘s position on the idea of oppression not as a political struggle, but rather

as a limit-situation in which individuals are prevented from realizing their full capacity due to societal

structures. Moreover, this study assumes that Freire‘s educational theory can possibly be viewed in terms of

empowerment, not only as a means of class struggle. For example, looking at the work of Freire from the

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perspective of Marxism or Dependency Theory and emphasizing revolutionary commands are not the

underlying objective of this study and neither can it be compared to the benefit of Freire‘s work in education.

Instead, the study carries a focus on obstacles for community development such as poverty, illiteracy,

environmental degradation, civil war, corruption, infrastructures, and lack of resources as oppressive

elements that must be overcome in order to unfold the process of empowerment.

Secondly, while the literacy campaign was the main methodology for Freire in his empowerment

movement in the 1970s, this study handles his theory in a broader context of community development. By

not solely focusing on his practices and teaching in Latin America, this study is allowed to access academic

work, directly or indirectly aligned with Freire‘s philosophy from a more diverse perspective. Although

Freire‘s literacy campaign is of great importance when studying his works, this study wishes to think beyond

the methodology proposed in the campaign and broadly capture ideas related to community development.

Thirdly, this study does not aim to elaborate on the historical and cultural relationship between Ethiopia

and Cambodia. The focus is rather to see the implication of Freire‘s educational theory for empowerment in

different contexts other than the countries in Latin America where his educational philosophy has been

described as successful. The chosen case studies are based foremost in the author‘s direct involvement and

offer thus an in-depth understanding of how community development takes place. Moreover, the different

social and cultural environments of the two countries offer a chance to examine the assumption of this study

that Freire‘s educational methodology for empowerment is not conditional.

Lastly, this study does not address the time gap between the publication of Freire‘s work and the two

case studies. Freire‘s Pedagogy of the Oppressed has been republished in 2000 for its thirty years of

anniversary since the original publication in 1970. This reflects that Freire‘s educational philosophy has not

lost its value, but evolved by being re-considered, re-examined and re-printed. In fact, classic literatures can

be claimed to be relevant and durable throughout time and contribute to contemporary reflection. Hence, an

important part of the task of this study, in this respect, is found in revealing the value of Freire‘s theory as a

directive principle in education.

Practical Limitations

Firstly, the limitations of the empirical collection have been mainly due to the relatively short period of

project to reflect the outcome of community development on Freire‘s theoretical ideas. Capacity building, for

instance, requires a long time to measure the impact because it appears over a period in various forms

through people‘s lives. In case of the WI study group, it is apparent that the path towards enhanced

empowerment requires patience, as the members are under the pressure of traditional values and may not be

subject to change rapidly. In this context, this study put a weight on presenting and capturing instances or

changes observed during the course of the given time of the community development found in the case

studies.

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Secondly, the language barrier has also been a limiting factor to effective field implementation. An

interview or conversation has to be conducted with the support of a translation, which may cause less

accuracy in understanding. Moreover, the illiteracy rate of more than 80 percent found among the village

members constituted difficulties in conducting interviews and surveys. While designing and building the

framework of the interviews and surveys, the language barrier may have influenced how the questions and

answers were understood and interpreted by both the author and interviewees. Nevertheless, the data

collection was consciously prepared with dedicated time and effort before the interview (designing the

questions and survey), during the field research (not rushing through the given time) and after the collection

(while carefully analyzing). Moreover, the author requested his colleagues in both projects to review the

questions, with the intention to assure that the questions reflect the accurate local perspectives.

Lastly, the largest obstacle of this study may lie in the interpretation of the empirical observations from

the community development in relation to Freire‘s theoretical frame. This study has chosen to project the

lessons learned from development practices onto the foundational ideas of Freire‘s theory. It has been

difficult to build up an approach for this study because of the differences found in the contexts. To interpret

experiences – from oneself and through others – requires a self-critical awareness of one‘s personal bias.

Nevertheless, the author has approached this thesis with intellectual honesty and aim to avoid distortion of

the fundamental theoretical framework as presented in Freire‘s work.

1.4 TERMINOLOGY

Many of the terms found in this study are abstract and philosophical. The author, for this reason, describes

the terminology applied in this study for clarification. Although the many of terms presented can be debated,

the choice of terminology is operationalized based on the given context.

Humanization

Freire describes humanization as a process of affirming individuals as Subjects of free decision-making and

consciousness, rather than of mass-indoctrination such as led by mainstream education (Freire 2000). Freire

explains Subjects as one who actively participates in transforming reality, in so acts toward ever-new

possibilities of a fuller and richer life individually and collectively (Freire 2000). In contrast to humanization,

Freire speaks of dehumanization as a force of constraining individual freedoms - which Freire argues affects

both the ―oppressed‖ individual, such as peasants or impoverished, and ―oppressor‖, wealthy individuals

with access to power.

Limit-situations

Limit-situations are perceived obstacles in which human beings perceive challenges in the provided context

and act in pursuit of liberation (Freire 2000). The limit-situations are not characterized as a climate of

15

hopelessness; rather Freire says that by critically perceiving the limit-situations, individuals are led by action

to overcome such obstacles (Freire 2000). In the context, Alvaro Vieira Pinto explains that limit-situations

are the real boundaries where all possibilities begin; they are not the frontier which separates being from

nothingness, but the frontier which separates being from being more (Freire 2000). Therefore, limit-

situations do not remain as fixed reality, but urge individuals to take an active role to transform it.

Human liberation

By human liberation, Freire speaks of the emancipation of an individual from any oppressive reality that

hinders them from existing as Subjects of the existential experience. Moreover, Freire argues that human

liberation occurs when an individual transcends a so-called ―circle of certainty‖ given through the existing

realities. Human liberation must be understood within the concept of self-realization in which any individual

acknowledges the capacity and values from within oneself. (Freire 2000)

Ontological vocation

Freire‘s take on ―ontological vocation‖ is suggested as the development of an individual to be ―fully human‖.

This means that education can serve the oppressed to unleash them from the structural restrictions of

contemporary systems. Freire argues that ontological vocation is a method to empower individuals to

construct self-identities and a sense of purpose in life beyond the imposed realities by the oppressors.

Consequently, Freire means that ontological vocation leads to a more enriched and fulfilled life experience

on an individual and collective level (Freire 2000).

Praxis

Freire explains praxis as action and reflection in a circulating process. Praxis is the development of unfolding

awareness and self-consciousness with the objective to generate pragmatic approaches to transformation

(Freire 2000). The outcome of reflection is followed by action, which creates a context as a target of

reflection again calling for action to re-construct it. This process repeats as individuals engage themselves in

a dialogical relation by interacting within the human-world relationship.

Doings and beings

Amartya Sen advocates a perspective that sees a person in an active form rather than a passive form. Doings

and beings are equivalent to functioning that is an achievement of a person. In this view, what an individual

manages to do or to be represents the functioning state of them. Functioning can vary ranging from escaping

morbidity, being adequately nourished, undertaking usual movements to achieving self-respect, taking part

in the life of the community and appearing in public without shame (Sen 1990).

16

Generative theme and codification

Freire‘s idea of generative2 theme is rooted in the concept that each time epoch holds an ideology (embodied

through societal values, ideas and concepts) that interacts with an opposite set of dialectic forces, it

consequently leads to the exploration of new values, ideas and concepts. According to Freire, the essence of

the generative theme is that individuals learn and develop their interest in topics directly of their own

preferences.

As a following step - followed by the identification of generative themes - Freire speaks of

―codifications‖, in which the individual use words, short phrases or visual representations in order to

critically observe, discuss and present the given subject. Thus, the generative themes and the codification of

subjects present Freire‘s philosophical stance in terms of (1) relevance for each individual‘s life-context, in

which the choice of interest is central, and (2) critical approach, with the ambition to stand as objectively as

possible to a Subject (Freire 1974; Keesing-Styles 2003). For Freire, to examine the generative theme3 is to

investigate individuals‘ praxis and their experiences of reality and how these act upon this reality (Freire

2000). Based on these, Freire builds a foundation upon the human world-relationship for asserting his

philosophical understanding of education.

2 Freire uses the term "generative" because he believes that each theme contains the possibility of unfolding into again

as many themes, which in their turn call for new tasks to be fulfilled (Freire 2000). 3 ―The concept of a generative theme is neither an arbitrary invention nor a working hypothesis to be proven. If it were

a hypothesis to be proven, the initial investigation would seek not to ascertain the nature of the theme, but rather the

very existence or non-existence of themes themselves‖ (Freire 2000:97).

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CHAPTER 2

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

This chapter establishes the theoretical backbone of this study. The chapter deals with the key pillars of

the study, namely – critical pedagogy, empowerment and community development. Moreover, the

chapter examines the concept of empowerment and its practical implication. The chapter continues with

presenting the links between empowerment, community development and education. Consequently, the

objective of this chapter is to provide a comprehensive theoretical understanding of how Freire and

supporting academics reason on the synergies between education's role and empowering individuals to

pursue community development.

2.1 CRITICAL PEDAGOGY FOR EMPOWERMENT

―The world – no longer something to be described with deceptive word – becomes the object of transforming

action by men and women which results in their humanization‖

– Paulo Freire

What is education and whom does it serve? Noam Chomsky answers this question with two major

contemporary schools of thoughts regarding education, namely the ―enlightenment‖ approach and the

―indoctrination‖ approach.

Chomsky claims that the education as a form of indoctrination is the mainstream methodology of today‘s

education-system, mainly surveyed and dictated by the public sphere. Education for indoctrination is for

Chomsky a method of breeding civil obedience from early childhood among the public masses, in which

each individual is allocated to a societal framework that preaches obedience as a virtue. This indoctrination

is exemplified in the current education systems with an emphasis on tests and measures as a scale to evaluate

progress that lead to conformity. (Westerberg 2013; Keesing-Styles 2003)

In contrast to indoctrination approach, the enlightenment approach aims to educate individuals to inquire

and create rather than repeat. Enlightenment education searches for an individualized process of teaching and

self-development that is based on abilities and interests. Chomsky continues that without any clear

framework to inquire and create, individuals experience difficulties in sorting facts, recognizing distorted

news and categorizing knowledge. Chomsky highlights the importance of enlightenment education to

provide a system that educates how to evaluate, comprehend and interpret information and argues that:

The person who wins the Nobel Prize is not the person who read the most journal articles and took

the most notes on them. It‘s the person who knew what to look for. And cultivating that capacity to

seek what‘s significant, always willing to question whether you‘re on the right track — that‘s what

education is going to be about, whether it‘s using computers and the internet, or pencil and paper,

or books (Westerberg 2013).

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Although both schools of thought claim to hold a critical thinking-approach, the method differentiates

between the two. While indoctrination approach tests the individual‘s ability to think critically through

formal schemes, the enlightenment approach urges individuals to question authority and seek alternative

experiences of reality – based on their own contexts. Chomsky stands critical to the indoctrination method

practiced by governments arguing that education's role is to cultivate the abilities of each individual to

identify what is of personal value, rather than imposed ideologies portrayed through the education machinery.

Moreover, according to Chomsky, with the contemporary education system individuals are hindered to seek

self-meaning in the context of identifying what one cares for. Chomsky describes this understanding of

education as a process of self-realization and claims that it is in the human nature that people ―create, inquire

independently, in solidarity with others‖ (Robichaud 2013: http://www.chomsky.info/interviews/20130326.htm).

There are several renowned scholars that support Chomsky‘s advocacy for the enlightenment education

methodology. Among Chomsky and Freire, Henry Giroux also argues for a so-called critical pedagogy

approach, which is a practical outline of the enlightenment theory. According to Giroux, the core meaning of

critical pedagogy is the process of challenging and transforming the relations between teachers and students,

institutions and communities interacting beyond the mainstream educational system (Giroux 1994; 21st

Century School 2010). Giroux, closely aligned with Freire, presents critical pedagogy as a method that does

not emphasize standardized frameworks to evaluate individual development and empowerment. Rather,

Freire and Giroux argue that education should serve on an equal and democratic basis instead of an unequal

social stratification that derives from societal structures of oppression (21st Century School 2010; Keesing-

Styles 2003).

Freire‘s direct critique against the indoctrination school of thought is captured in his concept of ―banking

model of education‖ in which individuals are only allowed to think by conforming to societal norms. It is in

the banking model that some of the most controversial thoughts of Freire are revealed, mainly in relation to

the oppressor, those who perceive themselves as power-holders and the oppressed, and those who are

claimed to be ignorant (Freire 2000). For Freire in a highly Marxist manner, the banking model constitutes

an ideology of oppression and in which education serves the oppressors‘ interest. In banking education, the

oppressed are regarded as adaptable and manageable things. They are treated as incompetent and lazy by

which the oppressors justify their dominance over the consciousness of the oppressed with a paternalistic

social action apparatus. The objective of the banking education, therefore, is to incorporate inferior

individuals to a superior structure of society and make them conform to the existing power relations in favor

of the interests of the oppressed.

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The following situations characterize banking education:

a. Teacher teaches and the students are taught;

b. Teacher knows everything and the students know nothing;

c. Teacher thinks and the students are taught about;

d. Teacher talks and the students listen;

e. Teacher disciplines and the students are disciplined;

f. Teacher chooses and enforces his choice, and the students comply;

g. Teacher acts and the students have the illusion of acting through the action of the teacher;

h. Teacher chooses the program content, and the students (who were not consulted) adapt to it;

i. Teacher confuses the authority of knowledge with his or her own professional authority, which she and

he sets in opposition to the freedom of the students;

j. Teacher is the subject of the learning process, while the pupils are mere objects. (Freire 2000:73)

Freire suggests an alternative educational paradigm in which he campaigns for literacy of the oppressed as a

methodology to raise critical consciousness, at times referred to as ―conscientization‖, in a dialogical process.

The literacy campaign promotes an experience-based education in which the student and teacher - also called

―dialogue coordinators‖ - learn simultaneously in exchange between one another. For Freire, authentic

education nourishes a critical consciousness of individuals by bringing their own context and interest to the

object of learning (Wenger 2014). The literacy campaigns encapsulate his core idea of empowering the

oppressed through alternative education - both in terms of an educational system outside of the conventional

frame as well as for a target group that has been directly or indirectly neglected by the state.

