the british empire - forgotten books

THE BR IT IS H EMP IRE

IN THE

NINET E ENTH CENTURY

EARL GREY APPEALS TO THE BENCH OF BISHOPSTO PASS THE REFORM BILL.

For about ten years there had been, in Great Britain, a continuous and

s trenuous agitation to procure Parliamentary Reform,and th is agitation

came to a head in 1 83 2 . The chief movers for reform were members ofthe m iddle clas s

,wh ile the ir ch ief grievance was what were ca l led “ rotten

boroughs ”. These boroughs be longed to the great landhol ders of the

country, who cou l d send such representatives to the House of Commonsa s the y p leased ; moreover, these borough s , for pol itica l purposes, cou ld bebought at a price , and were , indeed , a regu lar source of income to the irowners. To abol ish th is unjust system Lord J ohn Russe l l , in 1 832 , introduced a Reform Bil l wh ich , among other th ings, deprived 6o rotten

boroughs of the franch ise. After prolonged and fierce hostil ity the Bil lwas passed through the House of Commons and u ltimatel y sent up to

the House of Lords . There Earl Grey , who was Prime M inister and

also a leader in th is Re form agitation, took the Bil l in charge . He

addressed a special entreaty to the Bench of Bishops to vote for a just

m easure, wh ich wou l d bring peace and happiness to the d istracted country .

But he pleaded in vain ; the Bishops, with one exception, voted against

st he Bi l l, wh ich was thrown out upon that occasion .

THE BRITISH EMPIREIN THE

NINETEENTH CENTURY

ITS PROGRESS AND EXPANS ION AT HOME AND ABROAD

COMPR IS I NG A DE SCR IPT ION AND H I STORY OF TH EBR IT I SH COLON I E S AND DEPENDENC I ES

EDGAR SANDERSON,MA . (CANTAB . )

AUTHOR OF HISTORY OF THE BR ITISH EMP IRE OUTL INES OF THE WORLD'S H ISTORYETC. ETC .

ILL US TRA TED B Y ENGRA VINGS AND AIA PS

VOLUME I I .

BLACK IE SON, LIM ITEDLONDON , GLASGOW, EDINBURGH, AND DUBLIN

C O NT ENT S

VOL. I I .

L I ST OF I LLU STRAT IO N S AND MAPS .

CL IVE HOLDS THE TOWN AND FORT OF ARCOT AGA IN ST THE FRENCH AND THE IRALL IES ,

THE BR IT I SH TROOPS STORM SER INGAPATAM , THE CAP ITAL OF S ULTAN TIPPU ,

THE SON S OF SULTAN TIPPU ARE RECE IVED BY LORD CORNWALL I S As HOSTAGES,

LORD COCHRANE S IGNALS FOR ASS I STANCE To ATTACK THE FRENCH FLEET,

THE GALLANT CHARGE OF THE SCOTS GREYS AT THE BATTLE OF WATERLOO ,EARL GREY APPEALS TO THE BENCH OF B I SHOPS To PASS THE REFORM B ILL ,THE L IBERAT ION OF CHR I STIAN SLAVES AT ALG IERS BY A BR IT I SH NAVAL FORCE ,THE S INK ING OF H .M . S . VICTORIA AFTER COLL I S ION W ITH H .M.S . CAMPERDOWN,

SKETCH MAP OF IND IA ,MAP OF EU ROPE ,

B00K I I.

—Contz'

7zued.

BRITISH COLON IES AND POSSESS IONS BEFORE THEN INETEENTH CENTURY.

CHAPTER X.

Jamaica— The Turks and Caicos Is lands— Nava l Operations in the Wes t Ind ies— Benbow andWager— Hood and Rodney— Captain Faulkner,

CHAPTER XL— INDIA— ANC IENT H I STORY AND REL IG IONS .Unique character of the Bri tish conquest of India— Geograph ical d ivisions and features of the

country— Its earl iest known peoples— Ex isting des cendants of the prim itive tribe s— Beginnings of civi liz a tion— The Aryan conques t— The Sanskri t tongue and sacred booksInstitution of Cas te — Brahmanism e stab l ish ed— H indu mythology— Brahmanica l ph ilosophyand science— The Code of Manu— Origin of Buddh ism— Gautama the Blessed— The Jains .

Appearance of the Greeks in India— The peop l e described by Megas thene s and otherGreek wri te rs . Scyth ian or Turanian invas ions . Blend ing of Brahmanism and Buddh ismin modern H induism— Its d i v inities— Teachmgs of Cha i tanya— Juggernaut. Mahometanconque s t ,

10098 21

vi CONTENTS

CHAPTER XII.— INDlA— H I STORY IN LATER T IMES .

Conques ts of Ala -ud-din— Wars be tween the Mohammedans and H indus— Invas ion by Tamerlanc—Kingdom ofNars inha— Rise of the Mogu l power— Gengh is Khan— Babe r Re ign of

Akbar— Sultan Je hangi r— Shah Je han— His sp lend id arch itectura l works—Th e TajMaha l— Aurangz eb— Appearance of the Mah ra ttas in the Deccan— S ivaji— The Pes hwas— Routof the Mah ra ttas at Paniput

— Nawabs or Suba h da rs— Soc ia l s ta te under Mogu l ru leDea th or Aurangz eb and dec l ine of the empire

— Nad ir S ha h ’s march upon De lh i— TheMogul army defeated and De lhi sacked. Influence of cas te— Vernacula r languages of

India,CHAPTER X I I I .— INDIA - F IRST EUROPEAN SETTLEMENTS.

Portugues e ru le in the East— The Dutch East Ind ia Company— Firs t Eng lis h a ttempts torm h India— Eng l is h Eas t Ind ia Company incorporated— Trade and profits of the Com

pany— Rivalry of the inter lopers ”— The O ld andNew Companies ama lgama te d— Ea rlyEng l is h se ttlements— Factories a t Hug li , &c.

— Oppress ion of the native officials— Originof Calcutta and Bombay— Contes ts w ith the French— Governor Dup le ix— Robe rt C liveHis capture and ga l lant de fence of Arcot— Cause of French failure to e s tab l ish dom inion inInd ia— Bas e trea tment of La Bourdonna is and Count de Lally— Victory of Colone l EyreCoo te at Wandewash— Surrender of Pondicherry,

CHAPTER XIV.— I ND IA— BR IT ISH CONQUEST ( 1756

Suraj-ud~Daula mptures Calcutta— Tragedy of the Black Hole— C li ve ’s v ictory at Plassey— He

re lie ves Patna— Mir Ja far intrigues w ith the Dutch— Misgovemment by the Company’sofficia ls— Patna aga in th reatened by the Nawab of Oud h and Shah A lam— The ir forcesrepulsed by Sir Hector Munro— His v ictory at Buxar— Sad cond ition of the people inBenga l— Second governors h ip of Cl ive— H is sys tem of dua l government— Reform in civ iland military salaries— Career of Warren Has tings— Regu la ting acts of I773— Has tings ’ab le adminis tmtion— Afl

'

airs in Madras and Bombay Pre s idencies— Firs t Mah ra tta War

Ahmedabad s tormed— Gwalior surprise d and captured— The Mysore War —Hyder Alirouted by Sir Eyre Coote— Pi tt’s India Act of I7S4— Impeachment ofWarren Has tingsLord Cornwa llis appo inted Governor -

genera l and Commander- in-chie f in India— Hisnumerous reforms— Second Mysore War— Seringapa tam captured

— Sir John Shore suc

ceeds Lord Cornwallis ,CHAPTER XV.

— CEYLON , PENANG , ETC.

Orig in of the name Ceylon— Early civ i l i za tion and re l igion of the is land— Troubles caused bythe Ma labars or Tamils— Re ign of Prakrama Bahu— Se tt lements of the PortugueseArrival of the Dutch— The ir crue l po l icy— The ir forts ceded to Britain at the Peace of

Amiens— Penang andWe llesley Prov ince ,

BOOK I I I .

CIVIL AND MILITARY H ISTORY IN THE N INETEENTHCENTURY.

CHAPTER I.— THE GREAT WAR W ITH FRANCE ( r803- I8r

Renewa l of the war wi th Buonaparte— His preparations for the invas ion of Bri tain— Themaritime powe r of France des troyed at Trafa lgar— Buonapa rte ’s successes on the Continent—H is decrees against Bri tish trade— De tai ls of Ne l son’

s grea t v ictory— The Treaty of

Ti l s it— Mr. Canning reso l ves to se iz e the Danis h fleet— Ba tt le of Copenhag en— The war inthe Peninsula— \Ve llington’

s success es— He enters French terr itory— Buonapa rte ’s re verses

CONTENTS.

— H is abdication and e xile to E lba— Naval warfare a fte r Tra fa lgar— The Basque RoadsCareer of Lo rd Cochrane— Exp loits of Bri tish war-sh ips— Captain Brenton and the Spar tan— Capta in Hos te at Lissa— Some Bri tish fai lures— Buenos Ayres and Monte Video— TheDardane l l es— Wa lcheren— Close of the Grea t “far— Resu l ts of Britis h naval warfareBuonaparte returns to France— H is final overthrow at Water loo— Readjustment of the

Continenta l countries ,CHAPTER I I .— WAR W ITH THE UN ITED STATES ( I 8 I 2

Causes of the war— War on Canadian frontier— General Brock— Figh ting on Lakes Ontarioand Erie— Battles of Ch rys ler’s Farm and Lundy’s Lane— D isparity of British andAmerican

friga tes— Losses of the Britis h— Capture of the Cfiesapeaée by the Sbam zon— The American

sea -board harassed— Wash ington captured— Fai lure of attacks on Baltimore and NewOrleans— D isastrous resu lts of the war,

CHAPTER I I I .— HOME AFFA IRS AND REFORM LEG ISLAT ION.Ag itation for reform stimu late d by h igh prices of food and depression of trade— The Ludd ite

riots— Rise of Rad ica l ism— Cobbe tt , Burde tt, and Hunt The Fie l d of Pe terloo — The“Six Acts — Cato S treet p lot— Par liamentary representation be fore 1830

— The Firs tRe form Bi l l— Opposition in Pa rli ament— R iots in Bris to l &c.

— How the bi l l fina l ly became

law— Changes in the franch ise— The Peop l e ’s Charte r — Thomas Cooper, Ernes t Jones ,Henry Vincent , and Mr. S tephens— Feargus O ’connor— The Nationa l Convention and

Nationa l Pe tition — Frost, Wi l l iams,and Jones— Chartism e x tinguis hed— The Second

Re form Act, 1867— Th ird Re form Act , 1884—85 ,

CHAPTER IV.— FORE IGN POL ICY AND WARS I N EUROPE (18 15

Re lat ions wi th France— Tah iti and Queen Pomare— The Orsini outrage— The Commercial

Treaty— Re lations w ith Aus tria and Pruss ia— The Holy A l l iance— Lord Palm erston’

s

sympathy w ith Kossuth— Spa in and Portuga l— Ferdinand VII.— The South American

repub l ics recogn ized— Portuga l sa ved from Spanish invasion— Sweden and Norway— TheTreaty of S tockho lm— Ita ly— Desire for unification— The Carbonari— Maz z ini organiz es

Young I ta ly ”— Unpa triotic action of Lord Abe rdeen and Sir Jame s Graham— Char lesA lbert and Victor Emanue l— Gari ba l di— Mr . G ladstone exposes the tyranny of the Nea

po l itan government— Baron Poerio— Po l icy of Count Cavour— Greece made independent ofTurkey— Lord Pa lmerston and the Don Pacifico a ffair— Be lgium and Ho l land— Bri tishpo l icy of non -intervention — Civil wars in Portugal and Spa in— Schleswig and Ho lste intaken from Denmark— Russia— Her designs upon Turkey— The Crimean War— Fa l l ofSebas topo l— Renewed war be tween Russia and Turkey— The Treaty of Ber l in,

CHAPTER V.— FORE IGN POL ICY I N AS IA ( IS IS

The Syrian war— Meheni e t A li and Ibrah im Pasha— Bomba rdment of S t . Jean d’Acre— Mas

sacre of Ch ris tians by the Druses— The fi rs t Ch ina or Opium war— Se iz ure and destructionof opium

— Chusan Is lands occupied by the Briti sh— Capture of Ch inese cities— Treaty ofNanking— Second Ch ina w ar— Affair of the A rrow— Canton bombarded and Comm issionerYeh captured— Forts in the Pe iho taken— Treaty of Tien - ts in— Th ird Ch ina war— The

a l l ies repu lsed at the Taku forts— Treach erous se izure of Bri tish officia l s by the Ch ineseThe a l l ies march upon and enter Pekin— The Summer Pa lace destroyed— Treaty of Tientsin fina l ly ratified— Opening of trade w ith Japan— Murder of Mr. Richardson— Subm ission of Satsuma— Constitutiona l ru le on European mode ls introduced ,

CHAPTER VI.— FORE IGN POL I CY IN AFR ICA ( ISI5—I895 ) .

Piracy and slavery in Alg ie rs— Exped itions under Lord Exmouth— Abyss inia— Capture ofMagda la and death of King Theodore— Egypt under Said Pasha— Adm inis tration of Ismai lPasha— The Suez Cana l— Tewfik Pasha— Arabi Pasha becomes d icta tor— BombardmentofA le xandria —Arabi de feated at Kas sass in and Te l - e l-Kebir— The war in the SoudanAppearance of the Mahd i— General H icks ’ army destroyed— General Gordon sent to Khar

v i i

CONTENTS.

toum— Lord Wo l se ley’s exped ition to re lieve Gordon— Osman D igna in the eastern Soudan— Action at E l Teb— General Graham ’

s e xped itions to Suakin— Actions at Tamas i andHasbeen— The Aus tralian contingent,

CHAPTER VIL— GREAT BR ITA IN AND THE UN ITED STATESThe As hburton Trea ty— Suppress ion of the s lave - trade— Se ttlement of the Oregon questionBritis h recruiting in the United States— Vis it of the Prince of Wales— Attitude of Grea t

Bri ta in during the American civ i l war— Afi'ai r of the Trent— Running the blockade— Confedera te cruisers bui l t in Britis h s h ip -yards— The Treaty of Wash ington— The A labamacla ims—Growth of soc ial and sympath e tic re lations between the United S tates and GreatBritain,

CHAPTER VI I I . —IRELAND.

Prospe ri ty of U lster Ev ils of party -

government — The s tory of Robert Emmet — DanielO

’

Conne ll and Repea l— Capta in Thomas Drummond— Father Ma th ew— Agitat ion for

Repeal— Tria l of O ’conne l l— The “ Young Ireland ” Party— Smith O’

Brien, M eag h er,M i tche l , and Dufl'

y— The Fenian Organiz a tion— The Cl erkenwe l l atrocity— Outrages of

the“ dynamiters ” —A new Poor Law and Municipa l Re form Act— Agi tation for Home

ru l e— Mess rs . Butt and Pam e ll— The Phoenix Park murders— Mr. Glads tone ’s first Homerule bi l l— The Times and the Pam elliteS— The second Home -rule bi l l— The I rish landques tion— Wre tch ed cond ition of the peasantry— The Potato Fam ine— Ra vages of d iseas eMr. G ladstone ’s Irish Land Acts— The Nationa l Land League — Othe r remed ia l landmeasures— Improved cond ition of the country ,

CHAPTER IX .—DOMEST IC EVENTS OF THE CENTURY .

The frost of 18 14 and summer of I893— The O . P. riots at Covent Garden Theatre Notable

fires : York M inster— Westm inster Abbey— Bonded stores in Dub l in— Chambers of Parliament— Royal Exchange , London - Inne r Temp l e , London— Covent Garden Th eatreToo l ey S tree t , London— Crys ta l Palace — Her Majes ty’s Th eatre , London .

— Maritimed isas ters : The Kent

, Eas t Ind iaman— The Rot/zesay Castle— The Forfa r s/z i re— GraceDar l ing— The Amaz on , mail -steamer— The B i rkenlzead, troop - sh ip— The Roya l C/za rtorThe iron-clads Capta in and Vang uard

— The P r incess A lice— The Victor ia , iron -clad .Ra ilway d isas ters : S taplehurst— Aberge le —Abbo ts Ripton— The Tay Bridge ,

CHAPTER X .— DOMEST IC EVENTS OF THE CENTURY (Con tinu ed).

Fauntleroy the forger— Commercia l cris is of 1825

- 26— The Rai lway Mania— Banking - housefrauds— The Co tton Famine Black Friday in London— Failure of Overend, Gurney,Co . , and of the C ity of G lasgow Bank —Crimes of vio lence— The “VVhitechape l

murders ” — Franz M ul l er — Wil l iam Palmer — Dr. Edward Wi l l iam Pritchard — The

Watson murde r —Garrotting ,

OUR EM P IR E

AT HOM E AND A B ROA D

BOOK II —Continuea'.

BRITISH COLON IES AND POSSESS IONS BEFORETHE N INETEENTH CENTURY .

CHAPTER X .— Cont inued.

Jamaica— The Turks and Caicos I s lands— Na va l Ope rations in the West IndiesB enbow andWager

— Hood and Rodney— Capta in Fau lkner.

THE nat ives whom Columbus found i n possess ion of J amaicawere not Caribs , but “ I nd ians of a m ilder type, and the ornam e nts wh ich they wore proved that they had access to gold andS i lver i n some abundance

,the source of which has always been a

mystery. I n I 509 a fi rs t Span ish settlement was made, under theleade rsh ip of Esqu ime l. Some fain t t races remain of the fi rstSpan ish capi tal

,cal led Sev i l la N ueva, or N ew Sev il le , and after

wards ent itled Sevi l la del O ro,or Golden Sev i l l e, from the great

amount of gold d isplayed by the nat ives i n thei r dress . Duringthe 16 th cen tury the Span iards i ndulged i n thei r habi tual cruel tytowards the nat ives . The records of the island reek with bloodshed , and, i n the course of the fi rs t hal f of the 1 7th century, duri ngwhich J amaica remained under Spanish rule

,the aborigi nes had

become almost exti nc t.I t i s wel l known that the Bri ti sh conquest of the island is due

to the energetic foreign pol icy of Cromwel l . That great rule rmade war on Spai n probably from mixed motives . The foe ofA rmada days sti l l posed , i n her decl ine , as the great Cathol i cPower, and the Cathol ics we re the one exception to Cromwel l

’

srule of rel igious tolerance . The Cathol ic power was also the trademonopol is t beyond A tlantic waters

,and a B ri ti sh ruler, j ealous for

the ris ing comme rce of h is country, would not tamely regard the

Exclusion of her trade- sh ips from the We st I ndian seas . Without

nVOL.

OUR EM P IRE AT HOME AND ABROAD.

any declaration of war,a Strong exped i t ion was secretly organ ized

i n 16 54,for the in tended conques t of H ispaniola (Hayti , or San

Domingo), and i n Decembe r of that year the Ships sai led from ourshores

,under the command of Admi ral Penn , with troops at the

orde rs of General Venables . E i ther from lack of due preparations ,or from the absence of energy and skil l i n the leaders , the attackon H ispaniola utterly fai led . The commanders, fearful of return ingto face

,without any troph ies , such a ruler as Cromwell , turned

thei r attention to J amaica , and were lucky, s trong, or ski lfulenough to master the smal ler is land . I n May, I6 5 5 , J amaica thuspassed once and final ly i nto Bri t ish hands , being formally ceded , i n16 70 ,

by the Treaty of Madrid . Cromwel l sent h i s two commanders for a sojourn i n the Tower, on account Of thei r lack of

success i n h is main Object, but he wise ly strove to make the bestof what had been won . A body of troops was sen t out in 16 5 6 ,

and the island was placed under m il i tary rule unti l shortly after theRestorat ion . The population , at the t ime of conque st, cons i stedonly of about 1600 whi tes, and a smaller number of negro slaves ,but the new Bri ti sh rule rs made energetic efforts towards coloniz at ion. N ew settlers poured in from the Bermudas , Barbados ,N ev is, and New England . A thousand girl s and as many ladswere conveyed th i ther from lately - conquered I reland , and a cons ide rable numbe r of Scottish emigrants arrived upon the scene .

I n 16 58 , the Span iards, with a large force, composed both of oldSpanish colonis ts and of troops from Spain , landed i n J amaicawi th a V i ew to reconquest, but they were severely repu lsed by thenew possessors , under the di rec tion of Governor D

’

Oyley, a manof remarkable abi l i ty both in mil i tary and c iv i l affai rs .The colony presents us wi th a very early example of sel f

government, or, at any rate , of representat ive colon ial i ns t i tutions .Charles I I . , as part of a regular c iv i l government , al lowed thee stabl i shment of an e le ctive Counci l

,and in 1664 the fi rs t General

Assembly met at the old cap ital,Span ish Town . The introduction

of the sugar- cane led to a profi table growth,manufacture , and

trade , and the island soon acqui red i ts l as ting fame i n connectionwi th sugar, molasses , and rum . Vast numbers of negroes wereimported for work on the plantat ions

,and i n 1690 J amaica is said

to have contained S laves . The sugar which w as producedproved to have qual ity superior to that sent from any other B rit i sh

COLON IAL POSSESS IONS IN THE WEST IND IES .J

i sland i n the West I ndies , and the merchants and sugar—boilers ofB ristol found therein a . te em ing source of we alth . Some of theplan te rs became , for that age , men of e normous riches . Theestates were some t imes very large . An abundant supply of labourcame from our posts on the West A frican coast , and there weregrowers enjoying incomes of from to double tha t amoun ta year

,at a t ime when a large landowne r i n E ngland was accounted

very ri ch on an income ofI n 166 2 ,

Lord Windsor was appointed Governor, and remai nedi n power for five years, during which he i naugurated the const i

t ut ional system . S i r Thomas Modyford, who ruled from 1666 to

16 70 ,was an even abler and wise r governor than Lord Windsor,

and i t was under h is v igorous adm in istration that the sugar- plantingbegan to flourish . The weal th of the colon ists was partly derived ,at th is period

,from deal i ngs with the bucane ers , who resorted to

Port Royal,and made that the Ch ief depot of the i r predatory bus i

ness . I n 16 78 , a new Governor, Lord Carl isle , took out wi th h ima number of “A cts with the Gre at Seal attached , one of whichgranted a pe rpetual revenue to the Crown . This new const itut ionwas rejected by the Assembly, whose m embers declared the proposed system of legislation to be “ contrary to the government ofEngland

,of which country we are I n the re ign ofWill i am “L,

J amaica fel l on somewhat troublous times . I n 1692 , a terriblee arthquake destroyed Port Royal , caus ing K ingston to be come thet emporary capi tal . The war with France incl uded mari t ime attackson our We st I nd ian trade , during wh ich many merchantmen werecaptured , and in 1695 the i sl and was assai led by a French e xpedit ion . Troops were landed , and the i nvaders succeeded in devastat ing many plantations , and i n carrying off about 1300 slaves ,worth , at the current market rates , 50 each . They were at lastrouted , with great loss, by the colon ial m i l i t ia gathered at Carl isleBay .

Duri ng the early part of the eighteenth century , the i slands uffered much , at i ntervals , from the effects of natural convuls ionsand d isease , and from the host il i ty of man . I n 1 71 2 , a terriblehurricane wasted the plantations on the east, and th is d isaster wasfollowed by earthquakes

,slave rebel l ions

,and outbreaks of yellow

fever and othe r i ndigenous malad ies . I n 1720 ,much harm was

caused to prope rty and people by an i nvasion of the P icaroons, or

OUR EM P IRE AT HOME AND ABROAD.

native marauders,from Cuba

,and a law was then passed ordering

the planters,under penalty

,to raise and maintai n troops for coast

defe nce . The slaves were a chron ic sou rce of trouble , and therewas much warfare with the brigands cal led Maroons , or moun

ta ine e rs , from the Spanish cima r r on (oima , a mountain - top) . Thisterm

,appl ie d in J amaica and Guiana to fugi t ive negro S laves ,

original ly meant,i n the West I nd ian i sland , th e descendants of the

slaves who fl ed to the h il ls i n 16 5 5 , and were joi ned , from time tot ime

,by runaways from the estates . I n 1 760 , a slave revol t led

to the massacre of many Bri ti sh and other E uropean fam il ies , andthe services of two regiments , bes ides the island m i l i t ia , wereneeded for i ts suppression . Two years later, the expedi t ion wh ichcaptured Havannah , the capi tal of Cuba , sai led from Port Royal ,and much of the vast booty then acqu i red was d isposed of i n theisland , with the consequence of a free expend i ture more conduc iveto brisk trade than to sound morals . Some regard for the i nterestsof c iv i l i zation was shown by the people and the i r rulers i n theOpen ing, at K ingston , of a botan ical garden , i n 1 773, and of apubl ic hospi tal three years late r.I n 1 779, Commander N elson , of the B adg er brig, was at Mon

tego Bay , on the north coast, when a fi re broke out on board theGla sg ow ,

of 20 guns . He r steward had caused the m isch ief,while

he was engaged in steal i ng rum ou t of the after- hold . The “ com ingman ” of the Bri tish navy was qu ickly on the spot, di rect ing operat ions wi th heroic coolness . The crew, in a panic, were about toleap ove rboard , when N elson arrived wi th h is boats, and madethem throw the powder i nto the sea and poin t the shotted gunsupwards . H is presence of m ind and personal efforts succeeded i npreserving the l ives of the ship’s company . I t was in 178 2 , theyear of Rodney ’s v ictory wh ich saved J amaica from the French

,

that the Duke of Clarence,afterwards Will iam IV was the fi rst

royal personage of Great B ri tain that ever landed on the i sland .

I n 1795 , a great outbreak of Maroons placed the B ri ti sh populat ion , i n town and country, i n the most serious danger. A desperateconfl ict occurred , i n which the m il i ti a and the peopl e were aided by1 500 Bri t ish troops , i ncluding the 20th and 83rd Foot, and the 1 5 thDragoons . N early 5000 men were in the field agains t the rebels

,

but , beaten on the Open ground , the negroes took to strongholdsamong the h i l ls, where i t was di fficul t to fol low and subdue them .

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6 OUR EM PIRE AT HOME AND ABROAD.

were afterwards attacked,and al l taken or sunk , by the Engl i sh

and Dutch at Vigo Bay,but good serv ice was done in protecting

the West I ndian trade from French attacks .On August 19th, 1 70 2 ,

Benbow, wi th h is flag flying on the70

-gun sh ip B reda ,and accompan ied by S ix smaller vessels, fe l l i n

wi th a French squadron of ten sai l , under Rear- admi ral D u Casse .

The enemy had only four strong sh ips of 70 and 60 guns , and theB ri t i sh commander at once stood i n chase . The pos it ion at seawas off Santa Marta , a small port i n Colombia , east of the Magdalena river

,on the north coast of South America . Some of Ben

bow’

s captains flatly d isobeyed h is orders for the method of attack ,and le ft h im to contend alone wi th the two largest F rench vessels ,by which the B r eda was severely handled . The fight lasted from

4 R M. ti l l n ightfal l , and B enbow, keeping up pursu i t al l n ight ,found h imsel f at daybreak wi th only the R zzoy , of 48 guns, near athand , h is other sh ips be ing some miles astern . The enemy thenformed l ine and sai led on the i r way, followed by the B r eda

,th e

Rnoy ,and the Fa lmoa t/z , also of 48 guns , whi le the four other

B rit i sh sh ips made no effort to keep i n company . S t i l l i n eagerpursu i t , Benbow, on the 24th, closed wi th one of the French vesse l s ,and three t ime s boarded her i n person , receiv ing severe wounds i nthe face and arm . H is right leg was then shattered by a chai nshot

,and he was carried be low, but at h is own ins istence h e was

brought up again on deck , where he lay i n h i s cot giv ing ordersfor the confl ic t . The efforts to carry the French sh ip by board inghad fai led , but the B ri t ish gunnery had made her a mere wreck ,when at dayl ight on the 2 5 th her consorts were seen bearing downto her re l i ef. Benbow

’

s four Ves sel s , which had been hold ing aloof,then fai rly ran away and left h im

,though h is s ignal for Close act ion

was flying aloft . The enemy ’s vessel s made for the B reda ,and

after i nfl i ct ing much damage by the i r fi re,sai led away unpursued

by the B ri t i sh ships . The spi ri t of the brave admi ral was shownwhen one of h i s l ieutenants condoled with h im on the l oss of h isleg .

“ I had rather have lost them both,

” cried old Benbow,

“ thanhave see n th is dishonour brought upon the Engl i sh nation . Butdo you hear ! i f another shot should take me off

,behave l ike brave

men and fight i t out .When he s ignal led for the four sh ips to form in h is rear and

renew the pursu it . the captai ns came aboard . and expressed the

COLON IAL POSSESS ION S IN THE WEST INDIES. 7

opin ion that i t was “ better to des ist ; that the French were verystrong

,and that from what had passed , the admiral might guess he

could make noth ing of i t With i nfin ite d isgus t Benbow wasthus compel led to make for J amaica, i n order to refi t, and there,early i n N ovember, he d ied of h is wounds . D u Casse , the Frenchadmiral

,wrote to Benbow from Carthagena - a letter dated August

2 2nd: “S i r, I had l i ttl e hopes on Monday last but to have suppedin your cabin , but i t pleased God to order i t otherwise . I amthankful for i t . As for those cowardly captains who deserted you

,

hang them up , for by heaven they deserve i t . The Op i nion ofthe B ri t ish authori t ies agreed with that of the French commander .On Apri l i 6 th, 1703, Captains K i rkby of the Defiance, and Wadeof the Gr eener/ion, were shot on board the B r istol at Plymouth , bysentence of court - martial , condemning them for cowardice, disobedience Of orders , and neglect of duty . Captain Constable ofthe Windsor , being acqu itted of the “ cowardice ” port ion of thecharge

,was dism issed from the serv ice . Captai n H udson of the

P endenni s died a few days before the trial came on . The conductof these men was withou t any parallel , before or S i nce , i n the glorioush isto ry of the Bri ti sh navy, and i t has never met with a sat isfactoryexplanat ion . Cowardice seems i ncred ible . D i saffection or treacheryto the nat ional cause is possible, but has no ev idence to support i t .I t has therefore been plaus ibly conj ectured that personal enmity toB enbow

,caused by a rough and overbeari ng demeanour i n one

who had risen from a low posi tion , was the real mot iv e of mense eking, at the cost of thei r own , and to some exten t of thei rcountry ’s honour, to make thei r superior miss success agains t thenat ional foe .

I n 1 708 , Commodore Wager was in command of the WestI nd ia squadron . A French fleet under Benbow ’s antagon ist, DuCasse , had arrived at H avannah , i n Cuba, i n order to escort a fleetof Span ish treasure - ships . The B rit ish commander, seeki ng tointercept them between Porto Bel lo and Carthagena, came in sightof 1 7 Span i sh vessel s on May 28th. Wager had with h im butthree sh ips of 60 guns . The Span ish adm i ral was i n a 64-gunvessel, and th i rteen others were of cons iderable force . Wagerfough t the admiral ’s ship for an hour and a half, when she took fi reand blew up . The enemy ’s squadron then dispersed , but late onthe same n ight

,when i t was very dark,he came alongs ide the ship

8 OUR EM P IRE AT HOME AND ABROAD .

of the Span ish rearadmiral , and with the help of h i s consorts forcedher to surrender. Wager

,for th i s success , became rear- admi ral ;

the captain s of the two other Bri t ish sh ips were di sm issed fromthose commands for lack of zeal i n pursu ing the enemy

’

s v iceadmiral . They al leged that they chased h im among some shoals ,where the dangers of nav igat ion h indered them from fol lowing.

The remembrance of Benbow'

s captains appears to have caused a

s omewhat severe treatment of Wager’

s subord inates . The squadronof Admi ral Wager rendered effic ient serv ice i n protecting the tradeo f our colon ies i n the West I ndies , and i n damaging that of theFrench . I n Apri l

, 1709, Captai n H utch ins, of the 50 -gun sh ipP or tland, Observed fou r French men - of-war, two of 50 and two of

30 guns, at anchor i n the harbour of Porto Bel lo . On May I s t hefound that the two larger sh ips , the Coventry and M ignon ,

had putto sea, and at once started i n quest . On the 3rd, th ey were seenbearing up to fight. On the 4th they were engaged i n a runn inge ncounter, with great damage to the Por tland

’

s rigging. On the5 th , afte r due repai rs , the Bri t i sh sh ip was i n chase . On the 6 th ,

a fter a severe and close act ion , the Coventry was taken , whi le theM ig non escaped . I n J une, 171 1 , the 50 - gun sh ip Newca stle,

Captain Sampson Bourne , encoun tered off A ntigua a hosti l e floti l lafrom Martin ique, despatched from the French head- quarters i n theWest I nd ies for the capture of the former i sland . The enemy ’sforce cons isted of one 36 -gun sh ip, one of 24 guns , and n ineprivateer sloops . A fter an act ion of th ree hours , the Bri tishcaptai n completely beat the enemy ’s vessel s, and drove them backi n rou t to the place whence they came .

When we pass on to the t ime of the Seven Years’ War,we

find Bri t i sh sai lors i n the West I ndies d isplaying the wonted dashof thei r noble call ing . I n September

, 1 760,Captain Lucius O

’

Brien,

o f the 70-gun sh ip Temp le, with the 28 -gun frigate Gr gfi n, heardo f seven sai l of F rench vessels

,i ncl ud ing three large pri vateers

,as

a nchored at Grenada, laden wi th prov is ions for Mart i n ique . Hea t once made sai l for the posi t ion of the foe

,anchored hi s sh ips

under the batteries , s i lenced thei r fi re , sen t i n h i s boats , and broughtou t as pri zes the whole of the flotil la , one of which proved to be aBrit ish sloop lately taken by the French . Rear- admi ral H olmeswas at th is t ime commanding the naval forces on the Jamaicas tation . One of the exploi ts performed by h is squadron was the

COLON IAL POSSESS IONS IN THE WEST IND IES.9

capture or destruct ion , i n 1 760 , by the Hamfisnir e 50-gun sh ip andtwo small frigates

,of fou r ou t of five French frigates , one of 32

guns,afte r a l ively Chase and some Spi ri ted fighting. I n J uly ,

1 779, Vice - admi ral the H on . J ohn Byron , i n the 90 - gun Sh ipP r incess Roya l, with a fleet composed of eleven 74- gun sh ips , one

70- gun,seven 64-guns

,and one of 60 , fought a fierce battl e with

the French admi ral Comte d’

Es ta ing , who had two 80 - gun sh ips ,twelve 74

’

s , e ight 64’

s , and three of 50 guns , bes ides 10 frigates .The enemy , as we have seen , had recently captured Grenada andS t . Vincen t, and Admiral Byron sai l ed from S t . Luc ia inorder toattempt the recapture of the latte r i sland . E ncountering thesuperior F rench fleet, he s ignal led for close act ion , bu t the B ri t ishefforts were much thwarted by the superior sai l ing of the enemy ’svessels

,and noth ing of a decis ive natu re occu rred . N evertheless ,

the French fleet was driven off wi th a loss to the B rit ish of morethan 500 k i l led and wounded , while the foe were weakened bynearly 3000 men. A t the end of Apri l , 1 78 1, Rear- admi ral S i rSamuel H ood , off Mart in ique, had a d istant cannonading fightw ith the Comte de Grasse ’s greatly superior force

,when the

enemy’s vessels had the advantage of the wind , and again showedbetter qual i t i es for sai l i ng ; they did not, however, Show any desi re ,after being i n s ight for several days, to bring on a close and decis iveact ion .

There were many encounters at th is period off the N orthAmerican coast, without any very notable resul t, but, retu rn ing tothe We st I ndies, we find a B ri t ish fleet , i n J anuary, 178 2 , underS i r Samuel Hood , sai l i ng from N ew York to the West I ndies ,where the Comte de Grasse was besieg ing the B ri t ish island S t .Kitts . Hood ’s force cons i sted of 2 2 sai l o f the l ine, when hes ighted the French on the 2 5 th, with one Ship of 1 10 guns, 28 twodeckers , and 2 frigates . I n some manoeuvring which took place,Hood , afte r drawing out the French fleet

,took advantage of the

wind to occupy the anchorage wh ich they had qu itted , and thenrepulsed , with great loss to th e foe, three separate and fierceattacks made by the French admiral . This engagement was theprel im inary to the battle al ready described at length , and severalt imes referred to, i n wh ich Rodney and Hood pract ically ann ih i lated , for that time, th e French mari t ime power i n the WestI ndies .

IO OUR EMP IRE AT HOME AND ABROAD.

I n deal ing with the h isto ry of the West I ndia i slands wh ichbecame and have remained Brit ish possessions , we must not forgetthe ach ievements of ou r arms that gave th is country possession , fora season

,of i slands wh ich d iplomatists , who had incu rred no

danger and were s i tt i ng at thei r ease , afterwards thought fi t torestore to France . The capture of Martin ique , i n March , 1 794,was one of these events . A combined naval and m il i tary force ,under Vice - admiral S i r J ohn J e rv is (afterwards Earl S t. Vincent)and General S i r George Grey , were engaged in a long andarduous s iege of the French works . The officers and crew of thebrig Zeéra ,

Commander Robert Faulknor, received on th i s occasionthe naval medal for the gal lan try d isplayed i n ru nn ing alongs ide ofand storming the bastion of Fort Royal . The same armament, i nApri l , took S t . Lucia, and in J u ly obtained possess ion of Guadeloupe, which island was, however, recaptured by the French i n theensu ing December.The year 1 795 was s ignal ized , i n the West I nd ies , by the

famous action between the frigates B lancne and P ique. OnJ anuary 4th, the Bri t ish vessel B lancne, carry ing 32 guns, mostlyI2 - pounders , and commanded by Captain Faulknor, the hero promoted from the brig Zeora ,

came off Poi nte-a- Pi tre, Guadeloupe .

A t daybreak , the French vessel P ique was seen lying at anchoroutside the harbour . Her force i n guns must have been at leastequal to that Of th e B lancne

,s i nce she carried a crew of 275 men ,

as agains t 198 on board her B ri tish foe . The French Sh ip cameout, and manoeuv ri ng of an i ntri cate nature took place during thewhole day and after dark , as the vessels , runn ing towards Mari eGalante , strove to gain the advantage of the wi nd . About two !

o’

clock i n the morn ing of J anuary 5 th,th e darkness of the trop ical

n ight was l i t up by the flashes of the guns,as both vessel s, runn ing

off the wind , exchanged a close fi re . I n half an hour the B lancnestrove to cross the enemy ’s bows to give her a raking, but theBri tish sh ip

’

s main and m izen masts went by the board , and thenthe P ique ran i nto her starboard quarter. The Frenchmen nowmade several strong attempts to board

,but they were al l repulsed

with loss, whi le the gu ns of the B lancne fi red with great effect onthe enemy ’s crowded decks . A t 3 o

’clock,Captai n Faulknor was

ki l led by a musket- bal l th rough the heart,as he was helping one

of h is l ieutenants to lash the enemy ’s bowspri t to the capstan of

INDIA fl ANCIENT H ISTORY AND RELIGIONS . I I

the B lancne. The two ve ssel s the n separated , but the B lancne,he lpless from lack of sai ls , now fel l on board the P ique, and theywere kept i n contact by lash ing the F rench bowspri t to the stumpof the B rit ish mainmast . The desperate contest was then main

ta ined,as the sh ips wen t before the wi nd , by a fi re of musketry.

The B lanc/i e, having no stern - ports on her main - deck , could fi re noguns except two 6 - pounders on the quarter- deck . Afte r a vai nattempt to cu t ports , the B ri t ish resorted to the summaryexped ient of fi ri ng thei r own after-guns at the framework by thestern

,and then poi nt ing two 12 - pounders from the Opening thus

forme d . The fi re o f these guns , thus brought to be ar ful l on theP ique, was such that at the Frenchman

'

s mainmast, the onlyone left standing, went over the s ide . Two hours later, when theP ique had long been unabl e to fi re a Shot , some of her crew cameout on he r bowspri t wi th an Offer of surrender. This engagement

,

unsurpassed for combined severi ty and pecul iari ty of ci rcumstancei n the annals of naval warfare , cos t the B ri t ish but eight ki l led and2 1 wounded . The decks of the captured P ique were a frightfulscene of carnage , in a loss amounting to 76 k il led and 105

wounded . A naval medal was gran ted for th is action , and boththe l i eutenants received promotion to the rank of post- captains .The pri ze joined the ranks of the B ri ti sh navy as a 36 -gun1 2 - pounder frigate .

CHAPTER XI .

IND IA— ANC IENT H ISTORY AND REL IGIONS.

Unique character of the B rit ish conquest of India— Geograph ica l d iv is ions and featuresof the country— Its earl iest known peoples— Existing descendants of the prim itivetribe s— B eg inning s of C i v i l iz at ion— The Aryan conquest— The Sanskrit tongue and

sacred books— Inst itution of Cas te - B rahmanism establ ished— H indu mythologyB rahmanica l phi losophy and sc ience— The Code of Mann— Orig in of BuddhismGautama the B les sed— The J a ins . Appearance of the Greeks in India— Th e peopledescribed by Megasthenes and other Greek writers . Scyth ian or Turanian in vas ions .

B lend ing of B rahmanism and Buddh ism in modern H indu ism— Its di v initiesTeaching s of Cha itanya— Juggernaut. M ahom etan conquest.

The fact of Bri t i sh sway in I ndia i s one of the grand phenomena , as the future of that vast domin ion is one of the greatest andmost puzzl i ng problems, presented by modern h istory . Our Asiat i cempi re . unl ike our colon ie s , properly so cal led , i s a vast region i n

12 OUR EM P IRE AT HOME AND ABROAD .

w hich E uropean power and civ i l i zat ion find themselves confrontedby a teeming population , Of d ivers races and tongues , hold ing andpracti s ing some of the most ancient rel igious bel iefs , customs , mode sof rule

,and superst i t ions to be found i n the world . I t i s the busi

ness of the h istorian to describe th e c i rcumstances and eventsam idst and by wh ich a company of traders , withou t any set purpose,and almost i n spite of themselves , became the v i rtual rulers of aterri tory as la rge and as popu lous as the whole of Eu rope , excl usiveof Russia . I n popular language , Great B ri tai n i s said to haveconquered I ndia

,and th i s i s t rue , i n so far as that the control of

the terri tory was,to a large degree , gai ned by success i n war. But

we see noth ing at al l resembl ing such events as the conques t effectedby the J ews i n Palest ine

,or by the N ormans i n England . The

land of I nd ia was le ft i n possess ion of the native owners . Thepeople were not made subj ect to the payment of tribu te, nor havethey been taxed to a degree beyond that wh ich was needful to meetthe expenses of the government main tained by th e new rul ers . N oprofi t o r advantage , i n a pecun iary sense , was ever sought for theB ri tish nat ion by systematic exactions from the peoples of I ndia ,though vas t benefi t to Bri t ish traders and manufacturers hasaccrued , as wi l l be seen hereafte r, from peaceful commercial deal ingswi th the nat ive population . N o interference wi th rel ig ious usageshas ever been attempted

,beyond the abol i t ion of practices repug

nant to the humane feel ing,not merely Of Chri stian c iv i l i zat ion , but

of the more enl ightened holders of pagan bel iefs . The despoti cauthori ty of nat ive princes

,or the anarch ical d isorder preva i l ing

among native peoples , has been compel led , by force of arms, or bymoral i nfluence, to g ive place to a m ild , equitable , un i form ,

andpeaceful system of rule exercised by about two hundred thousandsold iers and c iv i l i ans over more than two hundred m i ll ions of persons who are, for the present , sati sfied in submiss ion to a controlwh ich , beyond doubt , has del ivered them from some of the worstev i ls wrought on the i r ancestors both by the forces of nature andby the mal ign i ty of man .

These are some of the most obv ious facts i n connect ion withan event , or seri es of events cal led the B ri t ish conquest of I ndia ”

,

to wh ich , we venture to assert , no parallel can be found i n therecords of mank ind . O f themselves

,they appear to demand from

the B ri t i sh nation a degree of attent ion to I nd ian affai rs wh ich has

I4 OUR EM PIRE AT HOME AND ABROAD.

This un ique ach ievemen t was attended by c i rcumstances scarcelyless remarkable than the mai n fact i tself. The work of conquestwas largely due to the employment of nat iv e troops agains t thei rown countrymen . Wholly al ien from thei r E uropean employersi n rel ig ion and ideas

,they were wi l l i ng to act as mercenari es i n ou r

behal f because the sent iments of nati onal i ty and patriot ism wereenti rely wanting or utterly debased . The h is tory wi l l Show thatthe I ndian peoples had been agai n and again subdued by invadersfrom other Asiatic regions , and subm issi on to new assai lan ts frombeyond the sea brought no sense of degradation to those who weredevoid of any bonds of u n ion i n language , or i n the recol lections ofa free and glorious past . There was noth ing that resembled theEuropean state

,no central authori ty as a ral lying- poin t for resist

ance to foreign aggress ion . The v i l lage- communi ty was the un i tof social regard , and , i f the v i l lager might t i l l h i s land i n peace andsecuri ty, he cared l i ttle to whom he paid rent or tax . Thus i t wasthat smal l bodies of Bri ti sh sold ie rs , ass i sted by larger numbers ofnative troops , trai ned i n the methods of E u ropean warfare , wereenabled to perform the seem ingl y heroi c and wel l- n igh impossible

,

but , under the cond i t ions of the case, comparat ively easy task , ofs ubduing and holding terri tories so large and so populous . I t wasthus that the Company , beginn ing as merchants , then i n terven ing,for the i r own in terests and thei r own safe ty, i n nat ive quarrels, andbecoming dominant at a few poin ts , ended as v i rtual masters ofthe whole vast region . Before ente ri ng on the h istory of Bri t ishconnection with I ndia, we proceed to give a brief accoun t of herpeoples and fortune s i n earl ier days .The great triangular pen insula cal led I ndia

,bounded by th e

H imalayas on the north , by the Bay of Bengal, chi efly, on thee ast, and by the A rab ian Sea, for the most part , on the west ,extends over twenty - seven degrees of north lati tude

,from a poin t

far wi th in the temperate zone , to the hotter portion of the tropics ,but eight degrees north Of the equator. From north to south

, the

region extends for nearly 2000 , and , from eas t to wes t, for morethan 1 500 miles . The name of the terri tory is derived from thatOf i ts great north -western river

,cal led i n Sanscri t S indaus (

“ theflowing one which the ancien t Persians softened i nto H endu

,

and th is , th rough the Greek Indos , became, i n the Latin poets ,Indus , whence the whole region was called India . The word

IND IA— ANC IENT H ISTORY AND RELIGION S . IS

H industan ,often wrongly applied to the whole pen insula

,re al ly

meant only the country forming the basi n of the Ganges and theJ umna.

The region presents a great vari ety of scenery and cl imate,i n

i ts extremes between the h ighe st mounta i ns of the world and theal l uv ial lands raised but a foot or two above sea- l evel . There arethree great geographical d iv is ions i n pass ing from north to south .

The mountainous and hi l ly region of the H imalayas , decl in ing, i nrange after range, from peaks nearly feet i n height, to lowwooded ele vations , i s succeeded by a great breadth of pla inswatered by the rivers i ssuing from the mountain - land . Thisregion

,again , rises i nto a great triangular plateau or table - land

,

with mountains to north and eas t and west , the latter rangesend ing near Cape Comorin . The richness of the vegetat ion

,i n

most of the country , i s due partly to the fe rt i l i ty of all uvial soil ,partly to the heat Of the tropical or sub - tropical sun

,and partly to

the abundant moisture furn ished by a rainfal l vastly exceeding anythat i s known in E urope . This product ive powe r has permi tte dand supported a dense population , and i n very early times , theSpices and drugs of I ndia were conveyed , from the western coast,by way of the Pers ian Gul f, the Euphrates, and the Syrian De sert,to Phoen ic ia ; by the Red Sea, to Egypt ; and from those countriesi n to E urope . The weal th and leisure due to a ferti le soi l werethe paren ts of the ki nd of c iv i l ization which made various classesof the people renowned for speculative phi losophy , for ski l ledmanufactures, and for divers arts ; and cl imat i c causes al so workedin rende ri ng the nat ives of the warmer regions le ss fi tted to copewi th i nvaders from temperate d istricts, who were al lured by theprospect of the plunde r of stored- up riches, or of settlement onmore productive lands .Turn ing to the subject of the earl i est - known peoples of I ndia

,

we find aboriginal or non -A ryan races,the most remote of whom

,

i n poi n t of t ime, were a stunted , dark- ski nned,savage race of

Tartar type , us ing kn ives and we apons of agate and roughlywrought fl i n t. This scanty population dwel t i n scattered habitations , on plots of rudely- t i l led ground

,amid vas t prime val forests .

To them succeeded , by invas ion from unknown poin ts, tribes alsounacquainted with the use of metals , but posse ssed of axes andother impleme nts made of pol ished fl in t and worked with a h ighe r

16 OUR EMPIRE AT HOME AND ABROAD.

ski l l . Then came a semi - barbarous race , who fought with i ronweapons , made round pots of hard , th i n earthenware, wore goldand copper ornaments

,constructed rude c i rc les of stone , and buried

thei r dead in c ists , or inclosures of flat s tones , l ike the early E uropean peoples . They knew noth ing of the use of letters , and haveleft beh i nd them no insc riptions or co ins . Some m il l i ons of des cendants of these prim it iv e tribes sti l l exi st i n the wi lder h i l lcountry, under the names of Gonds , Kandhs , Santals, Bhi ls, andwi th other des ignat ions, presenting the ethnologist wi th the meansof studying mankind , with in the boundari es of I ndia, i n some ofthe lowest stages of development . There are those who s t i l l l i vei n huts scarcely larger than kennels , who use stone-weapons, andwear bunches of leaves, i n front and rear, as the i r sole cloth ing .

The Santals and the Kandhs have reached a h igher stage,and

acqu i red some skil l i n husbandry .

The beginn ings of c iv i l i zat ion for the great region th inly peopledby these tribes of the Tibeto - Burman

,the Kolarian , and the D ra

v id ian stocks , came wi th the i nvasion of the A ryan race , across thewestern H imalayas and the adjacent range, from central Asia . I ti s wi th them that Bri ti sh in terest in I nd ia ari ses, for the ancien tA ryan , otherwise known as I ndo - E u ropean or I ndo -Germanictribes , were none other than our own remote ancestors, whosespeech , for the nearest family relations , and for th ings of the wides tdomestic u ti l i ty, i s to th is day i n our mouths . The Sanscri t wordA rya , mean ing “ nobl e “ excel lent ”

,or “ worthy ”

, dist ingu ish ingthese people from the wi lder Turan ian or non-A ryan tribes o f themid-As iat ic plateau , was fitly appropriated for that branch of thegrand Caucasian or wh ite race

,whence came

,i n course of t ime, the

ancient Greeks and Romans,with those nations of modern E urope

who have reached the h ighest poi n t of moral and i ntel lec tual deve lopment, as displayed i n the acqu i rement of pol i t ical freedom ,

and i n the ach ievements of science,l i te ratu re , and art .

A t a t ime variously estimated as from 2000 to 1 500 yearsbefore the Christ ian era , a body of these choice members of thefami ly of man poured southwards through passes of the H induKush and H imalaya mountains

,fi rs t i nto the Punjab , and then

onwards i nto the vall ey of the Ganges . They brought wi th themto thei r new homes the fai r degree of civ i l izat ion wh ich is impl iedi n the organ izat ion of family l i fe ; i n the rule of k ings or ch i efs ; i n

[ 8 OUR EMPIRE AT HOME AND ABROAD.

i n the Punjab . This anc ient col lection of short lyrics , contain ing ,i n more than a thousand poems , about ten times that number ofverses

,ch iefly addressed to the gods, displays the Aryans i n con

fl ie t wi th the aborigines , whom they cal led Dasya s , or“ enem ies

and B asas , or “ slaves The A ryan s ingers refer, i n con tempt ,to thei r foes as black - sk inned “ noseless or “ flat - nosed

"

,

“ lawless ”

,

“raw- eaters ” , “without gods ” and “without ri tes ” .

Among the new- comers there is , at th is t ime , no caste . The

father of a fam ily acts as priest for h i s own household ; the ch ieftai n i s

,i n general

,priest for the tribe . Woman i s i n h igh honour ;

marriage i s held sacred ; the burn ing of widows on the funeral - pi leof the husbands is a th ing unknown . Chariots and horses are usedi n war

,and the great temptation to confl ic t wi th others i s the des ire

for cattle,i n which the ch ief weal th consists . The arti sans in

clude barbers, carpenters, and workers i n i ron , copper, and gold .

The food i ncludes beef, so rel igiously rej ected by modern H indus .With a bold rel iance on the superiori ty both of themselves and of

thei r gods to the persons and the dei t ies of the dark - sk i nned tribes,

the A ryans pushed on eastwards through northern I nd ia,and made

thei r way,i n march ing bodies of tribe - div is ions o r of separate com

munitie s , i nto the m iddle and lower val ley of the Ganges . Thei rnature -worsh ip i s seen i n the many hymns addressed to Indra ,

thegod of rain , to Ag n i , th e god of heat, to the dei ty of Dawn , thegods of storm , of wind , and of th e solar orb . Some of the concept ions of d iv ine things found i n these early hymns are qui te spi ri tualand subl ime , i nvolving a des i re for rest wi th God i n a future state ,a sense of s i n , and a need for pardon . The burn ing of the deadon funeral - pyres became , i n t ime, the d isti nctiv e featu re of theA ryans settled on I ndian so i l

,and was regarded as a k ind of

heavenly bi rth , i n sett ing free the soul from the trammels of thebody.

The epic poem cal led the M afia Baara ta ,or great war of

Bharata ”

, i s partly descript ive of a war, for the possess ion of land ,between Aryan k insmen

,claim ing descent from a myth ical hero

called Bharata . The work is,i n part

,an I l iad of the H eroic Age

in northern I ndia, and deals with a condi t ion of pol i tical affai rs i nwh ich we find the terri tory d iv ided

,as i n the most ancient t imes of

Greece, i n to small kingdoms , each governed by i ts own Rafa ,or

k ing, assisted by a counci l of elders and ch iefs , cal led the Da réa r ,

IND IA— ANCIENT HISTORY AND RELIGION S. 19

with a queen or Ran i , and with rel ig ion admin iste red by a c l ass ofpriests or B ra/zmans , who were the possessors and guardians oftheology

,ph ilosophy

,law, sci ence , and l i teratu re . The d istric t

ruled by a Raja was cal led h is Raj, and a k ing who subdued andannexed other states was ent i tled a M ana r aja , or “ great Raja "

.

I n the othe r great epic, the Ramayana , or story of Rama, a H indupri nce , we have the advance of the A ryans in to southern I nd ia,deal t wi th by the poet or poets i n personages and transact ions ofan abstract or mythological nature

,and i ndi cat ing a period of con

flict between the A ryan t i l lers of the soi l and the nomad ic andhunting tribes of the centre and south of the pen insula .

The period of conque st, extending over many generat ions , wasfol lowed by a time during which the pol i t ical , soc ial , and rel ig ioussystems of the ancient H indus be came ful ly deve loped and organiz ed. Custom became hardened in to law

,and law was gathered

i n to code s . O ne of the gre at facts i s the e stabl i shment, i n a fi rmand enduring form , of the social d iv i sions cal le d castes . O f thesethere were original ly four . The h ighest

,or B ranmans , were the

pri estly class , the origin of which may be brie fly described . Whenthe art of wri ti ng was unknown

,the hymns and holy forms of

words , used at sacrifice and other ri tes , were hande d down orallyfrom father to son , and thus arose priestly famil ies , the hered itaryowners of l i turgical learni ng . The word ar anman fi rst meant“ powerful , or effectual prayer and then the utterer of suchappeals to the gods . When writ ing began , the forms of serv icewere consigned to Vedas , or

“ books of knowledge fol lowed , i ncou rse of t ime , by many treati ses cal led B ra/zmana s , deal ing withthe dut ies of a ri tual which acqu i red great complexi ty

,and con

ta i n ing many re l igious dogmas and precepts . The whole of thesebooks formed the H indu Revealed or Holy Scriptu res . Thesecond caste was that of the Sna tryas , or warriors , composed ofthe descendants of those who had gai ned large share s of the conquered land , and who , able to leave the work of ti llage to theaborigines whom they had subdued

,were ever ready to fight

alongs ide the king . The name impl ies connection wi th the royall ine , j ust as the i r modern t i tle , Rajpa t, means

“ of royal descen tThe th i rd caste was compose d of the Va isyas , mainly , at fi rs t, acul t ivating class , and afterwards i ncl uding al l engaged i n civ i lpursu its , profe ss ional and mercant i le , of eve ry k ind . These fi rst


three castes belonged wholly to the A ryan race, and had al l a rig htto be present at the great rel igious se rvi ces . The fourth caste,S udra s , was that of serfs or slaves , belonging, i n race , to the conquered aborigines

,men “ of black descen t whose employments

were the hardest fie ld- labour, the hewing of wood , and drawing ofwater. This class

,i n t ime , i nc l uded petty t raders , arti sans , and

labourers of every kind . They could not attend at the nationalsacrifices and festivals , and never rose above the serv i le state .

The in termarriage of castes was s trictly forbidden,and a rigid

soc ial separation was maintai ned . The pri estly and the warrio rcastes were those of ch ief importance and power, and a longstruggle for supremacy occurred . The B rahmans set forth cla imsbased upon a d iv ine ord ination to thei r holy functions , and at las tsucce eded i n attain ing the posi t ion of a compact , l earned , andsupremely influential body , the d i rec tors of rel ig ion , the framers oflaw

,and the authors of the Sanskri t l i teratu re . This complete

form of the h ighest caste was fi rst developed i n the great northernregion wate red by the J umna and the Ganges

,with Delh i as a

western capital , and Benares as a ch i ef c i ty i n the east . Thence,by slow degrees , with much opposi t ion , B rahman supremacy, andthe ful l caste - system , were exte nded to the centre and south of thepen insula , and the Brahmans became, as wielders of spi ri tual power,possessed of much i nfluence also i n secu lar affai rs .Besides the four castes

,there arose , i n course of ages , a large

populat ion cal led Pariahs or Pareyas , i nc l ud ing al l k inds of men ialservants and lower artisans . These peopl e are outcastes thoughthey are d iv ided , amongst themselves, i nto many so- call ed castes ,according to the i r hered i tary occupat ions o r trades . They rankbelow the S udras , and are probably descendants of those who weremenial s or slaves prior to the A ryan conquest .The Brahman s were prepared for thei r sacred funct ions by a

stric t d isc ipl i ne of sel f- restrai nt and sel f- cu l tu re, passing th roughfour stages . O n emerging from ch i ldhood

,they were marked , as

were the youth of the Shatryas and Vaisyas , by the wearing of amyst ical sac red thread , that of the “ twi ce -born wh ich d isti n

gu ished them al l , as descendants of the A ryan conquerors , from theSudras , of Turan ian ancestry . The n , up to early manhood , theB rahman was engaged i n the serv ice of a sage , under whom helearned by heart port ions of the holy books . The second stage

IND IA— ANCIENT HISTORY AND RELIGIONS. 2 1

was that of married l i fe as a householder, and the father and trainerof a family. Thirdly , the B rahman became a herm i t of the woods ,e ngaged in the c losest rel igious devotion , and exist ing on wi ldfru its

,plan ts

,and roots . Lastly, he became a rel igious me ndicant

o r wandering friar, eat ing only food freely proffered by h is fel low

men,resti ng but one day i n any v il lage , and wholly given to a

contemplat ive l i fe i n wh ich , regardle ss of al l the joys and sorrowsof the present state , he looked forward to being absorbed , i n af uture world , i nto the l i fe of the de i ty . The most rigid tempe rancei n d iet

,with total absti nence from wine , was practi sed th roughout

l i fe,and these men were the forefathe rs of those who sti l l

,after the

lapse of more than two thousand years , display the power of heredi ty in thei r tal l

,slender, well - shaped bodies , thei r fine ly- ch i sel led

noses and l ips, lofty brows, fai r complexions , and oval heads . TheBrahmans thus became in I ndia the men of spi ri tual andmoral forceand rule, through the v igour of i ntel lect and frame due to the pract ice , for many ages, i n thei r caste , of unremitt ing temperance andsel f- cul tu re . They were not merely priests , ph i losophers , theologians

,and poets , the framers of a fine language and l i teratu re ,

butstatesmen , adm in istrators , lawgivers, artists , and men of scie nce .

The i r in tel lectual powers , exercised i n a calm and contemplativel i fe, taught them to set as ide, i n the i r own minds , the old worshipof natural forces and man i festat ions , and to evolve , among themse lves , a disti nct bel ief i n the un i ty of God and the immortal i ty ofthe soul . I n the popular worsh ip, the sacrifices i n honour of theolder dei t ies were conti nued , for the comfort of ignorant souls who,surrounded by v iv id d isplays of nature i n her most forc ible

,and

often terrible moods, sought to propi tiate the mysterious powersthere , as they deemed , at work among mank ind .

The resu l t of Brahman ic thought was the evolution of theH indu Triad or trin i ty of gods , i n wh ich B ranma figured as theCreator, Visnna as the Preserver, and S iva both as the Destroyerand the Reproducer, th i s last i nvention being one whi ch embodies,wi th profound ph ilosophy, the idea of death as but the beginn ingof anothe r l i fe . I n fact , however, the attribu tes of creation , preservat ion , and de struct ion , are commonly ass igned to one supremede i ty, and the popular worsh ip , with i ts countless images , emblems ,and incarnat ions

,makes i ts offerings and prayers , through these as

channels of commun icat ion,to the one great Power. The worship

2 2 OUR EMPIRE AT HOME AND ABROAD.

of Brahma has now be come almost ext i nct, and H indu rel igion , forthe great bulk of the people

,deals

,i n many a male and female

form , wi th S iva and Vishn u as the obj e cts o f reverence .

The subject of B rahman ical ph i losophy is ent i rely beyond thescope and l im its of the pre sent work

,as one need ing vol umes of

di squ is i tion for due pre sen tation as a system , or seri es of systems ,of thought, and as be ing profitle s s for al l practical purposes i n i tsvai n attempts to know what can never be known on th is s ide ofthe grave, and to solve problems which , i n our presen t state, arebeyond the grasp of the human mind . I t must suffice to say thatthese sages , i n e ndless d iscuss ion , with amaz ing zeal , acuteness , andpower

,deal t w ith all the quest ions of thought and being , matter

and mind , the origi n of ev i l , th e highest good , necess i ty and freewi l l , and the co - relations of the creature and the Creator, and thatthei r aspi rations mainly poin ted to final de l ive rance of the humanspi ri t from every trouble i n he r absorpt ion by the one supremesoul i n which al l th ings had the i r original exi stence . They anti

cipated much of E uropean thought , i ncl ud ing th e speculat ions ofthe schoolmen of the M iddle Ages, and the mode rn theory ofevolution . The Brahman ical rel ig ion , of which the ph i losophy wasa speculat ive branch , i nculcated , on i ts pract ical s ide , the d isc ipl i n eof sel f

,the bestowal of alms, the offering to God of sacrifice and

prayer,and devout medi tat ion on the d iv ine attribute s and essence .

The i ntel lectual power of th i s I ndian pri esthood was freelyd isplayed i n the sc ie ntific field . I t is wel l known that modernphilology is due , with i n the last century of t ime , to the study ofSanskri t by E uropean scholars , but the B rahmans produced , somehundreds of years before the Christ ian era , a sc ient ific grammarianof the h ighest class . This was Panin i , a man whose period i svariously placed i n the 7th and the 4th centuries B .C. , and whowrote the standard work on Sanskri t grammar, one of u nrival ledexcel lence among the grammars of the world for depth of research ,analyt ical sk i l l , exposi t ion of the pri nciples of word - format ion , andsuccinct and accurate s tatement . From that t ime , the B rahmanshad a fixed l i terary language for al l thei r works , one of most elaborate structure , and most ample we alth of inflect ional form , set apartfrom the spoken d ialects of the land , and now for more than twentycenturies unknown to the common herd .

I n astronomy , the B rahmans , at an early date , had made a fai r

IND IA— ANCIENT HISTORY AND RELIGIONS . 23

calculat ion , with in about five days , of the length of the solar year,and knew the phases of the moon and some of the fixed stars

.

N ext came the d i scovery of some of the planets, and , after borrowi ng from and improving on the Greeks , the I ndian astronomers, i nthe 8 th and oth centuries A .D were the teachers of the Arabianschool . I n th is department, the v igour of E uropean thought wasneeded for the attainment of the h ighest truth . I n algebra andari thmetic , the Western world owes a debt to the sk i l l attained inthe E ast. The decimal system , with i ts numerical symbols, camefrom I ndia to E urope by way of the A rabs , and our earl i est algebra ical knowledge had the same source and the same channel .The medical sc ience of I ndia had i ts ri se i n the d issect ion of

v ictims at the sacrifice, with the object of ass ign ing various partsto d ivers gods as the i r pecul iar offering. Again through the A rabs,E u ropean medicine , down to the 1 7th century, was derived fromthe researches and experiments of the B rahman doctors . Thebodily structure was ful ly set forth , i n i ts development as v iewedby the unaided eye

,and the phys icians employed a great number

of drugs,of mineral

,an imal , and vegetable origin , the preparat ion

of which showed much i ngenu i ty of process . Medicines were careful ly class ified and admin istered , and a real sc i ent ific i nst inc t wasshown in the attent ion given to diet and to other methods of ass is ti ng nature i n deal ing wi th disease . The practice of the surgeonsshowed a skil l and daring which had thei r reward i n the successfult re atment of many formidable ai lments of man . Fractures anddislocat ions were set ; i nj ured l imbs met with amputat ion ; andcri ti cal operations were performed on outward and internal organs .I t i s cu rious to note that the j udic ial pun ishment of muti lationperformed on the ear and nose caused the invention of what, forthe latter feature

,i s known as rh inoplasty, or nose - form ing, by

transplantat ion of sk in from an adjacen t heal thy part . Thisingenious and beneficent process , long ago practi sed by the B rahmansurgeons , was introduced into E urope from the East, as the IndianM etaoa’, i n an early year of the 19th cen tury . I n the later develOpment of H indui sm ,

between the 8th and l oth centuries afte rChri st

,superst i t ion forbade the B rahmans to touch anything pol luted

by blood,and medic ine and surgery

,which had reached the i r best

i n I ndia during the Buddhist period to be soon described , passedfrom the hands of the h ighest to a lower and modern caste , of


mixed Brahman and Vaisya paren tage , and final ly became , i n H induhands

,matters deal t with by the v i l lage- quack . The higher classes

were suppl ied wi th the attendance of foreign pract i t ioners i ntro

duced th rough the Mohammedan conquests . The publ i c hospi tal swhich had been establ ished

,i n al l great towns , under Buddh ist rule ,

had ceased to exi st,and the loss of these valuable schools for the

study of disease was fatal to the nat ive sc ience .The chief arch i tectural work of I nd ia, i n i ts cave -monasteri es ,

temples,mosques , palaces , and mausoleums , i s mainly due to

Buddhist and Mohammedan i nfluences . The decorative art i nwood

,stone

,and metal i s marked by the rich , graceful , sk i l ful , and

elaborate ornamentat ion which have, i n th is age , been largely copiedi n E uropean forms and pattern s .The soc ial supremacy of the Brahmans, based upon admitted

claims to d iv i nely - i n spi red knowledge in rel igion , ph il osophy ,science

,and art, was final ly secured i n th e promulgation of systems

of law . O f these the most famous is the code of Manu . The

word means s imply “ the being who th inks ”,and i t i s doubtfu l

whether Manu i s to be regarded as a h is torical personage . Thedate of the existing work , which is a ve rs ified recens ion of an olderbook in prose , has been variously ass igned between 1000 B .C. and

500 A .D. The book seems des igned to confi rm in ful l and enduringforce the privi leges of the B rahmans

,and , along with a system of

cosmogony and much metaphys ical doctrine , i t t reats , i n twelved iv is ions , of social duties i n both sexes and al l ranks ; of government, j ud icature , caste, penance, expiation , and of what followsupon death . I n i ts legal scope

,th e Manu code probably contain s

the customary law of central Be ngal at about fou r centuries beforethe Christ ian era. The second great H indu code

,th e Yaj navalkya

,

i s of later date , and has been ass igned to the s ixth centu ry A .D.

I n both works th e caste- system is rigid ly defined,with the stric tes t

rules of l i fe , and wi th harsh penal t ies for i n fri ngement thereof.A ch ief doctri ne of th e laws of Manu was that of metempsychos is

,

or a bel i ef i n transm igrat ions of the soul at death,whether of an imal

or man , i nto a newly - born body, wi th a rise or fal l i n the scale ofbeings in accordance wi th the sum of meri ts or demeri ts i n al lprevious l ive s . These punishments or rewards were al l dependen ton the degree of obedience rendered to the enactments of the code .

The chain of transmigrat ions might be ended,i t was taught

,by the


existences,and he sough t rel ief and peace , at the age of about

th i rty years,i n the austere l i fe of a rel igious mend ican t . E scaping

from the palace to the j ungle , he cut off the long hai r which markedh im as a member of the rul i ng caste, and spent some years i n aseverely ascetic trai n ing

,along wi th five d isc iples , for the subj ect ion

of the flesh . The resul t was a cond i t ion of rel igious despai r, followed by a period of profound meditation , during which he evolvedan athe ist system of bel ief, i n accordance wi th wh ich salvation frommisery could be obtained by escape from all exis tence i nto “N i rvana" ,mean ing “ extinct ion or “ annih ilation The way thereto l iesth rough righteousness i n thought and word and deed .

With true benevolence,the princely Gautama, who had shown

h is power of renunc iat ion in qu i tt ing a belove d wife and ch i ld , nowsought to save others i n the preach ing of h is new fai th . As arel igious teacher, th is regal sc ion of the Sakya clan became knownas Sakya -mam, or “ the Sakya sage as S iddna r tna ,

“ he who hasfulfi l led h is end as Baag ava t,

“ the B lessed ” ; and , above al l , asBaddna ,

“ the E nl ightened "

. N ear the ci ty of Benares , he addressedh imsel f to the body of the people

,and soon made s ixty converts

,

whom he sent forth as apostles to preach in neighbouring lands .For more than forty years he taught h i s doctri nes

,gain ing fol

lowers i n every caste , i ncl ud ing h is own father and h is own son ,h is own nation

,the Sakyas , with Brahmans not a few as h is

greatest prize. The strong point of Buddh ism l ies i n i ts morali nculcat ions, wh ich strongly resemble the Chris t ian type . Thecode of law incl udes not merely abst i nence from gross si ns , but thepractice of benevolence, puri ty , patience , resignat ion , courage , andhumil i ty , with contemplation as a means of acqui ring spi ri tual knowledge , and confession and penance as expiat ion for s i ns . A s impleri tual incl uded the reading to the people , by the members of arel igious order, of the scriptures or discourses of Buddha , alongwith the worsh ip of h is statues and rel ics i n the offering of flowers

,

fru i t, and incense, with processional hymns , prayer, and the repet it ion of sacred formulas .Such was the rel igion that was destined to make i ts way, i n the

course of centuries , i nto most of central and eastern Asia, withshri nes and monasteries extending from what are now the bordersof the Russ ian Empire to the Pacific islands on the equator.Buddh ism , at th is day , has more than fou r hundred m ill ions of

IND IA— ANCIENT H ISTORY AND RELIGION S. 27

votaries,and as one of the th ree ch ief rel igions of the world

,

numbers far more fol lowers than ei ther Mohammedanism orChrist ian i ty . This vast success was largely due to i ts spi ri t ofun iversal sympathy and chari ty, as dist inguished from the excl u

s ivene s s of caste , from the restrict ions of wh ich the fol lowers of theBuddha were held to be free . I t was a mi ssionary fai th , promis ingsalvation to al l c lasses and to both sexe s ; a commun ion in wh ich

the “ twice- born Brahman and the pariah became equal as brethren .

Withi n three centuries of i ts foundation , the B uddhist rel igion , confi rmed at regular Counc i ls of the fai thful , had spread over northernI ndia

,and was establ ished and organ ized as a state rel igion

,about

the middle of the th ird century B . C. , by a king of Behar, namedAsoka

,whose ed icts in i ts behal f publ ished the ch ief pri nciples o f

the fai th th roughout I ndia . A Min ister of Rel ig ion guarded thepuri ty

,and superin tended the m ission -work , of B uddh ism ,

and thesole means of convers ion was to be persuas ion , combined withattention to the mundane interests of proselytes, i n the digging ofwe l l s, the planting of trees , and the prov is ion of medical aid .

Dome st ic l i fe and publ i c moral i ty were in spected and supervised ,and women and ch i ldren were made the subj ects of secular instruction .

For about th i rteen hundred years , Brahman ism and Buddhismexisted side by s ide i n I ndia , from the death of Buddha , i n themiddle of the s i xth cen tury B .C. , to the end of the eighth centu ry ofthe Christ ian era . There were Brahman priests and Buddhis tmonks , temples for the worsh ip of the I ndian gods , and rel igioushouse s of the rival fai th . Yet now for nearly a thousand yearsBuddhism , as an avowed fai th , apart from surv iv ing influences,has been almost ext i nct on I ndian soi l . I ts death i n thatquarte r was due to natural causes of i nternal decay, as wel l as topersecut ion , and , by the end of the n inth century , Brahman ism hadagain become

,as i t remains , the rel igion of a vast majori ty of the

I ndian peoples . The weal thy commercial sect cal led J ains , numbe ri ng about hal f a mil l ion i n Brit ish I ndia

,are nearly akin

,i n

pract ice and bel i ef, to B uddh ism . I t i s the glory of the rel igionfounded by Gautama that “ i t suppl ied i n the words of S i r Will iamHunter, “ the spi ri tual bas is on which Brahman ism final ly developedfrom the creed of a caste into the rel igion of the people and,above al l . tha t i t e stabl i she d i n the land that princ iple of human


brotherhood wh ich has a v i s ible outlet i n the gentl eness andchari ty of the best among the H i ndu peoples .The year 3 2 7 B .C. saw A l exander the Great, of M acedon ia,

after h i s conquest of the Pers ian Empire , engaged i n v ictoriousconfl ic t w i th Porus

,a petty king i n the Punjab , on the banks of

the Hydaspes (now the jhelum) , at a spot about I4 miles westof the modern battlefield of Chilianwallah. Beyond the Hyphas is

(the Sutlej ) the war- worn Greek sold ie rs decl i ned to march , andthe great conqueror reti red wi th h is t roops to Susa, partly by thewaters of the J helum , the I ndus , and the ocean , partly by landmarch through Gedros ia (Be loochis tan) . A town was foundednear the confluence of the five rivers of the Punjab, and a Gree kgarri son and satrap were there establ ished . During the two years ’

campaign i n the Punjab and Scinde , other c i t ies had bee n bu il t ,and foundations of Greek i nfluence had been laid i n the north -westof the great pen insula . On the premature death of A lexander, i nR C. 323 , the parti tion of h is vast domin ions ass igned Bactria (Bokhara) , and the I nd ian regions v i s i ted by h im , to Seleucus Nicator,founder of the Syrian monarchy . About fi fteen years later, Sel eucuswas in al l iance wi th an I ndian sovereign named Chandra Gupta ,an adventurer who had founded a strong kingdom in Behar

,with

a capital at Patalipu tra , the modern Patna , and was master of menand th ings , as ruler or as suzerain , th rough most of northern I ndia .

The Greek ambassador, Megas thene s , at the court of ChandraGupta, was the fi rst man to give the world a fai rly accu rate accountof the social system which existed i n the val ley of the Ganges .Writing early in the th ird centu ry B .C .

,he depic ts Patna

,under the

name of Palimbothra , as a town of vast extent , with elephants ,chariots , and horsemen defiling th rough i ts streets ; with a busypopulation crowding the bazaars ; with festival processions i n wh ichrichly- clad men carried vases and drink ing- bowls of si lver and gold ,whi le an imals were led along, strange to the Greek eye , such aspanthers , l ions , gaudy- plumaged bi rds

,and hump- backe d oxe n

(zebus or B rahman oxen) of the breed whose bul ls , ded icated toS iva , are st i l l most sacred i n the regard of H indus . The castesare noted as seven instead of fou r ; the pos i t ion of the B rahmans isduly defined ; magistrates keep strict watch over arts and manufactu res, sales and exchange , the gatheri ng of taxes , and the registration of bi rths and de aths . The wall s of the c i ty are of wood ,

IND IA— ANCIENT H ISTORY AND RELIGION S. 29

loopholed for archers,and the great army of the king is composed

of troops armed wi th bows and arrows , swords , javel ins, and shields .Chandra Gupta’s palace i s a stately dwell ing, i nhabi ted solely by theMaharajah and h is queens , with a body -guard posted at the gatewhence the ruler i ssues at times to take h i s seat as j udge i n thecourt

,or to sacrifice to the gods, or to hun t i n the j ungle , attended

by the ladies rid ing in cars , or mounted on elephants and horses ,with an escort of spearmen . From Megas thene s and other Greekwri ters the readers of E urope drew thei r knowledge of the A ryanand aboriginal elements of the population , or the Whi te and DarkI ndians ; of the two great harvests i n spring and autumn ; of thealluv ial deposi ts made by the s i l t of great rivers rushi ng down fromthe l pes of the huge H imalayas, and subs id ing into s lower courseon reach ing the plains, where thei r contribut ions were ever at awork of change . The adm irat ion of the Greek envoy was won bythe absence i n I nd ia

,as v iewed by h is eyes , of any class of slave s,

and by the presence of moral qual i t ie s some of wh ich , at least,appear strange indeed to those who know aught of the modernH indu . N ot only are the women chaste, and the men brave i nwar beyond al l Asiatics

,but the I ndian character i s marked by a

s imple integri ty and a sweet reasonableness that enable al l to dispe nse with locks to the i r doors , and with written bonds for thei rbus iness- agreements , and to resist every temptat ion to tel l a l ie , orto indulge i n such luxuries

,

as su its at law . With al l due allowancefor exaggerat ive praise of the wri ter ’s hosts and friends

,i t i s clear

that a vast al teration , a moral decay largely due to lengthy subje ction to a fore ign yoke, has passed, i n the course of twentycenturies, i n to the character of the average H indu .

N o student of I ndian h istory can fai l to note the changes causedi n the immigran t A ryan race by cl imat ic influences and by othercondi t ions of l i fe i n thei r new abodes . The orig inal types werepeople of fai r complexion , h igh forehead , tal l s tature , firm - set l ips

,

straight profi le, and hardy frame . The faces of the i r descendantswere darkened , by degrees, i n the burn ing sun of I ndian table - landsand plains ; thei r moral character was ene rvated , and thei r i ntel lectwas at once weakened and refined . The misch ief was aggravated ,i n the later days of B rahman ism , by the fantastic mythology andsensuous idolatry which ove rlaid the original fai th and worsh ip ; bythe cramping effects of supe rsti t ious and minute ceremon ial obs e rv

30 OUR EM PIRE AT HOME AND ABROAD .

ance s which drew the mind from the practical ques tions of publ icl i fe ; by the subjection of women ; by the effects of caste, whichfettered human energy and effort, confin ing the indiv idual wi th i nthe sphere of h is bi rth

,and making al l ranks i nto spi ri tual s laves

for whom pol i t ical and social progress was impossible . The grandson Of Chand ra Gupta was the king, Asoka , whom we have seen asthe establ isher of Buddh ism through I nd ia . I t was i n the th i rd andsecond centuries before Chris t that the sc ience and art exi st ing i nBactria and adjacent lands under rulers of G reek descen t began toact upon the astronomy of the Brahmans , and the sculpture of theBuddh ists i n northern I nd ia .

The Graeco- Bactrian period of influence in the Punjab , Behar,and Bengal was succeeded by inroads of tribes from central A s ia .

Prev ious invaders here described had been men of A ryan race ;Turanians or Tartars now come cl early upon the scene . In preh istori c t imes , people of thi s type, vaguely described as “ Scyth ians ” ,appear to have arrived south of the H imalaya , and early i n the fi rs tcentury AD a Scyth ian monarch

,named Kanishka , establ i shed i n

northern I nd ia a Th ibetan form of Buddhism,which for some

centuries compe ted wi th the earl i e r Buddhi sm organ ized , as wehave seen , by Asoka . N0 important effect , ethn ic , soc ial , or rel ig ious , was produced on I ndia by these Scyth ian or Turan ian in terlopers , wi th whom I ndian monarchs , unti l the s ixth century AD ,

were engaged in changeful confl ic ts of u tterly Obscu re detai ls .One of the h ighest l iv i ng or past authori t ies on I nd ia, S i r Wil l iam

Hunter, i n the Imper ia l Gaz etteer ,describes H indu i sm as at once

“ a soc ial organ ization and a rel ig ious con federacy . As a socialorgan i zation i t rests upon cas te , with i ts roots deep down in theethn ical elements of the I ndian people . A s a rel igious con federacy,i t represents the coal i tion of the old Vedic fai th of the Brahmanswi th Buddh ism on the one hand

,and with the ruder ri tes of the

pre -A ryan and I ndo - Scyth ic races on th e other. I n the absenceof any pol i t ical and national un ity based upon the common possess ion of freedom and of popular insti tutions

,or even upon any tradi

t ions thereof as existent i n I ndia,or upon a close connect ion i n

language and race, the one bond between the I ndian people s was ,as i t remains, for a great majori ty of thei r number, the tie of commonrel igious practice s and fai th . Brahman ism was able , as w e haveseen , to ove rcome Buddhism , one of the strongest of al l pros e lyt iz

INDIA— ANCIENT HISTORY AND RELIGION S. 3 1

i ng cre eds , and the Mohammedan conquerors of the terri tory couldnot change the popular rel igion . The predominan t rel igious systemis one which is closely concerned wi th the act ions of dai ly l i fe andwith the formation of mental habi ts , and thus the H indus in al lparts of the country have much affin i ty i n manners , customs, and

feel ing.

I t was i n the 8 th cen tury of the presen t era that , on the decayof Buddhism

,the B rahmans displayed fresh v igour i n organ iz i ng,

on a rel igious bas is , the vast populat ion made up of p'

re-A ryan oraboriginal

,A ryan

,and Scyth ic elements . The old doctrine of the

Vedas,involv ing a bel ief~ i n a personal and creat ing dei ty

,was

preached anew,and by s low degrees , as the ages rol led on , a

natural process of evolution , guided by the act ive Brahman brai n ,developed the modern theological system and worsh ip from a m ingl ing of the ancient Vedic rel igion with B uddhist teach ing and withthe barbarous ri tual of aborigi nal tribes . I n H indu i sm , even as i tnow exists

,the monast ic l i fe , the chari table spi ri t , the d iv is ion of

the people i n to clerics and laymen , the great moral rules of certai nsects

,are c lear surv ivals of Buddh ist i nsti tut ions and doctrine . The

popular ri tes and the popular faith con tain much of the fet ish -worsh ipand the awe - strik ing supersti t ions that prevail ed among tribes ofnon -A ryan race . The coarse symbols unde r wh ich S iva

,the god

Of destruction and of reproduct ion , i s worsh ipped, and the mystics tone and plan t dear to the votari es of V ishnu

,th e Preserver

,had

the same orig i n i n aborig i nal usage . The fai rest ou tcome of theBrahman ical reformation arose after the twelfth century

,when the

H indu teachers blended the two best products of the olden fai thsthe div ine personal i ty of B rahman bel ief, and the equal i ty of mena s sp i ri tual beings revealed to the soul of the Buddhist sage .

The worsh ip of S iva and of Vi shnu , under various names thatrepresent d ivers attributes and incarnations

,has for many centuries

formed the main rel igious bond among the H indu peoples . I n atwofold characte r, S iva belongs al ike to the highes t and the lowestcastes . For the Brahman , S iva, as the Destroyer and Reproducer,has a deep philosophical s ign ificance , symbol iz ing death as noth ingbut a change Of l i fe

,and represented as a man of fai r complexion

,

s eated i n an atti tude and wi th an express ion of profound meditation,

wi th emblems of the Ganges and the bul l i n token of productivee nergy . The lower, non -A ryan classe s of votarie s ass ign to S iva’s

32 OUR EMPIRE AT HOME AND ABROAD .

form a necklace of skull s , a t iger- sk i n as garment, a col lar of entwi ned snakes , and a cl ub topped wi th a human head . While theBrahman presents offeri ngs of flowers and rice , or, withou t anyri tual , worsh ips the god i n s i len t thought, the votaries of the lowestclass d isplay the i r non -A ryan orig in i n an imal sacrifices to the wi feof S iva, under her fearful form as Kal i , of h ideous and wrath fulv i sage , crowned wi th snakes , dripping wi th blood , and adornedwith hang ing skull s . I t was i n her honour that

,unti l i ts abol i t ion

by the Bri t ish government, a famous festi val d isplayed men swinging from a pole wi th the muscles of the back pie rce d by a hook,and wi th skewers fixed through the cheek or tongue . S iva i semphatical ly the Mada -dew , or great god , of modern H induism ,

whi le h is wi fe i s Devi , or the great goddess . Their names are verymany, i ncl uding h is o f Baima ,

the dread one , and hers of Da rg a ,

represented as a woman of golden hue,beauti ful i n face bu t of

th re ate n ing express ion , and riding on a t iger in i ts fie rce ne s s andst rength . Vis/zna i s the ch ief god worsh ipped by the m iddle castes .A s the Preserver, h is rel igion represents hope ins tead of fear, andcombines the B rahman teach ing as to a personal god with theB uddhist principle of the sp i ri tual equal i ty of man . H is incarnat ions al l presen t h im as the friend of the human race , and coun tlesscharming legends attach to h im as Rama , the hero of the epic poem ,

the Ramayana ,and as K r is/ma ,

the noble -minded prince of the othergreat Sanskri t epic

,theM afia Baa ra ta . The Vishnu fa i th is , indeed ,

a most graceful form of pagan ism,grounded i n an olden worsh ip of

nature , and furn ished in later ages wi th gods and s tories l ike thoseof ancient Greece . The doctri nes concern ing V ishnu were, i n thet 1 th century , i ssued i n the Vishnu P a rana , one of a class of theological works on which the exist i ng popular creed of the H indus ismainly founded . After that date

,reformers caused the ri se of many

sects, i n some of which the rel ig ion was ennobled by doctri nes concern ing the un i ty of God

,the renunciat ion of a l i fe of ease , the re

jection of caste and of image -worsh ip,and the attainment of pe rfect

fai th i n the dei ty,combined with personal pu ri ty, and the brother

hood of man .

Early i n the t 6 th century, Chaitanya , son of a Brahman , beganto preach i n O rissa and Bengal . He taught that salvation wasopen to men of every caste and race

,and that devout contempla

t ion was more efficacious than ri tual . The great object of h i s


the Koran , or Mohammedan scriptures , but successful ly res istedthe pol i tical domination of the A rabs . That people , for a time ,subjected Sci nde (S ind) , but the earl i er years of the oth centurysaw the country agai n in H indu hands , and nearly two centuriespassed away before the Turkish conqueror, Mahmud of Ghazni , asmall terri to ry i n Kabul , became the possessor of the Punjab . Thispowerful prince ,

i n 100 1 A .D. , led a host o f fie rce horsemen to Peshawar

,defeated the Raja ’ s elephan ts and foot , and forced h im to

pay tribute . A rebel l ion , some years later, was backed by a leagueof pri nces in northern I nd ia , but another v ictory of Turk ish caval ryand bowmen led to the annexation of the Punjab . O f I ndia proper,Mahmud was merely an i nvader or raider with semi - rel ig ious a ims .I n oft - repeated expedi t ions , H indu temple s were plundered , andidols were de s troyed , but, on his death i n 1030 , the warrior- kingwho carried off the gate s of the great and famous templ e of Somnauth , i n Guje rat, l eft to h i s successor no permanent conquests eastof Ghazn i save the P unjab as an outly ing prov i nce of the realm .

In the latter hal f of the 1 2 th century , the A fghans of Ghor, now aru ined town south - east of H erat, ove rcame i n war the Turks ofGhazn i

,and the last of Mahmud

’

s l i ne fled to Lahore . I n 1 191 ,

Muhammad Ghori,the A fghan pri nce , marched for Delh i , only to

suffe r severe de feat from the Raja , but three years later the Muss ulmans were masters of that c i ty , and wel l on the i r way to holyBenares, sacki ng temples and destroying idols i n the val leys of the

jumna and the Gange s . The defeated H indu princes then passedaway from the seats of thei r ancestors to acqu i re by the i r arms newrealms i n the fore sts and h il l s to the south , and the i r olden lawsand usages were kept in the region sti l l cal led Rajputana

,

“ the landof the Rajputs or Rajas The death of the A fghan conquerorwas fol lowed by a d iv ision of h is terri tory , and by Mohammedanconquest of Behar and Bengal . I t was under a dynasty of k ingsrul ing at Delhi d uring most of the 1 3th cen tury that Mohammedansovereigns were fi rst res iden t i n I ndia .

IND IA— HISTORY IN LATER TIMES. 35

CHAPTE R X I I .

IND IA— H I STORY IN LATER T IMES

Conques ts of Ala - ud-din— Wars between the Mohamm edans and H indus— In vas ion byTam er lane— Kingdom of Nars inha— R ise of the Mogul power— Gengh is KhanBabe r— Re ign of Akbar— Su ltan J ehang ir— Shah Jehan— H is splendid architectura lworks— The TajM aha l— Aurang z eb— Appearance of the M ahrattas in the D eccanS i vaj i— The Peshwas - Rout of the M ahra tta s at Paniput— Nawabs or SubahdarsSocia l s tate under M ogu l rule— D eath of Aurang z eb and decline of the empire

Nadir Shah’s march upon De lhi— The M ogu l army defeated and Delhi sacked.

Influence of caste— Vernacular languages of India .

Early i n the 14th century , a Mohammedan rule r at Delh i ,named A la- ud- din

,carried h is arms beyond the V indhya moun

tains,and gained power in southern I ndia . He had al ready recon

que red Gujerat from the H indus , and become master to the northof the Deccan , and had defeated several M ughal i nvasions . H indutemples were pl undered far south of Madras

,but the close of h i s

reign , i n 1 3 1 6 , was fol lowed by H indu react ion and revolt i n centraland northern I ndia , and the Mohammedan empire was broken upinto petty kingdoms . For nearly two centuri es

,the h istory of

I ndia is mostly a confused account of wars in the Deccan and thesou thern peninsula between Mohammedans and H indus

,and of

various Mohammedan dynast ies founded in H industan , or the territory south of the Punjab and to the north of the N erbudda

,and in

Bengal . The narrat ives of the t ime are made horrible by massacreand famine, the outcome of misrule, revol t, anarchy, and the invas ion of savage hordes . I n 1398 , the famous and ferocious T imurthe Tartar, or Tamerlane , who rule d at Samarcand , swept down ,th rough the Afghan passes

,on the Punjab and H industan

,and

afte r a year of massacre and rapine reti re d into central A sia wi tha vast booty, leav ing beh ind h im no traces of h i s power exceptcountless mourners for thei r dead , desolated fields

,and ru ined

towns .I n the further south of I ndia, during th is period , and unti l the

middle of the l 6 th centu ry , the re w as a powerful H indu kingdomcal led Vijayanagar or Nars inha , the remains of whose capi tal cansti l l be traced in the Bel lary d istrict of Madras Pres idency, i n theruins of tanks , bridges , temple s, and fortifications , now the hauntof repti le s and wild beasts . The rule rs of th i s realm were the ch ief


opponents of the Mohammedan sultans i n the Deccan,who

, in

various dynas ties and local k ingdoms,remained independent unt i l

the c lose of the 17th century . The last of the powe rful H indurulers i n th is quarter, an usurper named Ram Rai , was defeatedand slain , i n 1 5 6 5 , at the dec is ive battle of Talikot , on the righ tbank of the K istna . H is foes were four confederate Mohammedanprinces , and the confl i c t was one i n wh ich H indu arti l lery fi red shotand rockets, while the enemy

’

s gunners swept away the H indus byvol leys from cannon loaded with bags of copper co in . The H inducapi tal , Vijayanagar, was taken and pl undered , and the great k ingdom was broken up into petty realms .The word Mogul i s another form of “ Mongol , and th e

people of th is name appear to have come from the regions north ofthe desert of Gobi , and to the south of Lake Baikal . They seemto have been , i n the 13th century, a rul i ng tribe amongst the Tartars , nomads of barbari c character on the pastures of th e greatAs iati c steppes , who may represent the Scyth ians described byH erodotus . From them came forth , late i n the 1 2 th cen tury , thefamous warrio r Gengh is Khan the mighty able both as

a conqueror i n war,and as an admin is trator of states i n terri tory

which he s ubdued between the shores of the B lack Sea and thePac ific . I n the cou rse of th ree cen turies from his t ime, the Moguls ,from whatever causes, had lost much of the repuls ive Tartar typeof countenance , as marked by h igh cheek - bones , ugly mou ths , andyel low skin , and rather resembled Pers ians i n feature . They hadalso acqui red m i lder manners and c iv i l ized ways Of l i fe, and hadbecome Mohammedans of a tolerant k i nd. E arly i n the 16 th century , a Mongol ruler named Baber, driven from Bokhara by invade rsof Tartar race , became master, with h i s fol lowers , of an A fghankingdom at Kabul . Baber was s i xth i n descent from Timu r

(Tamerlane) and appears i n h istory as a man of courageous , gen ial ,and amiabl e character, gal lan t i n war and gay i n h is hou rs of ease .

I n 1 5 26 he headed an army wh ich defeated and slew the Afghansovere ign of Delh i , and then overcame i n a desperate confl i c t a tS ikri near Agra , a league of Rajpu t pri nces . Baber

’

s power wasextende d , before h is death i n 1 5 30 ,

to the borders of Lower Bengal .H is son and successor

,Humayun

,was less able and energeti c, and

for fi ftee n years of h is chequered career, Afghans were rul ing i nthe Punjab and H industan . I n 1 5 5 5 , Humayun , who i n Pers ian

INDIA— HISTORY IN LATER TIMES. 37

ex ile had become father of a son named Akbar, retu rned to defeathis foes , the I ndo -A fghans

,i n 1 5 5 6 , at the fierce battle of Panipur,

on the wide plain s i tuated fi fty m i les north of Delh i .He died in the same year, and was succeeded by h is son Akbar,

or The Great , at the age of fourteen . H e was the real founder ofthe Mughal Empi re i n I nd ia

,and h is re ign , which endu red for fi fty

years , was contemporary wi th that of ou r own famous Tudor queen .

He became the greatest As iati c monarch of modern t im e s , as aconqueror of terri tory and a founder of towns

,and as a ru ler whose

career was marked by v igour, i n s ight , wisdom ,v igi lance human i ty

,

and rel igious tolerance without paral lel , as a whole , In Easternh istory . A fter four years of a regency, Akbar, i n h is eighteenthyear, took the rul ing power i nto h is own hands , and en tered at onceon a sti rring cou rse of act ion . A commander of great strength andendurance of frame

,d isplaying much courage , energy , and ski ll ,

the D e l h i sovereign brough t under h i s d i rect rule or h i s pol i ticali nfluence , by force of arms , or by friendly overtures and marriageal l iances , numbers of petty Mosl em states and H indu rajas . Bythe ye ar 1 5 68 , the Rajput k ingdoms had been al l subdued . Gujeratand Bengal were reconquered and final ly annexed ; Kashmi r andS ind (Sci nde) subm itted to h is sway .