The approach designed by Freire is foremost based on the idea of so-called culture circle. The culture

circle aims to engage the student and teacher to discuss generative themes that direct the self-awareness of

the circle participants. The culture circle does not follow a syllabus but rather pursues to discuss themes such

as relationships, nature or culture, depending on which topics are desired to be unfolded and discovered by

the student and dialogue coordinators (Mclaren and De Lissovoy 2015). The participants of the cultural

circle did not use textbooks but rather interacted or observed the routines, phenomenon or objects the group

decided to learn from. The cultural circle has been described by Waldemar Cortés Carabantes as an

educational method that:

…involves an attempt to ‗produce a change in the consciousness of the student. ‗Learning how to

read was only one element of the literacy program ... the adult student would also begin to view

himself and his own reality critically. While looking at slide images representing his life, his

‗customs, his beliefs, his social practices, and group attitudes,‘ the student would begin to ‗discuss

his reality‘ with his peers (Mclaren and De Lissovoy 2015).

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Freire‘s literacy campaign stretched beyond his direct involvement and influenced several countries‘

domestic literacy outreach as well as program designs of international organizations. Freire has foremost

been active and acknowledged in Latin America and his educational methodology communicated through

the literacy campaign has been found in Brazil, Cuba and Nicaragua. His method was proven effective, as

illiterate adults in Brazil were able to read and write in around 30 hours. In the case of the literacy campaign

in Nicaragua, the illiteracy rate dropped from 40 to 13 percent in two months. Freire argued himself that the

positive progress was due to the format as the cultural circles focused on collective learning rather than

individual learning, and for him, this was the most efficient approach for empowerment. In addition, Freire

meant that through the methodology of generative themes, the collective unit developed jointly and not on

the basis of individual pupils that competed among each other (Madron 2002).

The challenges that Freire and his supporters met were closely related with the ideological struggle that

took place in Latin America during the 1960‘s. When Freire launched the National Literacy Campaign in

1964, the initiative was almost immediately ceased as the country experienced a military coup. The junta

accused Freire for his Marxist stance as a threat to the country and that he was aiming to influence his

communist views through education. These accusations forced Freire into exile to Chile, where he continued

his work on literacy campaigns for the Chilean government until the end of 1969. Chile provided Freire a

space to implement cultural circles as the former Chilean President Eduardo Frei promoted a communitarian

state-order, which carried elements of a Freireian educational model (Kirkendall 2012).

Freire was invited back to Brazil in 1969 to be appointed as Minister of Education. He worked

intensively in promoting the cultural circle and forming the notion of understanding to focus on ―subjects‖

rather than ―objects‖. For Freire this meant that he could work on a large scale in advocating of the

contextualized and critical conscious based-education in which every individual ―has the capacity to project

oneself to reality and to make choices and accordingly transform [their] reality‖ (Freire 2000:4). It is

worthwhile to stress that Freire in his role as Minister of Education begun the literacy campaign not by

focusing on the traditional elements of education, such as reading or writing, but to educate the population

on so-called cultural literacy. He chose to start his mass-education approach with cultural literacy as it was

important for Freire to educate people to identify the individual needs and challenges in daily life before

proceeding to education in the traditional sense (Williams 2009). Thus, Freire‘s role in the history of

education in Latin America has marked a Marxist-influenced educational paradigm in which his ideals of

critical conscious, dialogue and contextual learning were promoted beyond his home country borders.

Consequently, as presented, depending on which educational ideology an individual or state practices, the

implications and impact on interpersonal interaction and governance can be extensive and influence several

layers of society, stretching from childhood pedagogy to work ethics as well as government ideologies.

Freire‘s case illustrates clearly this ideological and highly politicized relationship to education. With this

base of understanding what education is, how it may serve in whose interest, the literature review continues

to elaborate Freire‘s educational model, as it stands as a theoretical foundation of this study.

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2.2 THEORETICAL FOUNDATION OF FREIRE’S EDUCATIONAL MODEL

Freire‘s educational philosophy - compressed in his Pedagogy of the Oppressed - has positioned him as a

leading figure in the discipline of critical education. Freire stands highly critical to the mainstream

educational stream, in which according to him, education is misinterpreted as a method for mass-schooling

for employability rather than a tool to nourish critical thinking and self-awareness. Without a critical mass,

which is the goal of education, societies cannot transform and empower individuals to their full capacity

(Keesing-Styles 2003). Freire‘s critical pedagogy is constructed around the existential foundation of human

beings. It involves human interaction in understanding why and how an individual enters into the world to

which the reality can hold the self-conceptualized meaning. In this context, Freire argues that education must

take a leading role in supporting individuals to fulfil the inherent possibility as liberated human beings.

On the societal level, Freire speaks of the human-world relationship as the central concept for individuals to

undertake a holistic education in which the reality (world) continuously interacts with individuals (humans)

and constantly requires critical reflection (Freire 2000). In other words, the world is the reflection of the

matters created by human interventions. The human-world relationship develops in a dialectical way as it

shapes one another. Thus, an individual‘s action toward the world results in transformation of the existing

reality by which their lives are shaped in return. Freire claims that the role of education must be responsive

to the ontological curiosity of an individual that can be realized only by active participation in the realm of

human affairs (Freire 2000).

Freire‘s notion of human-world relationship is aligned with Hannah Arendt's idea of dependent

characteristics of a human-reality interaction. Arendt continues and argues that individuals and surrounding

objects compose the environment for human activities which would be pointless without such place. At the

same time, she adds, the world into which men are born would not exist without the human activities that

created it (Arendt 2013). This perception recognizes the epistemological foundation of human activity. The

reality of the world and individuals can be identified by the presence of human interaction in various

contexts (Arendt 2013).

The implication of the human-world relation here provides a philosophical background for human capability

in taking action to transform the world in which each individual exits. Freire claims that the sole notion of

existence is to portray the world to actively engage in the creation of the world (Freire 2000). He exemplifies

his point by comparing human beings with animals. Freire says that animals ―live‖ according to their

physical necessity while human beings ―exist‖ as cognizable actors to create the world in which they find

themselves (Freire 2000:98). In regard to this, Freire defines the concept of humanization as that of people

not merely living, but as existing as Subjects transcending their surrounding environments.

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Furthermore, on the individual level, Freire presents the idea of critical consciousness. Critical consciousness

is a human capacity that enables an individual to reflect upon themselves onto the objective reality. Human

beings consciously exist in recognition of the internal and external interaction relied on the human-world

relationship (Freire 2000). More specifically, critical consciousness is each individual's ability to recognize

political, economic and social oppression, followed by action against it.

In psychoanalysis, Jean Paul Sartre explains how consciousness operates in perceiving the existential

experience. He divides the reality into the technical terms he calls ―being-in itself‖ and ―being-for itself.‖ In-

itself refers to non-conscious parts of the reality whereas for-itself refers to human self-consciousness. For-

itself is directed outside itself through which men and matters can hold the meaning as entering into the

world. So it can be said that ―when one is conscious, she is directed intentionally at something‖ (Spade

1996:73). Being conscious, an individual begins to perceive oneself separated from a concrete context and

perceive it as the target of action. Consequently, on the basis of Freire and Sarte, consciousness is argued to

be the exercise of human beings‘ unique cognitive feature (Freire 2000).

Freire also expresses concerns regarding the lack of critical consciousness, as he warns that the absence or

weak level of critical consciousness among the masses leads to passivity, conformity and adaptation to

oppression (Burbules and Rupert Berk 1999). Without critical consciousness individuals in society cannot be

empowered and nudged towards the understanding of cultural-social conditions that shape the daily (Freire

2000).

The development of critical consciousness is, without doubt, the most significant personal experience in the

empowerment process. Critical consciousness is the process by means of which people acquire an

increasingly greater understanding of the cultural-social conditions that shape their lives, and of the extent of

their ability to change these conditions. A person‘s life is not only found in the present but also in history,

and is capable not only of interpreting but also of interpreting what is interpreted. Hence, the arguments led

by scholars like Freire, Chomsky and Sarte all contend that critical consciousness is essential and basic to all

human learning.

Thus, as initially outlined, Freire‘s educational framework is characterized as an enabling force to raise

critical consciousness in order to interact within the human-world relationship through a lens of self-

awareness. Freire offers a theoretical explanation regarding the crucial need for individuals to enhance their

critical perceptions of the reality they act within and the possibility of challenging the norms - claimed as

fixed reality - and instead acknowledge the reality as a constant transformation (Freire 2000). The following

subchapter elaborates the ideas of Freire and other scholars on empowerment through the lens of critical

pedagogy.

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2.3 FREIRE’S NOTION OF EMPOWERMENT

The term empowerment holds a wide range of interpretations, as it has been intensively debated for

definition. Despite the long-going discussions on what the notion of empowerment implies, there is no

universal terminology (Fride 2006). Marc Zimmerman, a scholar focusing on the Empowerment Theory,

warns that asserting a single definition of empowerment tends to be ―formulaic or prescription-like‖ and thus

―contradicting the very concept of empowerment‖ (Zimmerman 1984:44-63). Therefore, even though the use

of empowerment has been widespread for the last three decades, ambiguities, contradictions, and paradoxes

still exist (Fride 2006). Nonetheless, in spite of the encountered difficulties in framing the idea of

empowerment, empowerment is understood on a general basis as the capability of people in acquiring

understanding and control over personal, social, economic and political forces (Narayan-Parker 2005).

Empowerment is a central concept in Freire‘s educational philosophy. Freire‘s understanding of

empowerment is related to the value of translating rhetoric ideas into tangible outcomes in which each

individual is in power to decide independently. Freire claims that empowerment entails a change that can be

seen in the process of action and reflection of an individual based on critical consciousness. The basic

assumption is that empowerment must be searched proactively not taken as an outcome of random effect

(Park 2015).

In connecting empowerment with human capacity, Freire provides practical ideas on how to empower

people by promoting critical consciousness of the surrounding reality. For Freire, empowerment becomes

authentic as people perceive what they are capable of as active participants in constructing a concrete reality

(Freire 2000). Freire‘s advocacy of human capacity is grounded ―in building skills, confidence, and

opportunities for action‖ (Delp and Domenzain, 2005:273).

Therefore, the validity and relevance of Freire‘s ideas on empowerment represent the view that all

humans hold the capacity to be critical about the reality and accordingly take action to change it. Freire

believes that the human capacity can be facilitated through dialogue among individuals in the course of

empowerment. Moreover, Freire argues that an individual being critical in a dialogical relation can identify

themselves separate from the imposed reality, problematize issues out of it, and make a change by praxis.

Hence, facing with a critique4 that empowerment is ambiguous to understand, Freire‘s education model

proves its practicality in its fundamental pursuit in promoting transformation of society. Praxis is based on an

idea that men are to change circumstances, not to be products of circumstances. It involves continuous

4 Tronya points out that empowerment has remained being pure rhetoric without impact which has led to one of many

theories existing without providing people with power to exercise (Tronya 1994). Archibald and Wilson add to this

saying that ―The empowerment lexicon has grown over time. Yet, the concept‘s ubiquity is troubling, largely because

power has ironically been omitted from discussion of empowerment‖ (Tronya 1994:26).

24

reflection5 and action upon the reality (Freire 2000). By critical action and reflection, an individual becomes

assure of her own power in changing limit-situations.

Similarly to Freire, Amartya Sen speaks of the linkage between the development of human capabilities and

the role of education. Sen identifies empowerment as a result of education, that also acts as a central pillar

for societal development in which the ability to exercise freedom is required. Sen argues that ―the ability to

exercise freedom can be directly dependent on the education that individuals receive, and this gives a

rationale for developing the educational sector in relation to the capability-based approach‖ (Sen 1990:55).

The capability approach can be aligned with the ideas of Freire in perceiving human life as a set of ―doing

and beings6‖.

For Sen, human life is evaluated by the capability of an individual to his or her function. Freire, in the

similar context, describes free human beings as the people who realize their capacity to praxis. Freire

identifies the freedom of human beings to the degree to which they critically respond to the concrete reality.

By liberation, Freire means that an individual has become the master of his/her own choice of life. In regard

to this, Sen considers functioning as a constitutive element of a person‘s being and claims that a person‘s

state of empowerment relies on the assessment of such constitutive element (Sen 1990). Therefore, Sen

considers limit-situations as the major challenges for human development since they hold an individual to

remain dysfunctional (Sen 1990).

Consequently, Sen‘s stress on empowerment as a progress of capability is associated with Freire‘s concept of

praxis. Freire‘s empowerment pedagogy finds its meaning in affirming the capability of human beings as a

being of praxis. He says that only human activity holds meaning to the world as they participate in creating

the realm of culture and history through their action (Freire 2000). This becomes the driving force for

transforming the reality, and this turns again into the source of knowledge and creation (Freire 2000).

Consequently, the ultimate goal of Freire‘s theory is to restore the human-world relationship in which

humanly thoughts and activities constantly interact in dialectical progress7.

Linking dialogue with praxis, Freire explains that the essence of dialogue is the word whose constitutive

elements are action and reflection. To him, action and reflection cannot survive at the expense of the other.

5 According to Freire, man has capacity to reflect on not only his action but also his very self by separating themselves

form activities (Freire 2000).

6 Sen advocates a perspective that sees a person in an active form rather than a passive form. Doings and beings are

equivalent to functioning that is an achievement of a person. In this view, what an individual manages to do or to be

represents is the functioning state of them. The given function can vary ranging from ―escaping morbidity, being

adequately nourished, undertaking usual movements to achieving self-respect, taking part in the life of the community

and appearing in public without shame etc.‖ (Sen 1990:44).

7 Freire says that understanding the meaning of dialogical practice requires taking a perspective in which dialogue does

not appear as a mere technique for elaboration and realization of different concepts, but as both learning and knowing

process of existential experiences of members of a society (Freire 2000).

25

―A true word is always praxis and to speak a true word, therefore, is to transform the world‖ (Freire 2000:87).

For instance, if an individual remains inactive after becoming aware of limit-situations, then it cannot be

considered that dialogue was fully practiced because authentic dialogue always entails a corresponding

reaction for transformation. On the other hand, when people could go further than the mere exchange of

ideas by developing them into practice, they would become an authentic part of the reality with power to

change (Freire 2000).

Thus, praxis in the social realm of human beings affirms their existential reality. Arendt states in her

work Human Conditions that ―A life without speech and without action is literally dead to the world; it has

ceased to be a human life because it is no longer lived among men‖ (Arendt 2013:176). Moreover, Arendt

explains the implication of praxis within the limit-situation as existing limitations and boundaries within the

realm of human affairs – however, not as a fixed reality but open for individuals to take charge over and

change accordingly (Arendt 2013). Praxis, therefore, is ought to be prevailing in every aspect of human

affairs.

As illustrated, Freire advocates intensively the importance of dialogue and critical consciousness as a

methodology towards empowerment (Freire 2000). Freire‘s idea of a so-called authentic dialogue is framed

in the term ―dialogical relation‖. He describes a dialogical relation as ―the encounter between men, mediated

by the world, in order to name the world‖ (Burbules and Berk 1999:88). Implying that critical pedagogy is

practiced in dialogue in which each individual - participant of the dialogue - is able to develop a critical

perspective towards the human-world relationship.

Moreover, the dialogical relation is described by Freire as a process in which the reality comes into being

as an acknowledged form. Human beings enter the world as they interact with others by words and action.

To put it with an example: a mountain acquires the meaning as a mountain because it is agreed to be called

so by people. Without human beings, the world will be meaningless for there would be no one who would

recognize and name it ―the world‖. According to Freire, only in a dialogical relation with others an

individual can share the meaning of the world in a cognizable way and engage in praxis for participation

(Freire 2000).

Freire emphasizes dialogue between men as an authentic method for empowerment (Freire 2000).

According to Freire, dialogue is understood as ―a mutual learning process occurring in the epistemological

relationship of the participants‖ (Freire 2000:17). Dialogue enables an individual not only to apprehend and

comprehend historical conditions of their own context, but also to transform such existing concrete reality

perceiving it as the object of praxis (Freire 2000). As people begin to involve themselves in a dialogical

relation, they become critical in perceiving the reality and recognize limited situations as needed to be

transformed. Therefore, authentic dialogue serves to free people from the cause and consequence of

oppression.

26

The core qualities of dialogue are love, humility, and faith for human beings. Freire describes the concept of

love as a commitment to others. If an individual does not love the world, life, and people, they cannot enter

into dialogue. Commitment as the opposite to domination of one over another encourages people to jointly

engage in the struggle to fight against oppression. It generates act of freedom, and this freedom constitutes

dialogue in fulfilling the task of responsible Subjects (Freire 2000).

In addition, dialogue cannot occur with an absence of humility. Freire emphasizes that dialogue is the

common task of learning and acting (Freire 2000). Sense of superiority of one party over the other hinders

dialogue from becoming a creative activity because it forces to impose ideas on people for the sake of

domination. Lack of humility finds dialogue as a means of domination in which elites consider ordinary

people as the ignorant that is needed to be educated. Dialogue cannot exist where one party projects the

ignorance on the other without seeing that of their own (Freire 2000) Humility is essential in a sense that it

allows people to respect different perspectives as unique and special human experience in the world of public

realm through which learning and teaching always occur simultaneously. Neither everyone is perfect nor can

they do everything to be self-sufficient. Dialogue opens the door for those who recognize it so they attempt

together with others to learn more than they now know.

Finally, if people abandon the fundamental faith in human capacity, dialogue cannot be achieved. For

those who enter dialogue it is required to immerse and trust the power to create and recreate (Freire 2000).

Dialogue can be practiced as people keep faith in the potentials and possibilities of human to achieve self-

realization. Such faith constitutes dialogue on the basis of a belief that limited situations can never impair the

capacity that people bear to fulfil their epistemological vocation, rather they appear as a mere challenge to be

transcended by people (Freire 2000).

Constructing oneself within love, humility, and faith, dialogue creates a mutual trust as a logical

consequence (Freire 2000). Trust among the participants of dialogue should be found in unity of words and

actions. Speaking a word without action and corresponding to it cannot inspire trust. In other words,

authentic dialogue always entails praxis by which people manifest their own capabilities in the human-world

relation.

Thus, to capture the quintessence of Freire‘s notion of empowerment, it can be stated that he argues for each

individual's right to partake in the construction of a self-aware reality - based upon a critical consciousness

rather than an imposed worldview. Freire‘s constructivist philosophy offers a point of consideration in which

his ideas affirms the existential experience of an individual in a constructed reality that interacts with their

surroundings by using the language that the world holds meaning. In line with this, Freire urges individuals‘

participation in the creation of the world through dialogue by providing an example of conversation between

educator and student (Freire 2000). This argument is clear in his statement from the Pedagogy of the

Oppressed in which he writes:

27

Now I see that without man there is no world.‖ When the educator responded: ―Let‘s say for the

sake of argument, that all the men on earth were to die, but that the earth itself remained, together

with trees, birds, animals, rivers, seas, the stars… wouldn‘t all this be a world? ―Oh, no,‖ the

peasant replied emphatically. ―There would be no one to say: ‗This is a world‘ (Freire 2000:32).

2.4 COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT ACCORDING TO FREIRE’S WORLDVIEW

The basic notion of community development lies in a context that a community itself engages in a process

aimed at improving the social, economic and environmental situation of a community (Cavaye 2006).

Moreover, when dissecting the term into two separate entities, the terminology allows additional

perspectives on the concept of community development. Thus, the notion of community refers to a group of

people with a shared identity (Flora and Flora 1993). And development implies an increase of choices that

consequently may lead to improved quality of life (Christenson and Robinson 1989). Community

development, therefore, involves human interaction that promotes the improvement of the ability of a

community to make better decisions for the good of the collective.

The community development paradigm highlights the idea of ―community participation‖, in which the three

main components are: community organizing, popular education and participatory development (Paul 2002).

Community organizing refers to a process of mobilizing people together for the purpose of

accomplishing a common task (Weil and Gamble 1995). Marie Weil and Dorothy N. Gamble claim that

organizing activities can be carried out in both geographical and functional communities that either a group

of people lives in the same geographical area or shares concerns, needs, or issues. In terms of practice,

organizers participate in collective action to achieve the shared interests among the members of the

community (Weil and Gamble 1995). This practice approach assumes that individuals can address their

concerns more effectively and thoroughly by utilizing the collective power (Rubin and Rubin 1992). Weil

and Gamble argue that organizing activities can be carried out in both geographical and functional

communities in which a group of people lives in the same geographical area and shares concerns, needs, or

other issues. In terms of practice, organizers participate in collective action to achieve the shared interests

among the members of the community. This practice approach assumes that individuals can address their

concerns more effectively and thoroughly utilizing their collective power (Rubin and Rubin 1992).

The second category, popular education, is based on the concept of learning from experience and

dialogue (Castelloe and Watson 1999). The concept presents that people are able to learn about the larger

social, political and economic contexts in which they are situated in through the process of reflecting on their

daily experiences. Dialogic education aligns with the idea that educators and students who interact with one

another are convinced that they are co-speakers, co-learners and co-actors. The consequence of dialogic

28

education is critical consciousness of the broader social, political and economic contexts which lead to taking

action towards transformation (Freire 2000).

Participatory development, the third pillar, underpins the idea of participation among the local population

in community development - the same local group that is in power of determining, driving and controlling

the process of development (Chambers 1997; Prokopy and Castelloe 1999). Participatory development

believes that people in the limit-situations best understand the problems they face and how to solve them.

Participatory development is well-known for its method in Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) (Guijt et al.

1995). Participatory development focuses on building the capacity of grassroots people to thrive on their own

in a way that their attitudes and behaviors are fundamentally participatory (Gubbels and Koss 2000).

The academic discourse regarding community education as an essential element of community development

is often grouped into two schools (Kenny 2003). The first perspective views community education as an

extension of the service provided by second and third-level education institutions into the broader range of

community. In this sense, it can imply to incorporate almost all adult learning opportunities provided by the

formal education sectors at a community level (Green Paper 1998).

The second view of community education sees it in a more ideological sense as a process of communal

education towards empowerment. Such an approach to community education perceives it as an interactive

challenging process, not only in terms of its content but also in terms of its methodologies and decision

making processes (Green Paper 1998).

Within Freire‘s theoretical frame, community education is of utter importance, as he believes that

community development is the outcome of a critical education and human capacity empowerment. Freire‘s

educational theory is closely associated with popular education for its emphasis on learning from experience,

dialogic group processes and critical consciousness (Castelloe, Watson and White 2002). According to Paul

Castelloe, Thomas Watson, and Craig White, this sort of pragmatic approach provides excellent tools for

cultivating individuals‘ wisdom and ideas. Also it helps grassroots groups and leaders to develop

frameworks for a critical understanding of the causes of community problems. However, the approach is

criticized for its limitation in providing guidance for planning and implementing projects in dealing with

those problems. Such practical approaches lack the pragmatic-focused component that is required to translate

critical consciousness into tangible outcome (Castelloe, Watson and White 2002).

In support of Freire‘s approach for community development, William M. Timpson also argues in his

work ―Teaching & Learning‖ that illiterate individuals who hold desire, commitment and enthusiasm

combined with their existential experiences led to understanding written language. Moreover, Timpson

argues that teachers empower students by facilitating the participation of them through the use of meaningful

materials to the students. From this perspective, community education is seen as a process of empowerment

advocating the participation of individuals in making decisions which affect them (Timpson 2002).

29

Additional crucial element related to Freire‘s community development approach is so-called ―fear of

freedom8‖. Freire explains that a fundamental obstacle in community development lies in the contradiction in

which people are being submerged in limit-situations and fail to believe in the power of transformation.

Freire argues that people in limit-situations are often found overwhelmed by fear of freedom. They are used

to believe that their fates are dependent on the circumstances they are situated (Freire 2000). It makes an

individual consider the reality as a given and already determined in which there is no alternative to replace

the present situation. The most destructive part of fear of freedom is that it frustrates people by denying their

existence as responsible Subjects of praxis in fulfilling human capacity (Freire 2000). This prevents an

individual from becoming critical, and Freire criticizes this by calling it ―destructive fanaticism‖ for its

undermining effect on empowerment (Freire 2000:36).

Overcoming fear of freedom, in this respect, is the very first step to become a capable person and it

inevitably involves the transformation in an individual‘s perception of the reality. Freire‘s critical pedagogy

emphasizes the process in which an individual accepts their state as powerless, but beyond that, it

understands the reality merely as limiting that can be challenged. Freire introduces a discussion with a

factory worker to demonstrate the change of the perception of an individual within a limited situation:

Perhaps I am the only one here of working-class origin. I can‘t say that I‘ve understood everything

you‘ve said just now, but I can say one thing-when I began this course I was naïve, and when I

found out how naïve I was, I started to get critical. But this discovery hasn‘t made me a fanatic, and

I don‘t feel any collapse either (Freire 2000:35).

Freire‘s education theory urges each individual to be responsible for taking action upon the reality in which

they are restricted in self-realization (Freire 2000). Freire argues that all individuals are called for being

autonomous in directing their own lives (Freire 2000). According to him, human beings are not just bound to

the physical necessity of life; as animals do, but live a life with freedom in constructing the world9 in a

creative way. The present state does not exist as a permanent structure, but exist to be re-created by people.

He advocates the free human beings since they are ―active and responsible, not a slave or a well-fed cog in

the machine, but creative, consultative, wondrous, and venturous‖ (Freire 2000:68).

The discussion on the fear of freedom gives a philosophical understanding of the environmental setting

to which Freire‘s education model is born to affect. Freire‘s theoretical explanation on how people fear being

liberated in oppression has an implication beyond the level of hypothetical analysis. Convinced that theory

and practice must be united, Freire introduces dialogue as a practical means for a mutual learning process,

8

Fear of freedom refers to the passive state in dealing with the oppressive situation usually because of the

preoccupation in incapability that comes from their social, economic, and political conditions of historical context.

9 Freire explains the concept of the world as the reflection of human action. It is the reality which is to be the object of

definition by human action as human beings constantly reflect their experiences through the development of history.

Therefore the world of all matters exists based on how human beings act upon it (Freire 2000).

30

where he believes empowerment is realized. Practicing a dialogical relationship among individuals provides

a practical perspective on how community development programs can be directed at drawing on the

existential experience of people.

Freire‘s ideas on community development have also influenced various methodological frameworks. One

of the approaches developed on his philosophical origins is the Wisconsin Model of community education

that offers the five constructing components for empowerment in the principles developed by Larry Horyna

and Larry Decker for the National Coalition for Community Education in 1991:

1. Self-determination:

Local people are in the best position to identify community needs and wants. Decisions made based

on the context in which things matter to people can be authentic in helping the people to become

confident and convinced of their capacity as actors.

2. Self-help:

People are best served when their capacity to help themselves is encouraged and enhanced. When

people assume ever-increasing responsibility for their own well-being, they acquire independence

rather than dependence.

3. Leadership Development:

The identification, development, and use of the leadership capacities of local citizens are

prerequisites for ongoing self-help and community improvement efforts.

4. Localization:

Services, programs, events, and other community involvement opportunities that are brought

closest to where people live have the greatest potential for a high level of public participation.

Whenever possible, these activities should be decentralized to locations of easy public access.

5. Inclusiveness:

The segregation or isolation of people by age, income, sex, race, ethnicity, religion, or other factors

inhibits the full development of the community. Community programs, activities, and services,

should involve the broadest possible cross section of community residents (Wisconsin's

Components of Community Education 2008).

These five principles are closely interlinked with Freire‘s philosophy on education. Firstly, the learning

process should be designed to present what matters to each individual and community; what is needed is

thus best understood by those who act within the circumstances. Freire clearly states that individuals

could make decisions for themselves in relation to the world since they are conscious beings.

Voluntarily engaging, they could overcome the situations which limit them (Freire 2000).

Secondly, Freire means that human capacity is discovered and realized when individuals participate

in the process as responsible Subjects. According to Freire, self-help can be understood as a

31

commitment in which individuals become aware of their potentials, have a sense of dignity, and thereby

motivated to take a role in constructing the reality (Freire 2000). The result is an improvement on social,

economic, and political environment of life in a sustainable way as they independently enter into

praxis.

Thirdly, Freire‘s notion of proper leadership expresses itself in that leadership must be exercised in

seeking out true avenues of communion with the people, in a way that it helps them to help themselves

critically perceive the reality in terms of social change (Freire 2000). Leaders are not to dominate over

others, but keep walking in steps with others as colleagues in transformation process.

Fourthly, Freire calls for the localization of the process in pursuit of developing capacity of the

people. In critique of contemporary practices, Freire points out that many plans at the political and

educational level for development have failed because they are not directed towards the individuals and

groups to whom the circumstances relate nor whose significant outcome matter. Freire argues that the

development of humans and communities is solely authentic when it addresses the given context, needs

and requests of the people.

Lastly, Freire‘s ideas on critical pedagogy stand against exclusiveness. There are no such individuals

or groups who are inherently marginalized. Freire argues that marginalization refers to the state of

consciousness submerged in oppression normally deriving from institutional factors. People are all equal

and have the right to realize their ontological vocation. Critical pedagogy must take a role in liberating

and helping the people understand that they are the creators of culture (Freire 2000).

Thus, it clearly shows that Freire‘s ideas have had a significant impact on the mainstream of theory and

practice in community-based development work during the past forty years (Chambers 1983; 1997).

However, many developing countries like Cambodia and Ethiopia face a number of social challenges,

and among these challenges is education. This study comes into being in the context that the two

countries need an alternative educational approach for empowerment in community development (Kort

and Reilly 2001).