The year 1 594 found the famous Mogul sovereign master ofal l I ndia north of th e Vindhyas , and of the terri tory westwards toKabul and Kandahar. The empi re thus won was consol idated bythe wise pol icy of Akbar both in rel ig ious and pol i t i cal affai rs . I na stormy youth

,he had never learned to read or wri te, but he

knew much by l isten ing to readers of h i sto ry , and his naturalabi l i ty tu rned al l to good account . He had l i ttle zeal and no

bigotry i n behal f of the Mohammedan faith,and adopted the pol i cy

Of treat ing al l races and rel igions as equal before the law . H indusand Mohammedans were thus brought together unde r the organiz at ion of one imperial rule . H indu nobles were employed in h ighoffi ces of state , and a balance was created and artful ly preservedbetween his Rajpu t feudal and hered i tary aris tocracy, who were ofH indu fai th , on the one hand , and the Mughal grande es on theother, ch iefly men of Persian race ; of mil i tary, not hered itary rank ;of Mohammedan re l igion , and whol ly dependent on the Padishahor Emperor. There were al so two separate armies, so thatH indus we re employed against Mohammedan foes or rebels, and


Mohammedans were e ver ready to attack idolatry i n the personof H indu rajas . This enl ightened rule r showed a keen i nterest i nthe fai th and l i terature of h is H indu subjects, and caused thei rSanskri t epics and holy books to be rendered in to Pers ian . H iskindly feel ing caused h im to forbid an imal sacrifices , and marriage si n early ch i ldhood , and to perm i t the re -marriage of H indu widows .I n person , Akbar was a tal l , broad - chested , long- armed , hand

some man , of ruddy and nut- brown v i sage, devoted to hunting andto every ki nd of sport and amusement connected with men andbeasts

,and abound ing i n courage , agi l i ty, and strength . The

tolerance wh ich caused h im to al low h is Raj put wives to pract isethei r idolatry with in the palace , and to i n troduce Brahman priests ,after one formal recogni t ion wi th the i r l ips of A l lah as the soleGod and Mohammed as H is prophet, ended i n a kind of apostasyfrom the fai th of h is fathers . The U lama

,or body of orthodox

Mohammedan teachers, the expounders and execut iv e Officers of

the laws based on the Koran , were deprived of thei r au thori ty, andAkbar, after much

'

coquetting wi th the rel igions of B rahmans,

Buddhists,Parsees

,and even of the Portuguese priests at Goa

,

started a faith of h is own , i n wh ich he publ i cly worsh ipped thesun , wa s worshipped h imself as a type of royal ty sprung from God,

and permitted the use of wine . He was access ible to h is subjects,

i n h is dai ly l i fe at court, on h i s th rone , each afternoon , at theDa réa r , or hal l of audience , si tuated in a large court at the en

trance of hi s palace . Peti t ions were there rece ived,j ustice was

d ispensed , and Rajas , nobles , and ambassadors had audience of thegreat Sul tan . As a bui lder, Akbar founded the c i ty of Agra , thefortress at A l lahabad , the c i ty of J e llalabad, and other towns . A san organ izer of rule

,he d iv ided the empi re i nto prov i nces, each

with i ts governor or v iceroy,possessed of both civ i l and m il i tary

power ; he establ ished a system of j ust ice and pol ice i n the capi tal ,Agra, and the principal towns ; created a land- settlement, after duesurvey and measurement

,and thence derived h is revenue by

regular assessment based on the produce .

The M ughal ruler fai led i n h is efforts to obtai n domin ion i nthe Deccan , towards the close of h is reign , and h is de ath i n 1 605

fol lowed on much trouble caused by the m isconduct of h i s worthless son

,Prince S el im

,who succe eded to the th rone , at the age of

th i rty- five , as th e Sul tan J e hangi r. H is reign of ove r twe n ty

INDIA H HISTORY IN LATER TIMES . 39

ye ars was one of rebel l ions and of troubles partly due to the conduct of h i s sons , but i t has i nterest for Engl ish readers from one ofthe early appearances of our count rymen upon the sce ne . Deferring the general accoun t of B rit i sh connection with I nd ia , we mayhere note the embassy sent by J ames the F i rst to the “ GreatMogul ”

,i n the person of S i r Thomas Roe , who has left a fai thful

and v iv id accoun t of what he saw in the court and camp ofJehangi r. Landing at Surat , i n the autumn of 16 1 5 , and theretreated wi th scanty ceremony by the Mogul officials , Roe experienced some di fficul ty i n making h is way, by january of thefol lowing year, to h i s fi rst audience wi th the Sul tan i n the Durbarhal l . The place resembled a theatre i n shape

,with the Sultan

seated on a throne at one end , and the grandee s , i n three rowsaccording to thei r rank , standing on a platform before h im , whi lethe common peopl e looked on , rai led Off from the nobles . TheB rit i sh envoy decl i ned to prostrate h is body, and was permitted toadvance with th ree low bows , after wh ich he was placed amongstthe fi rs t rank of grandees . jehang i r expected a gift of j ewels fromthe King of England

,and was d isappointed at rece iv i ng only some

knives , an embroidered scarf, a de corated sword , and an E ngl ishcoach , with a specimen of the harps ichord , then known as v i r~

ginals,on which some tunes were played

,at the Sultan ’s reques t,

by a member of Roe’s reti nue . The monarch gave a grac iousreception to the envoy

,and , after the Durbar, entered the coach

at the entrance of the hal l,made h is servants draw i t about , and

caused one of Roe ’s attendants to equip h im wi th the sword andscarf i n the Engl ish style . He then marched to and fro , drawingthe sword and waving i t i n the ai r

,with a ch i ld ish glee i n the

possess ion of a new toy.

Roe ’s m ission fai le d to obtain any treaty to secure perpetualconcess ions for Engl ish trade , though the Sultan offered to issuefirmans or orders to local officials

,granting some priv i leges i n favour

of our people. D uring the two years of hi s stay, S i r Thomas waspresent at a birthday fest ival of the Padishah , when J ehangi r wasweighed s ix t imes against gold

,si lver

,s ilks, stuffs, grain , and

butter, after which al l the se matters were given to the poor. I nthe afte rnoon

,a grand procession of elephants took place , and the

day closed with a dri nki ng- revel . The S ultan professed to be afar stric te r Mohammedan than h is i l lustrious s i re, but , forb idding


to h is subjects i n general the use of wine,he i ndulged h imsel f w ith

the utmost freedom . The B ri t i sh envoy was sen t for to the palaceat ten o ’clock at n igh t, after he had gone to bed , and foundJ ehangi r seated , with legs crossed , on a l i ttle th rone , and deckedwi th h i s j ewel s . A grea t company of nobles was there , anda ll were hidden to d rink wine from the many gold and si lver vessels . All the guests compl ied to the poi n t of i ntox icat ion , saveonly S i r Thomas Roe , Prince Shah J ehan , and one of the ch iefmin isters . The Sul tan h imsel f was ful l of l iquor, and , after th rowing out si lver coi ns by handful s to the mob ou ts ide, he flung goldand s i lver almonds to the grandees i n the hall , wh ile they scrambledfor the spoi l l ike a pack of boys . The scene concluded wi th themonarch's fal l ing asleep , when the l ights were extingu ished , andthe guests were left to find thei r way out of the chamber i n thedark .

The i rresponsible power of an E astern tyran t was terriblys hown when a hundred th ieves , brough t before the Sul tan i n theD urbar hal l , were at once condemned , and slaughtered i n d i fferen ts treets of the c ity . The leader of the gang was torn to death bydogs i n fron t of the B ri t ish envoy

’

s house. The cruel caprice ofthe monarch was d isplayed i n h is deal i ngs wi th regard to thed rinking of wine . A t h is bidding

,we have seen grandees get

d runk ; the tasting of wi ne wi thou t such order brought scou rg i ngon the hapless offender. I n N ovember

, 16 16 , J ehangi r started ona march for the south

,with a great process ion of elephants and

palanqu ins , brigh t with j ewel s and with cloths embroidered i ns i lver and gold . The imperial camp was a wondrous s igh t, as i twas dai ly pitched i n unchanged orde r of pavi l ions and tents , withthe sul tan

’

s palace of scarlet canvas,su rrounded by scarlet tapestry

wal ls , and the large marquees of the nobles composed of canvaswh ite and green and of m ingled hues . Long l i nes of shops formeda bazaar, and the whole made up a movabl e town . The socialstate of northern I nd ia i s revealed i n the memoi rs o f J ehangi rh imsel f, where we read of constant brigandage , pun ished by exe cu

t ions , on occasion , of two or th ree hundred rogues i n a day, and ofrebel l ions i n whi ch imperial vengeance slew th i rty thousand menat a t ime

,ten thousand heads being sent to Delh i , and as many

bodies hung,head downwards , on the trees that l ined the h ighways

of the land.


surmounting a corridor open towards the i nner court, and d iv idedi nto th ree aisles by a t riple row of Saracen ic arches . The snowystone, wi th an inlaying of narrow black l ines . has an effect of combined del icacy and grandeur.The glory of Agra , and of S ultan Shah J ehan i n h is capacity

as an imperial bu i lder, i s that wonder of the modern world , theTaj Mahal , choicest and lovel i est of al l mausole ums, ded icated tothe emperor’s favouri te wi fe . Th is bui ld ing i s almost whol ly composed of wh i te marble, used wi th an i ndescribabl e complexi ty ofdes ign and a workmansh ip of the most i ntricate del icacy. There i sa rai sed platform of stone, flanked by two wings , one of wh ich isi tsel f a beauti ful mosque

,and adorned at each corner by a tal l and

slender m inaret of the u tmost grace and beauty i n form and execut ion . The mausoleum , wh ich covers a square space measuri ngs ixty- two yards on each s ide

,stands i n the centre of al l , and i s

deeply truncated at the angles,thus forming an octagon of unequal

s ides . The great dome ri ses h igh i n ai r unt i l i t makes nearly twoth i rds of a sphere , and then fines off into a spi re surmoun ted by acrescent . A t each corner of the mausoleum i s a smal l dome , ri s ingfrom a structu re pierced by beautiful Saracen i c arches . The inte ri orof the bu ild ing is i l l um inated by a doubl e screen of perforatedmarble, excl udi ng al l bri l l iancy of l ight, and permi tti ng the v iew, i nchastened but not gl oomy effect

,of the marvel lou s decorat ions .

J asper , agate, and othe r prec ious stones form flowered patterns ofwork inlaid i n the wh ite marble

,which

,i n other parts , i s i tself

carved i nto tul ips , oleanders , and ful l - blown l il ies . Lines i n blackmarble , and inscriptions from the Koran , finely wri tten i n the samematerial , combine with wreaths and scroll s of brown and v ioletmarbl e to variegate the monotonous puri ty of the wh i te . The

cenotaphs of the emperor and su ltana,i nlaid with flowers of costly

gems , are beneath the ch ief dome , with in a lofty and charm ingscreen of wh ite marble trel l i s -work . The lace - l ike del icacy of theperforated marble i s incomparable

,and the whole edifice , placed

amidst terraces and gardens furn ished wi th abundant fol iage andwater, produces on the m ind of the spectator an impress ion whichmemory never w i l l al low to fade away .

The same sumptuous master of workers i n stone was the

founder of the modern c i ty of De lh i , s ti l l cal led , by Mohammedans ,Shah J ehanabad , or “ the ci ty of Shah J ehan I n that c i ty , which

IND IA— HISTORY IN LATER TIMES . 43

be came the most splendid capi ta l i n the world , the present fort wasonce the palace of i ts magnificen t royal bu i lder. The vast edifice

,

form ing a parallelogram of nearly 1 100 yards in length by morethan 500 yards i n width , i s entered th rough a vaulted hal l of twostoreys

, 375 feet i n l ength , l ike the nave of a great cathedral . Thehal l of private audience, i n des ign and i n the del icate execution ofi ts i n laid work

, was matchle ss among the royal abodes of al l th eworld . The Jama Masj id , or Great Mosque , completed by ShahJ e han i n the tenth year of h i s reign , i s one of the noblest bu i ld ingsof that class i n I ndia , with three domes of wh ite marble, and two tal land graceful m inarets at the front corners . The famous peacockthrone

,or, rather, the peacock of gold and jewels over the imperial

th rone at Delh i , was the work of the same sultan , and has beentaken to show that he was at heart an idolater

,and no Moham

medan,si nce the K oran forbids the use of any image

,and the bi rd

was the n an emblem of the sun , whose ch i ld Genghis Khan hadclaimed to be . The peacock was also the ens ign of the Maharajasof the H indu kingdom, not iced above, of Vijayanagar .I t was under Shah J ehan that the Mogul Empire was at i ts

he ight of splendour and real power, soon to be fol lowed by thebeginn ings of decl ine . The Sultan was not al lowed to end h is l i feupon the throne

,being made the v ictim of a rebe l l ious son , such as

he had been h imsel f towards J ehangir, and J ehang i r towards thegre at Akbar. I n 1 6 5 8 he was deposed by one of h is younger sons,Aurangzeb (Aurung z ebe ) , who had been acting as V i ceroy of h i sfathe r

’

s domin ions in the Deccan . The de throned monarch d iedafte r seven ye ars ’ imprisonment at Agra, where h i s lot was sharedby h is affectionate daughter J ahanara . Aurangzeb had prev iouslybeen engaged in war wi th one or more of h is three brothers , al l ofwhom ul timately perished , di rectly or indi rectly, th rough h is act ion .

He became one of the most famous of the Mogul emperors, i n areign of nearly fi fty years

,from 16 58 to 1 707, during which some

succe ssful war was waged , and the bounds of the realm were atfi rst extended towards the south . H is pe riod of rule was, however,a fai lu re i n practical pol icy, and exhibi ts h im as a phi losophe r onthe throne who le ft d i re misch ief for h i s successors as the outcomeof h is own career. By force and fraud he had obtained the rule ofan empire with a populat ion and a revenue exce e ding those of anyE uropean monarch , and he reigned at Delh i amidst a magn ificence


that dazzl ed even eyes wh ich were accustomed to the pomp andsplendour of Versai l les .To outward v iew

,the realm was one of great prosperi ty and

power, but i t was one based upon the dominat ion of race over race ,a nd rel igion over rel ig ion , and i ts adm in istrat ion , even under thevigorous and able rule of Aurangzeb, was tainted wi th al l the vicesof O rien tal despotism . The new emperor was a bigoted Mohammedan

,of pure and s imple private l i fe, stri ct i n rel ig ious observance ,

dil igen t i n bus iness , and wel l taught i n A rab ic l i terature . He couldnot, however, conceive the pol icy of consol idati ng an empi re , contain ing men of d iverse races and rel igions , by a tole ran t and equaltreatment that would wi n the affection of the subject H indus , andhis persecution made enemies of al l who d id not share h is ownfai th , and even of those who belonged to a di fferent sect of h i s ownrel igion . Aurangzeb was an ardent S unn i (S unn ite) , or puri tan icalMohammedan

,hating idolaters and unbel ievers of every k ind

,and

discou raging al l speculat ion on rel ig ious tenets . The Sunn is are,

strictly, the orthodox Musl ims who , i n thei r rul e of fai th and conduct, accept the Sunna , or tradi t ionary teach ing of the Prophe t , aswel l as that of the Koran . TheSnia/zs , orSni

‘

ites , mean ing“ sectaries ” ,

deny the authori ty of the three fi rst Khal i fs (Cal iphs) , and regardA l i , the fourth Khal i f, as the on ly righ tful successor of Mohammed ,th rough h is relat ionsh ip to the Prophet as cousi n and son - in- l aw .

While the Sunn is hold to the lette r of the Law,the S/z ia/zs al legori ze

the Koran , and are not so stric t or i ntolerant as thei r rival s . Thebigotry of the Sultan aroused against h is government the H induprinces and peoples of northern I nd ia . The i nsul t i ng pol l - tax onnon-Musl ims was rev ived . H indus were removed from civ i l offi ce ,and peoples were driven to rebell ion by i l l - treatment on the groundof the i r idolatrous worsh ip . Akbar had wisely sought add i tionalstrength for h i s th rone by a pol icy wh ich conci l iated the flower o fH indu ch ival ry , the Rajpu t princes . Aurang z eb

’

s conduct causedthem to combine agai ns t h im

,and thei r las ti ng al i enat ion from the

Mogul empi re dates from about the m iddle of h is reign .

The most ominous event for the Mogul dynasty was theappearance i n the field of war

,i n the De ccan , of the new

H indu power dest ined to be form idable for more than acentu ry, and to provide arduous work for Bri t i sh generals andtroops . The Marathas (Mahrattas) were a people of m ixed

IND IA —HISTORY IN LATER TIMES. 45

origin,largely of aboriginal race , H indus i n caste regula

t ions and i n rel ig ion , then dwell i ng i n a narrow strip of territory on the west s ide of the I nd ian pen insula, i n that northern partof the Ghats which stretches from Surat towards Goa . Thei rch iefta ins l ived i n rude i ndependence amongs t the mountainswhence thei r predatory bands swept down , from time to t ime , uponthe cul t ivat ed plains . The founder of Mahratta power, as an influ

e ntial factor i n I ndian affai rs , was a man of great abi l i ty namedS i vaj i . He was the son of a warl ike adventurer named Shahj iBons la , who , as a vassal of the S ul tan of B ijapu r, an i ndependentMohammedan state, had fought agains t the Mogul power i n thedays of Shah J ehan , and had left to h i s successor the two fortressesof J oone re and Poona , east of Bombay , with a band of fol lowers asthe nucleus of m il i tary strength . S ivaj i , an agi le , quick - eyedmountaineer, t rained i n i rregular and predatory warfare , was notonly ful l of craft and cunn ing i n the attainment of h i s ambit iousaims

,but had a born ruler’s genius for the acqu i rement of influence

over men and for the organ izat ion of rude elements into a form idable force. He aspi red to the creat ion and leadersh ip of a nationalparty among the H indus of southe rn I ndia, and resolved to contend for power agai ns t both the Mohammedan states in the Deccanand the emperor who ruled at De lh i . H is troops were mainlyspearmen , mounted on small s teeds of gre at endurance, and , aspeasan t propri etors of lands , paid by plunder for mi l i tary service,they suppl ied thei r leader wi th a costless army

,ever at command

,

apart from the scanty cal ls of a rude system of ti l lage .S ivaji

’

s fi rst assaults were on the terri tory of B ijapur, the government of wh ich was forced to buy him off by the cession of forts andlands . He then came in to col l is ion wi th Au rangzeb , whose V i ce royi n the Deccan had captured the town and fortress of Poona . TheMahratta ch ief retal iated by a n ight attack on the Mogul camp,whence he carried off a cons iderable booty

,and by the temporary

seizure of Surat, whose weal th ier people he held to ransom , afterwhich he lev ied blackmai l for years by threats of repeating hisv is i t . I n 1664 he took the t i tle of Raja , coin ing h is own money,and , after forc ing the Sul tan of B ijapur to acknowledge h im as ani ndepe ndent sovereign i n h is mountain - terri torie s, he caused h imselfto be instal led with great ceremony

,i n 16 74,

as a Maharaja . H isarms were carried

,before h i s death i n 1680 , i n to the east of the


I nd ian pen i nsula, and he there conquered lands i n the l owerCarnatic . I t was S ivaj i who arranged the famous system of tributefrom I ndian states known as the Mahratta (nea t . A fourth part ofthe l and revenue was paid as blackmai l to secure the country fromal l robbery and devastat ion . U nder h is leadersh ip , the Mahrattasbecame pract ical ly the ch ief power i n southern I ndia , defying al lthe efforts of Au rangzeb for thei r subj ugation .

A fter the emperor’s death , i n 1 707, eve ry corner of the Mogulempi re learned to tremble at the Mahratta name . Thei r conqueringcaptains subdued fert i le v ice- royal t ies of the Delh i empe rors , andextended domin ion from sea to sea , from Poona to Tanjore, w h i lethei r rulers were found also at Gwal ior, to the north , i n Gujerat , tothe west

,and in the central terri tory of Berar . I n becom ing sove

re igns,they d id not cease to be fre ebooters i n al l terri tories wh ich

d id not pay the regular tribute . The sound of the i r kettle - drumsd rove the peasan t

,with h i s wi fe and ch i ldren , h is l i ttle purse of

sav i ngs,and a hasty supply of food , to a refuge among the j ungles

o r the h i l l - fastnesses . The sentries on the palace- wal ls a t Delh icould v i ew at t imes the camp-fire s of Mahratta leaders . Hosts ofthei r caval ry

,year by ye ar, swept down on the rice -fields of Bengal ,

and the name of the Mahratta d i tch ” at Calcutta long preservedthe memory Of defences made against th e i nroads of Mahrattahorsemen from Berar.

The grandson of S ivajl real ly in i t iated a pecul iar form of doublegovernment , when , after a long capt iv i ty at Delh i and restorat ionto h is domin ions , he gave up rule i nto the hands of a B rahmanmin ister of state, with the t i tle of P esnwa . This offi ce becamehereditary, and the Peshwa

’

s power superseded that of the Mahratta k ings who were hei rs of S ivaj i . The Peshwa held royal s tateat Poona , and exercised authori ty over the great prov inces of

Aurungabad and B ijapur, while S ivaji’

s descendant was a royalpuppet i n h i s petty principal i ty of Satara . I t was the Peshwas whofounded the famous and powerful Mahratta confederacy . The fi rs to f the l i ne forced the De lh i rul ers

,i n 1 720 ,

to an imperial grant ofthe e/zou t from the revenues of the Deccan . The second Peshwa

,

Baj i Rao , became vi rtual sovere ign i n that region , and i n 1 736 toreaway from the empi re the prov ince of Malwa, and much terri toryto the north -west of the Vindhya Mountains . U nder the th i rdPeshwa the Mahratta arms were carried , as above noted , as far as


Bengal,and in the north the i r mounted plunderers made thei r w ay

to the Punjab . The great cen tres of Mahratta power we re atPoona in Bombay and Nagpur in Be rar . I n 1 75 1 the Berar pri ncegained the formal grant, from the Mogul v iceroy, of the cli ent

(enaufn) or“ quarter - revenue ” of Bengal , and the prov ince of

O ri ssa was ceded to h is sway .

I n northern I ndia the attack on the Punjab by the Mahrattasof Poona brought down a severe stroke of vengeance from theA fghan ruler

,Ahmad Shah , who had taken from the Sultan the

country of the F ive R i vers . The Mohammedan troops of theAfghans and of the Mogul empi re, now far gone i n dissolut ion ,were massed for a great e ffort agai nst the common foe . I n 1 76 1 ,

on the plai n north of Delh i ,'

where we saw Humayun , the father ofAkbar

,rout the I ndo-Afghans more than two centuries back , came

anothe r famous battle of Pan ipat . A total rou t of the Mahrattaswas succeeded by a horrible s laughter of prisoners , to the number,i t i s recorded , of forty thousand men , and a serious blow wasinfl i cted on the Mahratta confederacy . The fourth Peshwa , MadhuRao , had l i ttl e more than a nominal control over the five gre atstates whose capi tals were at Poona, N agpur, Gwal ior, I ndore , andBaroda . Two of these prince s , whose names we shal l mee t hereafter in connection w ith the ri se of B rit ish power, were S indhia ofGwal ior and Holkar of I ndore . The history of the Mahrattashenceforth merges i n that of the E uropeans who were to bringthem to extinction as rulers i n the land .

The domin ion of the Mogul emperors was a system of rulewhich closely resembled that of the old O riental monarch ies ofBabylon and Persia . The i rresponsible head of the state , dwell ingin splendour at the centre of power, was represented i n the prov ince sby satraps or v iceroys cal led Nawaés (Naéoés) or S uéa/zda r s , andthe d issolution of the empi re was largely due to the advance ofthese men , under weak rulers , from the pos it ion of l ieutenants tothat of i ndependent he redi tary princes, sti l l nominal ly in al legianceto the Sul tan . To the last, these v iceroys were regarded by themass of the people as legal ly in possess ion of the i r pos ts only whenthey had received letters and insignia of investi ture from the Mogulcourt at Delh i , guaranteed by the , seals of the empire, and on al loccas ions the imperial firmans or orders we re publ icly received bythe Subahdar or N awab with eve ry token of re spe c t and subm is


s ion to the wi l l of the Padishah . The documents contai n ing hi scommands were held to the forehead , and the messengers werereceived wi th salutes of cannon and other marks of the mostde voted loyal ty to thei r master. I t was pecul iar i n the Mogulconsti tution to appoi n t a Dewan , or financ ial accoun tant-general , i nevery prov ince

,as the receiver of al l reve nues, the payer of al l

salari es,i nclud i ng that of the governor or v iceroy, and the remi tter

of the net amount to the treasury at Delh i . I t was the bus iness ofthe Subahdar or N awab to admin i ste r j ustice and to main tainpubl ic peace . A s the empi re decl i ned , corruption grew , and offic ialsbecame rich at the expense Of the imperial revenue. By means ofbribes to the minis ters, the grandees , and the ch ief lad ies of thecourt, the riva l offi ces of N awab and Dewan were sometimessecured for two members of the same family , who could worktogether for thei r common i nterests , or were even combined i n thesame person , and th is was one cause of the growth of independenceamongst the h igh officials who were so outwardly submiss ive tothe imperial wi l l .O f the s tate of the people i n regard to c iv i l i zation , duri ng th e

best days of the empire, Mogul h istory takes l i ttl e heed . Courtl i fe we know well , al ike i n capi tal and mov ing camp ; of courti n trigues , treacheries , c ruel t ies , and plots , and of i nternal andforeign warfare, we hear more than enough . The experiences o ftravel through the vast prov i nces were

,on occas ion

,comfortless

,

peri lous , and pictu resque . U nder Shah J ehan and Aurangzeb theroads and the postal arrangements were , as i t seems , at leas t equal ,i n poi nt of efficiency, to those which ex isted i n E ngl and and Francei n our S tuart days . The ch ief h ighway was that which connectedthe three great capital c i t ies of the empi re , Lahore, Delh i , andAgra . The route continued

,on the south - east

,by way of A llaha

bad , Benares, Patna, and Dacca , and thus provided the seats ofgovernment wi th easy communicat ion as far as Behar and Bengal .The travel ler of ordinary means was conveyed i n a l igh t coach wi thtwo seats, drawn by two oxen , tak ing wi th h im , on the spare seat ,h is sleeping-mattress

,coverlet

,and clothes , with a small supply of

meat and dri nk i n a box fi tted under the veh icle . H is place ofrest at n ight would be in a caravanserai , a commodious building inpoint of size and means of shel ter

,but subject to extreme heat and

to severe cold according to the season , and made nauseous by the


stones placed at i ntervals , and kept v is ible by whi tewash oftenrenewed . The admin i stration of j ust ice was special ly stric t unde rA urangzeb, each town hav ing i ts governor, or N awab, for c iv i lcauses

,whi le crim inal affai rs were deal t w i th by the head of the

pol ice , an officer cal led the Kotwa l .

For the last hal f of h is reign , th e twenty- four years from 1683

to 1 707, Aurangzeb was personal ly engaged i n the battl e- fie ld ofsouthern I ndia agai nst the i ndependen t Mohammedan kingdomsof B ijapu r and Golconda , and wi th the indomitable Mahrattas . In

one enterprise,very near to h is heart, the comple te conques t of the

i ndependen t realms i n the south , th is last of the great emperors suc

ce eded. I n 1688 , Golconda and Bijapur were annexed to the Moguldom in ions . Against the Mahrattas , after much early success , hefinal ly fai led . Sivaji

’

s s uccessor was taken and put to death ; Poonaand many of the forts were captured ; and the Mah ratta power, i n1 70 1 , seemed to have vani shed from the scene . The mounta i nwarriors were, however, not overcome , but only gatheri ng thei rs trength anew. The troops of Aurangzeb were harassed by gueri l la warfare

,and the enemy agai n took the field i n formidable force .

The year 1 705 saw them repossessed of the i r s trongholds, and theemperor fou nd that he had vainly spent h is treasu re and h is troops

,

h is heal th , and no smal l part of h is renown . The close of h is l i fewas one of fear, lonel i ness , and pain . He had sought shel ter fromth e Mahrattas i n Ahmadnagar, and was fi l led wi th suspicion anddread of h is own sons , one of whom had long s ince revol tedto the enemy. The fa i l ing monarch ’s condi t ion could not bu tremind h im of the treatment wh ich he had accorded to h i s ownfather.

The death of Aurangzeb was fol lowed by a swi ft decl ine i n thefortunes of the imper ial house . F ra tricidal wars , revol ts , execut ionsof emperors and high Offic ial s , make up part of the h istory of thet ime . Viceroys fel l away from any real al legiance

,and became in

dependen t rulers of great prov inces. The governor of the Deccan ,best known by h is tit l e ofNiz am - u l-mu/é, or “ regulator of the statetook power i nto h is own hands , and practical ly severed the greaterpart of southern I ndia from the Mogul empi re . The Vi ceroy orSubahdar of O udh , a man who had ri sen from the posi t ion of aPersian cotton - dealer to that of Waz i r (Viz ier) or prime min i ster ofthe empi re , also became independent of h is nom inal master at

IND IA— HISTORY IN LATER TIMES . 5 1

Delh i . Oudh then consisted not merely of the modern terri tory socal led

,bu t also of the large and ferti le lands between Benares and

Agra,now known as the North -west Prov i nces . The break- up of

the imposing edifice of power was almost completed by the severance of Rajputana , and by the successes of the Mahrattas wh ichhave been noticed above .

N or must th e formidabl e assaul ts of external foes be forgotten .

The forces of Pers ia came in to the field . Early i n the 18th centurythe dynasty of Shahs which began about 1 500 was overthrownby A fghan rebels from Herat and Kandahar, and for some years aferoc ious tyranny was exercised by the conquerors . I n 1 727, abandit- ch ief cal led N adi r K a li , or Nad i r the slave , appeared uponthe scene as an al ly of a son of the deposed Pers ian monarch .

This sc ion of the fal len dynasty was striv ing to regai n h is father’sthrone

,and i n the freebooter N adi r he had Obtained a supporter

who was gifted wi th h igh talents both for rais ing and command ingforces i n the field and for found ing states upon the basis of successi n war. I n 1 730 , the Afghans had be en driven from the land , andShah TahmaSp was placed on the throne of h is ancestors . Thevic torious general , now enti tl ed Nad i r Knan , soon turned upon themonarch whose power he had bestowed , displaced h im for an infantson

,and gained fresh glory for h imsel f

,i n confl i ct with the Turks

,

by recovering A rmen ia, Georgia , and E rivan . The death of theyoung sovereign , i n 1736 , gave the throne to the K ingmaker asN adi r Ska/2.I n the fol lowing year, th e “Great Mogul ’ at Delh i

,Mohammed

Shah , treated two embass ies of the Persian king wi th utter contempt , as those , i t i s presumed , of an upstart and usurping monarch .

The Mogul emperor soon had cause to repent of h is disdain . N adi rShah retorted by the capture of Kandahar and Kabul

,and then

made ready for a march to Delh i by way of Peshawur and Lahore .The frontier at Peshawur was easi ly reached , as the money oncepaid to the A fghan h il l - tribes , for the defence of the passe s , hadfo r some years been regularly stolen by the Mogul ruler’s m in iste r.The cheated hillsm en joined the Pers ian force, i n hope of sharingthe plunder of the campaign , and Nadi r Shah ’s march through thePunjab was effected wi th scarcely any loss of time or m en. TheMogul army advanced to Kurnal, about sixty-five miles north ofDelhi , and there encoun tered utter defeat . N i zam - ul-mulk , i n joint


command of the Mogul army, had refused to take any part i nthe battle, and his treachery, due to j ealousy of rivals at thecourt, was fol lowed by baseness greate r sti l l . N i zam - ul- mulk

,em

ployed by h is imperial master as envoy to the v i ctor’

s camp , hadi nduced Nadi r Shah to accept the sum of two c rores of rupees , ortwo mil l ions sterl ing, for h i s return to Pers ia wi thout march ing onDelh i . The N i zam was wel l rece ived on return by MohammedShah , and was rewarded wi th the h igh t i tl e of Amir of Amirs, orch ief of al l grandees .A ri val general

,who had been taken prisoner by the Pers ians ,

was so angered by the honour conferred on the N i zam that heassured Nadi r Shah that the Mogul capi tal could eas i ly raise tent imes the amount , which he h imsel f undertook to col lec t . On th isnews , the Pers ian conqueror marched on Delh i , and entered theci ty wi th twenty thousand men , amid a desolat ion of utter s i lenceand empty streets, as the peopl e cowered , i n fear and d isgust, with inthe closed houses and shops . The Pers ian army was mai nly composed of A fghans and Tartars , whose presence was strongly resentedby the subjects of the Mogu l emperor. N ad i r Shah ’s only des i rei n entering the capi tal had been to gather the ransom with al lspeed, and then to reti re w i thou t doi ng any harm . The stric tes torders had been given to the troops that no i nhabitant should be i nany wise wronged . A rumour arose that the Persian king had beenkil led at the palace by Mohammed Shah , and the mob of Delh i , i nimmense force, then attacked the i nvaders , slaying some hundredsi n the streets, and forcing the rest to remai n al l n ight u nder arms atthei r quarters i n the caravanserai s and the houses of the grandees .N adi r Shah ’s fury was aroused when , i n the early morn ing, herode through the streets wi th a strong body- guard , and saw hissold iers ’ bodies lying around . Assai led h imsel f wi th shot, andarrows , and stones from the houses, which slew one of h is generalsat h is s ide, he sought vengeance in a massacre which made the e arsof al l men to ti ngl e , and has rarely been equal led i n modern times .For seven hours

,from eight i n the morn ing unti l th ree i n the after

noon , the city of Delh i was given up to the horrors of murderouswrath which took no accoun t of age or sex . Amid flaming housesand streams of blood

,while the ai r rang wi th the m ingled tones of

exult ing shou ts and sh rieks of despai r,the master of these demonia

cal revels was seated i n a l i ttle mosque i n the ch ief street of the


c i ty . His tal l form ,swarthy feature s , great eyes , and thundering

tones of voice had always a strik ing effe c t on those who beheldand heard him i n h i s hours of ease, but the expression of h issternly savage face

,as h is eyes burned with del ight and pride in

the terrors of h is retal iation , was such as none could bear to see .

N i zam - ul-mulk and Mohammed Shah , fl inging themselves at the feetof the avenger

,prayed for mercy towards the innocen t people, and

at last the lust for cruelty was sated, and the orders for cessation ,promptly obeyed

,ended a scene of outrage and butchery which cost

the l ives of an unknown number of thousands, variously estimatedbetween ten and a hundred . The work of plunder then began , andspol iat ion and exact ions

,conti nued for nearly s ixty days , enabled

the conqueror to return to Persia with the value of many m il l ionssterl ing

,from which three months’ pay was g i ven to every soldier

i n h is great forces,and a year’s taxat ion was remi tted through the

whole Persian empire . The best of the elephants, camels, horses ,cannon , and mun i tions of war were carried off, with al l the j ewels ofthe imperial palace

,and an immense quanti ty of gold and si lver i n

bull ion and coin , and costly stuffs , weapons , and stores . The grandprize was the Peacock Throne , with the bi rd

’s tai l blaz ing i n thesh i fting natu ral colou rs suppl ied by rubies, emeralds , and sapphi res ,which were valued by the French travelle r, Tavern ier, at 6%mill ions sterl ing . He was a d iamond - merchan t who , about themiddle of the 1 7th century , v i s i ted Delh i i n the way of h is trade,and had many opportun it ies of i nspect ing the th rone .

The fearful blow infl i cted on the wealth , power, and reputeof the decaying empire by the invas ion under Nad i r Shah wasfol lowed by serious losses from the A fghans . I n s ix i nvas ions

,

from 1 747 to 1 76 1 , Delh i and northern I ndia were subjected toevery kind of barbarous cruel ty, devastation , and plunder, as theAfghan horsemen swept th rough the land

,and displayed special

hatred towards H indu worsh ippers and the i r sh rines . The Mogulempire was final ly broken up, and the way was cleared for theact ion of those who were to create a new

,and

,i t may wel l be

hoped, a more lasting, and, above al l , a more beneficent form ofimpe rial sway . The long struggle for the rule of I ndia by Asiaticraces had almost come to an e nd, after various waves of populations from the north and north -west— pre-Aryan

,Aryan , Scyth ic,

Afghan , and Mogul— had poured throughout the land . We are


now to behold the efforts of some of the mari t ime nations ofE urope as they enter I ndia from the sea .

A t the close of the 1 5 th century, the social const itution of theI ndian peoples , on the twofold basi s of rel igion and caste , hadbeen ful ly developed , wi th al l i ts complexi ty of ri tes , bel iefs, andsuperst i t ions , and of caste - subdiv is ions connected wi th diversi ti esof race and occupation . The insti tution of caste had proved i tsel fto be possessed of great plast ici ty, which adapted i t to d i fferentstages of soc ial progress , as wel l as of the rigidi ty wh ich impartsab id ing strength . The system i nvolves , to some degree, those ofrel igious party, mutual assurance societies, and trade - un ions . As atrade -gui ld , caste regulated the train ing of the young i n i tsspec ial craft , and the standard of earn ings ; i t pun ished offencesagainst the laws of the trade, and furthered social i ntercourse i nthe way of club -meetings . Regular trade- hol idays , fines for offending members of the guild , contributions to a common fund, strikes,maintenance of helpless members , excommun icat ion amounting tosoc ial ru i n i n making the obstinate and i ncorrigible offender anout- caste —al l existed , as they st i l l exi st, i n that wh ich grew upduring so many centu ries of al ternat ing confl i ct and repose .

The anc ient l i terature of the A ryans i n northern I ndia, i n theSanskri t tongue , has been already mentioned . Apart from changesof language there i n troduced by Mohammedan conquest, a vas tl i ngu ist ic and l i terary revolution had occu rred i n southern I ndiabefore the Europeans

,i n ou r Tudor t imes , came upon the scene .

The non -A ryan races,who were cal led D rav idas or D rav id ians

,

real ly preceded on I nd ian so i l the non -A ryan immigrants from the

north -west whom the Vedic or A ryan tribes d istu rbed from thei rabodes i n the val leys of the I ndus and the Ganges . The oldD rav id ian tongue , of obscure origin , had, i n the course of ages ,acqu i red fixed grammatical pri nciples from Sanskri t teachers ofthe Brahman ical rel igion , who were apostles, i n the south , of theS ivai te and V ishnu ite faith , after the days of Buddhist m iss ionaries .A vernacular l i terature was gradual ly formed i n four D rav idiandialects

,of wh ich the Tami l and the Telugu are the ch ief. The

oldest and most v igorous of these,on the l i terary s ide, i s th e

Tam il , now spoken , i n the south - eas t of I ndia , by several m il l ionsof people . Borrowing from Sanskrit needful abstract , philoso

IND IA— HISTORY IN LATER TIMES. 5 5

phical, and rel igious terms, i t retains i ts nat ive strength , and bestrepresents , i n words and structu re , the cu l t ivated form of D rav idianspeech . I t possesses a romanti c ep ic poem of great length

,with

a paraphrase of the Sanskri t Ramayana , and large col lect ions ofhymns i n praise of S iva and Vishnu . S ince pri nt ing was i ntroduced i nto I nd ia the Tami l press has sent forth many hundreds ofworks . Telugu has produced , with much other interest ing matter,a translation of the Sanskrit M afia B/za ra ta . The language isspoke n , i n the north -western parts of the peni nsula (southernI nd ia) , by nearly twenty m i l l ions of inhabi tants. O ther d ialectsare the Kanarese, i n the north - east, and the Malayalam , i n thesouth -west , of the same region .

The vernacular languages of northern I nd ia,Aryan i n thei r

origi n , come mainly from the Prakrits , or ancient spoken d ialects ,which made the i r way down the val ley of the I ndus on the west ,along the val ley of the Ganges to the east

,and by the Vindhyas

i n the cen tre . The l i terature had i ts origin in Buddhism , as theSanskri t arose i n the Brahmanical fai th . The ch ief of thesemodern languages

,as now spoken in I ndia , are the S indhi and the

Punjabi , of the north-west ; the H ind i , i n the upper Ganges val ley ;Bengal i , i n the east o f Bengal and the delta of the Ganges ; U riya ,on the coast of the Bay of Bengal

,as far as the northern parts of

the Madras pres idency ; and Marath i , to the south and east ofGujerat . O f al l these

,H indi i s the most important , possess ing

more than fi fty d iale cti c forms . One of i ts developments is U rdu ,or H industan i , which contains a rather large admixture of Persianand A rabic , and i s written i n the Pers ian character. I t arose , afterthe Mohammedan conquest, i n the i ntercou rse of Persian - speak ingrulers wi th thei r H indu subj ects

,and has now become a sort of

ling ua fr anca for al l I nd ia . The ch ief l i teratu res in these moderntongues are found i n H indi

,Bengal i , and Marathi . H indi has a

copious olde r col lection of rel igious poetry and doctrinal verse , witha great publ icat ion of verse and prose s ince the in troduct ion ofpri nti ng i n the present centu ry . The Mahrattas (Marathas) werea gre at l i terary

,as wel l as m i l i tary, people . The works consist of

rel igious poe try, love songs , prose h istory , and broad poetical farces .Bengal i , spoken by about 50 mil l ions of people , from Assam toO rissa, has much rel igious poetry in praise of Kal i , wife of the godS iva , with later verse concern ing V ishnu , and great translat ions o f


the Ramayana and Mazda Baa ra ta . The printing- press has causedthe product ion of an enormous modern l i terature i n Bengal i

,con~

ta in ing works that su rpass i n meri t al l i ts prev ious efforts . Fromal l that has been s tated , here and elsewhere , i t i s clear that theE uropean nations , i n the 16 th and succeed ing centuries , were tocome i n con tact wi th c iv i l i sat ions of an elaborate k ind , mainly dueto nat i ve growth from a d istan t past, and wi th cul tivated peopleswho could be won to conten tment, as wel l as bare submiss ion , onlyby those who , i n add i t ion to the might d isplayed i n successful war,should g iv e a wise and toleran t recogni t ion to the establ ishedusages and fai th s of the land .

CHAPTE R X I I I .

IND IA— F IRST EUROPEAN SETTLEMENTS .

Portuguese rule in the East— The D utch East India Company— F irs t Eng lishattempts to reach India— Eng l ish East India Company incorporated— Trade and

profits of the Company— R i va lry of the “ interlopers ”— The O ld and New Com

panies amalgamated— E arl y Eng l ish settlements— Factories a t Hug l i, &c.— Oppres

s ion of the native officials— Orig in of Ca lcutta and Bombay— Contes ts w ith the

French— Governor Duple ix— Robert Cl i ve— H is capture and gal lant defence of

Arcot— Cau se of French fa i lure to establ ish dom inion in Ind ia— Base treatment of

La Bourdonna is and Count de La ll y— Victory of Colone l Eyre Coote atWandewash

— Surrender of Pond icherry .

E u rope knew l i ttl e of I ndian affai rs , by any di rect communicat ion

,from the days of A l exander the Great to those of Vasco da

Gama . The trade of the times was carried on mainly by the RedSea and overland , and was ch iefly, on the E uropean s ide , i n thehands of merchants at the I tal ian ports on the Mediterranean .

The Renaissance,with its zeal for novel ty and d iscovery in every

kind,brought the doubl ing of the Cape of Good Hope as one o f

i ts greate s t mari t ime exploi ts , and i n the later days of May , 1498 ,da Gama anchored , on the Malabar coast , i n the south - west ofI ndia

,at the port of Cal icut . The traffi c by sea was conducted

whol ly by A rabs , who were host i l e to the new- comers , but theH indu raja of Malabar at fi rs t gave a friendly reception to thePortuguese . Trouble was soon sti rred up by A rab jealousy

,and

war ensued on the arrival of a fleet from Portugal , under the


duri ng the l yth century . The D utch East I ndia Company wasformed i n 1602 , and hal f a century saw them possessed of trad ingsettl ements i n I nd ia , Ceylon , and Sumatra, with an exclus ive holdon the Moluccas . In 16 19 Batav ia, i n J ava, was founded as the i rEastern capi tal , and i t was the i r famous massacre of the Engl i shat Amboyna, i n the Moluccas, i n 16 23, which drove the B ri ti shtraders from the Eastern arch ipelago to the main land of I nd ia

,and

thus contributed to our subsequent success. The Dutch , i n thecourse of the 18 th century, l ost al l the i r posts on I nd ian so i l , andthei r flag i s nowhere flying , as a symbol of rule , on the mainland .

Some houses alone , wi th quain t D utch carv ings and t i les , at the i rformer settlements , remi nd the travelle r of the people whosegovernor, Palk , le ft h is name to the Bay and Strai ts at the northof Ceylon .

The fi rst E ngl ish attempts to arrive by sea on the coasts ofI ndia were those of men who sought to find a north -we s t passage ,the vain enterprise wh ich recal l s the names of the Cabots

,of

Frobisher,Davi s, Hudson , and Baffin . I n 1 5 79, Thomas S tephens ,

a s tuden t of N ew College , Oxford , was the fi rst E ngl ishman who , i nmodern t imes

,i s known to have reached I nd ia . He became rector

of the J esu i t Coll ege i n Salsette , a large i sland to the north ofBombay , the n i n possess ion of the Portuguese . H is letters to h isEngl ish relati ves are said to have exc i ted a strong desi re for d i rec tE ngl ish trade wi th the country . Fou r years late r, th ree E ngl ishme rchants , F itch , N ewberry, and Leedes , went out overland asadventurers i n the way of trade . Portuguese jealousy made themprisoners at Goa , where N ewberry remained as a shopkeeper, wh il eLeedes became an Offic ial i n the se rv ice of the “ Great M ogul

Akbar,and F itch , after much travel i n those regions , retu rned to

England . I t was the defeat of the Span ish A rmada that fi rstgreatly st i rred the commercial spi ri t of E ngland , and caused hermerchants and mari ners to aim at obtain ing a share, i n the Easterntrade

,with Portugal and Holland . I n 1 596 , a Dutch nav igator,

Cornel i us H outman , after the lapse of nearly a centu ry, took Vascoda Gama’s course round the great A frican cape , and the flag ofHol land flew in E astern waters

,th reaten i ng the monopoly h itherto

enjoyed by the Portuguese i n southern As ia . Three years onlyhad passed , when the formation of Dutch private compan ies , to takeadvantage of the new opening to comme rc ial enterprise , had wel l

IND IA— F IRST EUROPEAN SETTLEMENTS . 59

establ ished the O riental t rade of the U n i te d Prov i nces, and themerchants of London

,i n 1 599, were aroused to je alous ange r by

the D utch dealers , whe n they i ncreased the price of pepper fromthree shi l l ings pe r pound to nearly th rice the amount . Truly, asmall spark k indle th a great fi re , and the mighty events of h i storyhave thei r d istant source i n the veries t trifle s . A sudden rise i nthe price of a pungent spice took E ngl i sh energy and enterprise tothe scene of coming empi re . A meeting of merchants was held ,on Septembe r 2 2nd,

i n Founders ’ Hall , with the Lord -mayor as

chai rman,and an associat ion was formed for d i rec t trade with I ndia .

Queen E l izabeth favoured the scheme, and after despatch ing anenvoy to the Mogul emperor, by the overland route , to requestpriv i leges for her people

,she granted a royal charter . On the last

day of the 16 th century, December 3 1 5 t , 1600 , the Eng l i sh EastI ndia Company , i n accordance with th is i nstrument , was incorporated unde r the t i tle of “The Gove rnor and Company of Merchantsof London trading to the East I ndie s ” . There were 1 2 5 shareholders , with a capi tal of 1; i ncreased , twelve years later, to

Such w as the beginn ing of Bri t ish connection with I nd ia , opening the fi rs t s tage of ou r I nd ian h istory, which may be styled “ ThePeriod of Factories or “ The Company as a Commercial Body ” .