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CHAPTER 3

CASE STUDIES

This chapter presents the concluded findings from the observations, discussions and interactions by the

author that took place in the Khnar Cheung village in Cambodia and Dugededera village in Ethiopia. The

chapter goes into the details on why village meetings are crucial for the establishment of self-reliant based

development, the collaborative group efforts in capacity-building and the importance of leadership for co-

intentional work. Further, the chapter addresses the understanding of the locally context-based development

practice and how cultural practices may hinder empowerment. The findings constitute the fundamental basis,

together with the theoretical framework for the discussion and conclusion of this study.

3.1 CASE STUDY PROFILES

This study examines two seemingly unrelated countries found on distant and separate continents with

different demographics. However, there are several historical and contemporary similarities between the two

countries, which allow this study to analyze and seek comparisons based on the collected empirical

evidences.

For instance, both Cambodia and Ethiopia experienced revolutions, brutal dictatorship and mass murder

during the 1970‘s – although the Khmer Rouge regime (1975 to 1979) led by Pol Pot in Cambodia is more

documented than the rule of Mengistu Haile Mariam, who led the Derg communist junta in Ethiopia (1974 to

1987). Moreover, both countries are still monotonous under a traditional agrarian structure and struggle to

improve their economic status within the international community (Kissi 2006).

The case study profiles introduce the brief history of each case study country, as it is important to

understand what historical circumstances may have influenced present reality. The differences and

similarities are evident as well as stressing the socio-cultural and economic factors that impact the presented

empirical data.

3.1.1 CAMBODIA AND THE KHNAR CHEUNG VILLAGE

Cambodia, located in South-east Asia, is a country that accounts for two-thirds of the land area being

surrounded by densely forested mountains. Cambodia's major water sources are the Mekong River and Tonle

Sap. Majority Cambodians, 14.5 million people, live in rural areas and are of Khmer origin, with several

ethnic minority groups living in the mountain areas. Phnom Penh, the capital, is experiencing rapid

urbanization and marks a central financial hub of the country with a growing number of foreign investments.

Buddhism is the main religion, with over 95 percent of the population being Buddhists; the religion has an

abrupt interference in practices when all religions were banned during the Khmer Rouge dictatorship (World

Vision Australia in Cambodia 2010).

33

The Khmer Rouge era marked deep scars in the country and left not only a traumatized nation but also

devastation of the country‘s infrastructures, public and private properties, economic system and education

system. The regime found education including institutions such as schools and universities with no value for

the development of country. Consequently, the Khmer Rouge regime banned all educational institutions

from primary to higher education. The regime targeted and executed educated and intellectual elites,

accusing them of poisoning the nation with injustice, corruption, and exploitation into society – in which the

regime claimed that this group of bourgeoisie promoted colonization by foreign powers. The Khmer Rouge

period caused tragic results that ―as many as two million people were put to death by execution, starvation,

forced labor, torture, and sickness without proper medical treatment10

‖ (Dy 2009:130). This genocide left

tens of thousands of widows and orphans in absolute poverty and illiteracy. Many other hundreds of

thousands of Cambodians fled the country and became refugees. This tragic part of history severely

traumatized Cambodians.

A study by Ratanak Leng (2014) focuses on the genocide education after the Khmer Rouge regime where he

points out that the regime has created ―fear‖ among Cambodians who had survived the period. Based on the

115 interviews Leng conducted for his research, majority of the interviewees testified a sense of strong fear

of social and political change, as they worried that any sort of change could cause another war and genocide.

Leng expounded on this statement by saying that people in Cambodia are even reluctant to exercise their

political rights in voting to take down the current rule – that also lacks democratic transparency yet has ruled

for the past 30 years - as they found comfort in the status quo, even with its severe political oppression upon

ordinary citizens (Leng Ratanak, personal interview, 20 April 2015).

Moreover, according to Leng‘s study, this fear has produced passive and negative attitudes among the

majority of Cambodians. The nation‘s collective experience from the dictatorship did not ripen as a reason to

progress and look forward, but rather as a fixed trauma from the past. Leng stated that Cambodians do not

appreciate having a sense of freedom. Being submerged in the fear of freedom, they do not envision for the

future, and they just feel satisfied if their physical needs are met for basic survival. This kind of collective

consciousness has affected the younger generations as the collective efforts do not promote education as a

driving force for the development of the nation. Consequently, the citizens of Cambodia are not empowered

with the sense of hope and are not motivated to take action to overcome what constraints them (Dy 2009).

The observations and interviews presented in this study have taken place in the Khnar Cheung Village, a

small village in the outskirts of Siem Reap with approximately 1,450 inhabitants. It is located in Khrolan

district in Siem Reap which is about 70 km away from the cultural heritage site of Angkor Wat. Paddy field

farming is the main source of income for the Khnar Cheung villagers, where cultivation is possible once a

year during the rainy season (Global Service Corp 2013). In the middle of dry season when farming is not

10

At that time one fourths of the population were killed and consequently almost 60percent of the today‘s generation

are under the age of 30.

34

productive, many members travel far up to the border of Thailand to work as daily laborers so that they could

support their family‘s basic necessities. Although Cambodia is known to be a matriarchal society, it is

common and accepted to observe women being abused by drunken husbands that force them violently to

collect money for their personal entertainment purposes (Tan Tokla, personal interview, 6 May 2013).

People in the rural areas are marginalized and do not have easy access to public services such as finance

plan, utilities, transportation, political and social engagement, and infrastructures etc. (Hughes 2008). Thus,

the awareness and involvement of the people in the activities beyond a community level are very low, and

they practice poor influence over social and political institutes. From a religious perspective, the inhabitants

of the village follow the rule of hierarchy in terms of respecting the local elderlies and entrust them with the

authority to exercise power such as in decision making for community issues.

The experience of the genocide and civil war during the Khmer Rouge regime in 1970s left a visible

wound of the tragedy, which is until today influencing many aspects of the lives of people in the Khnar

Cheung village. The negative impact from the regime is still present, mainly reflected in the constraints of

human interactions that influence education, empowerment and community development (Leng Ratanak,

personal interview, 22 April 2014).

Thus, the choice of utilizing the author‘s direct experiences, interactions, observations and interviews

conducted in Cambodia are valuable as the country, in particular the Khnar Cheung village, allows an

analysis that reflects on a society that has undergone hardship with long-lasting implications. Moreover, by

applying a Cambodian context in a Freirean theoretical framework, the author has been able to reflect upon a

society that remains in fear of education due to the massacre of the intellectual elite during the regime. In this

circumstance, Freire‘s dialogical process of education can be facilitated for the reconciliation and restoration

of community solidarity by enabling the village members to face the reality with a critical perspective (Dy

2009).

3.1.1.1 Units of analysis in Cambodia

Self-Help Group (SHG)

The Self-Help Group was established to contribute with capacity building among the female population of

the Khnar Cheung village. The SHG was designed to include 15-20 women under the direction of Rural

Economic and Agricultural Development Agency (READA). The author worked with the village members in

setting up the initial stage of the group from May to August 2013. The objective was to enhance the capacity

of the participating females by developing their leadership qualities and management skills, as well as their

skills in bookkeeping and knowledge transcription. The project staff supported the capacity building

workshops; however a condition set by the project staff was that the women would define and develop the

rules and regulation of the initiative during the process of establishment. Regular meetings - held once a

35

week - were encouraged wherein each meeting included discussions among the members on addressing

issues that could improve their living conditions.

Farmer Field School (FFS)

READA implemented a sub project named ―Farmer Field School‖ with GSC in the Khnar Cheung village

from May to August in 2013. READA established two farmer field schools with 44 participants including 20

participants in the north group, and 24 participants in the south group. READA‘s project technician and

project manager trained participants in agriculture production. They followed up and provided technical

assistance to farmers in both groups. As the result, thirty eight farmers cultivated vegetable with the total size

950 m2

of land. The farmers consumed some of the harvest and sell some others to their neighbors. They

saved a part of income from the crop to buy seed for their cultivation in the next cycle.

3.1.2 ETHIOPIA AND DUGEDEDERA VILLAGE

Ethiopia is ranked as one of the poorest countries in the world with 78 percent of the population (a total of 77

million people) living on less than $2 per day (Haub 2005; UNFPA 2005). Ethiopia‘s struggle to decrease

poverty and development lag is entangled with its history of conflict, recurrent droughts, and environmental

degradation. These hardships are even more complex in relation to the traditional, social, and economic

practices that impose strong constraints on the right of women and other vulnerable groups in the society.

These limitations lead to denied access to equal opportunities, such as making decisions of one‘s personal

life as well as the willingness to participate in community and national development.

Similar to Cambodia, Ethiopia has also suffered from the consequences of a brutal socialist regime under

the leadership of the Derg regime Colonel Mengistu Haile from 1974 to 1991 who overthrew the Ethiopian

imperial rule through a military coup. The Derg regime killed hundreds of thousands of intellectuals to

secure the Derg-led political ideology across the country until the Ethiopian Peoples Liberation Front (EPLF)

and Tigrey Peoples Liberation Front (TPLF) defeated the regime in 1991.

As the result of the 17 years of the violence and abuse imposed on the Ethiopians by the Derg regime, the

economy of the country lost its stability and consequently undermined the driving force for development. For

instance, private property right was strictly controlled by the regime and individuals could not own more

than 250,000 Ethiopian birr (ETB) in private bank account and private land ownership was prohibited. Also

education was hampered by the accusation of creating rebellions against the regime. During the reign of the

Derg regime only two universities existed; these two were established before the military coup (today, in

comparison, there are approximately 34 universities in the country) resulting to poor educational investment.

After the military tyranny collapsed, the society has remained in a seriously demoralized state of being. The

36

contemporary social justice system is highly corrupted and the level of mutual trust among the inhabitants

influences collaboration for collective progress (Berhe Seyoum, personal interview, 22 March 2015).

Like Cambodia, Ethiopia continuously struggled to escape the dark history marked with an era of

bloodshed violence in which the economic and educational infrastructures were destroyed completely.

Traumatized with the fear of oppression, Ethiopians showcase hopelessness and a strong feeling of being

disempowered with all the challenges and constraints imposed by limit-situations.

The empirical data from Ethiopia was collected in the Dugededera village in the Sendefa Oromia region

in Ethiopia. Dugededera is a rural village with the population of 750 whose main income is agriculture. The

village, located about 42 km from the northeast from the capital Addis Ababa, supports itself mostly from

the local crop called teff, which is used as the basic ingredient for traditional food injera.

Commercial activities are rare to be seen in the area other than self-sufficient farming. From an interview,

people in the area feel inconvenient from water shortage, chronic illness, restricted access to infrastructure

and transportations, no electricity, poor cooking environment, lack of capital, etc. (Lemma Getu and Tumse

Ashene, personal interview, November 14, 2014). Education facilities are not enough for the children in the

village. The attendance rate up to elementary school level is above 70 percent, but it sharply decreases as

students advance to secondary school (LG Hope Village Census 2014). Like many communities in Ethiopia

the Dugededera village is also on a tribe-basis, and the life activities of the inhabitants are influenced by the

local community customs.

The social and political roles of female and male are divided, in which the females are exclusively

discriminated resulting to a disadvantage in participating in the public realm of community. In community

affairs, the decision making process is almost fully dominated by the males. Females have restricted

accessibility to speak in public spaces. This study confirmed this inequality through the observations of the

women in the Dugededera village, where the female participants of the Women‘s Initiative (WI) spoke of

themselves as a voiceless group that are not qualified to speak in public spaces (Fiker Taye, Tenagh Wenbari,

Beshu Girm, Tayitu Tessema, Birle Bogale, minute of meeting, 9 January 2015). Due to these social and

political constraints, a sense of powerlessness has been inculcated in the traditional image of women as being

quite, dependent, obedient, and diligent in household works.

Thus, considering the historical, economic and socio-political context of the two countries as a case study,

the succeeding discussions will take Freire‘s educational theory as adopted in Latin America in the late 20th

century. The case studies present two different contexts in community development which share several

similarities such as economic poverty, undermined educational system, brutal history of political oppression

and human stigmatization. As this study articulates the two countries through the lens of Freire‘s educational

theory, a broader context of what community development and empowerment may incline emerges. The

author stresses the importance of closely presenting the local context throughout the study as it strongly

37

purports Freire‘s prescription of understanding and working according to the given realities in which each

individual and community live in.

3.1.2.1 Units of analysis in Ethiopia

Village Development Meeting (VDM)

Under the LG Hope Village Project, the Village Development Meeting has been held on a monthly basis

since 2013 and offers a space for the village members to present and discuss issues related to the community,

and make collective decisions. The core idea of this meeting is to empower the village members to take their

own decisions and thereby have ownership in leading the program activities once the project period ends.

The project manager and coordinators not only share agendas to be discussed, but also encourage the

villagers to present topics of own interest and needs. The topics are shared before the meeting in order for all

participants to have sufficient time to reflect and participate in the discussion. As a result of the VDM, the

villagers have implemented a water committee, set up a road maintenance committee, and a poultry

committee. All outcomes are based on a self-governing principle in which the staff of LG Hope Village only

undertake a supporting role and provide guidelines.

Women’s Initiative (WI)

A small group of 5 to 7 women in the ages of 20 to 40 years old have volunteered to participate in the

Women‘s Initiative, which has been set up by the LG Hope Village Project in Ethiopia. The WI group has

been initiated in order to capture the experienced difficulties of daily chores of women and provide them

opportunities to effect change in certain situations. However, the WI project has clearly illustrated a cultural

restriction that undermines the female role in participating in community-related dialogues. All members of

WI are housewives with socially and culturally imposed responsibilities of supporting their families. The

project aims to empower the women to realize their right in participating in the community development

process wherein the members are encouraged to take the leading role in designing their activities. Although

the WI project is on-going, it has showcased the complex process of shifting cultural practices and

challenges in the empowerment approach, in this case enabling the women to believe that their opinion and

experience matter in the community and that they can be independent and self-governing.

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3.2 FINDINGS

3.2.1 FINDING 1:

THE VDM IN ETHIOPIA HAS ENABLED PARTICIPATORY SPACES FOR COMMUNITY

DEVELOPMENT

The VDM in the Dugededera village has indicated how effective it is to involve the local villagers in

identifying the needs and requirements for the community. For instance, while facing lack of water for a

living, the village members could seek out a sustainable management of water resource. In addition, the

villagers were able to develop their ideas of self-reliance into purchasing a thresher machine in critical

reflection of the limit-situation in their context.

The World Together Ethiopia - a South Korean non-governmental organization (NGO) - and LG Electronics

Ethiopia - the CSR branch - have jointly worked in building sustainable and self-reliant rural village. Among

different approaches, the VDM is a crucial part of the community development work supported by the two

organizations aimed to increase the income of the village members by providing training on horticulture and

poultry farming.

As a participatory development approach, the two organizations proposed regular VDMs to discuss

community matters, challenges and solutions. The process of implementing regular meetings with the village

population has been characterized with progress and setbacks. The initial stages of implementation begun

with misunderstandings among the village members as the local community believed that the function of the

VDM is to be a place for request of support, that the two organizations would provide the demanded items.

One of the village leaders complained during the meeting: ―The project team promised to build a school and

provide electricity to all households in the village‖ (Ashne Tumse, observation, 2 January 2015). As a

response to the complaint, the project manager of LG Hope Village expressed the importance of self-reliance

to the village members. Moreover, the manager emphasized during a VDM that in order to become

independent, the village members must think independently on what they could initiate based on their needs

in the community context.

With a growing understanding among the village members of the purpose of VDMs, the meetings began to

accommodate 20 to 50 male participants (depending on the current village situation the number of

participants fluctuated) including five village leaders. The VDM took place in a lecture hall, in which the

main topic for discussion was related to sustainable management of water resource.

During the April 2014 VDM, members of the meeting were encouraged to hold a frank exchange of

needs among the local population in which they could share and discuss the status of clean water and its

implications on living conditions. During the discussion, one village leader pointed out the difficulties of

fetching water from a far distance, and how they were susceptible to water-borne illness due to the fact that

39

they would share water with livestock. A common understanding was shared in the dialogue that the village

community is responsible for a sustainable way of operating the well.

Moreover, the project manager of LG Hope Village urged the village members to consider a solution in

which the community could contribute to the benefit of using the well such as having safe drinking water all

year around. One of the suggestions was related to the price setting of water, in which the village members

agreed upon after intensive discussions of the pros and cons. A village member said that ―Purchasing water

is no harm; rather it does good for our community because we could spend the money gathered from selling

water for maintaining the facilities for water resource‖ (Goftu Abera, personal interview, 27 April 2015). In

the process of discussion, one of the participating members also said that sales profit of water should be

gathered to improve the community environment.

In line with the discussion, the practical outcome came about through the establishment of a so-called

Water Committee, in which the local community will supervise and manage the points that were developed

in the process of dialogue among themselves. Consequently, VDM demonstrated an effective method of

organizing village resources through a reflective and interactive discussion according to the needs which

were identified by the village members themselves.

As a direct result from the decision of selling water and allocating the fund to the collective good, the

village members have now gained a valuable opportunity to deal with other challenges. One of the

challenges is related to the completion of harvest, in which each household in the Dugededera village goes to

the market three hours away by walk in order to thresh the collected crops. This activity is financially costly

and time-consuming work for the village members.

At this point of the VDM, the villagers were aware of the benefits from the choice of selling water and as

a result, the village members decided to buy a thresher machine for the sake of community development. For

this purpose, they decided to utilize the water fund gathered for ten months of time. In the discussion of the

issue, the village leaders took the lead in expressing their opinions. A leader raised a point that the manual

machine gets easily broken and hence in terms of effective and sustainable usage, the automatic one should

be considered to be bought. Another leader added that buying one with fine functions is important, but what

is more important is to keep the machine in good condition for all the village members to use.

In fact, the fund was insufficient to afford the cost of a thresher machine, and the village members came

up with an idea to collect the money on their own to fill up the gap. The price of thresher machine was ETB

40,000, and the fund available was ETB 7,333. The amount of ETB 2,667 was needed to purchase the

machine with the support of a matching fund sponsored by LG. The leaders of the VDM committed to give a

result on their decision one week afterwards, and the village members agreed to proceed with the idea. The

village members could share the idea with those who were not at the meeting. Eventually, they succeeded in

gathering the money as required. Change around their lives has occurred in that it helped them not only save

time and money for traveling, but also reduce the loss-rate in threshing. One village member said that ―The

thresher machine not only saved labor and time, but also it reduces the unnecessary loss of production after

40

harvesting. I‘m sure we would not able to prioritize to buy [one] individually because it is so expensive‖

(Fiker Taye, personal interview, 22 April 2015).

3.2.2. FINDING 2:

SHG AND FFS IN CAMBODIA DEMONSTRATED CAPACITY TO CONDUCT CRITICAL REFLECTION

AND ACTION IN A COLLABORATIVE GROUP SETTINGS

The SHG and the FFS, both programs implemented in Cambodia, have showcased the capability of members‘

in processing, sharing, reflecting and acting upon ideas as they engaged themselves in collaborative learning

experiences. In the process, the members have manifested a sense of critical thinking and awareness of the

relationship between idea and action.

The SHG is designed to serve building organization capacity and income generation by running a savings

program to support small-scale businesses belonging to the group members. In each SHG, 15-20 women

participated from the Khnar Cheung village, with local assistance from READA coordinators. The female

participants and the READA staff initiated the group on 12 June 2013 and arranged weekly meetings to

discuss the current issues in the village. The topics included group regulation, savings, interest, social fund

and additional collective matters to be solved.

Despite that 80 percent of the village population is illiterate and with lack of experience in project

management, the participating women expressed a strong engagement towards SHG in which an active

sharing of challenges and needs was demonstrated on a personal and community level. Moreover, the

dedication to the SHG was illustrated through the creative use of drawing pictures to describe their living

conditions, as many women could not formulate them in writing. Provided with papers and pens for group

discussion, the female members could express and share the problems encountered in the daily life.

The author observed that while the women were sharing their experiences, frustrations and ideas, a

strong sense of confidence and self-assurance among the participants were developed based on mutual

understanding. One participant shared her experience: ―There was no need to bother to call for attendance to

the meeting. We became confident and came to have faith for each other as the regulations of SHG set by

ourselves were respected and developed. We could see why and what we are doing through the meeting

which leads to hope for the bright future‖ (Sout Sochea, personal interview, 22 April 2015). Within this

environment, the SHG was able to generate several ideas that were taken into account in the joint community

development efforts.

For instance, these ideas captured how collaboration and committed action could make a significant

difference in effectively expressing community‘s voices. In addition, the group members realized the

necessity of literacy education, through which they can better understand and respond to the social and

political circumstances that influence their lives. In one meeting, a leader from another SHG in Prasat

Bakong district was invited to present her stories in how participating in the SHG activities had changed her

41

life. During the session, the simple method of portraying different symbols was used to describe her life

milestones. The women said that: ―You all have to be confident in dealing with the matters on your own. It

was difficult for me [sic] in the beginning, but the more I have a faith in myself in dealing [sic] with the

situations, the better I would be able to manage things because I was conscious of what I have to do to make

a change‖ (Unknown, observation, June 2013). Based on this comment, the meeting was followed by a

collective discussion and reflection, which were able to encapsulate the individual members‘ own

perspectives and opinions. A member stated ―I never thought whether drawing could be a method of

communication or not, but the drawing was a very good way for us to make plans and learning what to do in

order to reach the objective of SHG‖ (Kong Sareoun, personal interview, 22 April 2015).

Moreover, all members expressed the challenges and implications of economic constraints.. While

planning joint community activities, the members and coordinators initiated a savings program. In this

savings program, each individual was recommended to allocate a small amount of money on a weekly basis;

all the savings were carefully recorded and tracked. This practice led to the creation of a self-governed and

income-generated local organization. Although the coordinators sponsored the venue and refreshment, the

ultimate purpose of the group was for the participants to be responsible for organizing necessary actions. The

participants were encouraged to decide the agenda of each meeting, prepare the content, and set the rules of

proceedings.

In the case of FFS, the leading objective was to diversify the source of income by learning and practicing

horticulture and poultry farming. The FFS consist of 41 male and female members, which were divided into

two groups as per the location of residence in the North part of the village and the South group. The trainings

were carried out once a week for each group at a designated model garden with practice entailed. The two

groups participated in horticulture farming in order to diversify the source of food. The training components

included: general home gardening, seedling production, climbing crop/hedge crop cultivation, soil

management, botanical pesticide/scouting insect and disease, and a lesson refresher on vegetable cultivation.

The training courses were decided through the village public hearings that were carried out on 17 May and

on 5 June 2013. During the first hearing with 33 farmers, the objective of FFS was shared followed by

questions and answers between the village members and the coordinators to comprehend the programs in

detail. The collection of survey data was performed by the coordinators to understand and meet the needs of

the village members. During the second hearing with 53 farmers, discussions among the participants were

conducted to identify the prior issues on home gardening and animal husbandry. Since the activities and

elements of the program were discussed in dialogue, the participants came with a clear understanding of the

process and goal of FFS. The coordinator remembered the moment and said that ―The village members

voluntarily expressed their will to join FFS and eager to begin as soon as possible‖ (Tan Tokla, minute of

meeting, June 2013). The village members were requested to plough up 50 m2 size of fertile land in

preparation before participating in this training program. Moreover, they were strongly advised to be diligent

on sharing their knowledge with their neighbors as they learn and practice.

42

The training format was structured in two different sessions. In the first session, the members were provided

with lectures in an open outside space for learning agricultural knowledge and techniques in farming. The

coordinators led the lectures while engaging and enriching the discussion with the group members. The

discussion subjects were extended into the practical application in the context of the village circumstances.

For instance, pesticide that was essential for protecting crops was made by utilizing natural botanical

environment of the village in order for the participants to easily internalize the process and practice

accordingly to their needs. In the latter session, the project staffs would follow up and provide technical

assistance to farmers in both groups.

The total of 38 out of 41 in FFS has been provided technical assistance and as a result, the farmers could

harvest the crops such as cucumber, morning glory, yard and long bean. Once the theoretical and practical

training was provided, the members were supposed to reflect upon each session and initiate practicing in

their own home garden. During the 20 weeks of training course, more than 90 percent of the participants

indicated committed efforts in the cooperative learning process and interacted with other participants on the

related topics. For the first time, the members of FFS had expressed by the end of the course an eagerness to

continue the collaboration and establish a community cooperative union.

3. 2.3 FINDING 3:

WITH ABSENCE OF LEADERSHIP COLLABORATIVE EFFORTS FOR COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT

ARE UNDERMINED

Through the observations conducted in Ethiopia and Cambodia, it was revealed that leadership is one of the

determinant factors for successful collaboration among the members of community to attain community

development. However, this acknowledgement of the vital role of leadership was practiced in an

inappropriate way in both countries as leaders of the villages abused their power. Consequently, one of the

findings presented in this study concludes that failed leadership undermines the collaborative and collective

efforts for community development.

In the case study of Cambodia, a principal of the Khnar Cheung primary school - a man with authority and

access to power - clearly abused his role as a village leader by utilizing available resources to meet personal

interests rather than collective good. One incident that illustrated this abuse of power was during the

construction of a building, which initially was supposed to be a community space. The project team GSC

proposed to create a public space in which the villagers could organize meetings and allocate a library for the

benefit of community members. However, the principal did not involve other villagers in deciding the

location and utilization of the newly built facility. Moreover, the principal restricted usage of the building

even though it was built by using common financial resources funded by KOICA. When having meetings for

preparing the construction, the principal asserted himself as a spokesperson of the whole villagers, although

43

it was never examined and as a matter of fact, the villagers were not given the opportunity to express their

opinions. One of the local project coordinators stated that ―The villagers are not mobilized to attend the

meeting because they simply don‘t know whether this kind of discussion is ever held in the name of the

whole community.‖ Consequently, he continued saying that ―The village members remained passive when

they had to actively participate in dealing with [sic] the process‖ (Thy Yakang, personal interview, July

2013).

As a result, the resources had not been executed for satisfying the desires and needs, if there were any,

of the village members. It turned out that the village members were limited in using the facility for

community purpose because the leader did not allow them to do so without his permission. The principal

managed the space in favor of his personal interest by placing individuals who were in a close relationship

with him to control. The exclusive usage of the space severely isolated those who live far from the central

part of the village. It seemed to the author that lack of efforts in creating opportunities for the village

members to make use of the public space produced divisive impact on the relationships between individuals

in one community.

In the case of Ethiopia, the author also observed the failure in the exercise of leadership for the common

good of the community. Under LG Hope Village project, a renovation of the local elementary school

building in the Degededera village was conducted upon the request of the villagers. This aimed to create a

better study environment for the students. One of the main objectives of the renovation (with the financial

support from LG Electronics) was to secure sufficient space for a classroom to be equipped with a variety of

books for students to read. However, the author found upon a sudden inspection that the renovated facility

was locked outside. The space was not functioning as designed, where it was supposed to improve the

environment for children‘s learning in the village. Contrary to its objective, the director of the school reveals

that the said space has been opened only twice a week to the public with limited hours and closed for the rest

of week, arguably for security issues. Furthermore, he even remarked that no villagers complain about such

limited use of the space. Although the project coordinator asked him several times to arrange a meeting with

the people in the village about the possible opportunities of using the facility, he came up with the same

answers that the people could use the space only within the given time, because otherwise it would create a

mess given the poor management of individuals. Another project manager of LG Hope Village in a personal

interview with the author said that ―Even though there is a working [sic] committee for school operations

[sic], it seems that the villagers are not aware of chances of how they can use the library for educational

purposes‖ (Pak Sujin, personal interview, 19 April 2015).

44

3.2.4 FINDING 4:

COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT PROJECTS REQUIRE A STRONG CONTEXTUALIZATION OF LOCAL

CIRCUMSTANCES FOR THE IMPACT TO BE EFFECTIVE AND INCLUSIVE

In 2014, Professors and experts in agriculture from Yonam Agriculture College in Korea visited the

Dugededera village in Ethiopia for a six-day visit in June 2015 to offer advice on selecting locally

appropriate crops to grow for the income generation of the village members.

During the short visit, the experts researched on the agricultural practices in Ethiopia and consolidated

the research findings with what they have believed to be the advanced knowledge in agriculture. One of the

main suggestions was to improve soil fertility of the land in a model farm, since it was the primary requisite

to increase the crop productivity. The experts provided the WTI project team with suggestions based on

previous knowledge on how to lower soil fertility through a simple technique of applying chemical fertilizers

and lime. However, the visitors did not consider the differences in agro-ecological environment between

Korea and Ethiopia. According to a study, the application of inorganic fertilizers on depleted soils11

often

fails to provide the expected benefits in Ethiopia (Corbeels, Shiferaw and Haile 2000).

The experts did not realize that the people in the village had actually been practicing their own method of

fertilizing the land by collecting manure and mixing them with the earth to make soil organic. As the largest

cattle raising country in Africa, the village members in Ethiopia knew how to benefit from what they are

given by the natural environment in order to sustain their lives. For example, later it turned out that crops

planted in the land nearby the residences of village members grew better than those in model farm largely

due to the fact that the village members‘ way of caring for the land was more adapted and suitable for

farming.