I t was a day of small th ings, when we had only trad ing settlementsi n the land

,l ike some other E uropean nations

,and i t lasted for

nearly a cen tury and a hal f, ending with the year 1 748 . Duringthe fi rst twelve ye ars , annual voyages were made at the separateexpense of subscribing shareholders, who took al l the ri sk andprofits ; and all the ventures save one, the fou rth , made a re turn ofabout cent per cen t . The earl ier e fforts of the trade we re di rectedto the regions beyond the Bay of Bengal

,and brought ou r people

into col l is ion with the D utch . I n 1609, the Company opened thedockyard at Deptford , which soon caused an i ncrease i n the numberand size of the E ngl i sh merchantmen . I n 1 6 1 3, on the increaseof the Company ’s capi tal , voyages were made on the joi n t- stockaccount . Succe ssfu l trade , i n the natural course, brought efforts atcompetit ion , but two of these associations were absorbed i n theCompany, i n 16 50 and 16 5 7, and no serious rival ry arose unti l nearlythe close of the re ign Of Charles the Second . Then came a timeof trouble

,due both to internal d issens ions and to outward attacks .


The prosperi ty of the Company had been a marvel of the commerc ialworld . The rapid increase of wealth , and of luxu ry which i ncludedan ever-growing taste for the spices , the t issues , and the j ewel s ofthe East, poured a stream of gold in to the coffers of the proprietorsat the I ndia House i n Leade nhall Street, then an ed ifice of wood andplaster, adorned with the quain t carved emblems and lattice-workof the later Tudor t imes . Tea , for wh ich the Company held thesole righ t of importation , was becoming a great source of revenue,and the sal tpetre brought from I ndia was absolutely necessary forthe manufacture of the gunpowder ever more largely consumed i nE uropean warfare . The annual val ue of the imports i n to Englandfrom the Ganges alone had risen , s ince 1660, from eight thousandpounds to nearly forty t imes as much . The gains of the East I nd iashareholders were almost beyond bel ief. Thei r credi t was suchthat they cou ld read ily borrow at s ix per cent . The profi ts of thei rtrade were such that money thus obtai ned brought i n th irty percen t . I n 168 1 , a hundred pounds of the stock was worth nearlyfour t imes that sum . The proprietors were few in number, and theweal th of the richest among them was enormous . S i r J os iah Ch ild ,

a man who had risen,by h is rare talen ts for bus iness , from the

posit ion of an apprentice sweeping out a Ci ty warehouse , to that ofa commerc ial magnate of the h ighes t rank , could marry h is daughterto the eldest son of the Duke of Beaufort , and prov ide her, on herwedding day

,with the regal dowry, for that age , of fi fty thousand

pounds .Prosperi ty so portentous could not but excite the keen enm ity

that has envy for i ts s i re . I n 1680 , the act ion of private adven

ture rs who , i n defiance of the royal charte r, fi tted ou t sh ips for theEastern seas, began to assume a formidabl e shape. The “ i n terlope rs ” , as these men were cal led , summoned to the i r aid the impass ioned pol i tics of the t ime concern ing the Exclus ion B i l l . Someof the D i rectors were , as strong Exclusion i sts , hosti le to the Courtparty, at whose hands they suffered much for thei r zeal agai nstPopery and arbi trary power. The trade ri vals of the Companythen assumed the character of loyal is ts

,and i ntrigued for the with

drawal of the charter on wh ich the Company ’s monopoly depended .

The pol i cy of Child secured the in terests of the great commercialbody whose governor or chai rman he then chanced to be . Whatever h is prev ious opin ions may have been , he now became an

IND IA— FIRST EUROPEAN SETTLEMENTS. 6 1

avowed Tory,excluded the Whig element from th e d i rection

,and

control led affai rs wi th despotic authori ty. The king and thecourt, male and female, were lav ish ly bribed with bags of guineasand with prec ious gems , wi th s i lks and shawls , with costly scentsand dainty v iands from the I ndian seas . The charter was safe .

J effreys,pres id ing i n the Court of K ing ’s Bench , gave h is decis ion

i n favour of the monopoly, and J ames the Second, on his accession ,granted a new charter confi rm ing and extending all the priv i legesh i therto bestowe d on the Company . The captains of I nd iamenrece i ve d Crown - commiss ions , and the righ t of d isplaying the royalflag.

The Revol ut ion of 1689 annul led al l the efforts and expendi

ture of S i r J osiah Ch i ld, and the East I ndia Company , as themonopol ist of the most profi table trade, was again imperi l led . I tspriv i lege s were now assai led

,on the one hand , by those who de

nounced, i n the in terest of Engl ish stuffs , the E ngl ish use of I ndiansi lks and cal icoes and shawls . On the other s ide, merchants ofBristol and other ports clamoured

,i n the interests of trade- exten

sion , i n favour of trade being left whol ly free . The chief hosti l i tywas, however, di rected against the despoti c authori ty w ielded byChi ld

,as be i ng used for the benefi t of h imself, his fami ly , and

serv i le dependants . The only remedy for th is was, they urged , thetransference of the monopoly to a new corporation on a fresh basis .An unchartered society was formed in 1691, which i ncl uded someof the ch ief merchants i n the ci ty of London , and was popularlyknown as the N ew Company . Pet i t ions to the House of Commonsfrom the rival bodies caused the passage of resolutions to the effectthat the trade wi th the East I ndies was benefic ial to the kingdom ,

and that such trade could be best carried on by a joi nt- stock company invested with excl us ive priv i leges . This decis ion , fatal to thehopes both of the manufacturers who wished to proh ibi t the trade,and of the merchants who were eage r to th row i t open , was followedby seventeen years of rival ry , duri ng which the N ew Company wasfavoured by the Whigs , and the O ld Company by the Tories . I n1693, by means of lav i sh bribes to some le ading pol i t icians , anew charter was obtained for the original Company . The Direc

tors a t once began to carry matters wi th a h igh hand against theobnox ious “ i nterlopers not merely at a distance, i n I ndian watersand terri tory

,afar from redress

,but i n the port of Lon don , on the


bosom of the Thames , under the eyes of thei r i nveterate foes . Afine vessel named the Redér idg e, equipped by some London merchan ts , wel l manned and fi l led wi tha most costly freight, oste ns iblybound to the coas t of Spai n , was stopped by the Admiral ty, on anorder obtained from the Privy Counc i l , at the instance of the O ldCompany . The suspic ion was that her real de sti nation lay beyondthe Cape . General anger was sti rred i n the C ity

,and an appl ica

t ion to the Commons caused the carryi ng of a motion that al lEngl i sh subj ects had equal rights of t rade wi th the East I ndiesunl ess the y we re proh ib i ted by Ac t of Parl iament . For some yearstrade with I nd ia was thus nominal ly free , but, beyond the Cape ,a vote of th e House of Commons was almost powerless againstthe agents of the O ld Company , who waged incessant war agai ns ti ntrude rs on the monopoly .

I n 1 695 , the Company suffered great losses i n sh ips that werecaptured by the French pri vateers , and i ts d iv idends , al ready muchimpai red by the large sums expended in bribing parl iamentarysupporters

,were furthe r d im in ished . I n 1698, the confl i c t between

the O ld Company and the N ew was raging i n the ci ty of London,

and the elder assoc iation , look ing to the Tories for aid , offered aloan of to the government , i n retu rn for a monopolysecu red by an Act . A t th i s j unctu re , the great Whig financie r

,

Charl es Montague , then at the head of the Treasury, came to thea id of the New Company , and h is sk i l ful and strenuous exertionsended i n the establ i shment of a new corporat ion , cal led the GeneralSoc ie ty, composed of i ndiv idual s or corporations who , i n retu rn fora loan of two m il l ions to the state, were empowered to trade separate ly wi th I ndia to an extent of capi tal not exceeding the amountadvanced by such member to the government . A l l o r any of themembers migh t renounce the priv i l ege of separate trade , and formthemselves , under a royal charter, i n to a society for the purposeof trad ing i n common . The whole of the two mil l ions was , with i ntwo days , subscribe d i n London , and the B ristol merchan ts , whohad intended to take worth of stock , were left out i n thecold . I n 1 70 2 , the O ld Company and the new soc iety were un i ted ,and i n 1 709, the capi tals of the two compan ies were completelyamalgamated , and the East I ndia Company , i n i ts final form , waslaunched on i ts eventful and adventurous career.

The fi rst appearance of the E ngl ish at Surat, on the ri ver

IND IA— FIRST EUROPEAN SETTLEMENTS. 63

Tapti , was i n 1 608 , when a sh ip arrived wi th letters from J ames I .to the emperor J ehangir. The Mogul governor al lowed the captai nto land his cargo , but the Portuguese , who were the n masters onthat coast

,at fi rs t succeeded i n preventing any B ri tish trade . I n

16 1 2 ,however

,a “ factory or trad ing- post was establ i shed

,and our

pos it ion was made secure , three years late r, when the Company’s

flee t , under Captai n Best , route d a vastly superior force of Portu~

g ues e ,i n four s harp confl i cts , to the aston ishment of the native s ,

who had be l i eved them to be i rres i st ible . A charter was thenobtai ned from the emperor, and Surat became the ch ief seat of theCompany ’s operat ions i n western I ndia , with agenc ies at Ajme re ,

Cambay,and Ahmedabad . Surat was , in fact , our fi rs t Presi

deney” i n the East I ndie s , and , i n the forty years that preceded

the accession of Aurangzeb ( I 6 th e town grew greatly in s izeand weal th

,with caravans pass ing between the port and Agra ,

Delh i,and Lahore . Before the close of the 1 7th century i t had a

population estimated at persons , and i s de scribed as “ th eprime mart of I ndia During the reign of Aurangzeb, i n 1 664,

the Mahrattas, as we have seen , under S ivaj i , pil lage d the town ,and the place was for some time laid under yearly tribu te to thefreebooti ng power. I n 1687 th e East I ndia Company reducedthei r se ttlement to the posit ion of an age ncy, and thei r ch ief seat oftrade on the western coast was removed to Bombay .

Passing over now to the Coromandel coast, we find Engl i shfactories at A rmagaon and Masul ipatam , u nder grants from thek ing of Golconda, establ i shed be tween 16 2 5 and 1632 . I n 16 39 apiece of coast te rri tory w as bought from one of the nat ive rulers

,

about th ree hundred m i les to the south of Masul ipatam . I t measured but s ix m iles long by one mil e i n breadth

,but is notable as

being the fi rs t te rri tory wh ich E ngl i shmen possessed i n I ndia. At rad ing- post was erected , surrounded by a wal l bearing cannon fordefe nce, and thi s l i ttl e stronghold was that wh i ch became famousa s Fort S t . George . N atives were attracted to the spot foremployment i n handicrafts and trade , and two l i ttle towns , wi th in afew ye ars , arose outs ide the fort , one occupied by foreign merchantslooking to the E ngl ish for protection

,and the other inhabi ted by

native artisans employed by the E ngl i sh . Such was the origin oft he great c i ty of Madras . I n 1 6 5 3 the place became the seat ofthe fi rst o f the h istori c Presidencies of B ri ti sh I ndia

,defended


against the attacks of the Sul tan of Golconda, i n i ts earl iest days ,by the guns of Fort S t . George , and supply ing a welcome place ofrefuge to Portuguese dri ven by the same pote ntate from thei rse ttleme nt at S t . Thome . I n 1690 Fort S t . Dav id was bu i l t , nearCuddalore , about 100 miles south of Madras , on a piece of landpu rchased from the Mahrattas , and th is became another centre ofBri t ish influence and power. About twel ve m iles to the north layPond icherry , where French traders had settled i n 16 74. This place

was also des tined to become well known in h istory . The D utchwere at th is t ime establ ished i n a fort and town at Pul icat, northward from Madras , and at Sadras , somewhat further to the south .

The town of Madras grew i nto importance during the fi rs t hal f ofthe . 18th century , enlarged by the add i t ion of ou tlyi ng v i l lages ,employing many weavers i n the cotton manufacture , and carry ingon a great and profi table trade wi th the regions beyond the Bay ofBengal , Burma and S iam , Sumatra and

“more distant China . TheEngl ish “ factory ” , of which Madras may be taken as a type ,was composed , i n i ts origin , of E uropean servants of the Eas t I ndiaCompany , ranked i n asce nt as wri ters or cl erks , factors , and merchants , rece iv ing smal l salaries , from ten to forty pounds a year,but boarded and lodged at the Company ’s charge . Thei r i ncomeswere enhanced by the priv i lege of private trade , confined to theE ast, and not trench ing on the Company ’s E uropean monopoly .

The governor of the town was assisted i n h is dut ies by a counci l o fmerchants ; and these men , fo r nearly a century from the founda

t ion of the place,found thei r main duties i n the superin tendence of

trade, revenue, and expendi tu re , and i n the pun ishment ofal l offencescommitted by E uropeans . A court , composed of a mayor andaldermen , under royal charter, adj usted c iv i l d i sputes, with the rightof appeal to the governor i n counci l . N ative offenders were j udgedand pun ished by E ngl ish magis trates

,who also deal t wi th the i r c iv i l

d isputes ; pol ice dut ies concern ing nat ives were intrusted to a H induoffic ial .U nder Shah J ehan , i n 1640 ,

the E ngl i sh were permi tted toestabl i sh a “ factory at H ugl i

,about a hundred m iles above the

mouth of the Ganges . This concession was due to the sk i l l ofD r. Boughton , a surgeon in the East I ndia Company ’s serv ice , whohad cured

,i n a dangerous i l lness

,a favouri te daughter of the

emperor. The Company ’s powers were at fi rs t much re stri cted .


I n 1690, Calcutta became the head - quarters of the East I ndiaCompany i n Bengal ; s ix years later the original Fort Wi l l iam wasbui l t, and i n 1700 th e thr ee v il lages were purchased from theimperial government at Delh i . I n 1 70 7, Cal cutta was made aseparate , or the second , Pres idency , accountable to the Court ofD i rectors in London . Three years later i ts population is est imated as exceeding ten thousand , and i n 171 7, after furthertrouble wi th the Mohammedan offic ial s of Bengal , the Councilob ta ined from the court of Delh i a confi rmation of al l thei r priv il eges , and perm i ss ion to purchase more v i l lages and land on bothbanks of the H ugli , to a di stance of ten m iles down the river.The Company occupied

,towards the N awab of Bengal , the pos i

t ion of a subject z em inda r or landlord , paying h im a reve nue, i n1 7 1 7, of about £900 a year. The devastations of the Mahrattahorsemen

,referred to in precedi ng pages , caused the nat ives at

Calcu tta to obtai n perm ission , i n 1 74 2 , to d ig a great trench , at thei rown charges

,round the Company

’

s boundary . Three mi les o f thework

,out of seven marked out , were quickly executed , and then

the concession of a large annual payment of Mau i or blackmai l tothe marauders caused the Mahratta D i tch to be left unfin ished .

The Portuguese , i n the 16 th century , call ed the i sland ly i ngsouth of Sal sette by the name of Bombaim , a corruption of theMahratta word Mumbai , or Great Mother

”

, a ti tle of D ev i , wifeof the god S iva . I n 1 66 1, the l i ttle terri tory was ceded to Charlesthe Se cond as part of the dowry of h is queen , Catharine of Braganza. There was a governmen t house , with pleasan t grounds, anda na t ive town con tain ing a few thousands of i nhabi tan ts, but theplace was unfort ified, and was thus exposed to frequent raids fromcoast p i rates . In 166 8, the k ing handed over h is property to theE ast I nd ia Company for a trifl i ng annual rent , and the new owners ,conscious of the importance of the pos it ion for t rade , began toe rec t strong works and to e ncourage se ttl ement . When D r . Fryer,a surgeon in the Company ’s serv ice

,landed there five years later,

he found a castle o r fortress whose wall s d isplayed 1 20 guns , whil es ixty fie ld- guns were kept i n constan t readine ss . The place wasat that t ime extremely unheal thy for E uropeans , who suffered ,a long with the natives , from the attacks of a d isease wh ich has beenshown to be cholera . We have seen that i n 1687 the ch i ef seat ofthe Company ’s trade on the western coast of I nd ia was es tabl ished

IND IA— FIRST EUROPEAN SETTLEMENTS . 67

at Bombay in place of Surat , and i n 1 708 the town became thecentre of a th i rd independent Pres idency, governed , l ike Calcuttaand Madras

,by a Governor and Counci l . For many years the

Company,i n th is quarter, held merely the posi t ion of traders . The

ri sing power of the Mahrattas debarred them from any extensionof terri tory or influence on the landward s ide, and for nearly half acentury from the establ i shment of the Pres idency noth ing worthyof record occurred .

About the m iddle of the 18th century, the two ch ief E u ropeanpowers , Great Bri tain and France , embroi led at home in the Warof the Austrian Success ion , became engaged , on I nd ian ground , i na struggle hav ing i ts origi n both i n commercial rival ry and i nterri torial amb it ion . Southern I nd ia was the scene of confl i ct, andthe Pres idency of Madras now comes, for a season , to the front .After the death of Au rangzeb i n 1 707, the power of the Mogulemperors at Delh i was real ly at an end in the whole of the south .

I n 1 744,the N i zam , as we have seen , ruled i n the Deccan , properly

so cal le d , or the country between the rivers N erbudda and K is tnah,

with Haidarabad (Hyderabad) as h is capital . The Karnat ik

(Carnati c) , or the lowland terri tory between the central table - landand the Bay of Bengal , was under the immediate con trol of theNi zam ’s deputy, the N awab of A rcot . H indu rajas ruled atTrich inopol i and Tanjore , further to the south , and another H indus tate was ris ing i nland i n Mysore . The war between Englandand France i n E urope began i n 1 744 . The contest between thenat ion s i n I ndia assumed a serious form in a del iberate attempt ofFrench ambi t ion to obtai n the v i rtual mastery of the Deccan . I n1 745 an E ngl ish squadron appeared on the Coromandel coast, andhad the French settl ements at i ts mercy ; but Dupleix , the F renchgovernor of Pond icherry, obtained the in tervention of the N awabof A rcot, who forbade the E ngl is h to e nter upon host i l i t ies i n anypart of h is terri tory . The tame compl iance of our commanderwith th is order has a strange appearance by contrast with laters tages of I ndian affai rs . I n the fol lowing year some Frenchm en - of- war arrived

,commanded by La Bourdonnais , governor of

Mauri t ius . Troops were set ashore , and the enemy appearedbe fore Madras

,which was i n no condi t ion to res ist attacks from

either sea or land . The Governor and Counci l had no choice butsurrender

,on condit ion of restoration on payment of a mode rate


ransom . The French colours flew from Fort S t . George , and thecontents of the Company ’s ware houses became prize of warA deepe r humil iat ion was i n store for ou r countrymen through

the action of Dupleix . He insis ted that La Bourdonnais had norigh t to make terms of ransom for M adras ; he declared that theplace should be utterly destroyed , and he carried off the governorand severa l leading men to Pondicherry, where they were marchedth rough the town in triumph before fi fty thousand people . Whenthe N awah was angered by the French possess ion of Madras , anddespatched ten thousand men

,with many cannon , to retake i t, the

French struck terror i n to the native mind by routing th is armywith a force of 400 men and two field guns . I n Duple ix , we arein troduced to the ablest Frenchman who ever appeared i n I nd iaa man of boundless patience

,endurance

,and resou rces , to whom

we are ourselves i ndebted for the di scovery of the true means ofsubj ugat ing the nati ves of I ndia , i n train ing them to figh t thebattles of E uropeans against the i r fel low Asiat ics . I n 1720 th isd is tingu ished man had taken up a respons ibl e post i n the serv iceof the French East I ndia Company

,and

,after some years ’ work at

Pondicherry , he became , i n 1 73 1, I n tendan t at Chandernagore, i nBengal . H is office made h im supreme i n legal and financ ialaffai rs ; and , i n the course of ten years, h is energy and ski l l hadthoroughly rev ived a decaying settlement . I n 174 1 , at the age offorty- th ree , he was Pres iden t of the Counci l at Pondiche rry , andCommandant of al l the French possess ions i n I ndia . H is vastamb it ion conce ived the idea of founding an E uropean empi re onthe ru ins of the Mogul monarchy . With th i s end i n v iew, he also,as above h inted , con trived the means by wh ich the obj ect was tobe attained , i n bri ng i ng the d isc ipl in e and tactics of E urope to bearV i c toriously upon large forces devoid of those advantages .The one weak poin t i n Dupleix was the lack of power to

personal ly direct the operat ions of war. He was most acu te inperception

,most ski l fu l i n organization , but he was no sold ier, and

he was destined to succumb to the warl ike gen i us and hero iccourage of one of the greatest of E ngl i shmen . One of thefugi t ives from Madras to Fort S t. Dav id , after the v iolat ion of theterms granted by La Bourdonnais , was a young clerk or wri ter, i nh is twenty-firs t year, named Robert Cl ive . Fierce, imperious,s trong- wi lled even as a ch i ld of seven , th i s eldest son of a Shrop

IND IA— FIRST EUROPEAN SETTLEMENTS . 69

sh ire squ i re of anc ient l ineage was more d isti ngu ished for daringdeeds of m isch ief than for any progress i n learn ing at school

,and

the family thought themselves wel l rid of a scapegrace when theysh ipped h im off to Madras, at e ighteen years of age , as a beg i nneri n the serv ice of the East I ndia Company . The open ing of hi scareer in the East gave no presage of com ing success and renown .

With miserabl e pay, wretchedly lodged , shy and haughty i n d ispos i t ion , pin ing for home , depressed in health and spi ri ts by thecl imate , and with duties to discharge whol ly unsu ited to h isadve nturous character, the lad found one solace i n the books of agood l ibrary to which th e governor gave h im access . The slenderknowledge which Cl ive ever possessed was gained at th is t ime .

A new world began for h im with the fl igh t from Madras . H isrestl ess and intrepid sp i ri t was created for other work than that ofexamin ing bales of goods and cast ing accounts . The pen wase xchanged for the sword . The clerk became a sold ier as anensign i n the Company ’s serv ice . H istory presents us wi th nohappier change of caree r. Cl ive soon showed h igher qual i t iesthan those of the personal courage for wh ich he was al readyconspicuous . Sound judgment

,i ns ight, submission to legit imate

authori ty, d isplayed i n m il i tary Operations against the French , wonfor h im the regard of Major Lawrence, then the most notableBri t ish officer i n I nd ia . The struggle wh ich ended i n 1 748 hadincluded the defeat of a F rench assaul t on Fort S t . Dav id , and thefai l ure of a B ri t ish fleet

,under Admiral Boscawen , with a land

force , i n a two -months ’ S iege of Pondicherry . The Peace ofA i x- la- Chapel le

,concl uded i n the same year

,but not known in

I nd ia t i l l 1749, restored Madras to the possession of the Engl i sh ,whose reputation

,i n the est imation of the nat ive princes and

people , stood far below that of the F rench as d i rected by Dupleix .

The contest was qu ickly to be renewed on a larger scale andwi th a widely di ffe ren t i ssue . The abil i ty and v igour of Cl ivewere to be d isplayed as those of the fi rst E ngl i shman by whom theBri t ish empi re was i ncreased on I nd ian soi l . The prowess displayed by the French under Duple ix

’

s control had won the admirat ion of nat ive princes who were eager to employ , for thei r ownends, the sk i l l and courage of E uropean troops . A iming atsupremacy for the French in southern I ndia

,Duplei x was ready to

meet thei r v i ews,and h is opportun i ty came in a disputed succession


caused by the death , i n 1 748 , of the N i zam - ul-Mulk , nominal lyS ubahdar, under the Mogul emperor, but real ly independen t rulerof the Deccan . A t the same time, the th rone of the Carnat ic wasvacant, and the Frenchman succeeded in plac ing both h is nom ineesi n power at H aidarabad and at A rcot . The E ngl ish authori t ies atMadras were inten t on the expansion of the Company ’s traderather than on pol i t ical i nfluence , but the inst inct of sel f-preservat ion made them d read the combined power of the French andthei r nat ive al l i es . Duple ix was , for the t ime, t ri umphant. A l lwas exultation and festiv i ty at Pondicherry , with sal utes fi ring fromthe batteries

,and Te Deum sound ing i n the chu rches . The new

N i zam of the Deccan , Muzaffar J ung, declared the French governor to be master of I ndia from the rive r K istna to Cape Comorin ,a terri tory about as large as France . He was placed i n charge ofa large force of cavalry, and loaded wi th nat ive gold . I n the prideof h is heart, Duple ix erected a col umn , with fou r i nscript ions , i ndiverse native languages, on the fou r s ides , procla iming h is glory ;and a town was founded , with the style, i n nat ive words , of “ C ityof the Vic to ry of D upleixThe E ngl i sh , on thei r s ide , had set Up a rival N awab of the

Carnatic,Mohammed Al i ; but the only spot of ground wh ich he

possessed i n h i s nominal domin ions was T rich inopol i , where hewas closel y bes ieged by F rench and nat ive troops . The Engl i shat Madras were i n consternation at the state of affai rs . MajorLawrence had returned to England , and no one seemed capable ofact ion

,when the gen ius and valour of young Robert C l ive came to

the rescue . He was now twenty-five years old , with the doubl erank of captain and of commissary to the troops . H e proposed tomake a d ivers ion i n favou r of Trich inopol i by an attack uponA rcot

,th e capital of the Carnat ic . H is offer was accepted, and he

set forth at the head of two hundred Engl i sh troops and threehundred S ipahis (sepoys) , nat ive soldiers armed and t rained i n theE uropean fash ion . I t was August 26 th,

1 75 1 , when Cl ive beganh is march

,and i t was amidst a tropical s torm , with crash ing thunder,

bl i nd ing electric flashes , and torrents of ra i n , that he arrived nearthe town

,wh ich was abandoned by the garri son , i n u tter dread ,

without a blow. They seem to have thought that no mere men , i nn umbers so small , could have dared the enterprise under such con

ditions . The young commander at once prepared for a s iege ,

CLIVE HOLDS THE TOWN AND FORT OF ARCOTAGAINST THE FRENCH AND THEIR ALLIES.

About the year 1 750 Britain and France were strugg l ing for mas tery inSouthern Ind ia

,and so far the Frenchmen,

under Duple ix , were the moresucces sfu l . The advent of Rob ert C l ive , however, a young intrepid officer

in the service of the Eas t Ind ia Company , sudden l y changed the wholeaspect of affairs . Ins tructed to re l ieve the British force bes ieged in

Trich inopol y , he conce ived the bol d idea of se iz ing Arcot, the capital ofthe Carnatic, for that wou l d draw off the comb ined French and Sepoyforce of the b es iegers . H is daring plan was entire l y successful . The sma l lforce under C l ive made the las t stage of its march upon Arcot through aterr ific thunderstorm

,and the garrison was so astonished at th is ind ifference

to danger that it fled pe l l-me l l , lea v ing the town to be occupied by theBritish . Thereafter the who le French and Sepoy s trength was brought upto d is lodge C l ive and his gal lant l ittle band . In vain ; he he l d the town

and fort agains t every attack , and in so doing laid the foundation of Britishpres tige in Ind ia .

IND IA— FIRST EUROPEAN SETTLEMENTS. 7I

col lect ing stores of food , and construct ing new works . The leaguerof fi fty days which ensued has been described by Macaulay in bri ll ian t words . A ssai led by ten thousand men , i nclud ing 1 50 French ,the fort of A rcot, with ru inous wal ls, dry d itches , ramparts toonarrow for the working of the cannon , and battlements too low forproper defence

,was mai ntained for seven weeks , with a firmness

,

v igi lance,and abil i ty which would have done honour to the oldest

marshal i n E urope The pressure of fam ine was'

endured withheroic pat ience by al l ; and a furious assault, made by thousands of

me n under the strongest impulse o f Mahommedan fanaticism , on aholy day of fest ival , and under the i nfluence of i ntoxicating l iquordi st i l led from hemp, was repulsed with great loss . When the nextday broke

,the enemy had vanished , leav ing guns and ammun it ion

to th e v ictors . The news , received at Fort S t. George with transports of j oy and pride , procured for Cl ive a re inforcement of nearlya thousand men , i ncluding 200 Brit ish . He at once took the fieldfor offens ive work , routed five thousand men , of whom 300 wereFrench

,rece ived the surrender of town after town , beat the enemy

again close to Madras , rased to the ground the pil lar and “ ci ty ”

of Dupleix, and taught the natives that the French claim tosupremacy i n I ndia was founded on des ire and hope , and not onfact . A t th i s t ime Lawrence arri ved again at Madras , and took upthe command , loyal ly served by the young hero who had restoredthe c redi t of the B ri tish arms . The v ictory of B ri tish influencewas enhanced by the capi tulat ion of the besiegers of Trichi nopol i ,i ncl uding more than 800 Frenchmen , and by the establ ishment, fora t ime, of the Bri tish nominee, Mohammed A l i , as master of theCarnati c.The inv incible spi ri t o f Dupleix sti l l kept h im at work i n

bribing, i n trigu ing, promising, lav ish ing h is private means , andso rais ing up new enemies on every s ide for the government ofMadras. French i nfluence was thus st i l l paramount in the Deccanwhen the state of Cl ive’s heal th , i n 175 2 ,

compel led h im to retu rnto England . He was rece ived wi th the utmost enthus iasm at theI nd ia H ouse

,and aroused general admi ration and i nterest . H is

father, long unabl e to bel ieve that the idle lad was becom ing agreat man

,was forced to give way by the events wh ich had

fol lowed the defence of Arcot . A fter Cl ive ’s departure from thescene of action , the ski l l of Dupleix had agai n prov ided trouble for

2 OUR EMPIRE AT IIOME AND ABROAD .

Mohammed A l i,whose garrison was bes ieged i n Trich i nopol i

,and

was only rel ieved i n 1 754 th rough v ic tories won by Colonel Law

rence . The French , th rough the d iplomatic i nfl uence of Bussy ,an officer of great abi l i ty who was Duple ix

’

s ch ief coadj utor,had

gai ned from the N i zam a long strip o f terri tory on the easterncoast

,afterwards known as the N orthern C ircars , and i ncluding the

town of Masul ipatam . I n E urope , the French and E ngl i sh werenow at peace , and the representat ions of our governmen t i nducedthe French authori t ies to send out peremptory orders for the cone l us ion of an arrangement wi th the E ngl ish i n southern I nd ia .

This was fol lowed by the recal l of Dupleix , who sai led for Francei n October, 1 754. H is departu re carried d ismay to the hearts ofa ll his countrymen i n I ndia , for whose i nterests, with due regard toh i s own , he had sacrificed , as he h imsel f declared , h is youth , fortune

,and l i fe. This i l lustrious man , now j ustly regarded as one of

the greatest of Frenchmen , died , neglected and i n want , ten yearslater. The treatment accorded to Dupl eix by the wretchedgovernment of Lou i s th e F i fteenth con tains the cause of Frenchfai l ure to attai n substantial and pe rmanent domin ion i n the East .As in Canada

,so i n the Deccan

,they fa i led to support thei r publ i c

servants, while the E ngl ish authori ti es, on the whole , recogn izedthe importance of the i nterests at stake . The rulers of Francecondemned a pol i cy which they could not understand ; they gaveDupleix no pecun iary a id

,and they sent h im for troops the scum

of the streets and the sweeping s of the gal leys, with fool i sh andignoran t boys as subal te rns

,and scarcely a man of real ab il i ty for

h igh command . Thei r i ngrat i tude,as wel l as thei r unw isdom , were

systematic in Eastern affai rs . The gal lan t and able La Bourdonnais , th e captor of Madras , had been thrown into the Bast i l l e onh is return to France , and only released afte r th ree years

’ harshimpri sonment , fol lowed by the discovery and declarat ion of h i si nnocence . We shal l soon see a st i l l fouler i nstance of base andc ruel retu rn for fai th ful serv ice rendered to France in the “ goodold t imes wh ich preceded , as cause precedes effect, the Revol utiono f 1789.

I n J anuary , 1 75 5 , the French and Engl i sh were at peace inI ndia , but the outbreak of the Seven Years ’ War i n the followingyear brought the rivals again face to face in the Deccan . By thist ime Cl ive was again i n the East

,with the rank of l i eutenant

IND IA— FIRST EUROPEAN SETTLEMENTS. 73

colonel,and as the Company

’

s governor at Fort S t . Dav id . Hewas summoned to Bengal by momentous events to be hereafternoticed

,and w e leave h im there wh ile we pursue the fortunes of

the hosti l e powers seated at Pondicherry and Madras . TheFrench government had , by th is t ime , better understood the pol icyand meri ts of Dupleix

,and had resolved , i n pursuance of h is far

reach ing plans,on an attempt to expel the E ngl i sh from the south

of I nd ia . N early th ree thousand troops were appointed for thework

,and i n Apri l , 1 75 8 , the force arrived , i n the fleet , off Pond i

cherry . The command of th e expedi t ion had been g iv en to one ofthe finest officers i n the French army, a man of I ri sh parentageborn i n France, Count de Lal ly and Baron de Tollendal. H isfather

,S i r Gerard O

’

Lally, was an I ri sh J acobi te , who had ret i redto France i n 1 691 , after the capi tulat ion of Limerick , and hadcommanded a regimen t i n the French serv ice . H is d isti ngu ishedson won fame at Fontenoy, and was wi th the younge r Pretenderi n the ’

45 . Lal ly was a bri l l ian t sold ier, but whol ly wanting i n thesuppleness

,conci l iat ion, and tact wh ich had been among the ch ief

aids to success i n Dupleix . The new governor scoffed at nat ivecreeds and castes , and treated the French c ivi l ians at Pond icherrywi th a haughtiness that made h im many foes . H is contempt wasdeserved , i ndeed , by the ignorance, i ncompetence , and neglectwh ich left h im dest i tute

,on h i s arrival , of important i nformation

concern i ng distances,routes , and hosti l e garrisons , of money to

take the field,and of stores i n the magaz ines . H is v igou r and

ski l l , and th e numbers at h is command , enabled h im to captureFort S t. Dav id , Cuddalore , and A rcot . He was then joined byBussy , and by another officer from the Northern Circars, and i nDecember, 1 75 8 , he appeared before Madras wi th 2000 Frenchi nfantry , 300 caval ry, and 5000 tra i ned sepoys . The fort wasdefe nded with great bravery, and after the heavy guns had madea bre ach and an assaul t was imm i nent , th e s iege was rel inqu ishedon the arrival of an Engl ish squadron . A t the same time , an ableEngl ish officer, Colonel Forde, despatched by Cl ive from Calcutta,expe l led the Fre nch from the N orthern Ci rcars .Lal ly retu rne d to Pondicherry, and was obl iged to spend much

time i n gathering resources for further warfare . A t th e close of1 759, he was i n the field with h is forces at A rcot . The Engl ish ,rein forced i n that quarter

,and commanded by another office r of


Cl ive ’s cho ice, Colonel Eyre Coote , had lately taken the fort ofWandewash. Lally, march ing for i ts recovery, took up a strongposi t ion near the place , and there , on J anuary 2 1s t , 1 760 ,

he wasattacked by the man who was to become one of the most famoussold iers i n the Bri t i sh army . Bussy had jo ined h i s countrymenwith some thousands of Mah ratta i rregulars

,but the ski l l and

energy of Eyre Coote , backed by the courage of h i s E ngl ish andsepoys , won a complete and dec is i ve v ic to ry . I t was

,i ndeed , a

fatal final blow to F rench domination in I nd ia . A rcot and otherstrongholds fel l at once i n to Brit ish bands . I n September, Pondicherry itsel f was bes ieged , and a brave defence by Lal ly ended i na surrender, compel led by starvation , i n J anuary , 1 76 1 . Thetown , wal ls , forts , and publ ic bu i ld ings, were all demol i shed , andal l th e troops and c i v i l ians i n the F rench Company ’s serv ice werecarried off, on B ri t ish v essels , to F rance . Lally was sent aprisoner to E ngland , but obtained permission to return toFrance i n order to meet charges of treachery , most d isgraceful tothose who brought them , preferred by the F ranco - I nd ians who hadearned and fel t h is disdain i n the Carnatic . Condemned on noev idence of any value

,the gal lan t sold i er

,after th ree years o f

l ingering pai n,was brought out from a cel l

,flung into a dung- cart ,

and dragged to the scaffol d wi th a gag i n h is mouth . This

atroc ious crime was committed i n May, 1 766 . H is son , twelve

years later, aided by the m ighty pen of Vol tai re, procu red a decreefrom Loui s the S ixteenth

,annull ing the condemnation as unj ust ,

and restoring the forfe ited honours of the v ic tim . This son of thehapless Lal ly d ied , a peer of F rance , i n 1830 .

IND IA— BR ITISH CONQUEST. 75

CHAPTER X IV .

IND IA—BR ITI SH CONQUEST ( 1756

Suraj- ud-Daula capture s Ca lcutta— Tragedy of the B lack Hole— C l ive ’s victory a t P la s sey— He re l ie ve s Patna— Mir Jafar intrigue s w ith the Dutch— Misgove rnment by theCompany’s officials— Patna aga in threatened by the Nawab of Oudh and ShahA lam— The ir force s repu lsed by S ir H ector Munro— His v ictory a t Buxar— Sadcondition of the peop le in B enga l— Second governorsh ip of C live— H is sys tem ofdua lgove rnm en t— Re form in ci v i l and m il itary sa larie s— Caree r of Warren Ha s t ing s “

Regu lating acts of 1773— Has ting s ’ ab le adm inis tration— Affa irs in M adras and

Bombay Pres idencies— F irs t Mahratta VVar— Ahmedabad s torm ed— Gwa l ior sur

prised and captured— The Mysore War— H yder A li routed by S ir E yre CooteP itt’s India Act of 1784— Impeachm ent of Warren Has ting s— Lord Cornwa l l isappointed Govem or-

gene ra l and Commander - in - ch ief in Ind ia— H is nume rous

reform s— Second Mysore War— Se ringapatam captured— S ir John Shore succeedsLord Cornwa l lis .

The story now passes to Bengal . I n 175 6 , the las t of thegreat N awabs (N abobs) of B e ngal , a v i rtually independen t v iceroyof the Mogul emperor at Delh i , was A l i Vardi Khan , and , i n thatyear, h is death gave the sove re ignty to a worthless grandson ,Suraj -ud- Daula (Su rajah Dowlah) . He was a lad of eighteen , and ,hating the E ngl ish from sheer caprice, he picked a quarrel andmarched on Calcutta . The Engl i sh officials , not accustomed towar or even to thoughts of sel f- defence

,l ike thei r brethren at

Madras, fel l i nto a panic , and took sh ip for the mouth of the river .

The smal l garri son i n Fort Wil l iam surrendered,and many

civ i l ians al so fel l i nto the hands of the Nabob . Then , on the n ightof J une 20th, 1 75 6 , came the fearful tragedy of the Black Holewhen 1 2 3 persons were smothered through i ncarceration , i ntropical heat , with i n a room barely 20 feet square, used as a prisonfor mil i tary de faul ters . The place was lately excavated

,and the

si te i s marked on a pavement near the General Post O ffice atCalcutta . Some weeks later, the news of the fal l of Calcutta , withthe horrors that fol lowed , re ached Madras , and aroused an instantc ry for s ignal vengeance . Admiral Watson took charge of thefleet , and Cl ive, as of course , commanded the troops , cons isting ofnearly a thousand B rit ish in fantry of the best qual i ty, and fi fteenhundred sepoys . The N abob had returned to Murshedabad,

where he was al ready regretting the decl i ne of revenue i n the lossof B rit i sh trade , when he heard that, in December, the hosti le


exped i t ion had reached the Hugl i . Calcutta was soon again i nB ri ti sh hands, and on J une 2 3rd, 1 75 7, after the capture of theFrench settlemen t at Chandernagore

,re tribution was exac ted from

the cruel Suraj - ud- Daula by h i s u tte r defeat at Plassey .

The fi rm foundation of B ri t ish empi re i n I ndia was laid i n th isevent , where in , wi th the loss of less than a hundred men , Cl ivescattered an army of fi fty thousand troops

,and , i n the end , secured

for h is country a terri to ry larger and more populous than GreatB ri tai n . A new N awab of Bengal was se t up

,i n the person of

M i r J afar (Meer J affie r) , from whom enormous sums were obtainedas the price of h i s el evation . The losses of the Company , and theexpenses of war, were recouped , and large amounts were taken bylead ing offic ial s , i ncl ud ing Cl ive . A clause of the treaty madewi th the new rule r of Bengal gave the Company the righ t ofsetti ng up a m int, the v is ible s ign i n I ndia , as elsewhere , ofterri torial sovere ign ty, but the shadowy sway of the emperor atDelh i was sti l l , as a matte r of pol icy, recogn ized by the placing ofh i s name on the coins . The ru ined c i ty of Calcu tta was rebu il t,t rade rev ived

,and protect ion for the town was prov ided i n the new

Fort Will iam , begun by Cl ive, and fin ished , at enormous cost, i n1 773. The s i te of the old fort was given for the erect ion of theCustom House and othe r o ffic ial bu i ld ings . The ma idan , or parkof Calcutta , was formed , and the modern ci ty began i ts cou rse of

peaceful progress and prosperi ty. For many years , however, alongwith the spl endid abodes of the weal thy i n the E uropean quarter(Chauringhi or Chow ringhee ) , the B lack Town , where the nativepopulation dwel t, was a scandalous scene of d i rty huts , offens ive

al ike to decency and heal th . The only scavengers were vul tu res ,k i tes , and c rows by day, and troops of ravenous jackal s at n igh t .The N awab now gave to the Company the rights of a z am ina’a r ,

or landholder, over nearly a thousand square miles o f terri toryaround Calcutta . I n 1 759, the superior lordsh ip was given by th eemperor to Cl ive , who thus became the East I nd ia Company ’slandlord un ti l h is death i n 1 774,

when the proprietary righ treverted to the corporat ion .

The v i ctor of Plassey,i n 1 75 8 ,

was appoin ted , by the Court ofD i rectors , the fi rst governor of al l th e Company ’s settlements i nB engal . He soon had fresh work to do i n the field . The prov inceof Bengal was claimed by Shah A lam , eldest son of the Mogul


quarrel led concern ing the duties lev ied on internal t rade,and

sought to abol ish the Company ’s priv i leges , an appeal was made toarms . The people of Bengal rose i n defence of the N awab . Twothousand sepoys of the Company were slai n at Patna ; and thereand elsewhere

,early in 1 764, two hundred E ngl i shmen were

massacred . M ir Kasim fled to the N awab of Oudh , after twodefeats from the E ngl ish forces under Major Adams , and then theru le r of O udh , and the new emperor at Delh i , Shah A lam , uni tedthei r forces i n an attempt to recover Patna from the Engl i sh .

The danger to B ri ti sh i n terests was great , when the fi rs t mut iny ofsepoys on record arose i n the camp . A fearless man was i n command

,and the outbreak was quell ed by Major (afterwards S i r

H ector) Munro , who adopted the old Mogul punishmen t as h ismeans of strik ing terror, and blew two dozen of the ringleadersfrom the mouths of cannon . The enemy were then repulsed fromPatna

,and the contest ended on October 23rd, 1764, when Munro,

at B uxar, on the Ganges , gained one of the most famous anddec is ive battles of ou r I ndian h istory . The total rou t of theenemy gave us ou r fi rs t fi rm hold on Lower Bengal , and M r .Spencer, the governor at Calcutta j ust after these events , set up ason of M i r J afar as a puppet - Nawab , wi th a M ussulman noble ,Mohammed R i za Khan , as h is deputy , havi ng the sole possess ionof power .With th i s outward success and growth of terri torial authori ty

,

the state of affai rs was evi l i ndeed for the th i rty m i l l ions ofB engalese subje ct to the Company ’s offic ials . The nat ives weredepri ved of almost the whole in ternal t rade ; they were forced tosel l cheap and to buy dear. The native t ribunals , pol ice , and fiscalauthori t ie s were insul ted and defied , and the country swarmed wi thunpri nc ipled dependants of the Company ’s factors —natives whoexerc ised oppression and exacted plunder wh ithe rsoever they went .The people were reduced to the m isery of those who suffer withoutany hOpe of redress in thei r own righ t arms ; of men coweringhelpless before i rres i s tible power. Large fortunes were made bynumbe rs of the Company ’s officials , and these men , retu rn ing toE ngland with the fru i ts of oppress ion

,made the arrogant and

vulgar d isplay of wealth wh ich gave them , i n the sat i rical l i teratu reof the drama and the novel , the name of N abobs ” ; men witti lydescribed , by the bri l l ian t essay i st , as men wi th a tawny com


plex ion , a bad l ive r, and a worse heart Thei r weal th enabledthem for a t ime

,i n that age of gross pol i t i cal corruption , to exe r

ci se an importan t pol i t i cal i nfluence , and to threaten the countrv

with serious danger to her const i tutional system . These richadventurers

,purchas ing seats i n the H ouse of Commons , ei ther

voted as “ King ’s friends ” , i n favour of the evergrowing regalpower

,or sought to i ntroduce Asiatic ideas, and motives of the

lowest kind,i nto the management of our Eastern affairs . The

danger was overcome by legi slat i ve work at home , which broughtI ndian pol icy with in the control of the Houses, and by admini

s trat ive reforms at the distant seat of powerThe beg in n ing of beneficent change arose wi th the coming of

Baron Cl iv e of P lassey to assume h is second governorsh ip i nBengal . H e landed at Calcutta in Apri l , 1 76 5 , and se t to workwi th h i s accustomed v igour, bearing down al l Opposi tion in h isCounci l

,and establish ing, for the fi rst t ime , a real i ty of B ri t ish rule

in I ndia .

‘ During h is brief tenu re of power, he was the authorof a system of rule known as “ the dual , or double, government

”

,

which proved a fai lur e in practi ce , but wh ich was real ly forcedupon Cl ive by the arrangements al ready made by the CalcuttaCouncil . The Delh i emperor, Shah A lam , was i nduced to grantto the Com pany the diwan i or fiscal admin istrat ion of Bengal andBehar. The E ngl ish authori ti es thus received an annual revenueof about two mil l ions sterl ing, from which a tribute was paid to theemperor , and an i ncome to the Nawab of Bengal, amounting in al lto a year . The superintendence of law

,j ustice

,and

pol ice , and the nominal m il i tary command of the province , werele ft to the N awab , while the Company undertook the expense ofmaintain i ng the army out of the revenues rece ived . The j ealousyof the B ri t ish Parl iament was avoided in a system under wh ich thereal i ty of power lay wi th the Company

,veiled by the fact that the

form and ti tular authori ty were vested i n a Mogul S ul tan and h isN awab. The evi l for the nat ive population was that the col lection

of the revenue was placed in the hands of the i r countrymen , andthe z em inda r s

, or farmers of the land- tax,grossly oppressed the

ryots or cul t i vators of the soi l . These ti l lers were mainly H indus ,t imid and helple ss peasants , and the zemindars , partly landholdersand partly r evenue - col lectors , were general ly Mohammedans ofPe rs ian origin , imbued with tyranny and corruption , levying


i rregular fines on d ivers pleas,and i nvested also with j udic ial

powers under wh ich they could imprison , tortu re, and even put todeath heinous offenders . U nder the “ doubl e government i t wassoon d iscovered , by resul ts affecting the Company

’ s i ncome,that

corruption and embezzlemen t were ri fe. The zemindars stole therevenue , and bribed the i r superiors the deputy- Nawabs at M urshedabad and Patna, to shu t the i r ears to al l appeals . There venue yearly decl ined , and the Company

’s servan ts, i n tent onlyon return i ng to England wi th fortunes, suffered the people to bemerc i lessly plundered and oppressed by nati ve official s of the i rappoin tment .The great work effected by Cl ive was the reform of the c iv i l

and mil i tary serv ices in the matter of salaries and pay. With theboldness inherent i n h i s nature , he defied the unscrupulous andimplacable hatred of the ravenous adventurers who were toon umerous among the c iv i l servants of the Company. The systemwhich had h i therto preva i led was that of low salaries

,with al low

ance , i n compensation , of i ndi rec t gains. A member of Counci lwas only paid £300 a year, though i t was wel l known that such afunctionary could not l ive, accord ing to h i s s tation i n I nd ia, on lessthan ten t imes that amount . Cl iv e saw the absurdi ty and the ev i leffect of giv ing large powers to the servants of a Company thatwas no longer a mere trad ing corporation , but a rul ing body, andat the same time furn ish ing them with i nadequate pay . Heaccordingly dev ised a new and l ibe ral scal e of remunerat ion ,secure d to the c iv i l servants by the appropriat ion to thei r supportof the monopoly of sal t . Henceforth a B ri t ish functionary could

,

i n fai thful serv ice, slowly but su rely gai n a competence , and amodes t i ncome for h i s latter days . H e was no longer temptedto i rregular pract ices as a means of rapid ly acqui ri ng a fortune .The rece iv ing of presents from the natives was rigidly proh ib ited ,and the servants of the Company were whol ly debarred fromprivate trade . A l l res i stance was overruled by the vehement wi l lof the Governor, and measures of l ike import were adopted for thearmy . A plan by wh ich two hundred officers res igned the i r commissions on the same day , and left the troops , to a large extent,without commanders , was met by Cl ive w ith the stead iest courage .