After the experts left Ethiopia, no practical treatment was put into practice to fertilize the cultivation area

inside the model farm because buying chemical fertilizer was not only costly, but also the village members

did not feel the necessity. One villager said that ―I honestly do not know what organic farming could

possibly mean, but what the project team tries to suggest here does not seem to fit how we‘ve learned from

our experiences.‖ When raining season was over and the land started getting dried up, the cultivation area in

the model farm became barren and could not provide a fertile foundation for crops to grow.

Moreover, when the experts provided suggestions on farming methods, the visiting group did not intend

to spend sufficient time to communicate with the villagers to apprehend the local context and needs. The

project manager of the LG Hope Village added that ―They [the visiting group from Yonam College] never

tried to contact the villagers to know or understand tradition of the community in what they normally eat and

what may be a reason for them to prefer a particular vegetable to others. They could have asked if the

11

The majority of the soils in the northern part of Ethiopia are reported to be shallow, have low soil fertility, high run-

off, and low infiltration capacity (Mitiku 1996).

45

villagers had any difficulties in growing vegetables they wish to grow so that the experts could give help to

solve the issue together with them.‖ Instead they visited different regions like Deborazait in which a huge

floricultural compound is located in searching for ideas to adopt and apply to the Dugededera village. Also a

WTI staff member said: ―It is unfortunate [sic] that the experts missed the opportunity to communicate with

the villagers to learn what they really need to know for a successful implementation of the project‖ (Sujin

Pak, personal interview, April 26, 2015).

In comparison, a positive result of an example from a local engagement and human-centred approach, one

which yields mutual respect and trust, is the planning and implementation of a microloan program for

income generation. In the planning stage of the microloan program, the Yonam students, as coordinators

supporting the LG Hope Community Project, tried to identify a solution to build a chicken house in a

sustainable and adoptable way for the village members. A rationale for this activity was an instance where

the chickens in the henhouse, built in accordance to the advice of Korean experts, were not laying eggs well

and even died of stress from the noise when strong winds hit the walls of the facility. To solve this problem,

the team decided at an early stage to engage with the local villagers - the beneficiaries - and to listen to the

village members by facilitating a dialogue on this matter. Drawing on the experiences of the village members,

the coordinators were informed about the raw materials such as straws, eucalyptus wood and mud that

people could get easily and utilize effectively within their surroundings.

As the coordinators and the local village members interacted in dialogue, practical solutions were

suggested and elaborated. Instead of building the chicken house in a modernized and expensive way, the

coordinators and villagers collected bodies of eucalyptus trees. Out of the collected materials, the team made

frames of the structure and filled the empty spaces between the frames with a mixture of mud and straws

acquired in a traditional way. A student at the Yonam College in collaboration with 2 project coordinators

and 4 village members built a chicken house using the collected materials similar to the way that the village

members build their houses. The method was based on using six pillars for the foundation and placing studs

for strengthening the whole structure around the pillars followed by a topping a roof on the structure. In the

process the coordinators constantly spoke with the village members for advice while solving problems. For

example, the standing walls got easily broken as the soil attached to the studs became dry with cracks. The

student told the author how the co-worker helped him out: ―It was frustrating to see how it kept falling off.

Then Derase [the village member] advised me that the soil should contain more teff in it to hold the parts

together. Following his suggestion we could complete a chicken house that is firm and strong.‖ In addition,

Yonam students and the village members took enough time to discuss on the possible defects of what they

were building and tried to find solutions based on the local perspectives.

One of Yonam students recalled that it was a rewarding experience to work with the village members. He

stated ―Even though we found challenges in physical labor with the limited access to necessary materials, I

could learn that it is important to respect the culture and knowledge of the people working together and also

46

found out that things become much easier to achieve when a collaboration with a positive mind based on

mutual trust is established‖ (Lee Daun, personal interview, 26 April 2015).

Afterwards, according to the data collected by the Yonam College coordinators, the laid-egg productivity

increased from an average of 40 to 80 percent compared to when chickens were being raised in the

modernized facility. The good results were due to the fact that the team had chosen to use a local way of

construction which was very effective in protecting chickens from the noise of winds thus reducing their

stress levels and improving chicken feeding.

This positive outcome is also observable at a community level as well. In working together, the village

members became convinced of program activities prepared by LG Hope Village attracting the active

participation of the village members. The participants of the chicken microloan program took the

responsibility in building chicken houses in their own yard for a successful operation of the program. A

participant of the program announced, ―I‘m very happy that I could join this program. With the eggs that are

laid by chickens, our family can cook and sell them in the market. I feel confident now and I wish I could

extend this into a bigger opportunity.‖ (Mechalu Brahanu, personal interview, April 9, 2015).

3.2.5 FINDING 5:

THE EMPOWERMENT PROCESS IN ETHIOPIA MUST EXAMINE CULTURAL PRACTICES TO

ESTABLISH AN INCLUSIVE APPROACH AND TACKLE GENDER INEQUALITY

The author observed that the women‘s passivity and obedience in the Dugededera village are based on

cultural practices found in Ethiopia. In fact, the gender discrimination against women has been widely

accepted in the name of culture. Even the language use reflects these cultural traits, for instance, ―Wonde‖ is

the expression used by women in a situation of victory referring to ―men‖, whereas the word ―Sate‖ used by

men means ―women‖ in a situation of making a curse. In this context, it is generally embraced in the mind of

Ethiopians that it is not a virtue if women are not obedient to their husbands, and in many cases women are

punished for disobedience (Berhe Seyoum, personal interview, January 15, 2015).

As a logical consequence, the women in Ethiopia, especially in rural areas, grow up believing that their

role in a community are restricted as far as serving the needs12

of their family.

By examining the gender issue in Ethiopia, the case study of WI proved that a holistic and inclusive

implementation of an empowerment program in the Dugededera village was difficult to achieve. Knowing

that the culture is not in favor of women being assertive, the project coordinators of WTI had carefully

approached the organization of the program by promoting women‘s participation. In order to avoid conflict

12

During the first meeting with the women‘s group, one woman said that she never knew if she could decide on a

matter and plan to act accordingly before in her life. Freire points out that ―their perception of themselves as oppressed

is impaired by their submersion in the reality of oppression‖ (Freire 2000:45).

47

with the community authority, it was necessary for the project team to explain in public the meaning and

purpose of the program in order to lay down a common ground for implementation.

An initial step was taken on 2 January 2015 when 10 women and 5 male leaders of the Dugededera

village participated in a meeting to discuss the objective and action plan of the program. The 5 male leaders

seemed to attend the meeting to support the voice of female members; however, the female members rarely

expressed their opinions. Veering away from the focus of the meeting, the leaders insinuated a demand for

more infrastructures by complaining that the project is not making best efforts to increase the village

members‘ capacity. The project manager of LG Hope Village criticized that the leaders were distorting the

nature of the meeting in a way of pursuing the interest of a few instead of discussing possible activities for

women to organize themselves: ―I really wonder if they attend this meeting with the concern of building

women‘s capacity. Personally speaking, I feel like they just say what they need, and their demand seems to

represent the interest of the community not in terms of what women could do for community development‖

(Pak Sujin, personal interview, 22 April 2015). The manager questioned if their request for support had

anything to do with women empowerment.

Moreover, the female members seemed unable to distinguish between what they need and what their

community wants. During the meeting, when they were asked to share an idea of how the project could

support women‘s activity, they responded with the demand on electricity. However, they could not elaborate

on how having electricity could possibly improve their living conditions with activities led by female

members. The female members demanded electricity because the issue had been talked over among other

villagers, and they could not consider their interest separate from that of the community. In this respect, one

CSR manager wonders if women are in such condition to be able to have a conceptual thinking about their

roles in their society other than giving birth to a child and support their family at the expense of their

freedom.

In addition, one important observation from the WI was the difficulty in identifying and maintaining the

commitment of the female members in the program. Firstly, they were not allowed to be dedicated to the

program because of the demanding field work and house chores they are assigned as daily obligations.

Secondly, it is difficult to state that the female members became assertive when they seemed not interested in

developing the given opportunity to be involved in praxis upon limited conditions. In one meeting, they

requested to buy them a grinding mill so that they could exercise economic activity for income generation. In

response, a project manager asked them to come up with a specific action plan on how they are going to

manage the operation once they get control of it. For more than two months, the project team had not heard

from the female members, and thus the meeting did not yield any outcome.

48

3.3 DISCUSSION AND ANALYSIS

―Authentic education is not carried on by ‗A‘ for ‗B‘ or by ‗A‘ about ‗B,‘ but rather by ‗A‘ with ‗B,‘

mediated by the world—a world which impresses and challenges both parties, giving rise to views or

opinions about it‖

- Paulo Freire

This study embarked on the quest to explore, analyze and discuss the Freireian ideology on education,

empowerment and community development in the context of Cambodia and Ethiopia. Consequently, the

study not only revisited and presented the key concepts of (1) Freire‘s critical pedagogy for practical

implication of empowerment, (2) Freire‘s educational methodology in promoting community development,

but also presented the extracted empirical data through interviews, observations and direct participation in

the two case studies.

One objective of this study was to elaborate and extend Freire‘s ideas on education in the context of

community development. By doing so the author sought to expand the understanding of critical education

(beyond the so-called banking model) as well as to consider, analyze and discuss how such alternative

education approach takes place on a grassroots level, both in terms of progress and challenges. It is important

to tackle the growing interest in the critical education model as a methodology to empower communities and

trigger participatory community development since it allows a critical perspective that poses questions such

as ―What is education for and what is the expected outcome?‖ or ―How can contextualized education provide

additional value to test and competition-based education?‖ This study has hold the ambition from an early

stage of research, both on a theoretical and empirical level, to present existing ideas such as Freire, Chomsky,

Giroux and Sen in understanding how the critical education may take place on a community level with the

direct consciousness of the actual act.

Thus, considering the main objective and methodology of this study, one of the most crucial pillars of this

study is to examine the relevance and validity of the links between Freire and other scholars advocating

critical education against the empirical data collected from Cambodia and Ethiopia. This discussion comes

with the joint analysis of study groups on how Freire‘s educational model may have an influence on the

current state of community development and empowerment in Cambodia and Ethiopia – the two examined

cases where one can find potentials and challenges to be learned.

49

Freire’s educational model demonstrates how the abstract concept of empowerment can be tangible in

practice in appearance of self-determination and collaborative efforts for praxis from the case studies

observed in Cambodia and Ethiopia.

For Freire, education is a process of creating a critical consciousness in which self-realization is followed in

the course of change around a life of an individual. Freire embraces the process of developing critical

thinking (questioning the given reality) as well as a self-awareness that allows each individual to perceive the

objective reality as a target of transformation (empowerment). According to Freire, authentic education is

always dialogical in which each and every individual participates in a creative way of constructing the world

where they exist. Consequently, education should entail a transformative process in humanization.

These key concepts of Freire are indicated in the case of Ethiopia as the village members during the

VDM demonstrated self-determination in community development. This self-determination is well-linked

with Freire‘s notion of a dialogical relation. The dialogical process of VDM with a democratic basis helps

the participants engage in a discussion on how sustainable management of water resource affect their lives.

This leads to the development of critical consciousness of the village members because they could recognize

the contextualized reality in exploration of what matters to their own lives.

Reflecting on their limit-situations deriving from the lack of safe drinking water and difficulty in getting

water to feed cattle, the village members could decide to put a price on water to sell so that they could

support themselves with financial resources for managing and maintaining the limited water resource.

Moreover, the operation of the village development fund was made possible as the village members

began to develop generative themes in relation to other limit situations in threshing the harvest. The purchase

and utilization of a thresher machine illustrates that the dialogical process during VDMs makes it possible

for the villagers to perceive situations critically and act to make a change. Self-determination as an important

element of empowerment, therefore, comes about as the village members are encouraged to practice action

and reflection through VDMs in which the dialogical process was based on.

Freire‘s educational model proposes a dialogical relation among individuals in which love for people,

humility and faith in human capacity leads to trust in a mutual learning process. He proclaims that an

individual learns who they are and what the world they live is like in a constant interaction within human-

world relationship. Therefore education takes on a strong commitment in requiring the different people to

work together for liberation from any form of oppression.

Praxis as one of the constituting elements of dialogue has been examined in the case studies conducted

for SHG and FFS groups. Collaboration efforts for self-help found in the case studies of SHG and FFS in the

Khnar Cheung village can be related to Freire‘s fundamental belief in human capacity stating that people are

able to transform the oppressive reality through continuous praxis.

The process is visible in SHG where individual village members indicate increased motivation in

community work through the collaborative discussions, planning and implementations. For example, the

50

participants tried to be diligent and consistent for the gathering as they experience they could contribute to

community development and understand that their roles are important to sustain the efforts.

FFS in Cambodia revealed that the villagers‘ competency in agriculture is improved with the constant

praxis of the participants by actively participating in the training course. Praxis by cultivating a regular

climate of reflection and action, where the people have the feeling of achievement and ability to analyze

errors and mistakes by critical reflection suggests that people can become more assured of their potential to

transform the reality for the better.

With the fear of freedom from Cambodia‘s tragic history, the members of the village revealed the human

capacity in transforming the limit-situation as they reconcile with one another. This accomplishment

illustrates how a sense of the community belonging and solidarity can emerge by implementing collaborative

learning efforts through action and reflection.

These two cases in relation to Freire demonstrate that empowerment can be practical and visible through

self-determination and collaborative efforts in praxis observed among the study groups in Cambodia and

Ethiopia. In the case of the VDM, self-determination emerged as the participants were provided a role to

tackle the community issues with critical perspectives on situations. SHG and FFS showcased how

collaborative action in search for overcoming contextual-based limit-situations encourages praxis of

individuals in search for better lives. Hence, these empirical experiences fundamentally reflect Freire‘s

dialogical process that promotes the practice of empowerment.

Freire’s ideas on dialogical process of education as a mutual learning experience support promoting

community development for the study group in the Dugededera village in the name of localization.

For Freire, the departing point of critical pedagogy lies in the people and since the people do not exist apart

from the world, apart from the reality, it must begin with understanding the ways of life of the people in a

given context. Freire‘s idea on problem-posing education emphasizes that education should be designed in

consideration of what matters to the people to whom such education is directed based on the assumption that

individuals are all cognizant of where they are situated. According to Freire, education evolves and reshapes

around the context on which learning and teaching occurs simultaneously.

That localization of education begins with the recognition of the contextual understanding of people, and

this was proven in the case study in Ethiopia. Working with a holistic approach, such as in the chicken

microloan program for income generation of the Dugededera village shows that efforts of understanding

different livelihoods and realities create mutual learning experiences among the participants of the process.