A few of h is s taff remained fai th ful to thei r ch ief, officers werefetched from Fort St . George

,and commissions were given to


A s trong hand was needed for the readj ustment of affai rs .The Eas t I ndia Company was at th is t ime, from various causes ,i n sore financ ial strai ts . I n 1 76 7, the home government , underthe Duke of Grafton , had exac ted the sum of as theprice of renewing the charte r for the space of two years . I n 1 769

a renewal for five years was effected on the same terms . Theprofi ts of trade had also decl ined through the neglect of the i ragents i n allowing rogu ish native con trac tors to supply si lk andcotton goods of i n ferior qual i ty . M iddle- men we re freely makingmoney at the expense of the Company on the one hand

,and of

hard- worked nat ive weavers on the other . The impend ing financ ial ru i n of Bengal caused the Court of D i re ctors to chooseHastings as the one man of great abi l i ty, high character, andproved zeal , who might cope successful ly with an entanglementof debt

,mismanagement, anarchy , and wrong . He was al ready

posse ssed of great experi ence i n I ndian affai rs , fi rs t as a clerk i nthe Secretary ’s office at Calcutta, keeping books and warehous inggoods

,then among the s i lk -weavers and ivory - workers at Cos s im

bazar on the Ganges , where he rose to a seat i n the factorycouncil . After the battl e of P lassey , Hasti ngs was assistan t tothe B ri t ish Resident at the cou rt of the new Nawab

,Mir Jafar

,

and succeeded to the pos t of Res iden t wi th i n a few months . Hethere acquired much valuable knowledge of nat ive character andmodes of action , and by h is upright conduct and skil ful p rocedurehe wel l earned hi s promotion , i n 176 1 , to a vacant seat i n theCounci l at Calcutta . I n the fol lowing year he was engaged indel icate diplomatic work with M i r Kasim , the N awab of Bengal ,and i n 1 76 3 he returned to E ngland , with a h igh characte r bothfor abil i ty and i ntegri ty . I n 1 768, when financial affai rs wereinvolved at Madras

,Hastings was appoi n ted to the second seat

on the Counci l , where he rendered great serv ice to the Companyi n connection with trade . I n 1772 he landed at Calcutta assecond i n Counc i l

,and i n Apri l o f the same year he became

Pres iden t i n Bengal . H is term of power extended over th i rteenyears

,during which he earned last ing fame as the admin istrat ive

organ izer of B rit i sh rule i n I nd ia . From 1772 to 1 774 he was

Governor of Bengal . He then held office as the fi rst Governorgeneral

,head ing a Counci l nominated under statutes of great

importance , now to be described .

IND IA— BR ITI SH CONQUEST. 83

The Regulat ing Ac ts of 1 773 mark an epoch i n the h istory ofI nd ia

,bei ng i n fac t the cre ation of a Bri ti sh I ndia as an addi tion

to the empi re . The Company, i n that year, were again obl ige dto seek financial aid from the state , and Lord N orth , the PrimeM in ister

,granted th is on terms imposed by two Acts . A sum ofwas advanced on loan at 4 per cen t i nte rest ; the

d iv idend paid to proprietors was restricted to 6 per cen t ; and theCompany were al lowed to sh ip to the American colon ies the teaon thei r hands i n London warehouses , free from the E ngl i sh dutyof one sh i l l i ng per pound . The h istory of th is tea i s wel l knownto us i n connection with events at Boston , Massachusetts . TheRegulating Ac t proper

,making changes in the Court of Propri etors

and i n the ten ure of office by D i rectors,did i ts main work i n

establ ish ing a new Court for al l important affai rs , consisting of aChie f J ust ice and of three j udges appoin ted by the Crown , and i ncreating a new execut ive body . A Governor-general of Bengal ,Behar, and O ri ssa was appointed with a salary of a ye ar,and he was to be ass is ted by four Counci l lors , each w i th a salaryof the other two Pres idenc ies , Bombay and Madras , weresubordinated to that of Bengal . The fi rst Governor- general andCounci l lors were named in the Act , for a tenure of office duringfive years ; afterwards , the righ t of appoin tment lay with the Directors , subj ect to the approval of the Crown . The Governor

,the

Counci l , and the J udges , were proh ibited from any share in comme rcial deal i ngs .The ch ief d i fficul ty of Hasti ngs , i n the earl i er part of h is career

as Governor- general , l ay i n the v i rulent oppos i t ion of Ph i l ipFranc i s and other members of the Counci l

,which made h im

powerless except where two of h is four colleagues gave h im the i rsupport, and he could carry h is pol icy by his own casting- vote .I n pursuance of instructions received from the D i rectors , the Company

’

s servants , i n stead of nat iv e official s, were now entrusted wi ththe whole care and management of the revenues . The landrevenue was rearranged on such a bas is that the rents of the ryotscould no longer be raised at pleasure by the z em indar s , nor couldthe ti l lers of the soi l be any longer oppressed by i rregular fines andforced payments . The magisterial and j udic ial powers h i thertoheld by natives were

,to a large extent, superseded by the creat ion ,

i n every d istri ct, of a c iv i l and a crim inal cou rt, headed by the


Company ’s E ngl i sh col lector of revenue . Calcutta became thecap ital of Bengal , and two Courts of Appeal for civ i l and c rim inalcases were establ ished , under the immediate control of the Governorand Counci l , with native assessors to aid the j udges i n respec t toH indu and Mohammedan law . The monopol ies i n the traffic ofvarious article s wh ich were held by friends or relations of EastI ndia D i rec tors were suppressed wi th a fi rm but gentle hand . Acode of nat ive laws was drawn up for the gu idance of the new

courts . The dacoi ts or bandi tt i of Bengal were sternly repressed .

Every conv icted man was henceforth to be hanged in h is ownv i l lage, with a heavy fine la id on the v i l lagers

,and the enslaving

of al l h is fami ly for the benefi t of the people Chief officers ofpol ice were appointed in every dis tric t

,with charge to t rack ou t

and capture robbers , and wi th the righ t of obtain ing help i n theseduties from landholders and offi cers of revenue . The trade of thecoun try was improved by the removal of many local imposts , andby the adoption of a low un iform customs - duty . The manufactureof sal t and of Opi um was placed under government control , andbecame the source of a steady growth i n revenue .A l l these sure foundations of c iv i l i zed rule over the prov i nces

won by the sword and the diplomacy of Cl ive were planned andlaid by th is great admin is trator and statesman during the fi rs t th reeyears of h i s offic ial career in the h ighes t post . I t i s i n h is deal i ngswith nat ive powers that Warren Hastings is laid Open to thecharges of unscrupulous assai lan ts wh ich led , on h is return , to thelast impeachment, save one, i n our h istory . He was obl iged , i nh is d i fficul t pos i tion , to carry matters wi th a h igh hand , both in thepecuniary interests of the now needy corporat ion which he served ,and i n defence of the ri s ing Bri ti sh empi re i n I ndia . The prov inceof Bengal must , at al l hazards , be made to pay . With th is v iew ,

the enormous amount annually paid to the N awab , al ready reducedby Cl ive, was cut down by one - hal f, and a year was thussaved . The prov i nces of A l lahabad and Kora , bestowed by Cl i veon the emperor Shah A lam

,were taken from h im and sold by

Hasti ngs to the N awab of Oudh for the sum of hal f a mi l l ion .

A t the same t ime, the tribute of payabl e to Shah A lamfor the grant of Bengal to the Company

,was wi thheld . The

just ification for these proceedings lay i n the fact that the repre

s entative of the now shadowy Mogul empire was actual ly i n the


sunk for a t ime, but thei r powe r had rev ived, i n the north , tenyears later, under Holkar of I ndore, and the ve ry able S indhia, ofGwal ior, a worthy antagon is t e ven of Hasti ngs in d iplomat ic sk i l l .These rulers were the men who had obtained con trol

,as we have

see n , of the ti tu lar emperor, Shah A lam . I n 1774,the Bombay

government espoused the cause of an usurp ing Peshwa,named

Raghunath Rao , or Raghuba , against the rightful he i r, who wasposth umous son of the late rule r. The famous N ana Farnav is ,ch ief m in iste r and guardian of the i nfant

,maintai ned the c laim of

his ward . The Treaty of Surat , which ceded to the E ngl i sh theisland of Salsette and the flourish ing port of Bassei n

,north of

Bombay, wa s set aside by the dom inant faction i n the CalcuttaCounc i l , against the des i re of H asti ngs . I n 1 776 , the Bombaygovernment concluded the Treaty of Purandhar, giv ing up Salsette ,which had been already occupied , and withdrawing thei r supportof Raghuba

’

s claim . The Court of D i rectors whol ly disapprovedth i s las t arrangement, and Salsette remained i n Bri t i sh hands . I n1 778 , Nana Farnav is , on promise of French aid from an adven turerwho claimed to be an envoy of Loui s the S ixteenth

,assumed a

hosti l e atti tude , and a force was despatched from Bombay , i nN ovember, towards Poona . I ts operat ions were to be aided byan army from Bengal , under the able Colonel Goddard .

The commencement of th i s fi rs t Mahratta War was not verycredi table to B ri t ish arms . I n J anuary, 1779, Goddard , after along and un impeded march , arrived on the scene of action only tofind that the troops from Bombay, handled wi th no energy or ski l l ,had been forced to retreat before the Mahrattas , and driven to

conclude the Convention of VV’

argaon (Wargaum) , surrendering al ladvantages won i n western I ndia s ince 176 5 . Hastings and th eBombay government set th i s aside , and , after vain negotiationswith N ana Farnav is , Goddard again took the field i n J anuary, 1 780 .

H is v igorous conduct changed the face of affai rs . Ahmedabad ,the capi tal and stronghold of the Mahrattas of Gujerat , was takenby storm . The combined forces of Holkar and S indhia were twicebeaten in the field , and Bassein , long coveted by the Company,was forced to surrender. Duri ng these operat ions , another armyfrom Bengal , sent across the J umna by Hastings under the gal lan tCaptain Popham

,performed a bri l l iant feat i n tak ing the rock

fortress of Gwal ior, held to be the key of northern I nd ia . This


stronghold stood on an i solated sandstone h il l , of perpendicu larface ,

a m i le and a half long, 300 yards broad at the widest part, andri s i ng

,at i ts h ighest, to 342 feet above the plain below. I n August

,

1 780 ,two compan ies of Sepoys , with twenty Engl ish sold iers under

Captain B ruce,brother of the famous traveller i n Abyss in ia

,arrived

unobserved at the foot of the rock , on a dark nigh t . The menwere shod wi th cotton , and no footfal l was heard , as they broughtup the scal ing- ladders secretly pre pared . Gu ided by some nativesto a favourable spot, they lay st i l l wh il e the rounds were pass ingon the wal ls above . When the l igh t of torches and the sound ofvoices had passed away, they mounted i n s i lence , surpri sed , gagged,and bound the sentry, and won , without the loss of a man , the postwhich S i r Eyre Coote, a new member, at th is t ime, of Hastings’Counc i l , had j ustly deemed impregnabl e to Open force . Thesemil i tary successes, largely due to the Governor- general ’s sel f- rel iance , e nergy, and happy choice of men to command , were crownedby the defeat

,i n March , 1 78 1 , of S indh ia h imself, when he was

pursuing, wi th over- confident haste, a Bri tish force under ColonelCamac . As Goddard approache d Poona, he found his way barredby a vas t host of Mahratta horse and foot, while h is rear washarassed by other foes , but the credi t of h is arms was saved by thecommander’s sk i l l and the courage of the troops i n a retreat tosafety beyond the Ghats, conducted i n the face of s ixty thousandeage r pursuers . The respect of the powerful S i ndhia had beenfully won , and h is intervention with the Poona government broughtpeace on the terms proposed by Hastings . I n May

, 1782 , thecontest with the Mahrattas of the north and west was concludedby the Treaty of Salbai . I n th is i nstrument, Hastings appears tosurrender much , but more was gained than the mere possess ionof terri to ry impl ies . Basse i n and Gujerat were restored to theMahrattas , and Raghuba

’

s claim to be Peshwa was finally set as ide .

Salsette was ceded to the B ri t ish , wi th some other islands nearBombay, but the real advantage lay i n the Mahratta recogn i tion ofa sole righ t of trade for the B ri tish among European powers , andthe conclus ion of an al l iance which assured fre e dom of trade betweenthe Engl ish and Mahrattas , with an undertaking that neither partyshould aid the othe r’s enemies .I n southe rn I nd ia , Hastings was cal led upon to deal with an

even more formidable foe than the confederate Mahrattas . Many


years before th is time , a Mohammedan sold ier of fortune had risento power in the central part o f the region lying west of the Carnatic .O f low extraction and of l i ttl e knowledge derived from books

,

Haidar (Hyder) A l i was a man born to conquest and command,dauntless i n courage, s trong i n wi l l , unsurpassed i n al l the arts ofintrigue

,without a rival among the natives of h i s t ime i n the

qual i t ies wh ich belong to the statesman and the captai n of hosts .From a leader of band i tt i , he became a general u nder the H induRaja of Mysore, supplanted h is young master, and , s ubdu ing pettystates to the north and west, create d i n the end a new Mohammedan empire, great , v igorous, and compact , out of the fragmentsof old pri ncipal i t ies wh ich had gone to p ieces i n the general wreck .

As a ruler, he displayed great abi l i ty, watchfulness , and severi ty .

L icen tious in l i fe , and an oppressor of h i s subjects , he protectedthem from all o ther wrong- doers, long maintained h imse l f against allassai lants, and, on occas ion , pl undered the terri tories of h is neighbours , the N i zam of the D eccan , the Nawab of the Carnat ic, andthe Mahrattas of Poona . I n 1 769, Hyder A l i i nvaded the territory of Madras with some thousands of picked horsemen , andcompel le d the E ngl i sh authori t ies to concl ude wi th h im an offens ive and defens ive al l iance . I n 1770 , when he appl ied to them foraid against a Mahratta i nvas ion in great force, the Madras Counci l ,afraid to provoke the Peishwa , remained pass ive , and made animplacable foe of the ruler of Mysore by what he cons idereda cowardly breach of fai th .

I t was afte r these events that Hyder reached the summi t of h ispower. The defection of the E ngl i sh had caused h im the loss ofmuch terri tory and a large payment of money , but noth ing couldsubdue h i s energy and spi ri t, and in 1 778 he had become possessedof a gre at army , which i ncl uded men of every class . French andE ngl ish deserters from thei r own or from native armies ; bodies ofnative in fan try or caval ry , tra ined by E uropean officers andd ischarged from the serv ice of nat ive princes ; rascals of everyk ind to be found in those regions

,were al l welded by th is

consummate master of men into a body far superior i n discipl ineand effic iency to any other army (save the B ri t ish) then to befound i n I ndia . I f H asti ngs had been governor at Madras , s uch aman as Hyder A l i would have ei ther been made a friend , or met asa foe only with ample means of enforc ing submission . The Eng

90 OUR EMPIRE AT IIOME AND ABROAD .

v e rge of rui n , with the glory of ou r arms departed , and no aid tobe expected from E urope , where E ngland was beset with foes onevery s ide, and i n no condi t ion to protect remote dependenc ies .Hosti l e fleets were sai l i ng i n the Channel , the Ameri can colon ieswere in ful l and successful revol t , and our own shores were threatene d wi th i nvasion . I t was then that the greatness of the Governorgeneral i n Bengal displayed i tsel f wi th the finest effect. Macaulaydoes ful l j ustice to the “ ferti l e gen i us and serene courage of H asti ngs wh ich then ach ieved the i r most signal tri umph . A swiftsh ip , flying before the south-west monsoon , brought the ev i l t id i ngsi n few days to Calcutta . I n twenty - fou r hou rs he had framed acomplete plan of pol icy adapted to the al tered state of affai rs . Theresul t was that troops and money were promptly despatched to theseat of war, th e Company

’

s remi ttances w ere withheld for thatseason , and a loan was raised i n Calcutta . I n October, a smal l ,wel l - equipped force of E uropean t roops and sepoys sai led forMadras , followed by the veteran S i r Eyre Coote , the v ictor ofWandewash, i n ch ief command . I n J anuary, 1 78 1 , Coote took thefield, and the terror of h i s name at once raised the s iege of Wandewash . After other successes and one repulse

,i n a campaign where

the sk il l of Hyder was wel l seconded by the energy of h i s sonTippu (T ippoo) , Coote brought the enemy to dec i s ive act ion on J ulyI st

,on the sandhil ls near Porto N ovo . On th i s great day for the

B ri t ish arms,Coote

,with a force of 8000 men , d isplayed al l h is

olden courage and sk il l,and routed ten t imes h i s own numbe rs ,

under Hyder A l i,with a loss to h imsel f of 300 men , wh ile the

enemy left thousands on the field of battle . I n August , a less important v ictory was won at Pollilore ; i n September, Hyder wassu rprised and agai n wel l beaten by Coote . I n 1 78 2 , a B ri t ishcol umn

,under Brai thwai te

,was destroyed i n Tanjore by Tippoo ,

after twenty - s ix hours of battl e,whil e Coote succeeded in rel i ev ing

Vel lore and Wandewash,and i n again defeat i ng Hyder at A rnee .

I n October,the gal lant old sold ier was forced by i l l - heal th to reti re

to Calcutta .

I t was a great rel ief to the Bri t ish rulers at M adras when , i nDecember

,the aged Hyder d ied i n camp, weary , as he declared , of

“ wag i ng war with a nation whom the defeat of many Bail l iesand B rai thwai tes would never destroy

”

. H e charged h is son andsuccessor

, Tippoo,to make prompt peace with the Engl ish , on any

THE BRITISH TROOPS STORM SERINGAPATAM,THE

CAPITAL OF SULTAN TIPPU.

For many years Tippu, the Sul tan of Mysore , had been the scourge

of Sou the rn Ind ia,but at lengt h his scorn of British authori ty and h is

tyrannica l treatment of Britain ’

s al l ies made it nece ssary that he shoul drece ive a severe lesson. In 1 791 , there fore , Lord Cornwal l is marchedinto Mysore wi th three great co lumns of infantry, field-

guns , s iege-

guns,

and baggage . He firs t reduced the h i l l- forts , and then made a forcedmarch upon the capital , Seringapatam . Th is c ity was protected by a l ineof forts to the north of the Kaveri river, and these defences were capturedby the British troops at the point of the bayonet, after desperate res istanceby the Mysoreans . Then the s iege -

guns were brought up, and the batterie sbegan to pound the fortifications of the city . Whereupon the Sultan’

s

courage failed , so that he sent out a flag of truce , and fina lly made hispeace with the victors .


terms . This i nj unction was not at once obeyed . The loss of helpfrom the N i zam and th e Mahrattas , due to the sk i lful d iplomacy ofHastings

,was compensated , for the new ruler of Mysore , by the

death of S i r Eyre Coote i n Apri l , j ust after land ing at Madrasto resume the command . More fighting occurred by land and by sea .

The Skil led French commander, Bussy, on shore, was aid ing th eenemy with an E uropean force , and the gallant and able Suffren ,who has bee n cal led , with vast exaggeration ,

“ the N elson of Francebut was assuredly one of her greatest naval heroes , gave endlesstrouble to the B rit ish admiral , S i r Edward H ughes . The Peace o fVe rsai l les, concl uded in th is year, deprived T ippoo of h i s last all ies ,and i n March

,1784, after a B rit ish force had be en near to the walls

of h is capi tal,Seringapatam , the Treaty of Mangalore brought the

war to an end . Each party held i ts former possess ions , and morethan a thousand E ngl ishmen , with as many sepoys , were del iveredfrom mise ry in the dungeons of Mysore . The I ndian l i fe of H asti ngs was drawing to a close, amid many troubles caused by enemiesat Calcutta and i n London . I n 1 78 1 he had created a new RevenueBoard which rendered great s e rv1ce i n lesse n ing the costs o fcol lect ion , and i n preparing the way for the permanent settlemen tof the land - quest ion under h is successor

,Cornwal l is .

Events i n I ndia had caused hot debate s i n Parl iament , whereh

l t

was fe l t that a more d i rec t authori ty should be exercise d by thehome - government over the Eastern affai rs conducted by the nominees of the Company . The lengthy discuss ions e nded in the important legislat ion known as Pi tt’s I ndia Act

,which remaine d i n

force during the whole existence of the Company as a pol i ticalpower . By th is measure the D i rectors and Proprietors retainedthei r authori ty over bus iness and patronage

,but the supreme power

in c iv i l and m il i tary affai rs was vested henceforth i n a Board ofControl . This body was composed of s ix members of the PrivyCounc i l , nominated by the Crown , and always including the Chance llor of the Exchequer and one of th e Secretarie s of State . Thereal power lay with the President of the Board

, who was v i rtual lya new Secretary of State, and was di rectly respons ible to Parl iament and the Crown . No al l iances were to be formed wi th anynative power without the consent of Parl iament

,and no servant of

the Company was to engage i n any pe cun iary transactions wi th anynative prince , except under the express sanction of the Governor


general . I n February, 178 5 , Hastings , who had some t ime beforere s igned h is post , took h is departu re from I nd ia , and retu rnedhome to encounter, and , after a trial l ingering through seven years ,to triumph over the impeachment conducted by the great oratorsBurke, Sheridan , and Fox . He was ru ined i n pu rse by the cost ofh i s defence, but the D i re ctors and Proprietors of the body whoseinterests h e had so bri l l ian tly and zealously served awarded h im apens ion of £4000 a year. Their boun ty enabled h im to l ive ind ign ified ease at Daylesford, i n Worcestersh i re, the seat of h isancestors, repurchase d by the man who , as a lad sprung from adecayed fami ly, had l ived near i ts wal l s , meanly c lad and scanti lyfed , and playing wi th the ch i ldren of ploughmen . H is fame wassecure i n the his to ry of Bri ti sh I ndia . Without any spec ial t rain ingfor h is work ; de spatched from school to a counting- house ; employed , i n the prime of h is manhood , as a commercial agen t ; hampe red by hosti l e col leagues ; t rammelled by orders from home ;often censu red by distrustful and captious employers ; he had d isplayed the utmost versat i l i ty of gen ius , the utmost pat ience andene rgy, the most dauntl ess sel f- rel iance, i n creat ing a new pol i ty ,bui lding up an adm in is trat iv e system , and rais ing the Company i n toa commanding posi t ion among the ch ief pol i t ical powers of I nd ia .

The valou r of B ri tish troops , and of sepoys trai ned and led byBri t ish officers , i n campaigns dev ised by Hast i ngs and di rec ted bygenerals of h is cho ice

,had done the i r work on the nat ive mind ,

and had conv i nced the Mahrattas, and other powerful foes , that i twas almost hopeless to look for final v ictory i n a contest wi th thecomers from the distan t land beyond the seas .For nearly two years

,affai rs i n B rit i sh I ndia were under the

d irect ion of S i r J ohn Macpherson , second member of Counc i l atCalcutta

,to whom Hastings had handed over the keys of the

Treasu ry and Fort Wil l iam . I n September, 1 786 , a new Governorgeneral landed at Calcutta i n the person of Lord Cornwall i s .This nobleman

,a man of h igh moral character and of no mean

i ntel le ctual capaci ty, i s al ready known to us by h is surrender atYorktown

,Vi rgin ia

,i n a hopeless pos i t ion wh ich was not due to

h is own demerits . He was now al so invested wi th the powers ofcommander- in- ch ief of the Bri t ish forces i n I ndia , an office notdestined to prove a s inecu re . I t may be well to note that ou rI nd ian possessions at th i s t ime comprised Bengal and Behar i n


J ud icature, the famous Sadr Adalat, or S udder Court, which wasnow establ ished at Calcutta .

The name of th is Governor -general i s most commonly knowni n conne ction wi th the Permane nt Settlement of the land - revenueof Bengal . Hastings had i ntroduced a five - years ’ settl ement

,based

on previou s experience of qu inquennial averages,as supplyi ng a

standard rate of tax to be exacted by the z em inda r s , or governmentrevenue- farmers, from the ryots , or cul tivators . These reve nuecol lec tors had become a kind of proprietors i n the estates i n truste dto them , and , acti ng on instruct ions wh ich he took wi th h imfrom London , Cornwal l i s made thei r rights perpetual , and transferre d the land of Bengal to them as owners re sembl ing Engl ishlandlords , on condi tion of thei r paying a fixed land - tax to thegovernment . The detai l s of the measure were worked out by anable c iv i l servan t, Mr. Shore , afterwards S i r J ohn Shore, bestknown as Lord Teignmouth . The mistake committed

,one not

due to the Governor-ge neral , but to h is masters i n E ngland , wasthe fixing of a l im i t to the receipts of government, i n i ts ch iefsource of revenue, without prov id ing for the future needs of thecoun try

,as the expense of m i l i tary e s tabl ishments i ncreased

,and

the development of a new c iv i l i zat ion demanded larger outlay .

There was no measuremen t made of the fields , or calcu lation ofthe amount of return for t i l lage , as had been the case under Akbar,nor was any ful l i nqu i ry insti tu ted i n to the nature of the d i fferen ttenures

,and the rights of landlords and tenants as represe nted by

zem indars and ryots . This last defect had , as i ts consequence , thatthe under- tenan ts and the cul t i vators had no rights l egal ly defined ,s uch as could be enforced i n courts of law . The measu re wasdeclared permanent , afte r a nominal decenn ial settlement , i n 1 793,

the assessmen t of tax amount ing to about three m il l ions sterl ingfor Bengal .Sul tan T ippu of Mysore , unl ike h i s father Hyder A l i , was

a bigoted and persecuting Mohammedan , forc ing H indus andBrahmans i n to h i s own rel igion by cruel outrage, and committi ngdreadful ravages i n the Malabar coun try . H is proceedings i nother ways quickly aroused B ri tish resentmen t. H e assumed the

i ndependent and sovereign ti tl e of Sul tan of Mysore , wi thout anyfurther pretence of recogn iz i ng the Mogul Padishah at D elh i ash is suzerain . He in trigued . with the French at Pond icherry , and


attacked the H indu Raja of Travancore , a prince under B ri t ishprote ct ion . He was supported i n th is latter act ion , contrary to theexpress i nstruct ions of Lord Cornwall i s, by the grossly corruptgovernor of Madras , a Company

’

s servan t named Hol land . TheGovernor- general at once resolved on war when Tippu , repulsedby the H indu army of Travancore, ordere d a trai n of great s iegeguns to be sent from Seringapatam , and gathered all h is forces toc rush the Rajah . Holland had wholly d isregarded Cornwall i s ’

orders to prepare for a campaign , and the wrath of h i s superiordrove h im to take sh ip for England . The Act of 1 784 had , as wehave seen

,forbidden al l iances with nat ive pri nces , but Cornwall i s ,

l ike a wise man i n charge of great Bri t ish i nterests , set aside theletter of the law, and engaged the help of the N i zam A l i and theMahrattas

,wi th a prov is ion that the treat ies for that end were to

operate only during the contest . These al l ie s, however, gave l i ttl ehelp . N ana Fa rnav is , the v i rtual Peshwa , i ntrigued wi th Tippufor his own ends

,after promisi ng to send ten thousand horsemen to

join the E ngl ish , and the N i zam , with an equal force , only appearedwhen the work was half done . S indhia remained neutral , watch ingevents . I n 1 790 , General Medows , the new governor of Madras ,effected noth ing of moment against the enemy , and Cornwall i s thentook the field i n person . Tippu, after ravaging the Carnatic, hadmarched southwards i n search of aid from Pondicherry . I n 1 791 ,

the Governor-general captured the fortress of Bangalore,and then

advanced towards Tippu’

s capital , Seri ngapatam , only to be forcedback by want of stores and carriage .A serious effort was needed, and i t was made . I n 1 792 , Corn

wal l i s renewed the campaign with a pomp and an ampl i tude ofmeans such as I ndia had not seen s ince the days of Aurangzeb .

Thousands of B rinjarri es , al ready described as the heredi tary carrie rs - caste of I ndia, were employed , and three great columns movedforward i n parallel l i nes of i nfantry , field-guns

,siege- cannon , and

baggage , fol lowed by a hundred waggons conveying l iquors , ands ixty thousand bul locks laden with food . The heart of Tippu , whohad returned in haste to meet h is foe , sank with in h im at such ad isplay of force . H is capi tal was guarded by a triple l i ne of earthworks, mounting three hundred pieces of arti l lery, and covered byan interlaced hedge of thorny shrubs . The Bri ti sh and Sepoys ,fighting side by s ide with equal valour, carried these ou ter works


at the bayonet’

s poin t, and the heavy guns of Cornwal l is began tothunder against the wal ls of Seringapatam . The Sul tan of Mysorewas qu ickly brought to submission . H is losses of men were al readygreat, and h is forced lev ies were deserti ng on every s ide . The

terms of Cornwal l i s were such as to prove a severe lesson to theson of Hyder A l i , and to make h im hate henceforth the name ofh is conquerors . Half of Mysore was ceded for d iv is ion among theE ngl ish , the N i zam , and the Peshwa . Three mi ll ions were paidtowards the expenses of the war, and two of Tippu

’

s sons wereg i ven up as hostages for the execution of the treaty . I t was afte rwards discovered, as an i nstruct i ve lesson on B ri t i sh trus t i n nativeprinces , that both the Mahrattas and the N i zam were treacherouslycorrespond i ng wi th the S ul tan , and were happily foi led by thesurrender of h is sons i n to B ri t ish hands .

I n 1793 Cornwall i s retu rned to England , and was succeeded bythe honest, h igh -minded , and capable S i r J oh n Shore (Lord Te ignmouth) , who di rected affai rs wi th great industry and zeal for thepubl i c i n teres ts d uring a somewhat u neventful period . The Com

pany’

s and home - government’

s pol icy of non - i n tervention , or pol it ical i solat ion , i n I ndia was stri ct ly pI

’

Irs ued, and the nat ive princeswere left to plot and to act against each other wi th thei r usual bl i ndselfishness and want of fai th . The death of S indh ia, i n 1 794,

removed thei r ablest man from the path of our I nd ian pol i t ic ians .The war which had ari sen i n E urope between Great B ritai n andthe French Republ ic caused our th i rd occupation of Pondicherry,which was now held un ti l th e Peace of Amiens i n 1 80 2 . From1 793 to 1798 no even ts worthy of record took place i n connectionwith the Pres idency of Bombay . War arose between the Mahrattasand N i zam A l i , and the latter, i n 1 795 , after a decis ive defeat, was

obl iged to yield nearly half his terri tory . Then th e su ic ide of theyoung Peshwa brought serious trouble on N ana Farnav is at Poona ,where anarchy ensued

,and the place was plundered by the Mah

rattas under a new S i ndhia,son of the former ruler of that name .

The pol icy of non- i n tervention was break ing down , and the prospec

t ive troubles to arise from the final d issol u tion of the old Mahrattaconfederacy demanded the presence of a statesman of s trong mind ,fi rm characte r

,and wide experi ence . The D i rectors found such a

man in Lord Morn i ngton,and at th is point,jus t prior to the Ope n ing

of the n i neteen th century,we leave for a t ime the record of events

THE SONS OF SULTAN TIPPU ARE RECEIVED BY

LORD CORNWALLIS AS HOSTAGES.

Seringapatam, the capita l of Mysore , had been severe l y bombarded bythe British , and was just w ith in the ir gras p, when the Sul tan

,fearful of

be ing put to death because of h is inhuman treatment of British prisoners ,o ffered terms of surre nder. The commander- in-ch ie f of the British army,Lord Cornwal l is

,was greatly incl ined to d isbe l ieve the s incerity of Tippu ’

s

offer,and he therefore demanded

,as a pledge of good faith , that the two

young sons of the Su l tan shoul d be sent as hos tages to the British camp .

Th is was done ; and his lordsh ip rece ived the two lads and the ir e scort

in his tent, surrounded by his staff, and with every s ign of honour and

k indl iness . Then the treaty was s igned , in wh ich the tyrant of Mysoreagreed to ced e hal f his territory to the conquerors, thereby los ing h is

power of evi l -doing , for the time at leas t .

W. H. MARGETSON .

THE SONS OF SULTAN TIPPU

ARE RECEIVED BY LORD CORNWALLIS AS HOSTAGES .


i n the ru i ned tanks or reservoi rs,which were formerly splendid

works for i rrigation . Long prior to the Christ ian era there werecarriage - roads , organ ized v i l lage- communi ties , and a system ofcanals . Much trouble was caused by Malabars or Tamil s

,i nv i ted

ove r from the main land of I nd ia to serve as mercenaries for i slandde fence , and thei r com ing was the commencement of centu ries ofi nroads , resembl ing those of the Danes i n our h istory, and of anarchyand c iv i l stri fe , unti l order was restored i n the 1 l th century A .D. byone of a n ew and v igorous race of native monarchs . The mostfamous of these later rulers was Prakrama Bahu , who began to reignabout the middle of the 1 2 th century . He was devoted to rel igionand to agri cu l ture , for the benefi t of wh ich he constructed many ofthe most notable temples , and a great number of tanks wh ich werecal led the seas of Prakrama A fter h is time the Malabars landedi n great force and effected a conques t of the whole island . I n theearl ier cen tu rie s of the Christ ian era th e coas t was v is i ted at t imesby traders from Persia, Egypt, and A rabia .

As we approach modern t imes , we find Marco Polo , the Venet ian , land ing there near the end of the 1 3th century, on h is re turnfrom Ch ina . The Portuguese were the fi rs t E uropeans who settledi n Ceylon . Seven years after Vasco da Gama’s arrival at Cal icu ti n 1498 , Lorenzo da A lmeyda , son of the Portuguese v iceroy , wasd ispatched from Goa to prey upon A rab sh ips conveying spicesfrom Malacca and Sumatra . O n land ing at Galle he had a ki ndlyreception from the natives ,

then l iv i ng under the rule , i n d i fferen tparts , of seven petty monarch ies . I t was the fragran t and val uablec i nnamon of the ferti le i sland that fi rs t led the Portuguese to makesettl ements on the south and we st . A fter the occupation ofMalacca by A lbuquerque

,i n 1 5 1 I , Ceylon also became of value to

them from i ts posi tion as a place of cal l between the i r I nd ian possess ions and the terri tory beyond the Bay of Bengal . I n 15 17, anativ e k ing al lowed them to bu i ld a “ factory or trading- post , nearColombo

,and the new - comers , by the erect ion of armed works ,

were enabled to hold the i r pos i t ion agains t the attacks of those whobegan to dread conquest as the sequel of commerc ial settlements.O ther points were the n occupied , and the low country near thecoast

,and i n the north , passed by degrees in to the possess ion

of the Portuguese, but the i r power did not penetrate i n to the diffi

cu l t h il l - country, and they soon had E uropean rivals i n the field .

CEYLON,PENANG,

ETC. 99

The harsh treatment of the Portuguese had created bitte r e nmityamongst the S inghalese

,and the nat ives , i n 160 2 , welcomed the

coming of the fi rs t Dutch sh ip ever seen i n Ceylon . I n that year,Admiral Spilberg

,landing at Batticaloa on the east coast, formed

an al l iance wi th the king of Kandy , and the Dutch fo r many yearsshared with the Portuguese i n thei r commercial gains . As theHol landers i n Europe grew i n power, and the Portuguese decl i ned ,the t ime came for a struggle i n Eastern seas, and i n 16 38 the Dutchmade a v igorous attack on the i r rivals

’

strongholds on the eas t

coast . With in a year thes e were captured , and th i s success wasfol lowed by the tak ing of N egombo, on the west coast, i n 1644, and ,twelve years later

,by the seizu re of the Portugue se capi tal , Colombo .

With th is e ven t , after the lapse of about a century and a half, endedPortugal ’s connection wi th Ceylon as a portion of her commerc ial

empire . The D utch also rece ived,by cession from the natives, a

large te rri tory of valuable land , bu t the S inghalese were soon treatedwi th the cruel ty that characteri zed the colon ial pol icy of Hol land .

The warfare which ensued could only end i n one way, and thenat ives were driven back to the mountains i nland

,where they could

l ive unmolested by foreign tyranny . The Dutch , during thei rcupation of nearly a century and a hal f, rendered much serv iceto themselves and to future occupants by making canals and roadsi n the regions which they held , and i n the i r hands the commerceo f the i sland was largely developed i n the exportation of cinnamon

,

p earl s , cocoa- nut o i l , and many other articles known i n i ts mostmodern trade . The great E uropean war of the French Revolutionwas fatal to the domin ion of Hol land i n Ceylon . I n 1 795 , ane xpe dition was sent from Madras, and Trincomal i , Colombo, ando ther important pos i t ions on the coast were qu ickly in B ri tish hands .The Dutch governor signed a convention which su rrendered al lforts to Great B ri tain , and our possess ion of th is noble i sland wasconfi rmed , i n 1802 , by the Peace of Amiens . I t had j ust beenc reated a separate colony , after annexation for some years to thePresidency of Madras . The towns at that t ime were l i ttle morethan v i llages , and Kandy , the native capital

,consisted of huts

g athered round the royal res ide nce, while the greater part of thecountry was covered wi th forest .The only permanent B ri t ish possessions

,beyond the Bay of

Bengal , acqu i red prior to the 19th century, were P enang or P r ince

l oo OUR EMPIRE AT HOME AND ABROAD.

of Wa les Island, and the strip of coast on the. Malay peni nsulawh ich i s now known as Welles ley P r ovince, from the distinguishedman who was rul ing Brit i sh I nd ia at the date of i ts earl i est occu

pat ion by our people . As i n I ndia,so i n the Malay regions

,the

Bri t ish were preceded by the Portuguese . Francis D rake andThomas Cavend ish , i n thei r voyages round the world , touchedat the south coast of J ava i n 1 5 80 and i n 1 5 88, and J ames Lancaste r, the fi rs t E ngl i sh trader seen in those waters , was at Penangin 1 592 , eighty years afte r the Portuguese had made settlementsi n Malacca . The E ast I nd ia Company, i n th e days of thei r weakness , under the S tuart k ings who were too much busied wi thtyranny at home to pay due heed to our in terests abroad , formed“ factories at B encool en i n S umatra and at Bantam i n J ava . Wehave seen that Dutch aggression drove back the Company to thewestern side of the Bay of Bengal , and nearly two centuries passedaway before the power which became dominan t i n I ndia sough tterri torial extension beyond that sea . I n 1785 , Penang was cededby a native potentate , the rajah of Kedah , for an annual paymentof ten thousand dol lars during the t ime of occupation , a revenuesti l l enjoyed by h is represen tat ive . The Bri t ish trade was muchharassed by the Malay pi rates whose harbours for thei r swi ftsai l ingproa s orpranus were on the shores of the mainland opposi tePenang, and i n 1 798 they were ousted from the sce ne by ourpurchase, from the same rajah , of the coas t land which furn i shedshel ter to the marauders .A t th i s poi n t we leave the h istory of B rit ish colon ial posses

s ions, i n al l parts of the world , prior to the open i ng of the 19th

century , wh ich has wi tnessed so vast an expansion of empi re .


the late tre aty . The B ri t i sh m in istry,headed by M r . Addington

(afterwards Lord S idmouth) , had reason to fear further Frenchattempts on Egypt, and they therefore decl ined to transfer Mal ta ,accord ing to the arrangement made at Amiens , to the charge of th eKn ights of S t . J ohn , who had held possession of the i sland unti l1 798 . In March , 1803 , Buonaparte assa iled ou r ambassador,Lord Whitworth , i n v iolen t terms of reproach , before h i s courtand the d iplomatic body at the Tu ilerie s palace , i n Pari s, and thewarwas renewed i n May. About ten thousand Bri ti sh subj ects ofevery class, t ravel l i ng or l iv i ng on French terri tory, were seizedby Buonapa rte

’

s orders , contrary to the law of nat ions , or, at thel east, i n defiance of the usages of in ternat ional courtesy, and weredetai ned as pri soners for more than ten years . A very bi tte rfeel ing was aroused i n th is country, and the renewal of the warwas approved both by the favourers and the foes of J acobin i sm .

The French ruler was almost un iversal ly regarded with hatred asan utterly unprinc ipl ed foe

,and d isputes on home affai rs were

s i lenced for the t ime by demands and preparat ions for the defenceof B ri t ish i nterests, at home and abroad , against the efforts of themost powerful and dangerous enemy that ever assa iled them .

From th i s t ime forward Napoleon sought every means to causethe ru i n of B ri t i sh power i n every quarter where ou r flag fl ew orou r i nfluence prevai led . Our retention of Mal ta, which was thekey of Egypt , baffled h is renewed schemes for conques t i n theEast

,where

,as we shal l see hereafter, French intrigue was ri fe ,

and many French Offi cers were serv ing i n the arm ies of ou rMahratta foes . He was aiming at the c re at ion of a Frenchempire

,both i n the East and i n the West , and i t was with th is

object that he sough t fi rs t the subj ugat ion of G re at B ri tain byd i rect i nvasion across the Channel . When he was foi led i n thatenterprise , and h is naval power was ru i ned by N elson , he st rovefor the possess ion of a new navy i n th e al l iance o r conquest ofmari t ime powers

,i n the use of D utch and Dan ish vessels , i n the

work of sh ipyards on the Maas,th e Rhine , and the S cheldt ,

and in th e acqu is i t ion of Portugal and Spain as countrie s whose

colon ies and fleets m ight be di rected against the ascendancy, on

E uropean and on d is tant seas,of h is detested rival i n a m ighty

struggle for imperial sway.

Ou r attention i s fi rst d rawn to Buonaparte’

s plans and pre

THE GREAT WAR WITH FRANCE . 103

parat ions for the invasion of England , and a few detai l s wi l ldemonstrate that the danger to th is count ry was very great andal together real . On the renewal of the war, i n 1803, Frenchtroops were not engaged wi th any other conti nental enemy, and,after the occupation of George the Thi rd

’

s H anoverian domin ions,

a great army was assembled at Boulogne . On every Frenchand F lemish river, from the G i ronde to the Rhine, flat - bottomedboats were bu i ldi ng for th e conveyance of i nvaders across thenarrows of the Bri t i sh Channel . Publ ic enthus iasm enrol led i nBri tain

,before the close of the year, more than volunteers

for aiding the regular troops, and the sp i ri t of both sovereign andsubject was shown in the K ing who, on the terrace at Windsor,bade the music sound forth wi th “ Bri tons, st rike home

”

, i n theploughman who whistl ed “Rule B ri tann ia ” as he drove h i s team ,

and i n the weavers beyond the border who sang at thei r looms thei nspi ring strains u ttered by Burns to the descendants of Wal lace .

Will iam P it t was recalled to the helm of affairs , and May , 1804,

saw the great m inister again premier and Napoleon declaredEmperor of France . Spain joi ned h im agains t Great B ri tain

,and

Pi tt retorted , early i n 1805 , by form ing the Thi rd Coal i t ion , withAustria and Russ ia , against France and her al l ies .I t was i n the summer of that year that the danger of i nvas ion

became most serious . N early S ix hundred gun - vessels and othersmal l war- sh ips were gathered at Boulogne , with more than fivehundred transports, ly ing under the protection of countless batte rie s ashore . A t Calais , Ambleteuse, Dunki rk , and Ostend therewere more than thi rteen hundred armed , and nearly a thousandunarmed craft, and these , along with the Boulogne floti l la, had acapaci ty for conveying sold iers , and 9000 horses , formingan army organized i n s ix corps , whose le aders i ncluded the braveand able N ey , Soult, Davoust , Lannes , and Murat. Our blockadi ng squadron almost dai ly attacke d the vessels at Boulogne , andi t became cle ar to Napoleon that a command of the Channel fora brief space of t ime was essent ial to the success of hi s scheme .The French troops , by constant pract i ce had become so expert i nstepping aboard and taki ng thei r places In due array that, with thehost of vessels at di sposal , one hundred thousand men could beembarked i n forty m inutes . A l ready

,i n J uly, 1804, Napoleon ,

after jo in ing h i s army at Boulogne , had wri tten to h is admiral at


Toulon , Latouche Trev i l le, who alone knew al l h i s plans , “Let usbe masters of the Channel for s ix hours

,and we are masters of the

world ” . A medal to commemorate the conquest was actual lyp repared , with an insc ript ion stat ing that i t had been

“ struck i nLondon ”

. This curious proof of a vault ing and vaunting ambitionmay s ti l l be seen i n col lections. The execution of the medal atthe French m int had been fol lowed , i n August, 1804, by a seriousblow to Napoleon ’s enterprise, i n the death of Trev i l l e , whichcaused a postponemen t of the expedi t ion . The French ruler thenm ade a fatal , and for h im a very rare , mistake i n choos ing a freshm an for the naval command . I n the spring of 1805 , seventy sai lo f the l i ne , French and Span i sh , were at the orders of Napoleon ,a nd Admira Vi l leneuve was the successor of Trevil l e i n the command at Toulon , which was closely watched by a fleet underN elson . When the B ri tish sh ips were kept off by hard weather,Vil leneuve

,on March 3oth, 1805 , got away from harbour and

s ai led for the West I nd ies,as i f to attack our possess ions i n

that quarte r. The B ri tish admiral,tempted across the A tlanti c

in pursu i t, was more than th i rty days’ sai l i n the rear, and on h is

a rri val found that the enemy had doubled back to E urope .

Vil leneuve steere d for Ferrol , on th e north -wes t coast of Spain ,to pick up the Span ish fleet . N elson had at once d i spatcheds ome swift- sai l i ng frigates with t id ings of h is hav ing misse d theF rench , and S i r Robert Calder, on J ul y 19th , received a copy ofthe d ispatch as he was cru is i ng, with fi fteen sai l of the l i ne , near toCape F in is terre . On the 2 2nd he met and attacked Vi l leneuve

,

then hav ing twenty l i ners under h i s command , i n the A tl an ti cwaters wes t of F i n i sterre, and captured two sh ips , but foggyweather and l ight winds preven ted any dec i s ive act ion

,and

Calder, mindful of the neighbourhood of a powerfu l Spani shs quadron at Ferrol , and of French fleets at Rochefort and Brest,s teered wi th h i s pri zes for Plymouth , which he reached on

J uly 3 I s t.I t was i n th is last week of J uly, 1805 , that the one chance of

successful i nvas ion from Boulogne was presented , and i t was lostth rough the indec i s ion of the nerveless V i l leneuve . When thatunhappy admiral reached Ferrol

,he found pressing orders from

N apoleon to hasten to Brest, and , i n conj unct ion with that fleet ,to sai l promptly for Boulogne . The road was really clear, for


1806 , the v ic tori es of French generals and troops at J ena andA ue rs tadt la id the Prussian monarchy i n the dust , and in thefollowing month N apoleon issued , from the Pruss ian capi tal , thefamous Berl i n Decree, clos ing against B ri t ish t rade al l E uropeanports under h is control , which i ncluded nearly every harbour fromthe Vi stula round to the Adriatic . A l l use of B ri t ish manufacturesor colon ial produce was forbidden , a proh ibi t ion to which F ranceand other nat ions owe the production of beet - root sugar. Oneprov is ion of th is document was l ud ic rous enough— that wh ich declared al l B ri t i sh ports to be i n a s tate of blockade. A year late r

,

i n N ovember, 1807, the B ri t ish government retal iated by O rdersi n Counci l wh ich , to some pu rpose, declared a blockade of all portsi n the possess ion of France and her al l i es , and const i tuted all

vessels as l egit imate prizes of war wh ich attempted to enter thoseports without prev iously cal l ing in at a Bri t i sh harbour. A monthafter th is , the French emperor, i n h is M ilan Decree , waged war

against neutral countries by making al l thei r vessels l iable to seizu rei f they touched at any Bri t i sh ports before seeking to land theircargoes i n any part of E urope subject to French control . The“ Conti nental system was meant to be ru i nous to our commerce ,but i ts effects were ve ry d i fferent from i ts aims . B ri tish manufac

tures st i l l reached conti nental consumers th rough a vast system ofsmuggl ing which no amount of supervis ion could prevent , save toa l im i ted exten t

,and the seizure and des truct ion of imports from

ou r shores or colon ies only made Napoleon ’s subj ects pay a h igherprice for those which escaped the grasp of h is offic ial s . H is attemptonly made enem ies among those who were the v ict ims of h is tyranny,withou t i nfl i c t i ng any gri evous loss upon B rit ish commerce , and hisefforts to coerce nations who would not excl ude Bri tish trade causedh i s d isas trous quarrel wi th A l exander of Russia .

The flower of the French and Span i sh nav ies had perished i nand immediately afte r the battl e off Cape Trafalgar. That greatconfl i ct of October 2 1 5 1, 1805 , i s st i l l commemorated by wreaths oft r iumph placed on the Victory ,

N elson ’s old flagsh ip , piece by piecerebu il t

,as she has lain for more than two generat ions of men i n

Portsmouth harbou r. A t th e close of the action,which may be

taken as at s ix o ’clock i n the even ing, an hou r and a hal f afte rN elson ’s death , eighteen of the enemy ’s sh ips had surrendered to

or we re otherwise in possess ion of the B ri ti sh . The Span ish


had lost the largest man - of-war afloat, the Sant iss ima Tr in idad,of

130 guns , the Santa A nna , of 1 1 2 , two eigh ty -gun Ships , and fiveseventy- fours . The French fleet was weakened by one eighty-gunsh ip and eight seven ty- fours . Th is, however, by no means represents the real s tate of affai rs for the French and Span ish mari t imepower wi th in a fortn igh t after the battle . On the n igh t of the2 2nd a heavy gale came on from the north -west . The prize - sh ip

Redo uotaéle, from the m izzen - top of which N elson received thefatal bullet, foundered , wi th the loss of many l ives . AnotherFrench captured seventy- four dri fted ashore, and was lost wi thnearly al l hands . The crew of a th i rd overpowered the i r B rit i shcaptors

,and took the sh ip i nto Cadiz harbour. The French eighty

gun B ucentau r e, one of our pri zes , had been wrecked on the 2 2nd,

the crew,i ncl uding the Bri t i sh sailors in charge

,being saved by a

F rench frigate . On the morn ing of the 23rd, an enterpris ingSpan i sh commodore i ssued from Cadiz wi th a squadron of fivel iners and five frigates , and retook the Santa A nna and the

Neptune, of eighty guns , carrying them away into port . On the24th ,

a F rench eighty - gun Ship , the Indomfitaole, which had escapedfrom the battl e, was wre cked with the loss of nearly a thousandmen . O ne of the Span ish seventy- fours , and one Span i sh 100 -gunsh ip

,not taken by the B ri t ish , we nt ashore and became wrecks .

Most of the pri zes were ei ther wrecked , or were destroyed by thecaptors as unse aworthy . The recapture of th ree vessels wasbalanced by the loss of the three sh ips that ran ashore during thegale

,and the un i ted French and Span ish fleets of th irty- three sai l

of the l ine engaged in the battle were thus sti l l l essened by e ighteenvessel s . The account was not, however, yet settled between thefoes who met off Cape Trafalgar. On N ovember 4th,

fou r Frenchseve nty- fou rs, which had escaped under Admiral Dumano ir, wereencountered i n the Bay of Biscay by a Bri tish squadron unde r S i rR i chard S trachan , and al l , afte r a smart fight

,went as pri zes to

Plymouth , where they were refitted and added to ou r naval force .

The moral effect produce d by the total resul ts was immense ,and no serious attempt could be made hence forth to contest withGreat B ri tain the control of the seas . Napol eon

,however

,i n h i s

pers isten t host i l i ty , was sti l l aim ing at a renewed naval rival ry , andth is Object caused h im to turn h i s eyes towards the north ofE urope . H is v ictorious arms had by th is t ime enl isted the power


of Russ ia i n h is combinat ion against G reat B ri tain . A fter adesperate drawn battle wi th the Czar’s forces and those of Pruss iaat Eylau , near Kon igsberg, i n February, 1807, N apoleon gaineda great v i ctory over the Russ ians at Friedland, i n the same region ,i n the fol lowing J une, and the Treaty of T i ls i t was the resul t .I n th is importan t convention , a part i t ion of con tinen tal E urope wasmade between A l exander and Napoleon . The Russian monarchwas to be left free to take F in land from Sweden , and to work hi swi l l against the Turks , while the F rench ruler was to be master ofal l that lay westwards from the Russ ian frontie r. J erome , anotherbrother of N apoleon , now became K ing of Westphal ia , a Germanprov ince south - east of H ol land , and the K ing of Saxony re ce iveda large share of Poland , as the Grand D uchy of Warsaw . TheConfederat ion of the Rh ine was made to i ncl ude all German state sexcept Austria and Pruss ia , and the latter kingdom , with a greatlyreduced terri tory , was further hum il iated and weakened in theforced paymen t of a large i ndemnity, i n the occupation of her ch ie ffortresses by French troops , and i n the l im i tat ion of her stand ingarmy to the number of men .

The part of the treaty wh ich most concerned th is country wasthe secret articl es agree ing that, bes ides Russ ia, who was nowopenly engaged to close her ports against ou r trade, Swede n ,Denmark , and Portugal should also be requ i red to renounce commercial i n tercourse with Great B ritain , and that th e fleets of thenorthern nat ions were to aid Napoleon i n a further attempt to deprive us of mari time control . I t was fortunate for B ri tai n that thed i rection of foreign affai rs was at th i s t ime i n the hands of av ig i lant, prompt, and resolu te man . On the death of P i tt, theshort - l i ved min istry called that of “ A l l the Talents ” i n cluded LordGrenv i l l e as Prime M in ister, and Charles J ames Fox , the v i rtualhead , at the Foreign Office . The decease of the great and e lo

quen t Whig statesman in September, 1806 , was a blow to the

Cabinet,and i n March , 1807, they were forced from offi ce by the

king. The Duke of Portland then became prem ier, bu t the ch iefmen i n office were M r . Perceval , Chancel lor of the Exchequer,Lord Castlereagh , Secretary for War and the Colon ies , and , whatis here of most importance

,George Cann ing as Foreign Secretary .

This ables t of P i tt’s pupils and fol lowers had become , by meanswhich he would never reveal

,aware of the purport of the “ secret

1 10 OUR EMPIRE AT HOME AND ABROAD .

posi t ion i n hosti l i t ies by land agai nst her implacable foe . A t the closeof 1807, N apoleon had succeeded i n isolating h is great rival . H isdomin ions extended from Hamburg, th rough the west o f Germany ,to N aples . Pruss ia was helpless

,A ustria qu iescen t, Russ ia h is

fi rm al ly . Resolved to become master of the Pen insula, and eagerto pun ish Portugal for refusing compl iance wi th h i s commercialordinances agai ns t G reat Bri ta i n , N apoleon sen t a great army intoSpain . The old and wi tless k ing, Charles IV . ,

was forced by aninsurrection to abdicate i n favour of h is son

,Ferdinand

,and , on

appeal be ing made to the French monarch,they were both en

trappe d to Bayonne , i n Apri l , 1808 , and made captives . Ferdinandsurrendered the th rone i n retu rn fo r a pal try pens ion and a chéteaui n Normandy , and a new rule r was found for Spai n i n Napoleon ’sbrother J oseph , King of N aples , where he was replaced by thefamous caval ry leader, Marshal M urat . L i sbon had been occupiedi n N ovember, 1807, by a French army under General J unot , andthe royal fami ly of Portugal , with many of the nobles , and somethousands of the ch ief c i tizens , had been conveyed by a Bri ti shfleet i n safety to thei r South-American colony

,Braz i l . I n May

,

1808 , an insurrect ion i n Madrid had been suppressed with greatc ruel ty by the French troops under M urat, bu t the arrival of thenew king ,

. J os eph,towards the end of J uly , found the townsmen

and peasants i n arms throughout the land , and nearlyFrench sold iers were hemmed in and forced to surrender at Baylen,

i n the S ierra Morena . J oseph soon fled from Madrid, and retreatedwi th the French troops beyond the Ebro . The brave defence ofSaragossa, the capital of A ragon , compel led the French to abandonthei r fi rs t s iege , and exc ited general admirat ion for the patriot i cefforts of the Span iards . I n the open field they were no match forthe French troops

,and , badly beaten i n almost every pi tched battle ,

they were soon reduced to the gueri l la warfare of i rregular levie s,

who succeeded , however, i n caus ing great trouble and loss to thei nvaders .I t i s perfectly clear that, without foreign aid , the Pen i nsula could

have been fai rly conquered and held by Napoleon , and foreign aid ‘

was qu ickly forthcoming. Portugal was an old al ly of England , andplai n duty, i n her case , and sympathy for the nat ional res istance ofSpain

,brought Bri ti sh troops in to the field . Cann ing was the an i

mating spi ri t of the Cabine t . and on August 1 5 1, 1808 , S i r A rthu r

THE GREAT WAR WITH FRANCE . I I I

Wellesl ey,known to fame on I ndian fields , landed i n Mondego Bay,

on the coast of Portugal . He headed about Bri tish i nfantryand a few hundred cavalry . With i n three weeks he had beate n theFrench i n the battles of Rol ica and Vimei ra , and had them at h ismercy when he was superseded, on the sole ground of sen iori ty, byan officer of no d is ti nc tion , S ir H ew Dal rymple . This incapableperson di sgraced h is profess ion and h is country by the Conven tionof C in tra which

,i nstead of compell ing a su rrender of the enemy at

d iscretion,al lowed J unot and al l h i s troops to leave the country

wi th thei r arms and stores , and to be conveyed to France on B ri ti shme n - of- war. As the resul t of an inqui ry at home, Dalrymple wasremoved from h is command , and We lle s ley

’

s conduct received duepraise. S i r J ohn Moore, a man of great abil i ty and courage , thenheld charge in Portugal

,and N apoleon , i n December, 1808 , arrived

at Madrid and assumed the command of the French forces . Moorewas advanc ing to the help of the Span iards i n the north-west, whenhe heard of the French approach in overwhelm ing force, with fourarm ies di rected by Napol eon h imsel f. Retreat was inevi table , andit was conducted by Moore with the utmost sk i l l . On January I st,1809, Napoleon , recal led to France by news of host i l e preparationsin A ustria, transfe rred the command to Soult, and h is defeat atCorunna on the 16 th , i n the battl e that cost the l i fe of Moore , savedthe honour of our army , and se cured the i r embarkation for E ngland .

The declarat ion of war against N apoleon by Austria i n March,

1809, encouraged the B ri t i sh government , afte r the recen t fai lure,to re new the struggle i n the Pen insula, and the right man was nowplaced i n permanent i nstead of temporary command . On Apri l2 z ud, 1809, S ir A rthur Wellesl ey went ashore at Lisbon , and beganthe five - years

’

contest which saw his arms carried , after more thanone retreat , from the Tagus , beyond the Pyrene es, to the banks ofthe Garonne .

I t i s needless to dwel l here on the rare combination of qual i t ie swh ich made h is name and t i tl e immortal . U nerring j udgment

,

coolness , caution , daring, resol ut ion , patience, perseverance, strate

g ical and tactical sk i l l , were among the moral and mental resou rcesthat enabled th is great man to ach ieve h is m ighty task

,and to

discomfit , i n turn , some of N apoleon’s ablest marshals , veterans i nwar, al l unused to ret i re before a foe. He was aided , on the onehand , by the want of un i ty attend ing h is e nemy ’s operations , con


ducted by various generals , subje c t to j ealousies of feel ing and tod iversi t ies of plan , and to an i nterference from N apoleon wh ich , ath is d istance i n that day from the scene of warfare, could rarely haveany but a damaging effect . O n the other hand

,Well i ngton was

sorely hampered by the French superiori ty of force , by the incom

pe tence of Span ish generals and the unstead i ness of Span ishtroops , by the gross neglec t of the Spanish government in furnishing suppl ies , by the incompetence of the B rit i sh war- adm inist ra t ion, and by factious c lamour and fool ish c ri ti c ism at home fromthose who sought to turn to party purposes every m ishap

,or were

unable to understand the real mean ing of events .We shal l now deal briefly, year by year, with the ch ief even ts

of these famous campaigns . On May 1 2 th , 1809, with in threeweeks of h is arrival at L i sbon , S i r A rthur Wel lesl ey, withmen , crossed the swi ft, deep Douro , more than three hundredyards in width , and drove Soul t, who had excel len t troopsi n hand , from Oporto i n to Spai n , wi th the loss of h is baggage i nretreat across the h i l ls . On J uly 2 7th and 28th the battle of Talav era , north of the Tagus, about the m iddle of i ts course , showed

Bri t i sh i n fantry, wi th some regiments o f horse , dec is ivelyrepel l ing the fierce attacks of French , under Marshal Victor.The moral effect of th is success was very great, and the reputationof the B ri tish foot was at once raised to the level of Marlborough ’sdays . The B ri t i sh leader now became a peer as Viscount Well ington , of Well ington i n Somerset , and after much manoeuvring i nthe valley of the Tagus , th e campaign ended wi th h is retreat i n toPortugal before the advance of overwhelm ing forces under Soul t .The prudence of the Bri ti sh leader was now displayed i n a

strik ing form wh ich greatly i nfluenced the ul t imate i ssue of events .He had formed a j ust conception , as events proved , of the probablemarch of affai rs both in the Pen insula and i n E urope . H e rel i edupon the difficul t ies wh ich confronted the enemy in Spai n th roughdistance from thei r base of operations , lack of mari t ime control ,determined national resistance , and want of un i ty in action . Hewas thoroughly conv inced that the war i n the Pen insula was wel lworth waging by Great Bri tain as a means of drai n i ng the m il i tarystrength of France

,and as l ikely

,i n the even t of success , to arouse

anew against N apoleon the nations of central E urope . I t was truethat , i n J uly, 1809, Austria had been agai n humil iated at the battl e


de spatched his abl es t marshal , Massena , wi th orders to “ drive theE ngli sh i n to the sea ” . A t the head of m en he advanced tomeet Well ington , who slowly reti red through a country wh ich thePortuguese, by hi s adv ice , and at the cost of much pres ent sufferi ng for the grand u l t imate object of nati onal i ndependence

,had

reduced to a desert by the destruct ion of growing c rops,the removal

of food , and the d ri v i ng away of cattle . Such was the hatredof the Portuguese to the French that not one of the country- folkprepared Mas sena , by a word of i n formation , for the surprise whichawaited h im when he drew nearer to Lisbon . The Fre nch leade rhad captured the Span ish fortress of Ciudad Rodrigo, and enteredPortugal by way of A lmeida. As he moved southwards , VVellington turned for a time to res ist, and at the battle of Busaco , on arange or s ierra of that name , 1 7 miles from Coimbra , he repulsedattacks , led by N ey , wi th a loss to the F rench of 5000 men . Hethen leisu rely withdrew towards h i s l ines , and entered them onOctober 10th, while Massena fol lowed wi th an army al ready hal fstarved th rough the cond i tion of the country which they were traversing, and the French system of rel iance on an i nvaded land forsuppl i es of food . When he reached the outer l i n e of works ,

h isamazemen t and annoyance were extreme . For a month he soughtva i nly for a jo in t i n h is adversary ’s wel l -wrought armour, and thenhe reti red to quarters at Santarem , about 50 miles north - east of

Lisbon . Many thousands of French sold iers peri shed of starvationand disease , and not a s ingl e attack had been made upon the l ines .Th is retreat of Massena was a most s ign ificant e vent i n the contes tagainst Napoleon . H is warl ike power on land had been

,for th e

fi rst time i n h i s career i n E u rope , not merely checked by repul seor defeat, but wi th impun ity defied . Early i n 18 1 1 , Massena wasdriven to qui t Portugal , from sheer lack of food , and was cautiouslyfol lowed by Wel l ington , who fought wi th h im , on May sth, thefierce battl e of Fuen tes d

’

Onoro ,tact i cal ly a drawn confl ic t, bu t a

s trategical v ictory for the B ri t i sh leader, as i t caused Massena’sreti rement to Salamanca , and h i s removal from the command byN apoleon . To the south , th e Spaniards had surrendered the strongfortress of Badajoz to Marshal Soul t

,and the Bri t ish and Portuguese ,

under Beresford,fought with that able general the terrible battl e

of A lbuera,i n May , when he s trove to rais e the i r s iege of h is

late acqu is i t ion. The French were repulsed with the utmost diffi

THE GREAT WAR WITH FRANCE . 1 1 5

culty , and two vai n attempts to storm Badajoz we re made byWell i ngton in J une . The advance of superior French armies unde rSoul t and Marmont

,the successor of Massena, compel led ou r force s

to re t i re agai n to Portugal at the close of 18 1 1 .

The Bri ti sh gene ral began very early the campaign of 18 1 2 .

On J anuary 19th, whil e the snow lay on the ground, and Marmontwas at Val la dol id, not dreami ng of host il e movements, CiudadRodrigo was stormed , after eleven days ’ s iege , by the troops ofWell ington

,and a stronghold was thus secured on th e Span ish

front ier,midway betwee n the Douro and the Tagus . Th is bri l l iant

s troke was fol lowed, on Apri l 6 th, by the capture of Badajoz, de

priv ing th e French of thei r key to south -west Portugal .During al l h is arduous and anxious toi l s, Well ington was sorely

negle cted , from various cause s , by the government at home . TheDuke of Portland , on h is death i n October, 1809, was succeeded aspremier by M r . Perceval , under whom VVe lling ton

’

s elder brother,the Marquess Wel lesley

,was Secretary for Foreign A ffai rs . Lord

Live rpool (formerly Lord Hawkesbury) was Secretary for War andthe Colonie s . The young Lord Palmerston

,an admirable man of

bus iness, was in immediate charge, as Secretary at War, of thatwh ich concerned suppl ies for the campaign , but the conduct ofaffai rs was hampere d by indec is ion i n the Cabinet w ith regard tothe contest as a whole, and by factious opposit ion i n Parl iament .I n February, 18 1 2 , the Marquess Wellesley resigned the ForeignO ffice , and was succeeded by Lord Castlereagh , and i n May, Mr.Perceval was shot dead , i n the lobby of the House of Commons ,by the lunatic Bel l ingham . Lord Liverpool the n became PrimeM in is ter for fi fteen years , with Castlereagh again at the head offoreign affairs , Lord S idmouth (formerly M r. Addington) at theHome O ffice, and Lord Bathurst di recting War and the Colon ies .Retu rn ing from London to the scene of operations i n Spain

,we

find Well ington gain ing, on J uly 2 2nd,one of h is greatest v ic tories .

On that day, at Salamanca , he i nfl i cted a defe at on forty thousandveterans under Marmon t, wi th the loss to the French ofmen , two eagles , and eleven guns . Th is blow was one which shookthe power of Napoleon , i n a moral sense, more than any he had yetreceived. The fallen nati ons of cont inental E urope fel t that therewas a man of the h ighest mark in the field on thei r behalf. Prussiathought of com ing vengeance for past hum i l iation . Russia was


more sternly resolved i n res istance to the i nvader who,now wel l

on h is way to Moscow , heard wi th d ismay the ev i l t id ings from theheart of Spai n . A fter e ntering Madrid i n August,Well ington wasagai n forced back to the Portuguese front ier near C i udad Rodrigoby the advance of overwhelming French armies under Soult

,Suchet

,

and K ing J oseph . He had now been created a Marquess for h i ssuccesses, a knight of the Golden F leece , the ch ief Span ish orderof ch ival ry, commander- in- ch ief of al l the Span i sh forces , and Dukeof Ciudad Rodrigo . With al l th is, he was left by the governmentat home w i thout rei nforcements, or money to pay his way, and h isretreat was accompan ied by some loss, much suffering, and greatrelaxation of d isc ipl i ne .

The indom itable man wel l employed the win ter of 18 1 2 i nthe reorgan ization of h i s army, and i n preparations for the nextcampaign . The destruction of Napoleon

’

s vast arm ie s i n Russia,

and the upris i ng of E urope i n 18 13,! caused the wi thdrawal from

Spai n of Marshal Soul t, and of large numbers of French veterans ,and the way was thus cleared , i n some measure, for the great B ri ti shge neral . I n May, he left Portugal for the last t ime , heading anarmy of men

,Brit i sh and Portuguese , and , gathering up

Span ish troops as he advanced , he bore down on the foe wi th i rres is tible sk i l l and strength . I n a masterly campaign , he forced awaythe French

,under K ing J oseph and Marshal J ourdan , wi th much

manoeuvring and l i ttle fight ing , unti l he brought them to bay atVi ttoria , near the southern foot of the Pyrenees . There , on J une2 I st, 18 13 , he won a complete v ictory over men , driv ingthem off i n headlong rout, and capturing al l th e guns , baggage,s tores , and treasure . Soul t was sen t by N apoleon to the rescue

,

and he d i splayed much energy and sk il l i n remodel l i ng the Frencharmy , and res ist ing the advance of the conquering Well ington .

N oth ing , however, could now stem the t ide . Pamplona wasblockaded by the Brit i sh and thei r al l i es

,San Sebast ian was stormed .

I n the late summer,th e passage of the Pyrenees was forced i n a

series of fierce encounters,and i n O ctober, Well ington ’s army,

c ross i ng the Bidassoa , was encamped on French soi l . I n N ovember, Soul t was defeated at the N i vel le, i n December, again at theN i ve and at S t . Pierre . Then came a brief respi te, during whichthe French leader was rei nforced

,but i n February, 18 14, he was

agai n discomfited at O rthes,and the war ended , on Apri l l oth,


acqu i red , during th is period , as wi l l be hereafte r described , the Capeof Good Hope , Bri t ish Guiana , and Mauri t ius . Among thosewh ich were taken by Bri t i sh expedi ti ons and restored , at the peace ,to thei r former owners , we re the i sland of Curacao , on the northcoast of South America, captured from the Dutch i n 1807 ; theDan i sh West I ndia i s le s , S t . Thomas and Santa Cruz ; of the FrenchWest I ndies , Guadeloupe , and Martin ique ; and of the D utch Eas tI ndian possess ions , the great i sland of J ava , with Banda and Amboyna . There were several occasions when our armed E as t I ndiamen defende d themse lves wi th v igour and success agains t Frenchcru isers and privateers . Of the inner seas of E urope

,the Bal t ic

wi tnessed several sharp encounters between E ngl i sh and Russiansmaller c raft ; and the Adriat ic coas ts , especial ly, and the westernsea - board of I taly , were the scenes of frequent naval engagementsof the m inor class , and of many Bri t ish attacks on batteries andforts ashore .I n February, 1806 , a French squadron , composed of five l in e

of- battle sh ips and two frigates,was encountered i n the West I ndies ,

off the great i sland of San Domingo or Haiti , by a Bri t ish fleet ofseven l iners . A fter a spi ri ted act ion , al l the F rench large vessel swere taken or de s troyed by being driven ashore, among the twowh ich had the latter fate bei ng the Impe

‘r ia l, of 1 30 g uns, th e

largest and finest sh ip i n the world , carryi ng a crew of 1 200 men .

The French loss amounted to nearly 1 500 , wh ile the B ri ti sh numbers were l essened by about 350 officers , seamen , and mari nes . I nSeptember of the same ye ar, four 40 - gun French frigates , ou t of asquadron of five starting for the West I nd ies , were captured offRoche fort , on the west coast of F rance , by a far more powerfulB ri t ish force . The enemy made a brave defence, when they wereovertaken after pursu i t . A l l the fine craft were added to our navy,two of thei r number, the Gloir e and the A rm ide, retain ing the i rFrench name s .I n October, 1807, an armed Bri ti sh packet- sh ip , the Windsor

Ca stle, bound for Barbadoes , under the command of M r . Will iamRogers

,was attacked , as she neared her desti nat ion , by a French

privateer. The enemy carried s ix 6 - pounder guns , and one long

18 - pounder pivot- gun , agai nst s ix 4- pounders and two 1 2 - poundercarronades, short cast - i ron guns fi rst made at , and named from , thefamous foundry at Carron i n Scotland , two miles away from Falki rk .

THE GREAT WAR WITH FRANCE . 1 19

The confl i ct soon came to close quarters, when the heav i ly-mannedFrench schooner ran alongs ide, grappled the Bri t i sh ve ssel , andse nt he r m en aboard . The foe were promptly repulsed wi th the

loss of ten ki l led and wounded , and they then strove to shee r awayby cutt ing the grappl ings . The main yard - arm of the packet- sh ipwas

,however, entangled with the schooner

’

s rigging, holding herfast

,and the Brit ish captain then brought one of h i s carronades ,

loade d with musket - bal ls and grape—shot , to bear full upon theenemy ’s crowded deck , as her crew were mustered fo r a secondattempt to board . The effec t of the discharge was so fearful , thatRoge rs , wi th but five men , le aped upon the schooner’s deck , drovethe remain ing Frenchmen from the i r posts , and compelled a surrende r. The prize, named the jeune R ic/za rd, had lost 54 men ,ki l led and wounded , out of a total of 92 , and was carried safely in toport at Barbadoes .One of the most remarkabl e events of the war was the attack

made upon a powerful French fleet lyi ng i n the Basque,or A ix

,

Roads,on the west coast of F rance , between the island of O leron

and the mainland . Much of the renown connected with thi se xploi t i s derived from the fact that the ch ief actor, on the B ri t ishs ide , was Thomas, Lord Cochrane , who became , i n 183 1 , byinhe ri tance as eldest son , the tenth Earl of Dundonald i n theScott ish peerage . The career of th is tal l

,big, splendid sea

captain , both for successfu l ach ievement and for undeserved misfortune , and such d i sgrace as can be infl i cted by powerful , unj ust,and dastardly pol i t ical foe s , resembled that of a hero of romance .

I n bri ll iancy of conception,combined with coolness

,daring

,and

prompti tude of act ion , he was the only man of h is t ime , pe rhaps ofany time , that, w i th due opportun i ty, would have rival led N elsoni n naval repute . The publ i c enemies whom Cochrane created bya zealous war, waged by him in the House of Commons , as aRadical reformer, against naval corruption and gross abuses ,i nvolved h im , i n 18 14, i n a charge of, and condemnation for,S tock - exchange frauds , of which he was afterwards proved to bewholly guil tless . Struck off the navy- l ist

,imprisoned for a year

,

expe l led from Parl iament , and formally degraded from the knighthood of the Bath

, the sel f- exi le d hero sought serv ice wi th theSouth Ame rican rebel s agains t the tyranny of Spain , and performed wonde rs of bravery, e nergy, and skil l i n behalf of the


ris ing republ ics of Ch il i and Peru . A s commander- ln- ch ief of

Chil i ’s smal l , i l l- fu rn ished navy, he made her flag, i n the courseof less than three years ’ serv ice, respected i n the Pac ific watersfrom Cape Horn to Panama . From 18 23 to 18 2 5 he wasengaged , with scarcely i n ferio r success , i n the serv ice of the new

empire of B raz i l . I n 1832 , after some years’

e fforts of h imsel fand friends , he recei ved from the Bri ti sh government, under them in i stry of Earl G rey, and the rule of the “sai lor- king ” ,Will iam IV . ,

a “ free pardon for offences which he had never commi tted , andthe substant ial redress of rei nstatemen t i n the navy as rearadmiral . I n 1847, his K .C.B. was restored , and from 1848 to185 1 he was commander- in- ch ief on the N orth American andWest I nd ian stat ion . Return ing to England i n the year of thefi rst Great Exh ibi t ion , he d ied at Kensington i n 1860 , and wasmost worth i ly in terred wi th i n the wall s of Westminster Abbey .

Reverting now to h i s early days , and h is work i n the Bri t ishnavy, we find that Coch rane, born at Annsfie ld, Lanarksh i re , i n1775 , entered the navy i n 1793, at the somewhat matu re age , for a“middy of nearly eighteen years . A fter serving on th e coas t ofNorway , on the N orth l

Ame rican station , and i n the Medite r

ranean, he rece ived i n 1800 the command of a poor l i ttle, almostunseaworthy sloop cal led the Speedy , of 1 5 8 tons , carryi ng 14 fourpounder guns , and 54 men . The performances of Cochrane in th i sc razy craft seem incred ible , but are truly told . In a c ru ise extending over fi fteen months on the Mediterranean coast of Spain , hetook or retook more than fifty merchant-men and privateers , ofwhich the armed vessel s carried 1 2 2 guns , th e prisoners of warn umbering 5 34. I t was i n th i s vessel that Cochrane performed thealmost m i racu lous explo i t of captu ring, with h i s boarders , a Span i shfrigate of 32 guns and 3 19 men . H is own loss on th i s occasionwas 3 men ki lled and I8 wounded . Soon after th i s , the Speedywas obl iged to surrender to th ree French l i ne - of- battle sh ips, anenemy beyond the powers even of Cochrane to subdue . He wen tas a prisoner to A lgeci ras, near G ibral tar, but was soon release dby exchange

,and then came a lul l o f war i n the Peace of Amiens .

I n Feb . 1805 he was appoin ted commander of the P a llas , a finenew fir- bu i lt frigate of 32 guns , and , sail ing forth to scour the seasfor French and Span ish sh ips

,he came two month s later i nto Ply

mouth Sound,with as h is own share of pri ze-money, and

LORD COCHRANE SIGNALS FOR ASSISTANCE TO

ATTACK THE FRENCH FLEET.

Towards the end of Mar ch,1809, a large French fleet was gathered in

the Basque Roads . There it was close l y watched by a British squadronunder Lord Gamb ier ; but as the Adm ira lty thought that it m ight g ive hislord sh ip the s l ip, they determined to strike a decis ive b low by means of

“ fire - ships ”. To prepare and lead th is novel form of attack they despatched Lord Cochrane , a young, clever, fearless naval officer. Th isappointment, however, was angri l y resented by Lord Gamb ier and the

other ofli cers of the squadron who were Cochrane ’s seniors ; so that, whenhis fire - sh ips had thrown the enemy ’s fleet into utter confusion he rece ivedno assistance from the Bri tish Admiral . In desperation Cochrane ran up

s ignal after signal , cal l ing upon Gamb ier to s tand inshore and des troy theFrench sh ips , wh ich there lay aground at his mercy . But no ; the Britishsquadron, for the most part , hung idly aloof, because a British Adm iralhad set his own fool ish jealousy above his country’s renown.

‘V H OVEREVD

LORD COCHRANE S IGNALS FOR ASS ISTANCETO ATTACK THE FRENCH FLEET .

Vol. 11. p 121


broken , and some of the fire - sh ips went d ri fti ng down i n flamestowards the foe . A scen e of awful grandeu r was there , as the skywas i l l um ined by the g lare of the burn ing c raft, by the flashes ofthe cannon from the host i l e batterie s and sh ips , whi le shel l s wereflying and Congreve rockets wh izz ing on every s ide . Many of thefire - sh ips were l i t and abandoned too soon , and only fou r out oftwenty seem to have reached the enemy ’s pos i t ion

,bu t the French

men , in thei r alarm , cut the cables of nearly every sh ip , and atmidnight th ere were th i rteen of them aground on the mainland orthe shoals . I t i s bel i eved that the whole squadron m ight havebeen destroyed as they lay helpless , by a proper use of the B ri t i shfrigates and Sh ips ’ boats , but when dayl igh t came, and the pos i t ionof affai rs was revealed , Lord Gambier paid no heed to Cochrane

’srepeated and pre ss ing S ignals for aid . I n the general resul t

,th e

French sh ip Va r sovie, of 80 guns, and the A gu ilon ,a 74, were

taken by our seamen and burn t ; th e Ca lcutta , of 50 guns , and theTonner r e, of 74, were fi red by the i r own crews , and blown up, toavoid capture ; th e Indienne, a frigate , was also burn t, when she washelplessly aground , by her own men ; and the Oce’an , of 1 20 guns,had to throw hal f her cannon overboard i n order to get afloat .These were losses not to be despised by any mari ne, and the sub

s tantial and moral effect of the blow was very severe for Napoleon ’snavy .

A t th is t ime , many French war - vessels of the minor class weregathered at Boulogne , and in the early morn ing of Apri l 26 th, a1 2 - gun Bri ti sh brig , appropriately named the Taras/zer , weighedfrom Dungeness and stood over towards the Fre nch coast . Fortysai l o f armed vessel s were seen coming out of Boulogne harbour,i nc l uding 6 brigs and 2 schooners . The Tar asner gal lan tly engagedthe whol e floti l la , runn ing between the two l i nes , protected thusfrom the batteries ashore , wh ich could not fi re without danger tothe French , and , after a seven hours

’ fight, th ree were sunk , s i xdriven on shore

,and many others sen t back di sabled i nto port.

On October 2 6 th of the same year, 1809, a French 8o -

gun sh ipand a 74- gunner

,driven ashore in the Gulf of Lions by a B rit ish

squadron,were fi red by thei r own crews

,and blew up at n ight with

a tremendous explos ion,as the sh ips wh ich had pursued them lay

about seven m iles away becalmed . Five days later , part of a largefleet of armed store- sh ips and transports , bound from Toulon to

THE GREAT WAR WITH FRANCE . 122 3

Barcelona,were anchored in Rosas Bay, on the north - e as t coas t of

Spai n , under the protection of some powerful shore- batterie s . Lord

Coll ingwood,N elson ’s ch ief comrade at Trafalgar, was then com

manding the Mediterranean fleet that watched Toulon and theneighbouring coasts , and he resolved that an attempt should bemade on the sh ips intended to aid the enemy

’

s troops i n Spai n .

There were seven French merchantmen , a 1 6 -gun store - sh ip , twobomb- vessels , and a xebec, or 3 -masted sh ip with both square andlatee n sai ls , of the type once used by th e corsai rs of A lgiers . Astrong boat- exped it ion was arranged to start , afte r dark , from theBri t i sh fleet lying anchored about five m i les from Rosas . Them e n dashed i n to thei r work , and , against a brave resistance andamid a heavy fi re from the cannon on shore , and vol leys of muske try from the troops that l ined the beach , they completed thei rcongen ial task by dayl igh t on N ovember 1 st, i n the destruction byfi re

,or the capture and bringing off, of al l the eleven vessels .

F i fteen officers and men were k i l led , and fifty- five wounded, i n theperformance of th is fe at, one al together clean , compact, and characte ris t ic of ou r seamen of the N elson school .For a variety i n the e xplo i ts of B ri t ish tars

,we wing ou r fl ight

from the waters of the M edite rranean to the Pers ian Gulf. I n thatde ep i nlet of the I nd ian O cean , the town of Ras - al- Khyma hadbecome the la i r of nume rous pi rates of desperate character

, who

were the pests of commerce i n the adjacent se as . Two 36 - gunfrigates , the C/zifonne and the Ca roline, were se nt from Bombay,with s ix cruisers of the East I ndia Company ’s serv ice . A body oftroops was carried on board , and on N ovembe r 1 3th the town wasdestroyed by fi re, with more than fi fty vessel s then i n the port

,

i ncludi ng 30 large dhows , or pi ratical c raft , and a quanti ty of navalstore s . A t two o ther place s i n the Gulf. 3 1 large predatory vessel swere burnt, and the s e a - de fence s we re razed to the ground . Thepirate s made a fierce re sistance to th is sweeping interference wi ththei r l ivel ihood , and the B ri tish force suffered by five m en ki l led

,

fi fteen severely wounded , and n ineteen with sl ighter hurts .I n the fol lowing year, 18 10 , a most gal lan t act ion was fough t

by a Brit ish frigate i n the Bay of Naple s . The 38 - gun sh ip Spa r tan ,

commande d by Captain J ahleel Bre nton , was c ru is ing off the islandof I sch ia , i n company with the S uccess . A Fre nch 4 2 -gun frigate,a 28 -gun sh ip, an 8 -gun brig , a IO-gun cu tte r, and seve n gun - boats,


each carry ing one long 18 - pounder,were ly ing under the batteries

of N aples . Captai n Bren ton , bel iev ing that the enemy wouldnot come out i n the face of the two Bri t i sh frigates , sen t awayth e S uccess , and, under the eyes of Murat , the k ing, who was i nh i s carriage on the heights , fought and routed the whole squadron .

On the B ri t ish s ide were 46 guns (the number real ly carried bya frigate of the Spa r tan class) , and about 260 men and boys , 0pposed to 95 guns , and about 1400 men , i ncl ud ing 400 Swiss troopscarried on board the frigate and corvette . The B ri ti sh commanderhandled h i s vessel wi th great sk i l l and resol ution , and was severelywounded by a 10 - ounce i ron grape - shot , which s truck h im i n theh ip and lamed h im for l i fe . The French brig was captured

,and

the frigate and other vessel s were d riven to shel ter under the batte rie s of Baim. Murat, h imsel f conspicuous for headlong cou rage ,as al l men know who have followed h is maste r’s m i l i tary care er,clapped h is hands wi th del igh t, and cried “ Bravo ! bravo ! I nglese ! ”

at the courage of h i s enemies, i n a generous outburst of feel ing ,

mingled with rage and mort ificat ion at the discomfiture of h i s vastlysuperior force . Some of the above part icu lars were related to thewri ter by a daughter of B ren ton , who here closed his profess ionall i fe with the rewards of a baronetcy , a and the splendidsword

,value 100 guineas , presented i n those days for d i stingu ished

naval bravery and ski l l by the committee of the Patrioti c Fund .

This record of a very few of the successes won by B ri t ish sai lorsduring the great war may conclude wi th the accoun t of th e bri ll ian tact ion off the island of L issa , on the north - east coast of the AdriaticSea . The place was at that time ( 18 1 1 ) i n Austrian possess ion ,and i n March a Franco -Venetian squadron , of s ix powerful frigates ,and five smal ler vessels , carrying 500 troops , i ssued from the harbou r of Ancona, on the east coast of I taly, with the v iew of securi ngpossession of the is land . A Brit ish force of four frigates , headed bythe A mfi/z ion ,

Capta i n Wil l iam Hoste,was barri ng the way . The

dispari ty o f strength i n the two armaments was very great . TheBri tish vessel s carried 1 5 2 guns and 880 men ; the hosti l e sh ips , ofwhich th re e frigates were Venetian

,had 300 guns and 2 500 men .

Captai n H oste , i n nowise daunted , but eager to me et the enemieswhom he had for many months sought to bring to a trial of cou rageand ski l l , hoi ste d as a s ignal “ Remember N elson ”

, the man underwhom he had h imsel f made h i s fi rs t essay i n naval warfare . The


cases colonial terri tory of the h ighest value, only to return i t at thepeace, and expending money and men wh ich would have enabledthem to place a hundred thousand troops i n l ine on the Conti nen t

,

where, wi th We l l i ngton in command,the scale would soon have

been turned against N apol eon .

Early i n 1807, the Briti sh m in istry of Lord Grenv i l le, eager tohelp Russ i a, then our al ly, against the Turks, and to make B ri tishinfl uence prevai l over French at Constantinople, ordered a navalforce to the Dardanelles . Admira l S i r J ohn Duckworth waschosen to command eigh t l i ne -of- battle sh ips and two frigates . Onthe way, a 74- gun sh ip , th e Ajax , took fi re and blew up wi th th eloss of about 2 50 men . The heavy fi re of the Dardanel les fortswas passed wi thou t any serious loss , and a Turki sh squadr on ,attacked by our vessel s under S i r S idney Smi th , N apoleon ’

sfamous antagonist at S t . J e an d’

Acre , was driven ashore on theAs iatic s ide . Three frigates were boarded from boats and burnt

,

redoubts were taken , and guns were spiked , al l of wh ich waseffected wi th trifl ing loss . D uckworth then moved up to wi th i neigh t m i l es of Constant inople , and wasted days i n vai n negotiationswi th Su ltan Sel im whi le General S ebast ian i , the French ambas sador, encouraged h im to yi eld noth ing, but to prepare a trap i n theB ri ti sh rear . The whole population along the Dardanel les wereengaged in making new earthworks and mounting heavy guns , andwhen our fleet, on March I s t, was movi ng back towards the Mediterranean

,the sh ips had to run for th i rty m iles th rough a constan t

and severe fi re. E normous shots of gran i te , some weigh ing 800l bs . , missiles such as Bri t ish sai lors had never seen , were fi red fromthe huge ordnance of Sestos and Abydos castles . Decks werebroken i n , mas ts were snapped off, and nearl y 300 men were ki l ledand wounded . The scorn of our foes and the pi ty of ou r friendswere aroused by th is contemptible fai l ure. Thi s even t was fol lowedby i l l - success i n an exped i t ion aimed at Turkish power i n Egypt .On March 20th , A l exandria capi tulated to a squadron and m il i taryforce d ispatched from M essi na

,and some Turkish frigates were

captured . General Frazer n ext attacked Roset ta wi th 1 500 men ,but was repulsed wi th grea t l oss by a heavy fi re from the housesafter h is men had become en tangled i n the s treets of the town .

A Bri tis h rei n forcement of 2 500 men was also driven to retreatwi th a loss of abou t one- th i rd of its numbers , and the matter ended

THE GREAT WAR WITH FRANCE. 127

with an evacuation of the country on cond iti on that the Bri t ishpri soners should be surrendered .

Far worse than these di saste rs was that wh ich be fell us a t

Buenos Ayres i n 1807. A fter Popham ’s fai l ure i n the prev iousyear

,a general named Sir Samuel Auchmu ty had been sent ou t

wi th a reinforcement of 3000 men . When he found that noth ingcould be done at B uenos Ayres , th e new band attacked MonteVideo

,on the northe rn shore of the La Plata , almost on the s ea

board,and captured the town wi th severe loss

‘

to h imself i n theassaul t . I n th e spring of 1 807 General Whitelock was sen t out to

take the ch ief command in that quarter, and the government,ignoran t of A uchmuty

’

s success, d i rected that h i s forces were to bepu t under the orders of the fresh l eader. S ir A rthu r Wellesley

,

consul ted by the min istry i n February, 1807, had warned themagainst trus ting to “ the accounts received concern ing the inefficiency of the Spanish mil i tary establ ishme nts in America I nspi te of th is

,the War- office pers isted i n the South American enter

pr i ses,and when Whitelock , early i n J une, landed wi th about 1600

men at Monte Video, he found nearly excel le nt B ri t ishtroops gathered on the La P lata , fi t to go anywhere and to doanyth ing under competent command. The two brigadiers underVVhite lock

’

s orders, Auchmu ty and Craufurd , were experi encedand fai rly able men , but the l i eute nant-general set over them hadreached his h igh pos i t ion in th e serv i ce withou t any record beyondparade- duty and an attendance of palace-guards . He was , i n fact,a handsome , wel l - spoken , hol iday soldi er, chosen by favour for aduty to which he was to prove h imself whol ly unequal . He losth is head , or h is nerve , from the very fi rs t. Afte r talking as i f

,

with the forces at his disposal , he could master al l Span ishAmerica , he shrank , i n a few days , from venturing an attack uponthe s ingle town of B uenos Ayres . Goaded to action by the factsof h is pos i t ion , and by the looks , if not the words , of those whosurrounded him , Whitelock landed , on J une 28th , wi th nearly 8000men , at a poi nt about th i rty m i les to the east of Buenos Ayres .

The arrangemen ts made for the advance proved h is u tter wantof common prudence and ski ll, and , i f the Spaniards had been anact ive and enterpris ing foe, th e Bri tish army, march ing i n manydetachments by the wors t roads that could have been chosen , mighthave been severely handled or hal f destroyed, among ri vers and


morasses, woods and defiles . N o in formation as to proper routeshad been sought , and the sold iers were exhausted by toi l , and hal fs tarved, when , on J uly 3rd,

they arrived before the town . Twodays later an attack was ordered

,and then , with di re resul ts , the

ful l extent of the general’

s imbeci l i ty was seen . The troops wered iv ided i nto col umns, and each div is ion , with unloaded muskets, wasto march down i ts part icular street

,and make i ts way to the great

P la z a , or Square , near the river. The doors of the houses were tobe broken open by two corporals

,march ing with tools fo r the pur

pose, at the head of each column . These rid iculous arrangements,by which the assai lants were exposed to the u tmost risk , with theleast poss ibl e chances of prompt retal iation , caused a fearful t ragedy .

The doors could not be made to y ield ; from the windows and theflat roofs of the houses came an i ncessan t shower of bul lets . The

st reets had been cu t by t renches , from beh ind wh ich cannon sentvol leys of grape- shot . The man who had dev ised th i s method ofdefence was General (formerly Colonel) Lin iers , the French office rwho had retaken the town , i n 1806 , from our troops under GeneralBeresford . I n spi te of al l obstacles , and wi th fearful loss, thesold iers led by A uchmu ty did become possessed of a strong post i nthe Plaza de Toros , and another poi n t of importance had be enoccupied by n ightfal l. To obtai n th is part ial success 2 500 B ri tishsoldiers had fal len or become prisoners . I n the m orn ing Lin iersoffered terms to Wbi telock , who accepted them with all the eagerness of a man whose spi ri t was overcome by disaster due to h isown fol ly. I n accordance wi th th is d isgraceful arrangemen t theB ri t ish forces were wi thd rawn from the La Plata

,and Monte

Video was surrendered wi thi n the space of two months . Pri sonerson both sides were restored , and the famish ing Bri tish troops weresuppl ied wi th prov is ions and aided by boats for embarkation . Thepopular fury was aroused at home by th is i n tel l igence , and Whitelock

,now ni cknamed White feathe r ” , was i n great personal

danger when he arrived in E ngland . A t rial by court-martial ,held at Chelsea Hospital between J anuary and March , 1808, e ndedi n h is removal from the army as “ total ly unfi t and unworthy toserve h i s majesty i n any mil i tary capaci ty whatever ” . A s tandingtoas t of the t ime was , “ A heal th to gray hai rs

,and bad luck to

wh ite locks ” , and , years afterwards , the luckless man was treatedwi th i nsul t by the landlord of an hotel

, who, on learn ing h is guest’

s


expedi tion that ever left th e shores of Great Bri tai n . The commande rs of th is grand armada we re , for the sh ips , S i r R i chardS trachan

,a man of l i ttle note ; for the land - forces , the Earl of

Chatham , a man of no note at all . He was , i ndeed , the elderbrother of the younger William P i tt , but nature , far from respecti ngthe rights of primogeni tu re , had not e ven made a fair d i v i s ion ofi ntel lectual endowments . He was an am iabl e man , acceptabl e atcourt, possessed of great fami ly i nfluence, and i n cons iderable de bt .I t i s bel ieved that thi s las t qual ifica t ion i nduce d the king to bri ngabout the appoi n tment, i n order that h is favouri te

’s fiscal pos i t ionmight be raised by the large emol umen ts connected wi th h ighmil i tary command . The matte r was , i n plain E ngl ish , an atrociousjob , on ly possible in an age when royal predi lec tions could s t il lprevai l over publ ic wel fare . There was not a corporal in th eservice who was not as wel l su i te d , from knowledge and skil l , totake the command of the greates t m i l i ta ry force that had beendespatched from this country s ince the days of Marlborough.