The dialogical process of building the chicken house enables the involved people to learn that they can

cooperate in achieving and completing the task by developing locally adoptable ways of building a henhouse,

where the people looked and made use of context-based solution to the problem.

51

The local village members in Dugededera were beginning to actively emerge and intervene in

transforming the situation when they consider themselves as partners through the engagement in co-

investigation. Meaning that once the participants embrace what is meaningful and important for them, the

process of action begins to carry out.

Consequently, community development can be more enriching and successful when programs or activities

are aligned to what the community values or gives meaning. The local knowledge and skills holding such

meaning serves the interest of the people best.

On the other hand, manipulation, deposing and prescription cannot be components of a dialogical process,

for the result of these actions is always the practice of domination. When practitioners fail to interact with

the knowledge and wisdom generated from the local context, community development programs do not

serve properly the interest of the people in the situation.

This is clear from the case study of Yonam College‘s visit to Ethiopia. When the Korean experts did not

consider the village members as co-investigators13

in generating ideas for education, the experts were unable

to help the village members address what really matters to them.. This became a failure and obstacle

representing the banking model of education in which large number of programs in development fails due to

designing the project with little consideration of the actual beneficiaries (Freire 2000).

Thus the ignorance among the experts could not create the intended impact for the village members, as

the flaw was first and foremost in the mindset of the visiting researchers, not in the practices on grassroots

level. Adherent to the banking model of education, the experts failed to listen to the voice of the village

members and as a result, it fell short in developing a critical intervention towards the limit-situations.

The logical consequence of these practices brings about dominance over one another. It has a detrimental

effect on community development given that it does not consider the existential experience of the people.

Freire criticizes that many programs in community development fail because they are not designed taking

into account the men in a situation to whom the programs are directed. Responding to this, Freire‘s problem-

posing education sheds a light on community development in which mutual learning based on context is

promoted. Through the two case studies in the Dugededera village, it became apparent that the embraced

approach led to a more creative and successful outcome for community development compared to the

ignorance and neglect of the local circumstances.

13

Consistent with the liberating purpose of dialogical education, the object of the investigation is not persons, but rather

the thought language with which men and women refer to reality, the levels at which they perceive that reality, and their

view of the world, in which their generative themes are found (Freire 2000).

52

Freire’s ideas on the role of leadership provide insights and challenges to the leadership development in

both communities of Cambodia and Ethiopia in relation to the authentic liberation of the people

As for leadership, Freire argues that leaders are those who initiate the experience of learning how to name

the world in a dialogical relation with people. One‘s conscious acts do not derive from imposing decisions or

manipulating the people, but from liberation out of the external structure with little or no self-creation. Thus,

it can be argued that the correct method for liberation lies in dialogue because the driving force for the

people to struggle for their liberation comes from the result of critical consciousness.

The role of leadership is, therefore, to help the people attain the conviction that they are responsible to

fight for their own liberation as Subjects. Accordingly, the concept of authentic leadership must exercise co-

intentional education, which is inclusive and participatory in nature.

Freire is an advocate of committed leadership in the co-intentional process of learning that provides

insights on the failure of the leaders, as observed in the case studies of Cambodia and Ethiopia in relation to

promoting a dialogical relation for community empowerment.

The abuse of developmental resources by the leaders in both case studies is contradictory to the role of

leadership argued by Freire, as it should must seek out a genuine sense of communion with others and work

with them in transformation of oppression. Leadership should bring committed involvement of individuals in

order to turn collective efforts into community development otherwise eventually it ends up creating other

forms of oppression.

The absence of dialogue between leaders and ordinary people is detrimental to community empowerment

since it prevents the people from exercising critical consciousness and lefts them isolated from the

opportunities by which they become expressive for their own liberation. Freire claims that the role of

leadership lies in seeking communion with others, ways of helping others to establish independency and

critical thinking in which the reality of a community builds a vision collectively based on actual needs.

Hence, the lesson of leadership in a community development context is to become convinced (self-

empowered) of the ability of other members to engage in praxis (empower the other). In the end, leadership

becomes valid and authentic in caring for other members of one‘s community in order to allow each

individual to flourish to his or her full potential – beyond the restrictions of hierarchy or inequality.

Liberation is consequently a fact when leaders acknowledge that individuals are able to take decisions

independently, and in where the leaders participate along with the community members. This kind of

communion is made complete in dialogue as essential part of communication between leadership and the

community.

53

Freire’s idea on the empowerment of the oppressed is met with challenges due to the cultural and

historical values of society

According to Freire, oppression is found in any place where an individual is not allowed to pursue their self-

affirmation. Such oppression is inherently violent for it prevents an individual from embracing a self-

conscious and critical mindset; for this reason, education must be oriented towards the liberation of every

member in society. Furthermore, Freire insists that it is only the oppressed who can free themselves. Thus,

the need of participating in the struggle of liberation arises as the consciousness of contradictions of being

oppressed is clear and unavoidable. However, in relation to community development, the notion of the

oppressed turning against the oppressor – to seek liberation – may be an oxymoron as the basic concept of

community development stresses collaboration. Yet, as illustrated in the case of WI in Ethiopia, at times

liberation from oppression – such as gender inequality – must firstly take place before full-fledged

collaboration can take place and equal empowerment to proceed.

Moreover, as the women of WI experienced difficulties from the instilled socio-cultural norms of gender

discrimination, the abuse of women‘s human rights has generated a passiveness among the participants.

Women have accepted the lack of consciousness that they are oppressed. Without this self-acknowledgement

of oppression, the author was not convinced as to what approach, in what degree, has to be taken to initiate

anything for empowerment.

In addition, attracting participation from the female members was not easy with the social and cultural

obligations that female members have to endure in their daily lives. For instance, they are burdened with

raising children, fetching water or woods from long distances and working in the field to support their family.

Consequently, the women were reluctant to participate in WI at the expense of not being able to handle such

obligations. This reflects the difficulties in enabling an empowerment process of critical consciousness as the

basic survival chores are at times more pressing than education and participation in community development.

From the case study of WI, it was observed that once seemingly critical about the limit-situation, the

members of WI fail to continue the praxis for their own empowerment. This is contradictory with Freire‘s

notion of critical consciousness in which an individual becomes committed to action and reflection, as they

get involved in a dialogical relation among others. However, saying that a dialogical relationship is

established at a point can be subjective, and the degree often depends on the given cultural context of a

community.

Although Freire‘s concept of liberation is aimed to be inclusive of the oppressed, believing that

empowerment involves the humanization of every person, this approach may be difficult in implementation.

One of the major obstacles is customs and traditions practiced by the masses of a society. The concept of

discrimination or oppression is often neutralized and excused in the name of cultural practices. Thus, those

individuals that may require empowerment most critically is ironically the group that is most difficult to

access and enable to participate. Hence, sharing the notion of a dialogical relation is not an easy task for the

people in community development.

54

In summary, this study has examined that Freire‘s idea of praxis can be central to the whole process of

community transformation. Understanding the capacity of an individual in transforming the reality through

praxis, practitioners in community development are recommended to cultivate environments in which a

dialogical relation can take place. These spaces can be created through regular meetings of organizations or

special workshops in which in-depth discussion by all participants is allowed. Although the participants are

able to establish action plans, the importance of dialogue cannot be underestimated, as it provides reflection

of what changes are desired, what needs are required and what the root causes of the problem are.

Freire‘s liberation theory acquires practicality as individuals actively immerse in praxis in the

transformation of the reality, and empowerment is visible through the process. From the case studies, it is

important to notice that the practice of empowerment is made possible when the worldview held by people is

respected in a dialogical relation. Therefore, the empirical experiences of community development in

Cambodia and Ethiopia have been contextualized based on Freire‘s ideas.

In reconciliation of Freire‘s educational theory and community development, practitioners have to

perceive each individual in the area of implementation as co-investigators in achieving the shared objective.

This requires the program content of activities to be contextualized along with the circumstances of the

people.

In conclusion, for any development activity, it is neither correct that knowledge is possessed by one party

nor that the transfer of it can be dominated. Education should be re-created in the course of humanization.

Thus the content of a program changes according to the perception of involved individuals and their shift of

perspectives. This can be realized when education is dedicated to developing the power of the people in

recognizing the world as the object of transformation. This is how Freire‘s critical pedagogy can be

understood in terms of empowerment in community development in the context of Cambodia and Ethiopia.

55

CHAPTER 4

CONCLUSION

This final chapter tackles the conclusions of this study and poses broader questions for consideration,

remarking the role of critical education in contemporary times as well as how Freire‘s philosophy may or

may not be relevant in the community development and education paradigm. The chapter also outlines

recommendations for further research.

4.1 WHY FREIRE MATTERS TODAY

This study aimed to understand whether Freire‘s philosophy is of any relevance to empowerment and what

implications it can have for the community development in the contexts of Cambodia and Ethiopia. By

addressing this objective, the study took a deep dive in the Freireian school of thought regarding education

and asked how education serves and why it matters. Contemporary and institutionalized education across the

globe has evolved and transformed from a tool of intellectual empowerment and curiosity in science into a

commodification and profit-driven machinery. It is widely accepted that students across all walks of life are

foremost evaluated on the basis of a uniform scale and streamlined tests. Education has also become a space

emphasizing competition rather than collaboration. Thus, with Freire in mind, it is simple to state that

today‘s education systems hold greater potential yet to be unleashed. Education can also be a tool of critical

thinking through which citizens can ask themselves and those in power: What society do we wish to live in,

and what values do we share among one another? Freire matters today as he, still long after his death,

influences the fundamental notion of education's role as a methodology of self-realization. Freire‘s stance is

that education serves as the practice of freedom in humanization without which the impoverished as well as

the wealthy are oppressed.

The uniqueness of this study is the theoretical expansion of Freire‘s philosophy into practical approach

through the observations, interviews and direct interaction in the two case studies. The application of Freire‘s

philosophy in the context of Cambodia and Ethiopia may not have been seen through the Freireian lens yet,

but it already allows a broader understanding of his teaching and a deeper analysis of what occurs on a

grassroots level when considering the notions of critical consciousness, dialogue and praxis.

Consequently this study has presented how the notion of critical consciousness - based on dialogue on the

individual and community level - contributes to the transformation of communities through praxis led by the

inhabitants themselves. This means that through education as a tool to empower cognitive awareness, the

villagers in both Cambodia and Ethiopia felt a stronger urge to take control of community development in

respect of their own context. This unfolding correlation between critical consciousness and action is crucial,

as it presents the practical outcomes of a theoretical educational model. Consequently, this study has been

56

able to apply Freire‘s theory on education to grasp what is happening in the reality of the Khnar Cheung and

Dugededera village.

Firstly, the author saw that village members of the study group in Cambodia were capable of drawing

their existential experiences in order to cope with the matters that were directly relevant to them. Secondly,

by exercising a dialogical relation, it was possible for the villagers and project coordinators in both countries

to jointly learn from each other, resulting in a mutual empowerment process - just as Freire outlines his

generative theme approach. Thirdly, to be critical about the reality found in the two villagers, the inhabitants

could also begin to apply praxis as responsible actors motivated to transform the limit-situations in their

pursuit of improved livelihood and community.

The author believes that the contribution of this study can be summarized in three pillars. First of all, this

study has contributed to providing the practical implication of empowerment by understanding the role of

education. Through the empirical study in community development, the author has identified that

empowerment could come into existence by developing critical consciousness. This entails change and

transformation upon the reality of an individual as their praxis is based on the theme that holds meaning to

them. By understanding the liberation of the self as self-affirmation and self-realization in the human-world

relationship, it is emphasized in the study that education is responsible for helping the people to challenge

what is considered to be given and move forward to understand their ontological vocation in the creation of

the reality with love, humility and faith in human capacity.

In addition, this study has created a meaningful exploration in contextualizing the theoretical dimension of

Freire‘s critical education model into the practice of community development in Cambodia and Ethiopia.

Most studies in relation to Freire‘s theory are spread across Latin America and the northern hemisphere

while many other parts of the world, where education for humanization should be promoted, remain

untouched. Bearing this in mind, the author has put an effort in projecting Freire‘s theoretical discussion onto

his community development projects in Cambodia and Ethiopia as among the least developed countries of

the world. In search for the validity of the contextualization of Freire‘s education model into the case studies,

the author has assured the importance of the unity of theory and practice in applying the theory into the lives

of individuals.

Lastly, this study has benefited practitioners in community development by offering practical perspectives of

implementation at the grassroots level. The study has presented the concrete contexts and processes captured

in the interaction between rural village members. The demonstration of each fieldwork can be exemplary for

those who struggle in looking for the participation of the people in target areas. The study provides examples

in which different groups – varying in gender, motivations, culture, social status and activities – are

described and analyzed under the theme of community development. The author believes that these cases can

57

be well contextualized in different fields of practice as well as providing guidance in principles related to

community development.

However, this study has also encountered several problematic aspects in applying Freire‘s empowerment

methodology to the case studies of community development in Cambodia and Ethiopia. For instance, to try

capturing the notion of consciousness is not an easy task as the term itself holds ambiguity and

abstractness; how can one measure or judge consciousness and self-critical awareness? For Freire, this

question finds an answer in understanding that the critical consciousness always brings about transformation.

Therefore, it requires enduring with the process to examine whether one is empowered or not, because action

and reflection should always occur in a united form. Consequently, measuring the validity of Freire‘s ideas

on empowerment is at some point subjective to an intangible result.

Moreover, the author encountered an ambiguity in deciding the duration of the observed transformation in

the case studies; from what point could the interviews and observations capture the process of empowerment?

This is an important challenge of this study as Freire assumes that the liberation of the oppressed and the

oppressor is a life-long ongoing transformation. Thus, Freire‘s theory did not allow for the practical need to

explain disempowerment of people who are once empowered and become powerless again in face of

oppression. Instead, this study has undertaken a rather linear process in its observations, interviews and

direct interaction. The author utilized the limited period of time presented in the empirical data to analyze

and apply Freire‘s school of thought, although in a Freireian nature these observations are constantly

evolving. Nonetheless, the study has been successful in terms of its relative timeframe to grasp how the

complexities and socio-cultural and economic influences impact the process of community development and

empowerment through Freire‘s point of view.

Furthermore, as a researcher outside of the indigenous community, it was a challenge to interact on a deeper

level and dialogue with the presented study groups, especially considering the language barrier. Dialogical

relation between people takes the essential part of Freire‗s methodology for empowerment in which learning

and teaching take place simultaneously. But when communicating with the study group members, there was

a need for translation, which was time-consuming, and some of the arguments by the villagers were slightly

lost in this translation process. Thus, the language barrier was ineffective in terms of having a sense of

empathy. It made the author dependent on local coordinators to understand the lives of people, and it may

cause impressions that do not reflect the context properly. Yet, this is the reality for many who work in

community development, where the similar problem will be prevailing in practice.