On J uly 2 5 th, the great floti l l a sai led from Portsmouth for theDowns , v iewed from every height, as i t passed up Channel , bycrowds of del ighted gazers . The scene , when a thousand sa i l weregathered on the sea that fronts the coas t between the Forelands ofKent

,with boats fi l l ed wi th v i s i tors , or bri nging stores , rowing i n

al l di rec tions around , wi th bugl es soundi ng, regimental bands playing patriotic tunes

,and pennons flying from the mas theads

,was

such as no dwel lers i n that region had e ver beheld . On J uly 3o th,

twenty thousand men landed on the i sle of Walch eren , at thenorthern entrance of the wes t branch of the Scheldt. M iddelburg

,

the ch ief town , was at once s urre ndered , and the French troopswere driven off into the fortre ss of Fl ush i ng. The hosti l e men - of- warhad ret i red up the river, and i f the general and adm i ral had knownthei r bus iness, an immediate pursu i t would have taken the sh ips , ora march across land , before the vesse l s could arrive at Antwerp ,would have captured that town , which then contained a garri son ofbut 3000 men . Flush ing, meanwh ile , might have been blockadedo r bombarded

,or simply le t alone

,i ts immediate capture not being of

the smalles t accoun t . The tak ing of Antwerp would have effectedthe main obje ct of the exped i t ion i n secu ring the stronghold whereN apoleon was prov iding for a menac ing rev ival of h i s mari timepower. The E arl of Chatham aimed fi rst at the reduc tion of


Flush ing, and , while the sh ips and troops were engaged at Walcheren

,Marshal Bernadotte was on the way to Antwe rp , whe re he

soon had French,Dutch , and German regular troops , be

s ides a great hos t of Belgian and Dutch m il i tia, at h is command .

On August 16 th , the French gene ral , Monne t , who commanded atF lush ing

,yielded the place after a severe bombardment , i ncl ud ing

showers of the fatal Congreve rockets , which fi red the town inevery quarter

.S ix thousand men became prisoners of war, and a

few vessel s,on the stocks or i n dock , were secu red .

Some terri tory near Walcheren had also been occupi ed by theB ri tish troops

,and then a new and i rres ist ible foe took the field i n

favou r of Napoleon . There was a special marsh- fever wel l knownto i nfect Walcheren

,but nei ther S i r Lucas Pepys , the physician

general to the forces , nor the surge on - general , Mr. Keate, bothwel l acquainted wi th the nature of th is disorder, had been consul ted ,and the medical officers went out wi thout suppl ies of qu in ine andother needful medi ci nes . The soldiers , sleep ing, for the most part,i n the open ai r

,amids t a ch i l l

,bl ue m ist that rose from the ground,

and pierced the frame i n every part, were seized i n thousands withhorrible d isease . On August 29th, Lord Chatham had to reportthree thousand men i n hospi tal , and , on the m il i tary que st ion , hedeclared that he must close h is ope rat ions with the tak ing of Flushi ng. The main part of the forces was then ordered home

,but

,

with almost i ncred ible fatu i ty, fi fteen thousand men were left i nWalcheren “ for the protection of the island ”

. N o man outside theCabinet could conce ive any good to arise from the possess ion of aplague - stri cke n swamp , but the place was not evacuated t i l l Decembe r 2 3rd. The nature of the Walcheren fever may be gatheredfrom the anonymous “ J ournal of an O fficer ” who was one of thes ufferers. “ The ve nom , he states , “ had a s ingular power of perm eat ing th e whole human frame . I t unstrung every muscle

,pene

trated every bone, and seemed to search and enfeeble al l the sourcesof mental and bodi ly l i fe . I dragged i t about with me for years .\Vhen the end of October came , thousands of men had died in thehospi tal s at M iddelburg ; fou r thousand s ick had been sent home toEngland ; nearly two thousand were about to follow, and the hos

p itals would st i l l contai n four thousand men down wi th the fever.Such was the great expedi t ion to Walcheren

,which cost twenty

m ill ions of money , the l ive s of at least ten thousand men , and the


wreck of heal th , for l i fe or for many years, i n thousands more . Thetragedy was attended by a farcical i nterl ude i n a quarrel betweenLord Castlereagh , the Secretary for War and the Colon ie s, andCann ing, the Foreign Secretary , who had a sharp i n terchange ofwords as to where the blame of the fai l ure lay . They both resignedoffice, and then , i n the senseless manner of the t ime , fought apistol -duel i n which Cann ing was sl ightly wounded .

The figures concern i ng the losses of l ineof- battle sh ips andfrigates on the part of Great B ri tai n and her enemies during thewar conti nu ing from May, 1803 , t i l l J uly , 18 1 5 , are ample proof ofthe overwhelming naval superiori ty of th i s country at that t ime ofher h istory . The Bri t ish navy captured 26 French sh ips of thel i ne and destroyed 9; 10 Spani sh l i ners were taken and 1 de stroyed ;

3 D utch l i ners were destroyed ; 1 Russ ian and 18 Dan ish l i ne - Of

battle ships became pri zes ; and 1 Turki sh l iner was burnt by ourseamen . On the othe r s ide , not a single B rit i sh l i ner was e i thertaken or destroyed by our various foes , as against 69 total losses ofthat class i n the i r nav ies . O f the frigates an exact compari soncannot be made. 70 French frigates were taken or destroyed , andthe total loss to host i le nav ies i n th is class amounted to 10 2 . O fB ri t ish men - Of-war i n every c lass below l i ners, 83 were capturedand 7 destroyed, but by far the greater number of these vessel swere brigs

,s loops , corvettes , and other smal l craft, hundreds of

wh ich,los t to ou r enem ies , are not taken i nto accoun t at al l . More

than a hundred prizes, l ine - of- battl e sh ips and frigates , were addedto the B ri t ish navy during the same period . The peri ls of the sea,far more destructive to our ships than al l the efforts of seven hosti lenav ies

,are strik ingly shown i n the record of B ri t i sh vessels los t by

acc ident . 8 sh ips of the l i ne were wre cked on rocks or shoals , 3foundered

,and 2 were burnt . O f frigates and small er vessel s 16 1

were wrecked , 50 foundered , and 3 perished by fi re . When we

take the whole of the struggle from 1 793 to 18 1 5 , the comparisonof losses by capture and destruct ion presents a very strik ing difference . O f sh ips of the l i ne , i ncl ud ing 50 -gun sh ips , the French los tat ou r hands 87, the Dutch 29,

the Span iards 24, the Danes 24 ,

and the Russ ians and the Turks each 1 , making a total of 166

sh ips of the larger classes,carryi ng guns . The Bri ti sh

losses by capture were 7 ships of the same ranks , carrying 470

guns . The total loss of frigates, to the above nations, through th e


arm ies were needed for the purpose i n hand . I t was clear thatBelgium was to be the scene of confl i ct, and the Duke of VVe llington there assumed the command of about al l ies

,B ri t ish

,

Belgian, and D utch , wi th H anoverians and other Germans , of whomless than one- th i rd were from our nat ive army . The Pruss ians

,i n

about the same force , took the field under Marshal B l'

ucher,a man

of good mil i tary capac i ty , and of headlong, dogged courage , oftenproved i n confl i c t wi th the French i n the two prev ious years . OnJ une 1 1 th, N apoleon , with about men and 300 guns , l e ftPari s for the Belgian front ie r. Four days later he c rossed theSambre and arri ved at Charleroi . On the 16 th , h is l eft wing , underMarshal N ey, was repulsed, after a severe battl e at Quatre Bras ,about twenty m iles south of B russels . On the same day theF rench emperor, with h is main army , defeated the Prussians atLigny

,some m iles south - east of Quatre B ras , but BliIche r reti red

i n good order. Duri ng the 1 7th Wel l ington re ti red to a chosenposi t ion about two miles i n advance of the v i l lage of Waterloo ,twelve m iles south of Brussel s , and Bl

'

ucher, by way of Wavre ,made for the same ground . The al l i ed generals had agreed tocontend there for the securi ty of Brussel s and a decis ive trial ofstrength with the foe

,and i t was only i n rel iance on Prussian aid

that Well i ngton , wi th an army greatly i nferior to Napoleon ’s , not i n

n umbers , but i n qual i ty and i n guns , had resolved to meet h is greatantagon is t .There are people who try to discred it Wel l ington by assert ing

that he won the battl e by Prussian aid . The answer to them isthat he won by the only means that could have enabled h im to win .

A t the utmost, out of h i s men , he had real ly goodsold iers . Many of the Belgian s were disaffected to the cause , andran away during the battle

,others w ere of sl ight use i n face of

N apoleon ’s forces led by h imself. Above al l , only ofWel l ington ’s men were B ri t i sh

,and these were , to a large exten t ,

young raw troops . H is arti l lery cons isted of 1 5 6 guns againstN apoleon ’ s 246 . On the other hand

,there are ignorant patriot ic

B ri tons who claim for \Ve lling ton th e sole glory of v ictory atWaterloo . The answer to them is that the Prussians lost, i n thebattle, 6999 men ki l led and wounded , while the Bri t ish and thei rimmediate al l i es were lessened by about The Prussianstherefore lost about one - th i rd of the total number on the s ide of the

THE GALLANT CHARGE OF THE SCOTS GREYS AT

THE BATTLE OF WATERLOO.

The Duke of We l l ington h imse l f has said that the h istory of a battleis not unl ike the h istory of a bal l , inasmuch as it is onl y the picturesqueincidents wh ich stand forth from the general turmoil. O f such incidentsat Waterloo , the most thril ling, no doubt, were the repeated charges of

Napoleon’

s vas t masses of caval ry upon the stolid , s tubborn British squares .

Yet the desperate onset of Ponsonby’

s Union Brigade of cava lry was a lsosplend idly notab le on that day of notab le deeds . Th is brigade was com

posed of three regiments representing the three national ities ,— Roya ls ,Inniskillens, and Scots Greys ,— and when it charged down upon the

French cuirassiers it scattered them with irres istib le fury . Loud abovethe din of battle rang the war- s logan of the Scots Greys Scotland for

"1CVCI‘

THE GREAT WAR WITH FRANCE. 135

v i c tors , and th is loss fai rly represents thei r contribut ion to thev ictory.

N apoleon ’s force of about men was engaged,from about

1 1 o’clock t il l 4, on Sunday, J une 18th , i n vain efforts to force

Wel l ington,s till unaided by B lucher, from h is posit ions on the

field . The Bri t ish in fantry, resi st ing in l i n e the assaul ts of heavycolumns of French foot, and then , packed i n squares , hold ing out forhours against the attacks of N apoleon ’s heavy caval ry, bore theburde n and heat of the day . A t th e chéteau and i n the grounds ofHougomont , i n advance of the B ri ti sh right w i ng, our men repulsed ,i n a confl i ct of several hou rs , the att acks of far greater numbers ofthe foe . About fou r o ’clock the Pruss ians beg an to arrive in forceon the French right rear at Planchenoit , and the Young Guard ofN apoleon , with othe r troops , were thereby wi thdrawn from theB ri t ish front . Between 6 and 7 o

’clock , the farmhouse of La HayeSain te , i n front of our centre, was captured by the French infantry,and Napoleon then prepare d for a final attempt

,with two separate

columns of h is O ld Guard,to break our centre

,i n the hope of

forcing a retreat wh ich might leave him free to turn round uponth e Prussians . About eight o ’clock , these two attacks wererepulsed by Well i ngton

,who then ordered a general advance i n a

fou r- deep l i ne which , with the he lp of h is caval ry - reserve, drovethe enemy off i n u tte r rout . The fresh P russ ian force s , as theyarrive d i n the field

, e ngaged in a hot pursu i t of the French which ,favoured by the long summer twil ight and the rays of a youngmoon , e nded i n the capture of nearly al l the French guns, after atotal loss to N apoleon ’s army of at least men . The dis comfited French troops , who had fought throughout wi th the greatestde votion and ski l l , ful ly recognized the truth that al l was over forthei r defeated leader, and , fl i nging away thei r weapons after recrossi ng the Sambre , they mostly d ispersed to thei r own homes , andwere once more SImple ci t izens of France . The emperor, as all theworld knows

,abdicated , strove to escape to America , was taken

by the Bri t ish man - of-war, B el/erop/ton , and was sent as an exil eto S t . H e le na , 1 200 miles from the west coast of Africa , where hed ied on May 5 th , 18 2 1 .

Louis XV I I I . was agai n k ing of France, and a new Congressof V ie nna se ttled the boundaries of E urope afresh . France wasreduced to the l im i ts of 1 792 . Napoleon ’s Con federat ion of the


Rh ine had ceased to exi st, and was replaced by a German Confederat ion , wi th th e Emperor of Austria as pres ident, which inc luded al l the German states

,and the free ci t ies of Hamburg

,

Lubeck , Bremen , and Frankfort- on- the - Main,the latter being the

federal capi tal and meeting - place of the d iet of represen tative s .A ustria recovered Lombardy and Venetia

,with the Tyrol and

other terri tory i n the south - west. Pruss ia received Swed ishPomeran ia and a large part of Saxony , and recovered Posen , withWestphal ia and the Rhen ish terri tory . Bavaria, W

‘

urtembe rg , andSaxony, the last wi th terri to ry dim in i shed for adherence toN apoleon , remained as k ingdoms . Holland and Belgium becameun ited i n to the ki ngdom of the N etherlands , under the Prince ofO range as Wil l iam I . Sweden and N orway were placed underone sovereign , and Switzerland was now a confederation of 2 2

cantons or states . Naples and S ic i ly were res tored to the i r formerBourbon king, and the Pope regained the States of the Church .

Sard in ia recovered P iedmont and Savoy, with the addi tion ofGenoa . I n northern I taly, Tuscany, Lucca, Parma , and Modenabecame duch ies i n dependence on Austria . Hanover was nowrestored

,as a k ingdom instead of an electorate , to the sovereign of

G reat Bri tain . Such were the terri torial arrangements wh ich con

t inued unti l past the m iddle of the n ineteen th ce ntury , except theformat ion of Greece i n to an independen t k ingdom in 18 29, theseparation of Hol land and Belg i um into two kingdoms in 1830 ,

and the loss of Hanover by Great Bri ta i n i n 1837. The formationof a free un i ted I taly ( 1860 and of a new German Empire ,headed by Prussia and the d im inu tion of Turkey i n theformation of the kingdoms of Rouman ia and Serv ia, and of theprincipal ity of Bulgaria , with the inc rease of G reek terri tory, andthe cess ion of Bosn ia and H erzegov ina to A ustria , are the principalchanges , s ince that date , on the map of E urope.


Great B ri tain , and prepared for open hosti l i t ies . The outbreak ofwar was sti l l averted for some years

,bu t there were other causes of

i rri tation than those connected wi th trade . I t i s d i fficul t to arrive,

after the lapse of so many years, at the tru th as regards therespons ib i l i ty attach ing respe ct ively to the mother- count ry and heral ienated offspring, when we find a Brit i sh wri te r asserting thatPres iden t Madison was eager to d ist ingu ish h is term of ofli ce bythe annexat ion of Canada, and was determ ined to brave a war wi thE ngland , Whi le an American author ins i sts on h is “ very pac ificd isposi t ion ” , and states that he so long he s i tated on the bri nk ofwar that h e was denounced i n Congress as a man who “ could notbe k icked i n to a fight One cause of quarrel seems to have lai ni n the summary American system of turn ing B ri t i sh seamen andothe r subj ects i n to ci ti zens of the U n ited S tates . Our sailo rs werei nduced to e nter thei r mercanti l e and armed mari ne by temptingoffers of h igher pay and better t reatment . A t N ew York , Bostonand other large seaports , there were reg i s ter- office s where E ngl ishdeserters

,and adventu rers of every class , upon payment of a smal l

fe e , recei ved a certificate of American c i t i zensh ip , and there is goodevidence that , i n o rder to evade the law requ i ri ng five years

’ re s idence before a foreigner could become a natural i zed ci t izen of th eS tates , an old woman kept a b ig cradle in wh ich ful l -grown B ri tonswere rocked , so that she m ight swear, as she did , that “

she hadknown them from thei r cradle ” . U nder the impressment systemby wh ich our navy was then manned , Bri t i sh menof-war wereconstantl y stopping and search ing American vessels , not only fo rdeserters from ou r navy

,but for B ri ti sh subjects who might be

forced to serve , and the se acts , along wi th the forc ibl e searches for

goods unde r the O rders i n Counc i l,fostered a hosti l e fe el ing towards

th is count ry wh ich ended i n open confl ic t . I t i s ce rtai n from whatensued upon the American declarat ion of war i n J une , 18 1 2 , thatthe U ni ted S tates had . long be en prepari ng for the struggle , themai n inc idents of wh ich we proceed to relate .

I n attack ing Canada,th e Americans rel i ed on , and were qu i te

deceived as to,reported d i saffection to B ri t i sh rule . Both the

F re nch and the Bri t ish colon ists,and most of the American imm i

grants, were loyal to Great B ri tai n , and fought bravely in defenceof her domin ions . The whole population of Canada was at th ist ime less than and the front ie r requ i ri ng de fence from a

\VAR WITH THE UN ITED STATES. 139

country of eight mi l l ions was 1000 miles i n length . I n the cam

pa ign of 18 1 2 , the fi rst blow was struck by Major-General S i rI saac Brock

,a brave officer then i n charge of the c iv i l government

of Uppe r Canada . H is prompt seizure , i n J uly, of a fort commanding the entrance to Lake M ich igan , gave the Canadians avaluable strateg i c pos i t ion , and secured the aid of the I ndian s of

the north -west,al ready hosti l e to the U n i ted States . The

Shawnee ch ief Tecumseh , a man of real m il i tary ski l l, renderedvaluable aid with h i s band of warriors , who were Obj ects of greatdread to the American troops . I n the same month , an Americanarmy of 2 500 men , under General H ull , the gove rnor of M ichigan ,fai led i n an attack on Fort Malden , near Amherstburg, on theriver Detro i t . The place was garri soned by only 300 Bri t ishregulars but H ul l was forced to retre at to Detroi t, and to su rre nde r In August to B rock , who thereby gained a great Supplyof prov is ions and ammunit ion

,with command of the whole of

M ich igan . The Bri t ish hero, who had marched th ree hundre dm iles , through a di ffi cul t country, i n the space of ten days , andwon th is bril l ian t success wi th less than hal f the numbers of h isfoes , the n hurried back to meet an i nvas ion by way of the N iagarari ve r, join ing Lakes E rie and Ontario . He had but 1 500 men,hal f of whom were m il it iamen and I ndians

,and an American army

of 6000 men , under General Van Rensse laer, was gathered at themenaced poin t. On October 1 3th , 1 200 Americans crossed theriver from Lewiston , i n N ew York S tate, to Queenston , on theCanad ian s ide , and ou tflanked a smal l B ri t i sh force . Brock , hurryi ng to the rescue , and charg i ng up h i l l at the head of a companyof the 49th Reg iment, was mortal ly wounded along wi th h isa ide- de- camp, Colonel Macdonel l , A ttorney- General of UpperCanada . Brock

’

s successor i n command,Major- General Shea ffe ,

with rein forcements , then won a complete v i ctory , forc ing thesurrender of nearly a thousand of the foe , i nclud ing Colonel Scott,afterwards th e famous hero of the Mexican war. The battle ofQ uee nston H eights , defeat i ng the second American attempt onCanada , was a success dearly bought by th e death of B rock atthe age of forty- three . H e was burie d at Fort George , on theN iagara river

,i n one grave w i th Macdonell , while the enemy , i n

respect for gal lant soldiers,hoisted flags hal f-mast and fi red

m inute-guns at Fort N i agara . A grand monument, cons isting


of a mass ive pedestal , a fluted column,a Corin th ian capital

,and

a colossal statue of B rock , the whol e ris ing to the heigh t of185 feet, s tands on one of the finest s i tes i n the world , overlookingthe river N iagara and the south -western end of Lake Ontario .

Th is pi l lar covers the remains of the two offi cers , and a cenotaph ,near at hand , with a corne r- stone laid by th e Prince of Wale si n 1860 , denotes the spot where Brock fe l l . I n N ovember, othe rAmerican attempts, on the N iagara ri ver, ignom in iously fai led .

I n the same month , an U n i ted S tates army of men,under

General Dearborn , advanced on Montreal by way of Lake Champlain , bu t th e v igi lan t and v igorous res is tance of the Canadians,guard ing every pass , and barricading the roads with felled trees ,compel led the enemy to reti re . The warfare on Lake Ontariohad be en mainly i n favou r of the Americans , CommodoreChauncey, at the head of a strong fleet, driv ing th e Canadiansunder shel ter of the guns at the forts .I n February, 18 13, American ravages on the Canad ian front ier

were pun ished by a bri l l ian t e xplo i t of Major Macdonel l , who ,

crossi ng the ice by dayl igh t wi th about 500 men , from Prescott,on the S t . Lawrence

,below Lake Ontario , to Ogdensburg , on the

American s ide , captured a fort defended by a larger force , andobtained a large supply of valuable s tores . I n the west, nearDetro i t , Colonel Proctor severely defeated , at th i s t ime , th eAmerican General Winchester, and compel led h is surrender wi th500 men . The contes t on Lakes Ontario and E rie , during th iscampaign

,was marked by some success for the American vessels

and t roops . I n Apri l,Chauncey , wi th 14 sh ips , carry ing 1700

men under General s Dearborn and Pike , i ssued from Sackett’

sHarbou r

,on the north - east corner of Lake Ontario, and sai led

westwards for York (Toronto) , defended only by 600 men underGeneral Sheaffe . The fire of the American vessels , and thesuperiori ty of force

,were i rres i st ibl e , and Sheaffe retreated wi th

some regulars towards K ingston,afte r blowing up the magaz ine

wi th two hundred of the American storm ing- column , i ncl ud ingPike . Three hundred of the Canadian m il i t i a became prisoners ,the m il i tary and naval s tores were taken , and the publ ic bu i ldingswere burned by the enemy . On May 26 th, Fort George , on th eN iagara river

,was attacked i n overwhelm ing force by Chauncey

and Dearborn , and Colonel V incent , the B ri t ish commander, after


by way of the S t . Lawrence , was made by an American armyof 9000 men , under General Wilkinson . The expedi t ion washarassed by batteries along the northern shore and by Bri t ishgunboats i n the rear, and a severe check was given by theCanadians i n the land - v ictory won at Chrysler’s Farm , near theLong Saul t Rapids . Wilkinson ’s men were forced to hal t atS t . Regis , on the southern shore, awaiti ng the j unct ion of Ge neralH ampton , with 5000 men , coming from Lake Champlain . H isdefeat, on O c tober 2 1 5 t , at Chateauguay R i ver, by the Canadianm il i t ia under Colonel de Salaberry , made an end of the peri l thatmenaced Montreal .I n March , 18 14, the American General Wilk inson , advancing

from Plattsburg, on Lake Champlain , wi th 5000 men,was

severely repulsed at La Col le , at the head of the lake , by oneten th of h is numbers i n B ri t ish regulars and Canad ian m il it ia .

On J uly 4th a fierce act ion took place at Fort Chippewa , on theN i agara river

,between the Americans under General B rown

,the

commander- in- ch ief, and a Bri t ish force of 1 500 regulars , 600mil i ti a, and 300 I nd ians, under Major-General Riall. The B ri tishretreated i n good order, wi thout the loss of a pri soner or a gun .

Three w eeks later, th e greatest battle of the war, as betweenthe Americans and the Canad ians

,was fought at Lundy ’s Lane ,

with i n sound of the roar of N iagara Fal l s . The B ri t ish General sRiall and D rummond , wi th 1600 men , there encounte red GeneralB rown , who had 5000 men on the field . The battl e raged fromfive o ’clock i n the afternoon unti l m idn ight , and the utmost couragewas d isplayed on both S ides , as the Americans strove to capturethe Bri ti sh guns , and cannon on each s ide were taken and re

taken i n hand- to - hand encounters . When 1 700 men lay dead andwounded on the fie ld , i n losses almost equal , th e Americans ret i redto Fort E rie , vai nly attacked , on August 13th , by the B ri t i sh , whomet with a severe repulse . A powerful exped i tion , ofmen , advanc ing from Canada to Lake Champlain , fai led throughthe m isconduct of S i r George Prevos t

,who was recal led for trial

by court -martial , but d ied early in the fol lowing year. TheBri t ish fleet on the lake was defeated and partly take n by the

enemy, and the war ended just as the launch , at K ingston , of theS t. L awr ence, an oak- bui l t sh ip of 100 guns , had ensured to theCanadians complete naval command of Lake Ontario .

WA R WITH THE UN ITED STATES . 143

The B ri ti sh publ ic,at the outset of the confl ict, we re made

subj ec t to some very unpleasa nt su rprises in the i ss ue of navalact ions. The Ame ri can navy then consis ted of only eigh t sloopsand four sh ips bearing the name of frigates The governmen tof the U n i ted S tates had been preparing. under th is t i tle, vesselswhi ch we re not only better-modelled , and swi fte r and hand ier i nmovement, than most B ri t ish sh ips of the same nominal class , butwere far more numerously manned , and much stronger i n hul l andarmame nt. F igures alone can give a j ust conception of the d ifference which existed between the Bri t ish and Ameri can frigate s , thelatter falsely so cal led . Two of the hosti l e ve ssels , the Un itedS ta tes and the Constitu tion , were 74-gun sh ips , sl ightly reduced i ns ize

,wh ich had been taken in hand i n 1794, when w ar wi th

E ngland was e xpected , and had been launched in 1 798 . I n thatyear, a 44-gun frigate was also set afloat, under the name of a

36-gun sh ip . Another 44-gun frigate, the P r es ident, was bu i l t

shortly afterwards , and th is vessel was but fou r feet narrower thana B ri t ish 74,

and had masts as stout, and yards as square , as vessel sof that class . This beauti ful sh ip real ly carried 5 6 guns , with ac rew of 470 officers, petty officers, sai lors , and marines . The

American 44- gun frigate s were, i n fact , l i ne - of- battle ships i n d isguise ” , ful ly equal i n strength to our 64-gun sh ips

,and such vessels

were encounte red by our 3 2 - gun or 4o- gun frigates with resul tsthat, under the c i rcumsta nces , were inev i table . N0 Brit ish captain ,as h is opponents were wel l aware , could decl i ne a combat of frigateagainst frigate , and no ski l l o r courage i n captain or c rew couldenable a vesse l , wi th rigging cu t to pieces, hul l severely battered,and de cks thickly strewn with dead and crippled men

,to avoid

s triking her colours to an antagon ist that could st i l l sai l round andround her, and rake her at wi l l .On August 19th , 18 1 2 , i n the ocean south of N ewfoundland

and due e ast of N ew York , the B rit ish frigate Guer r ie‘re, carryi nga broadside of 24 guns , fi ri ng shot with a total we ight of 5 1 7 lbs . ,fel l i n w i th the U n i ted S tates Consti tu tion ,

whose broadside , of 28guns , had a weight of 768 lbs . The dispari ty i n crew was sti l lmore form idable

,as the Guer r ie

‘

r e carried but 244 men against 460 .

The respe ctive s ize s were 1092 tons agains t 1 5 33 . Even th is,

however, by no means ful ly represents the inequal i ty of th eantagonists i n th is fi rs t naval duel of the unhappy war between


breth ren on oppos i te s ides o f the A tlanti c . The American vessel,

fresh from port , was i n perfect cond it ion , with ample stores , andpowder of the best qual i ty . The B ri ti sh sh ip was old

,and worn

out afte r a lengthy cru ise . She was,i n fact

,on her way home for

thorough repai r, or for condemnation as not worth a refi tting . Shewent in to action wi th her bowspri t badly sprung, with a totteri ngmai nmast, and wi th her powder, which was defic ien t i n quan ti ty ,lack ing i n propuls ive force, owing to damp and to long keeping .

The gal lant young captain , J ames Dacres, with th i s crazy craft,made a noble fight for two hours before he lowered h is flag, andon the morn ing after the act ion the hapless Guer r ie

‘

re, found to bei n a s ink ing s tate, was fi red and blown up by her captors . I t

should also be ment ioned that the American sh ips carried , asmarines

,a body of rifle marksmen , and that , as regards the qual i ty

of the crews,the foes of the B ri t ish sh ips were, to a large extent,

Bri t ish seamen,enti ced i nto the serv ice before the war, and then

remain ing as unable to escape , or were B ri t ish deserters , renegades ,and trai tors basely helping to slaughter thei r countrymen . Thepick of these sai lors were servi ng on the Const itu tion as leadingmen or captains of guns , and i t must not be forgotten that suchmen would fight wi th the utmost desperat ion to avoid a capturewh ich m igh t lead to thei r own suspens ion on a gal lows or a yardarm . The fighting of the two sh ips now under rev iew was conducted at close quarters , an American attempt to board beingrepel led , and the enemy

’s marines keepi ng up a fi re from the tops ,which severely wounded Captain Dacres and the master. TheGuer r ie

‘

re los t her th ree masts , and then , rol l i ng heav i ly i n herdefenceless state, and unable to cont in ue fi ring, she surrenderedafter los ing nearly one - th i rd of her crew i n slai n and d isabled men .

I n October of the same year, 18 1 2 , the Bri ti sh 18 -gun brig

F rol ic, severely damaged in a gal e, and five years away fromE ngl i sh dockyards as a West I ndian cru iser

,fel l a prize to the

heav ier and stronger U n i ted S tates 18 -gun corvette Wa sp , fivedays out from the river Delaware . The captured ve ssel couldscarcely use her guns i n the heavy sea that was running, while theAmerican ports were nearly s ix feet above the water. The Bri t ishvessel was surrendered only when her enemy ran her aboard , ands ixty- two officers

,men , and boys , out of 109, had been ki l led and

wounded . The F rolic’s masts fel l over the s ide wi th in a few


captains , and i t was fel t both by them and by the government andcountry that a serious effort must be made . Some better- equippedand more powerful frigates were sent out to the sea-board of theU n i ted S tates , and on J une I st , 18 13, a sat isfactory resul t wasatta ined. O n that day, after a formal chal lenge from the Bri t i shcommander, Captai n Vere B roke , our frigate , the Snannon ,

encountered the U .S . frigat e Caesapeaée, outs ide Boston Bay,Massachusetts . The American vessel was accompan ied out ofBoston harbour by a number of pleasure-boats contain ing partiesdes i rous of witness ing the operation of “ whipping a B ri t ishfrigate ” . The vessels were of almost equal force i n weight ofbroadside, tonnage , and number of crew . Lawrence , the Americancaptain , was reckoned the bes t officer i n that service . CaptainB roke , h is worthy antagon ist, had for a long period careful ly exe rcis ed his men at gunnery and at board ing- practice , with the use ofcutlass and pis tol , and to th i s fact was due, i n a large measu re , h isspeedy and complete success . The vessel s met about e igh teenmi les east of Boston l ighthouse, at R M , and the Snannon

’

s

fi re was at once most effective . Every shot told severely on hullo r rigg i ng. The sh ips quickly closed , by Captai n B roke

’s action ,and were held fast by the S/zannon ’

s spare anchor enteri ng theCnesapeaée

’

s after- port on the quarter- deck . The boarders fol lowedB roke on board the enemy, and the Americans , or part of them ,

were seized wi th a pan ic . Some laid down thei r arms , others keptup a heavy fi re from the tops

,whence they were qu i ckly driven by

some of the Snannon ’

s middies and men . During further fightingon the decks Captain B roke was severely wounded

,but al l re s ist

ance was overcome, and the Caesapeane became a pri ze wi th i nfifteen m inutes from the t ime of the fi rst cannon - Shot being fi red .

The loss of both vessel s i n men was very severe for the short durat ion of stri fe , the Snannon hav ing 24 ki l led and 59 wounded , and

the Cnesapeaée 47 kil led and 106 wounded . Captai n Lawrenceand h is fi rst l i eutenan t both died of thei r i nj u ries , and the formerwas buried at Hal i fax, N ova S cotia , with al l the honours due toh is pos it ion

,meri t , and mode of death . This famous act ion was a

fai r t rial of s trength between the two nav ies . I f the gal lant andwell - discipl ined sh ip ’s company under B roke

,who was rai sed to a

baronetcy for h is s uccess , had the advantage of five years’

cont i nuousservice together under the same able leader, most of the Caesapeaée

’

s

WAR WITH THE UN ITED STATES . 47

c rew had also been comrades for over two years , and were, phys ically , as fine a body of men as the U n i ted S tates could supply .

They were , moreover, almost al l real ly Ameri can c it izens, so that thebattle whol ly d i spel led any fanc iful not ions as to Bri t ish degeneracyor inherent American superiori ty of cou rage or sk i l l . I t i s i nteresting to note that one of the Snannon

’

s l i eu tenants l ived to com

ple te his hundredth year, dying Admiral of the Fleet S i r ProvoWall i s

,long after Queen V ictoria’s J ubi lee . I n other naval

encounters success was d iv ided . I n August , 18 13, the B ri tish18-gun brig P elican captured , off the south of I reland , the U .S .

2o -gun brig A rg us , which had been committi ng depredations inSt . George

’

s Channel . I n the fol lowing month our 14-gun brig

Box er became the prize , off Portland , i n the U n i ted S tates , ofthe American 16 -gun brig E nterpr ise. The Bri t i sh commander,Blyth

,was kil l ed by the fi rst broads ide . The enemy’s ship was

much heav ier i n tonnage and better equ ipped , and far superio r i nsai l ing qual i t i es. The B oxer was thus made helpless , but did notsurrender unti l twenty men , besides her captain , were ki l led ordi sabled, out of s ixty that composed her crew. The E nterpr ise

carried j ust double that number .The sea-board of the S tates was much harassed by our navy i n

various expedi t ions . I n September, 18 14, a naval and mil i tary

force from Hal ifax attacked the north - east coast, and by vessels ,with troops on board , ascending the river Penobscot, i n Maine, didserious damage to the American navy . The mil i t ia of the enemyret i red be fore hal f the number of B ri t i sh assai lants , and the U .S .

26 - gun frigate A dams , and two other vessels , were fi red anddestroyed by thei r commander’s own act. The i nvaders thenpushed forward up the river and destroyed or captured eightvessels , i ncluding an 18 -gun brig and a 16 -gun privateer. I nDecember of the same year a boat- attack was made from a Bri tishsquadron upon a floti l la of gun - boats on the great in let cal ledLake Borgne , to the eas t of N ew O rleans . The utmost couragewas d isplayed by the assai lants, who captu red the whole forceunder great d i fficul t ies . Five gunboats and a sloop were taken ,and an American schooner was destroyed by her own crew.

The most important and the least credi table operat ions of th isunnatural and unnecessary struggle were those which were undertake n by Bri t i sh forces agains t the American federal capi tal and


two of the ch ief c ommerc ial centres . The close of the war w ithNapoleon i n the spring of 18 14 set free some regiments of Welling ton

’

s fine Pen insu lar forces, and these men were transportedacross the A tlanti c , jo ined by troops from Bermuda , and placedunder the command of General Ross . In conj unct ion wi th a fleetunder Admiral Cockburn these troops were fi rs t employed i nChesapeake Bay. An i sland was taken and fortified , and theextreme measure was adopted of inc i t ing negroes on the plantat ions to revol t , with a prom ise of emanc ipation . Seventeenhundred runaways were thus enrol led , and , on the conclusion ofpeace , ou r government consented to pay as compensation to thei r owners— a heavy price for the use of raw recru i ts i na S ix weeks ’ campaign . The commanders resolved to make anattack on Washington , s i tuated on the river Potomac . Some sh ipsadvanced up the Patuxen t , flowing i n the rear of the c i ty

,while

another squadron went up the Potomac . The former force,on

August 2 2nd, caused the American commodore to destroy by fi renearly al l h is floti l la of fi fteen gun - boats , and many merchan tmen ,with large stores of tobacco , were seized . The latter armamentcaptured forts and sh ipping

,but had to fight i ts way back to the

r iver-mouth , with some loss i n runn ing past new batteri es ski l ful lyand energetical ly prepared by the Americans . The m il i tary forcethat proceeded by land against Wash ington , under General Ross ,was d isembarked at B enedic t, about fifty mi les south - east of thecity , and consisted of 3 500 men , with two smal l guns. I t was notl ikely that Ameri can mi l i tia , even i n much supe rior force , cou ldencounter with success Bri t ish veterans who had beaten the besttroops trained by N apoleon and his marshals . A t Bladensburg,a v il lage about five m i les from Wash ington , a force of about 8000 ,

with 26 guns , was defeated by our men with the greatest e ase .

The on ly bridge across the Potomac was carri ed at a rush undera storm of shot and shel l

,and a battery of ten guns was promptly

taken . The enemy d id not wai t to see any more, but fled inconfus ion

,after a fight of less than half an hour, i n which only

1600 Brit i sh came in to act ion . The town was speedi ly entere d bythe v ictors

,and then thei r bri l l ian t success was sul l ied by an act of

de s truction worthy of H uns and Vandal s . The Capi tol , i ncl ud ingthe Senate - house and the House of Representatives , wi th a valuable l ibrary, the Pres ident

’s House,the arsenal , treasury, dock


J ackson , who became i n 18 29 Pres iden t of the S tates . The arrangements made by the Bri t i sh leader for assaul ts by su rprise, at variouspoi n ts of a compl icated posi t ion , i n the darkness preced ing dawn ,had been dislocated by various obstacles . One of our columnsbri l l ian tly stormed a redoubt of twenty guns

,but the main attack

,

under Pakenham , met wi th a fearful repulse. The general’s orders

to prov ide fasc ines for fi l l i ng d itches,and scal ing- l adders for mount

ing rampart s , had been neglected , and our columns, exposed to ahot cannonade and to a heavy , wel l - di rected musketry , rushed uponworks that could not be scaled . Pakenham was struck down by amortal wound, and two other generals fel l . Som e of the gal lan tH ighlanders cl imbed over the parapet by mounting on the shoulders of comrades , but every man fel l i ns ide under a shower ofbul lets . I t was imposs ible to succeed , and two thousand bravetroops were uselessly sacrificed i n k i l l ed, wounded, and prisoners ,wi th a most trifl i ng cost to the v ictorious Ameri cans . I t i s p it iable ,even at th is d istance of time, to know that bu t a fortn igh t beforeth is terrible loss was incurred peace had been concl uded i n theTreaty of Ghent . I t is s t i l l worse to remember that i n that treatynot a word was wri tten concern ing the ostens ible causes of the war

,

th e rights of neutrals , and the Bri tish “ right of search Thousandsof men and many m il l ions of money had been expended on eachs ide for l i ttl e resul t save that of demonstrat ing that w ar betweentwo great k i nd red commercial commun i t ies i s a fool i sh , wicked , andsui cidal proceed i ng . The trade of the American republ ic had beenru ined for a long period i n the capture of th ree thousand vessel s ofher mercant i l e marine, the insolvency of two - th i rds of her commercial c lass , and the reduct ion of her annual exports from a value oftwenty - two mill ions to less than a twelfth of that amount . TheAmericans , however, had on the whole issue shown , agai nst anat ion of vastly superior mi l itary and naval force , a capaci ty fordefence which ra ised the i r country i n the estimation of the world .

HOME AFFAIRS AND REFORM LEGI SLATION . 15 1

CHAPTER I I I .

HOME A FFAIRS AND REFORM LEGI SLATION ( 18 1 5 to present time) .

Ag itation for reform stimulated by h igh prices of food and depres s ion of trade— TheLuddite r iots— R ise of Radica lism - Cobbett, Burdett, and Hunt The F ie ld of

Peterloo — The Six Acts — Cato S treet plot— Parliam entary repre sentat ion before183o

— The F irs t Reform B ill —Oppos i tion in Parliament— R iots in Bris tol, &c.

How the bill fina lly becam e law — Changes in the franch is e — The Peop le’sCharter — Thomas Cooper, Erne st Jones , H enry Vincent, and Mr . S tephensFeargus O ’connor— The Nationa l Convention and “Nationa l Pet ition ”— Frost

,

Wi l liam s,and Jones— Chartism extinguished— The Second Reform Act, 1867

Third Reform Act,1884—85 .

The internal h istory of Great Britain , from about the close ofthe th i rd decade of the n ineteenth century, i s mainly a record ofreform ing legislat ion , and of social progress connected therewi th,which are described i n another section of the present work . I n theaccoun t of home- events between 18 1 5 and 1894 we are here concerned

,as regards changes in the law, only wi th the three great

measures of modificat ion i n the parl iamentary franch ise wh ich arespecial ly known as Reform Acts . These peaceful revolut ions findthei r place here by reason of the i r being, on the one hand, theeffect and the express ion of a gradual movemen t from ol igarch icaltowards democratic predom inance i n pol i ti cal power, and also themselves the forerunners and the producers of most importan t addit ions to the statutory law under which we l ive as ci t izens of theBri t i sh Empire. The close of the great E uropean war was hailedby the sanguine as an event wh ich was about to usher i n an eraof prosperi ty and plenty, along wi th peace . The facts were notfound to correspond to these pleasant preconcept ions . The exci tement of nat ional feel i ng, and the exul tation i n v ictory over theablest and most powerfu l foe ever encountered by Bri tish arm iesand fleets , were to be succeeded by the reaction wh ich ever attendson tri umphs won by supreme and exhaust ing efforts . A few figureswi l l su ffice to set forth the pecun iary sacrifices i nvolved in thestruggle which had endured , with a brief i nterval , for more thantwenty years . When the war wi th France began i n 1 793, thenational debt was j ust below 240 mil l ions . I n February, 18 16 , i thad risen to nearly 900 mill ions , entai l ing an annual charge ofabove 28 mill ions . The reven ue raised by taxation i n 18 1 5


amounted to 72 mil l ions , or about £4, 16s . per head of the pOpulat ion . I n 1894, the taxation was under £2 per head . There wasgreat agricul tural and manufacturing distress , with the sure accom

paniments , i n that age of popular ignorance as to cause and effect,of sedi tious words and turbule nt acts . During the later years ofthe war, wheat had ri sen to so h igh a price that the land- ownershad been tempted to make large enclosures of waste ground for thepurpose of rais i ng corn . Wheat had risen from 100s . per quarter i n1809 to 136s . i n 18 13, and not only had land of poor qual i ty beensown with wheat wh ich , at such a price, gave a profi t on the expenseof ti l lage , but the ground was exhausted by over- c ropp ing with thesame remunerative produce . A fal l of prices followed the enormousharvest of 18 13, and two years later a land - owning Parl iamentpassed a law forbiddi ng the importat ion of foreign corn unti l theprice of wheat reached 8os . per quarter. Prices , however, stead ilyfel l i n that year with the cessation of expenditure on armamentsthat had employed large numbers of men , and both land- ownersand farmers were al ready suffering much , i n compari son wi th the i rlate prosperi ty, when thei r pos i t ion was aggravated by the badharves t of 18 16 . While farmers and land - owners had merelystrai tened means, and could command fewer luxuries , the labourerswho ti l led the fields were almost s tarv i ng. The scarc i ty of cornraised the price of wheat wi thout benefi t ing those who had l i t tleto sell , and the peasan try, wi th dimin ished wages, had more to payfor the loaf of bread . The farmers and the landowners could anddid force some redress from th e House of Commons i n the abol i tionof the i ncome - tax ; but the labourers, paying no di rect taxat ion , hadno fiscal means of bettering thei r state, and the wrath of miseryfound a ven t i n the burn ing of corn - ricks contain ing the food of

which they could not obtai n a satisfying share .When we turn to the manufacturi ng i nterest and the art isans of

the towns,we find l ike causes produc ing s imi lar effects . The period

of the war had been one of great and cont inuous profi t for B ri tishmanufacturers . Thei r goods had commanded almost a monopolyi n the Continental markets

,because not only was labour there w ith

d rawn from the work of production to that of waste i n war, butcapi tal is ts would not spend money on new factories o r mach ineryi n regions l iable to host i l e occupation

,with the poss ible confiscation

or destruction of property . The restoration of peace set foreign


wrongs . They and thei r friends defined “ Radical as one whowished for “ root- and - branch reform of i l ls , or the uprooting ofsocial and pol i t ical abuses . Their foes , the Tori es and Whigs ,regarded them as men who sought to root out the establ ishe dinst i tu tions of the realm . There were

,i ndeed , Radicals of a low

type who aimed at reform by v iolen t and revolut ionary means .The better sort asked for pol i t ical change i n the shape of anal tered franchi se wh ich would give a Share of pol i t i cal power toothers i n addi t ion to i ts presen t l im i ted number of owne rs , mostlyof the aris toc rati c and weal thy class . Among the foremost Rad ical sof the t ime was Wil li am Cobbett, the son of a smal l S urrey farmer .By h is natural ab i l i t i es and energy he acqu i red a good education ofa pract ical ki nd ; served i n the army as a sold ier and sergeant, andleft i t wi th an excellen t d ischarge ; founded the famous Weekly

P oli tica l Reg ister , i n wh ich he wrote fine, s trong E ngl ish againstthe personages and th ings that aroused h i s enm ity . H e died

( 1 835 ) a member of th e fi rs t re formed parl iament , i n wh ich he d idl i ttle worthy of h is reputat ion i n oth er l i nes . Another man ofmark , i n the same pol i t ical party, was S i r Francis B urdett, aweal thy baronet, who ente red the H ouse of Commons i n 1 796 ,

Opposed the war w ith France , advocated parl iamentary reform ,

Cathol ic emancipat ion,and m any other changes i n the d i rect ion of

freedom , wrote i n Cobbe tt’

s paper, and was sen t to the Tower i n18 10 , a prisoner ti l l th e end of the sess ion for breach of priv i legei n strongly denouncing the Tory majori ty i n the Commons . I n18 16 , Burdett was chairman of the H ampden Club i n London ,one of a large number of i nst itu tions founded i n the great manufacturing distri cts for the purpose of u rgi ng parl iamentary reform .

The government were alarmed when i t was found that the oathtaken by members of one H ampden Club bound them to use of“ moral or physi cal strength

,as the case may requ i re ” , and the

posi t ion was made worse by the language of a red - hot Rad ical anddemagogue named Hen ry H unt

,who became famous, or notorious ,

as O rator H unt i n behal f of the repeal of the Corn - laws , and ofparl iamentary reform . On some occas ions, at least, H unt inc i tedh is he arers to the use of v iolence ; and the Cabi net of Lord L iverpool soon resorted to measures of repression . I n 18 17 the H abeasCorpus Act was suspended , and a severe bi l l was carried against“ sedi t ious ” meet ings . The state of the country, as regarded

HOME AFFAIRS AND REFORM LEGI SLATION . 15 5

pol i t ical d isturbance , varied wi th the social condi t ions . I n 18 1 7 abetter harves t brought a cheaper loaf, and a rev ival of trade prov ided more work . The fol lowing year was also a prosperous andqu iet t ime

,but i n 18 19 a g l u tted market for manufacturers ’ goods

caused renewed distress amongst arti sans , and the cry for parl iamentary re form became louder and more menac ing .