Thus, at the end of this study, the author hopes to have provided a richer and more vivid understanding of

why education matters in community development and empowerment. The author has held the ambition to

argue for education as an important pillar of community development and why it is of concern in Cambodia

58

and Ethiopia. Moreover, the author has questioned the reality of the so-called indoctrination education and

aimed to contribute a fresh take on education as a self-led process wherein community members are

empowered to decide what matters to them - similarly to what Freire advocates. This study has linked

Freire's theory with the real-life practices of the Khnar Cheung and Dugededera village. It is argued that

alternative education is a creative and dynamic methodology for community development. And from this

assumption, this study diversifies perspectives that pose questions on how Freire's philosophy can contribute

as a methodology beyond a theoretical discussion and relate significantly with actual on-the-ground work led

by NGOs, individuals, IGOs or communities themselves.

4.2 FUTURE RESEARCH

The further research is necessary to be conducted in order to consolidate the questions and objectives that

have been tackled through this study into a concrete theoretical framework as well as extend them into a

broader context in relation to cultural and social development at a national level. Therefore, future research is

recommended in the following areas:

Firstly, the concepts and ideas in Freire‘s methodology need to be analyzed in a concrete manner at

every aspect and stage of appearance with respect to their intended and original meaning.. For

example, the author admits the abstract characteristic of the concept lies in a dialogical relation. For

this reason, the future study will be meaningful if it could provide an understanding on the dynamics

of the determinants of a successful dialogical relation from the practical point of community

development.

Secondly, the future study should be able to give more attention on how to embrace cultural and

traditional aspects of a target community for program implementation. As seen in the case study of

WI, it is found difficult to expect the practice of empowerment when a community is culturally

conservative and exclusive. The future study is, therefore, required to be carried out with approaches

in cultural communication in the course of community development work.

Thirdly, if the current study mainly relies on implementation at the grassroots level, the future study

is expected to involve policy-making process at a national level. In this way, the study could put

critical pedagogy on the context of national development of a target country. The research then will

focus on the directions of government in setting the national education system and the implication of

Freire‘s educational model in that process.

Fourthly, the two case studies presented in this study have experienced the long lasting impact of

civil conflict and brutal violence at a national level. The future study may need to compare other

case studies that have different social and historical background, which may result in different

findings as the elements such as trauma or undermined education system may not be as evident, thus

relates differently to Freire‘s theoretical arguments.

59

APPENDIX 1

BASELINE SURVEY FOR VILLAGE LEADERS CONDUCTED IN

KHNAR CHEUNG, CAMBODIA

Name:………………… Sex:……………… Age:…………… Position: …………………

<Village Problem>

1. What is the problem about community development? (Please answer three things)

For example, there is no toilet; there is not enough water for farming

□ _________________________________________________________________

◇___________________________________________________________________

○___________________________________________________________________

2. Please Rank according to important and urgent (1 is the most and 3 is the least)

[Importance]

□ __________ ◇___________ ○____________

[Urgent]

□ __________ ◇___________ ○____________

3. What are causes of these problem (please write three at least)

[About □ problem]

①______________________________________________________________________

②______________________________________________________________________

③______________________________________________________________________

[About ◇ problem]

①______________________________________________________________________

②______________________________________________________________________

③______________________________________________________________________

[About ○ problem]

①______________________________________________________________________

②______________________________________________________________________

③______________________________________________________________________

4. What do you think which one is the most important problem? (please check in box)

[About □ problem]

Cause ① Cause ② Cause ③

60

[About ◇ problem]

Cause ① Cause ② Cause ③

[About ○ problem]

Cause ① Cause ② Cause ③

<Problem Solving>

5. What do you think how can village solve problem □, ◇ and ○?

[About □ problem]

…………………………………………………………………………………………

[About ◇ problem]

……………………………………………………………………………………………

[About ○ problem]

……………………………………………………………………………………………

6. We think that many organization and people need to join to solve these problems. What they can do to solve these

problems?

[About □ problem]

1) Government: …………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………

2) Commune Council:

…………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………

3) Village Development Committee:

…………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………

4) Villagers: …………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………

5) Temple: …………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………

6) GSC or other NGO:

…………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………

[About ◇ problem]

1) Government: …………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………

2) Commune Council:

…………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………

3) Village Development Committee:

…………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………

4) Villagers:

…………………………………………………………………………………………….………………………………

………………………………………………………

5) Temple: …………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………

6) GSC or other NGO:

…………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………

[About ○ problem]

61

1) Government: …………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………

2) Commune Council:

…………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………

3) Village Development Committee:

…………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………

4) Villagers: …………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………

5) Temple: …………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………

6) GSC or other NGO:

…………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………

< Community Development>

7. What do you want to do to develop in your village? (1 or 2 things)

…………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………

8. For these things implement successfully, what they have to do?

1) Government:

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………

2) Commune Council:

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………

3) Village Development Committee:

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………

4) Villagers:

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………

5) Temple:

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………

6) GSC or other NGO:

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………

< About Program>

9. Can you go some places for study tour?

Yes, I can No

10. Which month do you want to go study tour?

September October November

11. When do you want to go study tour?

Weekday Weekend Public holiday

12. What kind of place do you want to visit?

………………………………………………………………………………………………

13. What kind of lecture do you want to listen? (you can check plural)

Leadership Community development management skill Meeting skill

Communication skill financing Planning Computer

Others …………………………………………………………………….

62

APPENDIX 2

BASELINE SURVEY FOR VILLAGERS CONDUCTED IN KHNAR

CHUENG, CAMBODIA

Interview Identification

House ID

Date

Time

Respondent Basic Information

Q1 Name Age Sex

_____________ year old 1. Male 2.Female

Q2 Did you go to school? Yes No

[ Go To Q5]

Q3 How many years did you go to

school? Years

Q4 Can the male head of household

read?

Yes No

No Male head of household

Q5 Can the female head of household

read?

Yes No

No Female head of household

Q6 What is the occupation of the head of

the household?

Agricultural Agricultural day labor

Business Government official

Fisher Technical

Non employed Other

(______________)

Q7 How many people usually live in this

house? 1.Male:________people 2.Female : _______people

Q8

How many family members usually

live and work in other city or

Thailand for working?

1.Male:________people 2.Female : _______people

Village Development Council & Leadership

Q9 Do you think that VDC is useful

organization for your village development?

Not very useful Not useful

Moderate Useful

Very Useful

Q10 How do you evaluate the current activities

of VDC in this village?

Very inactive Inactive

Moderate Active

Very Active

Q11 Do you think there is person who has good

leadership in this village?

Strongly disagree Disagree

Moderate Agree

Strongly agree

Q12

When some problem happens in our village,

do you think that leaders solve the problem

with discussion and cooperation?

Strongly disagree Disagree

Moderate Agree

Strongly agree

Q13 Do you think that leaders reflect villager‘s

opinions?

Strongly disagree Disagree

Moderate Agree

Strongly agree

Q14 Do you think that you are able to know

development information easily?

Strongly disagree Disagree

Moderate Agree

Strongly agree

63

Socio-economic

Q15. What were the two main sources of your cash income of all your family members in the last 12 months?

1. Selling Rice 2. Selling non-rice crop 3. Selling animal product 4. Fishing

5. Farm labor 6. Business/Trading 7. Salary 8. Gift from others

9. Others (specify) :

Q16. In what month do you have highest and lowest income and how much?

1. Highest month ___________ month 2. Lowest month ___________ month

All month same income 3 Don‘t know 4

Q17. Total annual income

About Riel or Dollar

Q18. What do think your living standard among village people in terms of household income?

1. Lower 2. Low 3. Middle 4. Upper 5. High

Technical Skill of Agriculture and Livestock

Q19 Do you have farm for vegetable except rice field? 1. Yes 2. No [Go To Q29]

Q20 What kind of vegetable do you raise?

(Write All)

Q21 Do you have some animal for selling of eating? 1. Yes 2. No [Go To Q29]

Q22 What kind of animal do you raise? 1. Pig 2. Cow 3. Chicken

Q23. Do you think that you know technical skill for raising various vegetable?

1. Not at all 2. A little 3. Normal 4. Well 5. Very well

Q24. Do you think that you know technical skill for raising animals?

1. Not at all 2. A little 3. Normal 4. Well 5. Very well

Q25. What kind of skill do you want to learn? (Write all)

_____________________________________________________________________

Community Spirit

1. Strongly disagree, 2. Disagree, 3. Moderate, 4. Agree, 5. Strongly Agree

Q26 If villagers unite, whatever problem will be solved well. 1 2 3 4 5

Q27 If other villager are in trouble, also my heart bleeds for them 1 2 3 4 5

Q28 If other villager have good luck, also I am happy 1 2 3 4 5

Q29 I trust my family 1 2 3 4 5

Q30 I trust my neighbors 1 2 3 4 5

Q31 I trust most villagers 1 2 3 4 5

Q32 I trust village organization (e.g. VDC, Commune Council) 1 2 3 4 5

Gender Issue

Q33. Now I am going to read you different people‘s different opinions. Please indicate how you feel about the

following statements.

1. Strongly disagree, 2. Disagree, 3. Moderate, 4. Agree, 5. Strongly Agree

64

Q34 Women are as intelligent as men 1 2 3 4 5

Q35 Marriage is necessary for happiness. 1 2 3 4 5

Q36 A man should have a job, and a woman should take care of the

household and the family. 1 2 3 4 5

Q37 A man should make decisions and a woman should obey. 1 2 3 4 5

Q38 A woman respects a husband who does not dominate her. 1 2 3 4 5

Q39. I would like to ask you (or your wife) now who makes decisions on different family matters in your household.

Who decides

Wife Husband Both Do not know No answer

Q40 getting a job

Q41 borrowing money

Q42 buying a new TV or refrigerator

Q43 children‘s level of education

Q44 having another child

65

APPENDIX 3

BASELINE SURVEY FOR VILLAGERS CONDUCTED IN

DUGEDEDERA, ETHIOPIA 1. Basic information

1.1. Name__________________________________

1.2. Age _______________

1.3. Job _______________

1.3. Sex Male

1.4. Phone Number _____________________________

1.5. Address___________ Woreda __________ Kebele_____________ Home No.__________

2. Finance Information (With Photo)

2.1 House

Room Mobile

Kitchen Radio

Toilet Flash lights

Barn Moto cycle/bicycle

Roof Solar lamp

2.2 How wide is your farmland?

2.3 Is the farm yours? Do you own your farmland?

2.4 What kind of crops do you have from farming?

2.5 How much do you earn (get) from your crops?

2.6 Household Income (all family)

Salary (monthly) Crop sales Government assist Etc. Total

3. Water

3.1 Where do you get the water from?

1) Reservoir 2) Water distribution point from Hope community model farm 3) Other

3.2 If both, do you differently use water depending on the water? Yes/ No

3.3 If your answer is yes on Q.3.2, how do you differently use the water?

(e.g. Water from reservoir for cattle, cleaning, etc. )

66

4. Living standards

4.1 Is there any change in your life after constructing the road? Yes/No

4.2 If your answer is Yes on Q.5.1, what kind of change do you have?

4.3 What kind of life change do you have from LG Hope community project?

5. Others

5.1 Which program from World together was helpful and why?

5.2 Which program do you want to participate in again and why?

5.3 Are you satisfied with you current fire pot?

5.4 If not, are you willing to have new developed fire pot?

5.5 How much are you willing to spend your money to buy developed fire pot?

67

APPENDIX 4

INTERVIEW QUESTIONS WITH VILLAGERS FROM DUGEDEDERA,

ETHIOPIA

Q1: What sort of significance has purchasing water had on you, in comparison to the previous methods of gaining water?

Q2: How did the village members came about to purchase a trehser machine out of the financial funding> and what

impact did it have on the living condition?

Q3: What do villagers think of the lack of space – due to the restrictions by the principal by the Dugededera primary

school – for community discussion?

Q4: What is the most urgent thing that is needed to be done for women empowerment? Are female members of

Dugededera conscious of what they are capable of in terms of community development?

68

APPENDIX 5

INTERVIEW QUESTIONS WITH VILLAGERS FROM KHNAR

CHEUNG, CAMBODIA

Q1: How was the process among the SHG members to develop a group meeting in which they could exchange their

ideas, despite limitations such as literacy? And what came easy about and which challenges were encountered?

Q2: Do you believe the SHG is self-governed? If yes, why is it? If no, why is it?

Q3: Only by simple method like drawing was it sufficient to communicate among different members? Did that

effectively generate necessary ideas for discussion? What was the benefit and challenge?

Q4: What did you learn from the collective action and reflection, which is a part of the Farmer Field School? How did

it impact their skill-development?

69

APPENDIX 6

PROFILES OF INTERVIEWEES

Following individuals participated in the interviews. All have given consensus in disclosing their name and

designation.

Khnar Cheung village members in Cambodia (SHG & FFS)

Ms. Sout Sochea

Ms. Kong Sareoun

Dugededera village members in Ethiopia (VDM & WI)

Mr. Ashne Tumse

Mr. Getu Lemma

Mr. Brahanu Mechalu

Mr. Tafasa

Project managers and coordinators (WTI for LG Hope Community)

Ms. Sujin PAK – a Master‘s degree holder in community development who currently working in

Ethiopia as a project manager for LG Hope Community project (also participated in the additional

email correspondence with additional interview questions)

Mr. Girma Lemma – a former chief Woreda office in Sendafa Oromiya region who currently

working for LG Hope Community project

Mr. Tan Tokla – a coordinator of READA in charge of SHG & FFS operation (also participated in

the additional email correspondence with additional interview questions)

Mr. Chea Phalla – a coordinator of READA in charge of SHG & FFS operation

Mr. Thy Yakang – a coordinator of GSC in charge of capacity building program in Cambodia

Agricultural researchers from Cheonan Yonam College in Korea

Mr. Sung Gu Jeong – a researcher in poultry farming

Mr. Daun Lee – a researcher in poultry farming

Additional interviewees with in-depth understanding of the two case study countries

Mr. Ratanak Leng – a Master‘s degree holder in Genocide and civil conflict in Cambodia currently

working at British Embassy in Cambodia (also participated in the additional email correspondence

with additional interview questions)

Mr. Seyoum Berhe – a researcher and traveler of Ethiopia who has published his own work in the

history of Ethiopia in film making

Mr. Beakal Eshetu – a Master‘s degree holder in political science specialized in the study of

community development through capacity building

70

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