The exci ted s tate of publ ic feel i ng on both s ides of th is quest ionhad a lamentable issue, on A ugust 16 th , 18 19, i n the affai r knownas “ The Manchester Massacre ”

, or “ The Field of Peterloo Agreat meeting i n support of reform was gathered on that day onan open ground at Manches ter, cal led S t . Peter

’

s F ie ld,part of

wh ich si te i s now occupied by the F ree Trade Hall . “ O ratorH unt was there to pres ide , and more than fi fty thousand personswere packed on a space less than three acres in area . The magis trates had i ssued placards declaring the meeting to be i l legal , andwarn ing the people to abstai n from attendance at the appoin tedspot . The authori tie s had then refused to convene a meetingunder thei r own sanct ion and superi n tendence

,whe n a requ is i t ion

wi th numerous s ignatures was addressed to them i n favour of anassembly “ to cons ider the propriety of adopting the most legaland effectual means of advanc i ng reform in the Commons House ofParl iament ” . The meeting was then announced by i ts promotersfor the above date . Men marched to the ground i n regular array,headed by youths bearing branches of laurel , to represen t ol ive, i ntoken of am ity and peace, and s i lk flags were carried beari ng ins criptions i n gold letters ,

“ Liberty and Fratern i ty ”

, Parl iamentsAnnual ” , “ Suffrage U n iversal ”

,

“ U n i ty and Strength ”

, with acap of l iberty of crimson velvet borne aloft between them . Oneo f the leaders i n the movement

,Samuel Bamford , had exhorted

hi s col umn , before setti ng out , to ste adiness and seriousne ss ofconduct, to abstinence from i nsul t o r provocat ion i n word or deed ,and from any res istance to attempts at arresting h imsel f or anyother leader. H is remarks were received with cheers, and themarch began at a slow pace to the music of a band . There weresome hundreds of women , mostly young wives and sweethearts ofthe men , dancing to the music , on s inging snatches of popularsongs . About noon H unt reached the ground

,standing up in an

open carriage , with music and flying flags around, and he madeh is way to the hust ings erected upon two waggons. The autho


rit ie s , on thei r s ide , had resolved not to attempt to prevent theme et ing, but to wai t t i l l the people had al l assembled , and then toexecute the warrants wh ich they i ssued for the arrest of the leaders .This i nsane plan of procedure is respons ibl e for the tragical i ssueof even ts .A large force had been assembled in Manches ter, cons ist ing of

s ix troops of the 1 5 th H ussars ; a troop of horse- arti l lery, with twoguns ; the 3 I st Regiment of i nfantry ; some compan ies o f th e 88thRegiment ; and 350 Chesh i re Yeomanry, and a troop of ManchesterYeomanry, numbering about forty , ch iefly weal thy m i ll - owners ofthe town . The Manchester Yeomanry and two hundred spec ialconstables were kept under the immediate command of the magistrates , who repai red to a house on one s ide of S t . Peter

’s F i elds .Some of the constables were stat ioned close to the husti ngs i n thecentre of the ground, and the rest so as to maintai n a l in e of communicat ion be tween the hust ings and the me et ing- place of themagistrates , about 300 yards d istant . Two squadrons of the hussarswere placed in a s treet a quarter of a m ile away from the ground

,

with the Chesh i re Yeomanry . The other regular troops werefarther off, and the Mancheste r Yeomanry were i n a street nearanother s ide of S t . Peter’s F ield . The band which accompan iedH un t and h is party came towards the hust ings playi ng Ru le

B r i tannia and God Save t/i e K ing , during which many , or most,of the people held off the i r hats . The musi c ceased , Hunt wasregularly moved to the chai r, and he then advanced to the fron tof the stage

,took off h is whi te hat, and began h is speech to the

s i lent th rong. When he had uttered but a few sentences,a con

fused murmur and pressure , beginn ing at one verge of the ground ,and rol l ing rapidly towards the centre, made h im pause . Themean ing of th is was that the troops were advancing upon thepeople . Accord ing to the sworn ev idence of M r . Hulton , thechai rman of the magistrates

,Mr. Nadi n , the ch ief- constable , de

clared that he could not execute the warrants for the apprehens ionof the reform - l eaders withou t m i l i tary aid . The Manchester Yeomanry were then summoned to the house contain ing the magistrates

,and they came trott ing up to the front , where they reined

up i n l ine . The crowd set up a tremendous shout, the prec isemean ing of which doe s not appear. The yeomanry thereuponwaved the i r swords and advanced , penetrat ing the crowd s ingly,

1 58 OUR EMP IRE AT HOME AND ABROAD .

s tari ng eyes, were gaspi ng for breath , and others would neverbreathe more . A l l was s i l ent save those low sounds , and theoccas ional snorti ng and pawing of steeds . About th i rty woundedpersons were carried off to the infirmary, and about forty morerece ived sl ighter i nj uri es . Most of the wounds were fractu res, andthere were from twenty to th i rty sabre - cu ts . On the even ing ofthe same day three or four persons were wounded by the fi re ofthe i nfantry ordered to clear the stree ts of a threaten ing assemblage . The number of persons k i l led at what the reformers , i nsarcastic al l us ion to Wel l ington ’s v ictory, styled “ the battle ofPeterloo was five or s ix , one being a spec ial constable riddenover by the hussars , and another a Manchester yeoman knockedoff h i s horse by a brick - bat , and having h is skul l fractured eitherby the blow or by the fal l . Hunt and seve ral of h is fri ends wereseized by the m il i tary who fi rs t arrived at the hustings, and wereremanded on a charge of “ h igh treason Bamford and otherswere afterwards apprehended

,and the government

,abandon ing

the absurd charge of h igh treason , requ i red al l th e culpri ts to findbai l to stand thei r t rial for m isdemeanour i n conspi ri ng to al terthe law by force and threats . They were found gu i l ty at York i nthe following year and sentenced to various terms of imprisonment .The Cabinet at once exonerated the magistrates from al l blame,and the Pri nce Regent hastened to express h i s “ approbation andh igh commendation ” of al l the au thori t i es concerned . The re

formers , ou the i r s ide , took a very di ffe ren t v iew. S i r F ranci s Burde t t addressed a publ ic letter to the electors of Westm inster,denounci ng the Manchester magis trates i n the stronges t terms .He was at once prosecuted for l ibel , fined £ 1000 , and impri sonedfor th ree months . Meet ings were held i n al l parts of the ki ngdom ,

at wh ich strong resol ut ions were adopted both against the Mancheste r mag i strates and the government . An address to th is effectwas presen ted to the Prince Regent from the Common Counci l ofthe Ci ty of London , and that di st ingui shed person repl i ed that hereceived thei r remarks wi th deep regret ” , and clearly h in ted thatthey did not know what they were talking about . Addresses ofthe same purport, from most of the great towns, came pouri ng in ,and great county-meetings were held . O ne wh ich was attendedby many thousands of persons represented the county of York ,and was convened by the h igh - sheri ff, on the requ is i t ion , amongs t

HOME AFFA IRS AND REFORM LEGI SLATION . 1 59

others,of a lord - l i eu tenant , Earl F i tzwil l iam , who was also present

at the meeting. That nobleman was -promptly d ism issed from hisoffice as representative of the Crown i n the West R i d i ng. TheDuke of Hami l ton

,lord - l i eutenant of Lanarksh i re, sen t a subs crip

t ion of £50 for the rel ief of the Manchester sufferers , and e x

pressed his s trong d isapproval o f the manner i n which the meetinghad be e n interrupted . On the other hand , addresses i n approvalof the authori ti es came from some smal ler towns and counties, andsome associat ions were formed i n the north for ra is ing troops ofyeomanry to aid the civ i l power. The grand -j u ry of the countyof Lancaster threw out a number of bi l l s i nd icting members of theManchester Yeomanry “ for cutting and maiming with i n ten t tok il l On the whole, the classes represent ing property were inclined to support the government . The feel ing i n favour of reformwas intens ified throughout the land amongst the working and them iddle classes , and the strongest language was used at countlessme etings wh ich the authori t ies d id not attempt to preven t or todisperse . A l l the peopl e met and separated i n peace , save i n oneat Paisley, i nterrupted by the authori t i es , who thus caused threedays ’ riot there and at Glasgow .

The min istry were greatly alarmed at what they heard frompan ic - mongers concern ing the state of publ i c feel ing, and theyhastened to meet what they conce ived to be publ ic peri l by thefamous legislat ion known as the “ S ix Acts Lord E ldon , theChancel lor, and Lord S idmouth (formerl y M r . Addington) , theHome Secretary, i n the H ouse of Lords, and Lord Castlereagh ,the Foreign Secretary , i n the Commons , i n troduced and carriedb il l s for the prevention of delay i n the trial of cases of m isdemeanour ; for preventing persons being trained i n the use of armsand i n mi l i tary evolutions ; for pun ish ing blasphemous and sed i tiousl ibels ; for subjecting pol i t i cal pamphlets to the stamp - duties ofnewspapers , with a v iew to restrain such l ibel s ; for the prevent ionof sed i t ious meet ings ; and for authoriz ing j ust i ces , i n certain d isturbed count ies , to se ize and detai n arms col lec ted for unlawfulpurposes . The bil l s became Acts agai nst cons iderable oppos ition .

Some of them were plain ly harmle ss or even benefic ial . Theimproper interference wi th c iv i l and pol i t ical freedom lay in therestrict ions on printed pol i t ical d iscussion , and especial ly i n thelegislat ion di rected against publ ic meetings . I t was pos it ively

160 OUR EMP IRE AT HOME AND ABROAD.

enacted that , with the exception of such assembl ies as were convened by offic ial persons , no meetings could be held

“ for the cons ideration of grievances i n Church and S tate , or for the prepari ngof peti t ions , except i n the parishes where the persons attendingusual ly reside ” . N0 meeting for the discussion of subj ects connected with Church or S tate could be convened at al l , by offi cialauthori ty

,save on a requ is i tion to which the names of at le ast

s even householders were attached .

Soon after the access ion of George I V . , i n J anuary, 18 20,a

conspi racy came to l igh t wh ich was held by the t im id and thei llogical to j usti fy the measures passed i n the last sess ion . Theplot had , assuredly , not the least connection wi th any plans orasp irat ions of parl iamentary reformers or Radical s, and was merelythe enterprise of a number of men , ignorant, needy, and fanati cal ,banded together under the i nfluence of a desperate character ofsome education , and once of respectable pos it ion , now main lyactuated , as i t appears , by a revengeful feel i ng against a prom inentmember of the min ist ry . The leader, A rthu r This tlewood, hadbeen a subal tern officer i n the West I ndies

,and then a res iden t i n

F rance during the revolutionary period at i ts worst phase . Re

tu rn ing to London , he had taken part, i n 18 17, i n a meeting atSpa- fields , convened by O rator H unt ” , which ended i n a fool i shk ind of riot, eas i ly suppressed by the Lord Mayor. Tried andacqu i tted on a charge of treason , This tlewood sent a chal lenge toLord S idmouth , for wh ich offence he was pun ished by fine andimprisonment . H e emerged from h i s cel l i n a bloodth i rsty mood ,and formed a plan for mu rdering al l the m in isters , seiz i ng theBank of England

, the Mansion House , and the Tower, and se tt ingup a republ ican form of ru le. The conspirators met i n a loft overa stable i n an obscure thoroughfare cal led Cato S treet, runn ingparal lel to the Edgeware Road , on the north s ide of H yde Park .

The atrocious plot was to be carri ed out on February 2 3rd, at thehouse of Lord Harrowby

,President of the Counci l, i n Grosvenor

Square, where al l the members of the Cabinet were to d ine. Oneparty was to rush in during the d inner and secure th e se rvants ,while others , with swords and pistols , shot and cu t down the guests .The intentions of This tlewood and h is gang, numbe ri ng aboutforty , were truly form idable, so far as the l ives of the m in isterswere concerned . But a pecul iar fate

,as Lord Macaulay remarks

162 OUR EMPIRE AT HOME AND A BROAD .

of the legislatu re . I t was i n vain henceforth that the governmentsough t to repress every movement of thought and speech wh ichbetrayed a de s i re for pol i ti cal change . The nation was des i rous ofimprov i ng i ts own l i fe, and was seeki ng to atta i n that end by theonly peaceable and consti tutional means . I t became daily cl earerto more m inds that a real representation of the communi ty i n theHouse of Commons was the true and only way of combatingsed i t ion ; Parl iamentary reform became the avowed obj ect of theenl ightened part of the people, and from th i s t ime d isaffection ,apart from the turbulence of sel f- seek ing demagogues , and theriotous proceedings of mere mobs , was absorbed i nto strenuouspol i tical action , which at last overcame the res istance of ari stocrati c i nte rest, prej udice, priv i lege , and power. Many membersof the aristocrat ic land - own ing class set an example of gene ros i ty,sel f- den ial , and activ i ty i n the cause , which have never rece i vedthe i r due meed of praise . For ten years the peopl e were learn ingto appreciate the value of a real representative system , as an objectof legit imate aspi rat ion , and to have clearer and more defin i te con

ceptions of pol i t ical freedom and duty . The avowals and i nci tements uttered at the London Tavern were fol lowed , i n that andsucce eding sessions , by a large n umber of pet i tions to the H ouseof Commons i n favour of re form . A t th is stage , the H ouse paidl i ttle heed to th e matter thus brought under i ts notice . A motionfor a Committee of the whole H ouse , to cons ider the state of therepresentat ion of the pe opl e i n Parl iament, was rej e cted , i n theabsence of leadi ng members on both s ides , by a majori ty of 5 5 to

43 ,and resolut ions to the same effect , i n troduced by Lord J ohn

Russe l l , also fai led . E ven then , however, a morsel of change wasvouchsafed in the d isfranch isemen t of the corrupt borough of

Grampound in Cornwall , and the transference of i ts two m embers

to the county of York .

Two years later, i n 1823 ,there were s igns of increas ing strength

of opin ion in behal f of a reform in the consti tut ion of the Houseof Commons . A peti t ion was brought to the bar by the Sheri ffsof the Corporat ion of London . Anothe r pe t i tion came up fromYorksh i re which created a great sensation . I t was not only 380feet i n l ength

,but i t was signed by two - th i rds of the

freeholders of that great coun ty,i nclud ing a large majori ty of the

aristocracy . I t was stated , on the best ev idence, that not 50 names

HOME AFFAIRS AND REFORM LEG I SLATION . 163

were attached to the pe t i t ion to wh ich exception could be take n asnot being those of actual freeholde rs . This great demonstrationfrom the men of property and education i n the north d id not

,

however,m uch move the exi sting House of Commons . There

was,i ndeed

,a much larger attendance of members at the annual

debate,but Lord John Russel l ’s motion for “ serious cons iderat ion ”

of the exist ing state of representat ion was rejected , i n a House of

449,by a majori ty of 1 1 1 . I n 1830 , i t was clear that th ings were

coming to a cri s i s . A motion for d isfranch is ing the small corruptborough of East Retford , i n N ottinghamshi re, and transferri ngits two members to the great town of B i rm ingham , was rej ectedby 1 26 votes to 99, and i t was th is vote wh ich gave new force tothe efforts of the B i rm ingham assoc iat ion whose purpose was toraise a un iversal c ry for reform . That body , furn ished with largesubscribe d funds , had entered on a general course of ag i tat ion ind iscuss ions and meetings . The Birmingham Pol i t i cal U n ion beganto st imulate the popular wil l at the t ime when i ts act ion and i tsappeals were l ikely to produce the greatest e ffect . The hour forrevolution , both i n France and Great B ri tain , had struck , andnoth ing could long withstand the pressure of Opi n ion and events .I n J u ne, 1830 , a new sovereign , Will iam t he Fourth , came to

the throne,and the Tory m in istry, headed by the D uke of Well

ing ton, los t many seats in the new Parl iament . I n the fol lowingmonth the re volution of J uly drove Charles the Tenth from hisseat of power, when he claimed to rule with absolute sway, andthe consti tutional monarchy of Louis Ph il ippe was e stabl ished inFrance . The m iddle Classes in England , striv ing to assert themselvesaga inst the land - owners who almost exclus ively fi l led the twoHouse s , we re gre atly encouraged . I n N ovember

,the Duke de

clared himsel f strongly against Parl iamentary reform when EarlGrey suggested the propri ety of h is taking up the question . Thatnobleman , a leading Whig , had advocated the reform of thefranch ise in the early days of the fi rst French Revolut ion

,and his

opportun i ty, after the lapse of nearly forty years , had now arrived .

On N ovember 1 5 th , the Duke’s m in istry was defeated i n the

Commons , and thei r res ignat ion was fol lowed by the access ion tooffice of a Cabinet headed by Lord Grey, and composed of Whigsand fol lowers of the deceased George Cann ing, a Tory of an enl ightened type .


Reverti ng for a brief space to parl iamentary events priorto th i s date, we find that Lord J ohn Russel l ’s mot ion for leaveto bring i n a bi l l ass ign i ng members to B i rm ingham , Mancheste r,and Leeds had been rejected by a majori ty of 48 . The cause ofreform had al so been greatly served by an utterance of the Dukeof N ewcastle , a Tory of the most pronounced character, i n reference to the borough of N ewark . When h is i nterference w ith therepresentat ion i n the Commons of that l i ttl e town was chal lenge d ,he retorted by the quest ion , “ May I not do what I wi l l wi th m ineown ! ” thus avowing h is bel ie f that the franch ises of the c it i zensof N ewark were as much at h i s d isposal as any spec ies ofproperty . The actual system of representation was brought underpopular v iew i n a most startl i ng form . The ducal influence atN ewark was mainly deri ved from h is being the lessee of c rownlands , amounti ng to about 1000 acres , forming a bel t around thetown . N early 600 of the elec tors resis ted h is d ictation , and thei ri ndependen t spi ri t, with th e duke

’s amaz ing claim , expressed i nwords wh ich became proverbial, greatly influenced the contest thatwas com ing. Another S ign of the times had come at the generalelect ion i n 1830 , on the accession of the new sovereign . Mr.

Henry Brougham had been inv i ted by the voters for Yorksh i reto stand for election as one of thei r four repre sentat ives . Thisremarkable man , d istinguished by eloquence , energy, and versati l i tyrather than accuracy of knowledge , had then been for twenty- one

years before publ i c v iew as a champion of popular i nterests andrights i n various regards . He had worked hard on behalf of th espread of knowledge amongst the masses, and of legal reforms .He had advocated , with the utmost power of language, the freedomof negro S laves , and had denounced i n tones of thunder everyspec ies of Oppression . He now became , as second on the pol l , arepresentative of what was then regarded as the fi rst consti tuencyin E ngland , and attai ned , i n h is own words , the pinnacle of h isfame . I n the m in is try of E arl Gr ey he was appointed LordChancel lor, and was thus enabled to figh t the battle of the Commons of England in the assembly where he was confronted bythe i r ch ief opponents .The struggle began wi th the open ing days of the year 183 1 .

While the M in isters were preparing thei r Reform bil l , the nonelec tors of Leeds , B irmingham ,

and Manchester and other towns,


was derived from the pockets of the tax- payers . I t was for lackof such influence that, al l over the country, great scholars could befound sta rv ing on curac ies

,brave and able sold iers and sai lors

,fi t for

command , barely existi ng on a miserable hal f- pay”

, and profoundlawyers mouldering i n the I nns of Court . The hangers—on ofborough -mongers had to be sated wi th the good th ings of adm inistra tion i n Church and S tate before mere meri t

,patient and helpless

,

withou t a friend possessed of votes i n the Commons , could hopefor the crumbs of the publ ic table . The Lords of the legis laturewere forb idden to i n terfere i n electi ons for members of the Houseof Commons , and yet about 1 50 landowners

,i nc lud ing 1 28 peers ,

retu rned, by thei r command of rotten boroughs , an absolutemajori ty of that H ouse .

Lord J ohn Russel l supposed the case of an in tel l igen t foreigneranxious to understand the pri nciple of parl iamentary representationin th is weal thy, powerful , c iv i l i zed , and enl ightened coun try . Heimagined such a man being taken to a ru ined mound , and told thatthat mound sent to the House of Commons two representat i ves ofthe people. He might then be conducted to a stone wal l

,and

informed that th ree n iches i n that wal l sen t two representat ives,

and again , to a park where no houses were to be seen , and furthertold that the park , with i ts sheep and dee r, i ts umbrageous oaks ,and i ts fu rry and feathered game , had i ts i n te rests cared for by tworepresentat ives i n the House of Commons . H is aston ishmen twould be heightened when he found that large and opulent towns

,

ful l of i ndustry,i ntel l igence, and commercial enterprise , contain ing

vast magaz ines of every ki nd of manufactures , sen t no representat ives to Parl iament at all . These matters brought forward byLord J ohn Russel l were not fict ions , but facts, and they werefacts wi th wh ich the country was determ ined to deal . I t was notforgotten that the speaker was h imsel f a member of the priv i legedclass , a sc ion of the House of Bedford , whose head , the Duke of thatti tle , held i n h i s hands enormous power and weal th as an owner ofboroughs, and such also were many of the noblemen and gentlemenof h igh family, who , i n framing the Reform B il l , showed the i rread iness to lay down heredi tary possess ions for the publ i c weal ,whi le they requi red the same sacrifice from thei r fel lows .

I t i s needless to dwel l upon the outcry of the supporters ofaristocratic priv i lege when the Bi l l i n troduced by Lord J ohn

HOME AFFAIRS AND REFORM LEGI SLATION . 167

Russel l proposed to deprive s ixty rotten boroughs of the franchise ,

and to abol i sh 168 borough seats . S i r Robert Harry I ngl is , M .P.

for the U n ive rs i ty of Oxford , pred icted that, i f s uch a B il l werepassed

,ten years would see the new House of Commons dethrone

th e sovereign and abol i sh the House of Lords . S ir Charles VVe th

e re ll, a legal luminary, declared the B i l l to be“ republ ican at the

bas is and “ destruct ive of al l property O n the fol lowing night,March 2nd, the measure was supported by M r. Macaulay i n aspeech which rece ived the h ighest praise from the most determ inedopponents of change . There were seve n n ights of debate be forethe Bil l was read a fi rst t ime , and before that stage was reachedthe supporters of reform had , as a body, agreed that i n spi te of alli ts deficienc ies

,such as the omiss ion of the bal lo t and a shorten ing

of the duration of parl iaments , they would contend toge ther forthe bi l l , the whol e bi l l , and noth ing bu t the b i l l Th is becamethe popular cry, ringing through the land for more than a year.The great middle class was fully aroused

,and the pol i t ical un ions

began to reckon the numbers of men by whom a march on Londoncould be made from each district, as a demonstration i n support ofthe min is try against the opponents of the measure . The chai rmanof the Bi rm ingham U nion declared that they could send forth twoarmies each as large as that which won Waterloo . From the coastof Sussex , ten thousand men were ready to take the road . Northumbe rland, Yorksh i re , and the M idlands were ready . The

po l i t ical un ions sent forth great processions to thei r me eti ng -groundsi n orderly array, and ant i- reformers were afraid or profe ssed to beafraid of v iolence . A t no t ime , however, th roughout the contestwas any outrage committed , save by those who , always the foesof law and order, take advantage of t imes of popu lar e xci tement .O n the second read i ng, the m in iste rs , i n a House of 608 members ,had a majori ty of on ly one . On Apri l 19th, they we re defeated byeight, i n committee, on a hos til e motion of General Gascoynethat the number of the House of Commons should not, asproposed i n the B il l

,be reduced . Two days later the govern

ment, on a quest ion of adjournment , we re beaten again by amajori ty of 2 2

,and they offered thei r res ignation to the king, who

decl ined to accept i t,but was by them i nduced , on Apri l 2 2nd, to

d issolve the Parl iament i n order to take agai n the sense of thepeople , so far as the ex ist ing consti tuenc ies could convey i t, at a


new ge neral el ection . Before the House of Commons separated ,the B i l l had been withdrawn by the government

,and the people

thoroughly understood that thei r cause was now consigned to thei rown care .

The elect ions to the new House of Commons were verypowerful ly influenced by the moral pressure wh ich non - votersbrought to bear on those who possessed the suffrage . Theele ctors now, to a large extent, j oined the pol i t ical un ions ofthose who were sti l l outs ide the consti tution

,and bankers and

capi tal i s ts , members of the late parl iament, and country gentlemen , we re there enrolled along wi th thei r neighbours of l owerdegree , teach ing and learn ing much at the meetings where bothparties were striv i ng for success i n the same great pol i t i calstruggle . There were some sl ight d i sturbances during theelections i n E ngland , and serious riots i n Scotland owi ng tothe anger aroused by the fact that the opponents of reform

,

possess ing almost a monopoly of pol i t ical power,carried nearly

al l the seats w ith candidates of thei r own v iews . The stateof the representat ion was bad enough i n E ngland , bu t i n thenorthern k i ngdom i t was a mere mockery and insul t to the Scotti shpeople. The county- voters were far under th ree thousand ; theboroughs

,i n al l , had about 1400 holders of the parl iamentary

franch ise . Thirty- three persons retu rned the member for Edinbu rgh , and that number of electors sen t to Westm inster therepresentative of Glasgow . The issue of the electoral contes twas striking . Out of 8 2 county-members only 6 were Opposedto reform . Yorksh ire sent 4 supporters of the B ill , and the C i tyof London 4 more . Tory opponents , i ncl ud ing General Gascoyne,were driven from thei r seats i n utter rout , and the Duke ofN ewcastle could do noth ing wi th “ h is own at N ewark . O nJ une 24th the B i l l was introduced , but the second read ing was

postponed unti l J uly 4th i n order that the Reform Bi l l s forScotland and I reland m ight be duly brought in . The secondreading, after th ree n ights of debate , was carri ed for min istersby a majori ty of 136 i n a H ouse of 598 members . The minori ty ,in committee, delayed th e progress of the measure i n eve ryposs ible way

,making a fight for every borough that was sacrificed

i n the B i ll , quest ion ing every populat ion return and debatingevery minutes t poin t , i n the hope that “ fate , or P rov idence , or


That address was su re to be carried , and i t was equal ly certai n thata l ike address from the Commons would fol low . I t would havebe en d i ffi cul t for the sovereign to dissolve Parl iame nt i n face ofsuch expressions of opin ion from both Chambers , and Lord Greyand Lord B rougham thereupon resolved , i f poss ible , to force h i shand . They went se parately to the palace, i n order to avoidexc i t ing notice

,and spen t a long t ime in vainly urging the K ing to

di ssolve . The Chancel lo r declared that the further exis te nce of thepresen t H ouse of Commons was i ncompatible with the peace andsafety of the kingdom . When the sovereign appeared somewhatmoved by th is strong utterance , the two min iste rs urged immed iateact ion , and the K ing, rel uctan tly yield ing to thei r pressure on themain poin t, objected that for the moment “ noth ing was arranged ;the great officers of state had not been summoned to attend , theroyal robes and crown were not prepared , nor the escort of Guards

”

.

Lord Brougham then repl i ed that all was ready, even to the atte ndance of the troops . The orde rs for th is las t accompan iment ofroyal ty always proceeded from the sovere ign , and the K ing brokeout wi th a denunciation of the Chancel lor’s act i n g i v i ng ordersconcern i ng the Guards as being “ high treason ” . Broughamhumbly acknowledged that such was i ndeed the case , but h e hadbeen emboldened by a solemn bel ief that publ i c safety demandedan immediate d issol ut ion of the Houses . The K ing then coole ddown ; the speech was ready i n the Chancel lor

’ s pocket, and thesovere ign , after th is daring escapade , unmatched i n ou r h istory ,dismissed the min i sters wi th a ki nd of jok ing menace as to the

l iberty wh ich they had taken .

We leave the K ing preparing to start on his way to the Houses ,and fly i n thought from the palace to S t. Stephen

’s , to wi tness whati s pass ing there . Both Peers and Commons were s i tti ng , and themembers were i n an exc i ted s tate . I n the Commons , S i r R i chardVyvya n , for the Opposi tion , was supposed to be speaking on areform peti t ion , but he was subjected to i nterrupt ion i n the shapeof cries of “O rder ! from min is terial is ts who cons idered that hewas trench ing on the question of a d issolu t ion of Parl iament . TheSpeaker lost h is nerve to some exten t, and h is u tterances were notrece ived wi th the usual deference

,on the part of several members .

Lord Jo hn Russel l , with h is weak th i n voice, vai n ly trie d to allaythe tempest that was ri s ing. As S i r R i chard Vyvyan , after a noisy

HOME AFFA IRS AND REFORM LEGI SLATION . 7 1

and angry d isplay of feel ing on both s ides . got under way again ,the sound of h i s vo ice was drowned by the boom of the guns whichtold al l that quarter of the capi tal that the K ing had left the palaceand must now be close at hand . Cheers , cries of wrath , and shoutsof laughter arose, as the cannon , at regular i ntervals , con t i nued toroar

,and leading members , as Lord A l thorp , S i r Robert Peel , and

S i r Francis Burdett,were al l afoot at once, gest iculating wi th

vehement action of command and entreaty, while thei r friendsstrove i n vain to procu re them a hearing . A t last, c ries of “Shame !shame ! ” procured S i lence for the Speaker, who decided that S i rRobe rt was enti tled to address the House .

We shal l now see what was enacti ng i n the other Chamber.The peers had assembled, i n unusual numbers, at two o

’clock , andLord Wharncl iffe was about to rise and move the address againsta d issol ution . The Chance l lo r, after the scene at the palace, hadtaken h is place on the woolsack , but at th is moment he le ft theHouse

,and h is place was taken by another peer who was duly

cal led to pres ide . Then Lord Wharncl i ffe rose, but the Duke ofR i chmond , who was Postmaster-General , but not one of the Cabinet,eage r to gai n t ime fo r h is colle agues and to prevent Lord Wharncl i ffe from accompl ish ing h is pu rpose , cal led some of the peers toorder, re que s ting them , accord i ng to the rules , to be se ated i n thei rproper places . A storm at once arose , and several peers were onthei r legs , utteri ng sharp words as to who or what was d isorde rly .

The Duke of R i chmond then moved for the standi ng order againstoffens ive language to be read ou t by the clerk at the table

,and

amidst the confus ion came the sound of the cannon which startledthe Commons and announced that the K ing was on h is way .

Lord Wharncl i ffe then read h i s proposed address , couched in ve rystrong language, and the Chancellor rushed in , took h is seat on thewoolsack , and vehemently cried,

“ I never yet heard that the Crownough t not to d issolve Parl iamen t whenever i t thought fi t ” . Criesof “Hear ! hear ! ” were m ingled with shouts of “The K ing ! the

and Brougham , snatch ing up the seals , rushed out to meeth im . The woolsack was resumed by the former peer chosen topreside , and a great noise arose , reach ing the sovereign

’s ears ashe approached . The peeresses who had come to witness, as theythought, a mere prorogat ion , were alarmed by the spectacle ofangry lords below push ing, hustl ing, and defying each other with


angry gestu res and upl i fted hands . Again arose cries of “ TheK ing ! and the commanding voice of a h igh official was he ardabove the tumul t, uttering in solemn tones , God save the K ing !The great doors to the righ t of the throne fl ew open , as one of thepeers conti nued to declaim against the conduct of m in i sters

,and

Lord Durham , th e Lord Privy Seal , appeared on the threshold ,carrying the crown on its velvet cushion . The angry peer sti l lconti nued to speak , and the s ight of the K ing h imsel f at the entrancedid not stay h is voice , bu t the lords on each s ide and beh ind la idhands on h im , pul led h im down , and induced him to be dumb .

The K ing, with a flush on hi s cheek,unwonted brightness i n h i s

eye , and wi th a fi rm and rapid step,ascended the steps of the

throne, bowed to right and left, and des i red the Peers to be seatedwhil e the Commons were summoned to attend . The gentlemanusher of the B lack Rod appeared at thei r bar wh il e S i r Robert Peelwas loudly and vehemently speaki ng, and continued to speak unti lhe too was pul led down by h is coat- sk i rts , and i nduced to let theCommons hear the sovereign ’s command for thei r attendance .

The close of th i s scene al lows us to take up the eve nts wh ichfol lowed the reject ion of the B il l by the House of Lords on October7th, 183 1 . The House of Commons, by a majori ty of 130 , passeda resol ution express ing “fi rm adherence to the pri nciple and lead ingprov is ions ” of the B i l l

,and “ unabated confidence i n the i n tegri ty ,

perseverance,and abi l i ty of those m in isters who had so wel l con

s ulted the best i n terests of the country ” . This vote induced LordGrey and his colleagues to retai n thei r offices, and Parl iament wasprorogued on October 2oth, with a v iew to a speedy re - assembl ing,and a re i n troduct ion of the measure for reform . The state of thecountry was becoming, i n some respects ominous of misch ief. A ta meeting of people at Bi rm ingham , one speaker haddeclared h is i n tention to pay no taxes t il l the B il l should havepassed , and th is u tterance had been received wi th loud cheers ,withou t a hand held up agai nst i t . The reformers , as a body, stood

calm and fi rm,because the min iste rs set them the example . The

wi t of Sydney Smith,at a later date

,compared the act ion of the

Lords , i n s triv ing to stem the t ide , with the conduct, during a stormwhich occurred at S idmou th

,i n 18 24, of a certai n worthy M rs .

Part ington , a dame who was seen at her house- door near the beach ,striv i ng, mop in hand , to keep out the advancing waters of the sea .


loca l authori t i es wi th much anx iety . The mayor, M r. Pinney,appl i ed to the Home Office for mi l i tary aid , and Lord Melbourne ,

the Secretary of S tate , sent down some troops of the 14th LightD ragoons, who were quartered i n the neighbourhood of the ci ty .

The lack of good feel ing betwee n the ci t izens and the corporat ionprevented the enrol l ing of an adequate n umber of effic ient spec ialconstables , such as m ight , under proper leading, have checked theevi l at the outset . S i r Charles Wethere l l could not be i nduced toforego h is publ i c ent ry, and h is process ion , as he rode to the Gui ldhal l , with a great cavalcade around the sheri ff’s carriage, to openthe c i ty sess ions , was greeted wi th hoot ing s and the fl i nging ofstones . A fter Open ing the commiss ion

,he ret i red abou t noon to

the Mansion H ouse, i n Queen’s Square . For some hours the

spec ial constables and the tumul tuous assemblage i n fron t of thebui ld ing were engaged i n what was mainly a wordy warfare

,but as

darkness came on , the mob grew larger and more dari ng, and v io

lence began . The windows of the Mansion H ouse were shattered ,and attempts were made to force the doors . The R i ot Act wasread , and the mayor m ight the n have lawful ly and properly employed the troops in cleari ng the stree ts ; bu t h i s sp i ri t was fetteredby “ rel igious scruples ” , and h is “ humane ” feel ings restrained h imfrom the use of prompt , determ ined , and salutary act ion agains tv i l lains who

,withou t reference to Re form Bil l s , were seeking only

to grat i fy thei r own base pass ions . When the caval ry did arrive,afte r an attempt to set the Mans ion H ouse on fi re , Colonel Brereton ,the m il itary commander of the di stri c t, ei ther would not, or couldnot

,from lack of orde rs , employ effectual force , and the useless

d isplay of troops served to stimulate the rioters .Du ring the n ight S i r Charle s \Ve the re ll escaped from the ci ty ,

and workmen were employed i n board ing up the lower windowsof the Mansion House and neighbouring dwell i ngs . The rioters ,meanwhi l e

,were gathering up thei r forces for a regular onslaught .

On Sunday morn ing al l seemed quiet , and the usual worsh ipperspassed along the stre e ts to the churches and chapels . The troopswere withdrawn to thei r quarters outs ide the ci ty, and then the mobwent to work . The Mans ion House was fai rly stormed , and thefe eble mayor and h is household fled for thei r l ives . The furn itu rewas flung out i nto the square

,the wine - cel lars were emptied , and

the pavements were qui ckly strewn with scores of drunken wretches,

HOME AFFAIRS AND REFORM LEGI SLATION . 175

helpless from huge draughts of the Corporation’

s choice wines , sp i ri ts ,and l iqueurs . I t seems incred ible , but i t i s true , that the mob ofrioters neve r numbered a thousand persons al l told ; but the imbeci l ec ivi l authori t ies left the troops wi thout orders to charge , and thecaval ry were kept fru itlessly parading the streets . Whe n they wereassai led wi th bri ckbats by some of the populace , a few shots fromcarbines we re fi red , and the soldiers were again W i thdrawn to theirquarte rs . Then the hapless place was abandoned to the men who

,

armed wi th staves and bl udgeons from the quays , and wi th i ronpal isades wrenched up from the front of the Mansion House

,took

i n hand the work which they had del iberately planned during the

dark hours,and to which they were encouraged by official apathy .

The B ridewell,the new borough -j ai l , and the Glouce ster coun ty

jail,were broken open , and the pri sone rs were made free . The

bu i ldings were set on fi re , and the rioters then reduced to ashesthe B ishop ’s palace . Procee ding next to Queen Square, they s e tthe empty Mansion House i n flames , with the adjacent Customhouse

,and then , about midn ight , they gave hal f an hour

’s notice toqui t to the i nhabitants of each private dwe l l ing in the square . The sewe re fi red i n regular success ion , unti l two s ides , each measuring 180

yards,lay i n smoking rui ns . By three o ’clock on Monday morn ing

forty - two dwel l ing - houses and warehouses were i n flames,and

drunke n ruffians we re parading the s tre e ts,demanding “ drink or

blood from the dealers i n l iquor. A t dayl ight , when all the misch iefwas done , the sold ie rs were agai n brought on the scene ,

and,after

due orde r given , some charges were made ,with the use of carbi ne

and sabre ,which kil led and wounded a number of the mob . Comple teorder was restore d by the arrival of more caval ry and a body of foot .The ci t izens of B ristol were

,under the civ i l law

,for many years

mulcted i n an annual rate of for the compensation of thelose rs of property . While they were smart i ng under the disgracewhich had befal len the i r c i ty , the governme nt were u rged by themto make an i nqu i ry in to what the sufferers al lege d to be calami tie sdue to the system of mun icipal gove rnment unde r wh ich they hadtaken place . The magistrates

,after the lapse of a year, were brought

before a special commiss ion,wh i ch acqui tted the mayor, on which

the prosecution of h is brother- aldermen was abandoned . The unhappy affai r ended in a truly tragical event . Colonel Brereton wastried by court-mart ial for neglect of duty , and the magistrates of


Bristol threw upon h im the blame of not hav ing used m il i tary forcewhen they desi red h im to act according to h i s d iscretion . Hethought that a more express sanction was needed , and i t was provedthat, i n h i s humane des i re to avoid bloodshed , he had ridden amongthe crowd , spoken to them i n mi ld terms , and eve n shaken handswi th some of the rioters . For fou r days of the trial , he s truggledon i n a bi tter sense of hav ing sac rificed hi s profess ional honou r to h isc iv i l sens ibil i t i es . On the even ing of the fourth day he , fo r the fi rstt ime , omi tted h is n ightly farewel l i n the chamber of h is two youngmotherless daughters . For hours , during the S i lent watches

,he

was heard walking to and fro about his room,and

,when the mem

bers of the court were gathered i n the morn ing. i t was to learn thatthe pri soner, thei r comrade, had shot h imsel f through the heart .The efforts of the reformers were redoubled by th e act ion of

the House of Lords . O n Oc tober 3 I st, 183 1 , the London Pol i t icalU n ion held a m e eting i n Lincoln ’s I nn F ields , which ended i n thesecess ion of a minori ty who, adopting a revol utionary programme,i nv ited the working-men th roughout the land to come up to London for a display of strength . Sold iers were gathered round themetropol is , and a large number of Spec ial cons tables were sworn in ,but the des ign was abandoned by the leaders of the movement onthe quiet remonstrance of Lord Melbourne, the Home Secretary .

Many deputations , of al l ranks and classes , were received by EarlGrey , who was desi red to induce the ki ng to create peers i n s uffi

c ient numbers to carry the measu re through the H ouse of Lords .A l l the commercial and soc ial interests of the realm were sufferi ngunder the suspense , and the suggest ion concern ing the creat ion ofpeers was regarded as the only al ternat ive to v iolent act ion . Theprime m ini ster kept a s teadfast s i l ence on that quest ion , and hopedfor a peaceful solution of the d ifficul ty . Meanwhile , some of thepeers , who were dubbed the Waverers , began to part companyfrom the obstinate opponen ts of the much - contested B i ll . OnN ovember 2 2nd, the government issued a proclamation , at theinstance of the D uke of Well i ngton

,agai nst the pol i t ical un ions ,

but those bodies paid no heed,and Parl iament met on Decembe r

6 th . A new Reform Bil l was qu ickly i n troduced , wi th certainal terations i n the boroughs proposed to be disfranch ised , caused bythe returns of population i n the census of the yea r. Early i n themorn ing of December 18 th the second read ing was carried by a


of forty kings H e heard the vast mul ti tude cheering for K ingWil l iam , the father of h is country and saw an orderly host ofc i t i zens gathered to express thei r concord with thei r sovereign

,and

the i r resolve to aid h im in obtain ing the i r rights . The peti t ionsfrom al l the great towns to the Lords were in precisely the samestrain , and almost i n the same words . That from B i rm ingham im

plored the peers“ not to drive to despai r a h igh -minded

,generous

,

and fearless people, or to u rge them on , by a rej ection of the i r claims ,to demands of a much more extensive nature , but rather to pass theReform B il l i n to a law, unimpai red i n any of i ts great parts and prov i s ion s

”

. The N ational U n ion , on May 3rd, fou r days before theHouses met, i n formed the Lords i n a pet i tion that , i f they den iedor impai red the B il l, “ there was re ason to expect that the paymentof taxes would cease, that other obl igat ions of soc iety would be disregarded , and that the ul timate consequence might be the utte rexti nct ion of the priv i leged orders ” . On May 7th th e un ion sinv i ted to B i rm ingham met to the number of nearly men .

The re were seventy- fou r members of the Soci ety of Friends, menof education , and, by thei r re l igious pri nciples, most emphatical lymen of peace , who had j ust joi ned the U n ion . The sti rri ng U nionHymn , i n words and music then famil iar to every ch i ld i n the land ,was sung with a power of sound which never d ied away in the heartsof those who heard i t . I t was a serious t ime for Great Bri tai n whensuch an assemblage joined i n such a chant as we here record .

Lo ! we answer ! see, we come ,

Qu ick at Freedom ’

s holy call.We come ! we com e ! we come ! we come !

To do the glorious work of all ;And hark ! we raise from sea to sea

The sacred watchword, Liberty !God is our guide ! from fie l d , from wave ,

From p lough , from anvil,and from loom,

We come , our country’s rights to save

And speak a tyrant faction’

s doom .

And hark ! we raise from sea to sea

The sacred watchword, Liberty !God is our guide, no swords we draw,

We k indle not war’

s battle -fires

By union, justice , reason, law,

We c laim the b irthright of our s ires .

We raise the watchword, Liberty !We will, we wil l, we wil l be free ‘7’

HOME AFFAIRS AND REFORM LEGISLATION . 179

After the s ingi ng of the hymn , every man bared h is head , anduttered slowly

,one by one, the words d ictated by one of thei r

leaders,as he said , “ i n the face of heaven and the God of j ustice

and me rcy The solemn pledge now given by th is vast numberof earnest men was th i s : —“With unbroken fai th , th rough everyperi l and privat ion , we here devote ourselves and our ch i ldren toou r coun try ’s causeMeanwhi le

,the opponents of reform had been intrigu ing with

the King, and had succeeded i n unfitt ing h im , by the creat ion ofapprehensions i n h i s m ind , for the d ischarge of h is duty towards h ism in i sters and h i s people i n the course to wh ich he had h ithertoremained fai rly fi rm . The Duke of Wel l ington and h is fol lowersin the House of Lords had resolved to destroy the B i l l i n committe e ,and

,on a motion for postpon ing the clauses to disfranch ise the

rotte n boroughs,the y at once defeated the m in is try by a majori ty

of thirty - five . On the next day, May 8 th , 183 2 , Lord Gre y andh is col leagues determ ined to request from the K ing a creation ofnew peers i n a number suffic ient to carry the measure th rough theLords . The prime min ister and Lord Brougham went to Windsoron th i s errand , and , on the sovereign

’s refusal,the min istry

te ndered thei r resignations , which were accepted . For n ine daysthe country remained wi thout a government, whi le the Duke ofWel l ington , cal led to make a Cabinet, was endeavouring to induceh is fri ends to take office on the understanding that

,according to the

K ing ’s ins i stence, “ some extens ive measu re of reform should becarrie d N one would aid h im , and , on May 1 5 th , the Duke wascompel led to report h is fai l ure to the sovereign .

During the interval the nat ion had be en as busy as the Duke .

A ll reformers laid aside thei r private bus iness for an earnest cousiderat ion of publ ic affai rs . The roads for mi les were spri nkled withpeople on the watch for news from London

,brought by the mai l

coache s , and the streets of the towns were ful l of agi tation . TheN ational U n ion was i n permane nt session , and i n one day 1 500

new members , al l men of substant ial pos i t ion , were added to i tsranks . A resol ution was passed to the effect that “whoever advisesa d issolution of Parl iament i s a publ i c enemy ” . A peti t ion fromManchester to the House of Commons

,s igned in fou r hours by

persons,prayed the House to grant no supply t i l l the B il l

was passed un impai red,and documents to the same effect came


pouring in from other great towns . The member who presentedthe Manchester peti t ion declared h is fi rm conv ic tion that “ i f theborough-mongering faction should prevai l the peopl e would , i n abody, refuse to pay taxes . The Common Counc i l o f the City of

London begged the H ouse of Commons to refuse suppl i es ; theydeclared all opponents of the B i l l to be enemies to thei r country, andappointed a permanent committee

,to s i t from day to day ti l l the

measure should be secured . Matters had a serious aspec t when i tbecame known that the pol i t i cal un ions were discussi ng plans ofmarch ing peaceably to London

,there to bivouac i n the squares

and parks, unti l the Reform B il l should become law. The Birm ingham U n ion , strong, was to encamp on Hampstead H eath ,or some other great Open space near the metropol is . I t wasgeneral ly bel i eved that the Duke of Well i ngton and h is fol lowershad sounded the heads of the new London pol ice, and had be e ni nformed that the men could not be rel ied upon to act against thepeople , and there was good reason to bel ie ve the same conce rn i ngthe troops . Some of the corps of yeomanry, with a remembranceof “ Peterloo sent i n thei r resignat ions to the Lord - Lieutenan ts .I t i s certain that the Scots Greys

,quartered at B irm ingham , we re

determined not to act against any peaceable publ ic meeting . TheBirm ingham U n ion , meeti ng i n thei r vast numbers , resolved to payno taxes ti l l the B il l was passed . This resol ut ion was carri ed onMonday , May 14th .

Two days later, news arrived that al l was over for the antireformers . On the 1 5 th , Lord Grey i n the Lords , and LordA l thorp i n the Commons , announced that they were again i n communicat ion with the K ing, and th i s t id ings , which could have butone mean ing, spread wi th wonderful speed through the land . O nWednesday morn ing, the streets of B i rm ingham were placarded,and the members of the U n ion flocked in thousands to N ewhall

H ill . A thanksgiv ing for a bloodless v ictory was offered , and al lfel t that a fi tt ing sequel had come to thei r recent solemn vow. Thetruth was soon known i n i ts ful l exte nt . The opposing peers hadyielded to the di rec t i ntervent ion of the K ing. A c i rcular- le tter,dated from St . J ames ’s Palace

,poin ted out that “al l d i fficul t ies to

the arrangements i n progress ” (mean ing the resumption of officeby Lord Grey ’s m in is try i n order to carry the B i l l) would beobv iated by a declarat ion from a suffic ien t number of peers , that ,


Pass ing to the boroughs , we fi rst deal wi th the great d isfranch isement. A ll boroughs whose population , according to thecensus of 183 1 , came under 2000 , ceased to return any member toParl iament . I n E ng land 5 6 boroughs, which before returned 1 1 1

members, were thus extinguished as consti tuencies . Apart fromthe shameful cases of the phantom - boroughs con tain i ng no houseo r population

,most of these places were mere v i l lages, which had

ei ther decl ined to that cond i tion , i n the natural process of decay,or had never been anyth ing more important, but had been madeconst i tuenc ies i n Tudor t imes i n order to serve the tyrannous orcorrupt purposes of the Crown . Thei r very names are now mostlyunknown to Engl i shmen

,save to local dwe l le rs i n the divers

coun ties which contain them . Cornwal l and Devon were notoriousfor these “close ”, petty boroughs , each sending two members toParl iament, such as Lostwi th iel , Okehampton , Plympton , Tregony,Bos s iney, Camelford, N ewport, St . M ichael

’s , Sal tash , West Looe,Bee rals ton, Call ington , E as t Looe, Fowey, S t . Germain ’s, and St .Mawe ’s. I n other southern counties , we find cases presen t ing anequal ly scandalous cond i t ion of affai rs ; i n Bedwin , Downton ,Ludgershal l

,Heytesbury, H indon , and Wootton Basset, al l i n

Wil tsh i re ; i n Bleching ley and Haslemere, of Surrey ; i n Bramber,Seaford , Steyn ing, and E ast Grins tead , of Sussex ; i n I lchester,M ilbourne Port , and M inehead , of Somerset ; i n Yarmouth ( I sle ofWight) , N ewtown , Stockbridge , and Whitchurch , paltry places i nHampshi re ; i n Romney and Queenborough , belong i ng to Kent ;and i n Corfe Castle, Dorsetsh i re . I n the eastern count ies v erybad cases of the same kind were cured by exti nction i n D unwich ,O rford, and A ldeburgh , i n S uffolk ; and i n Castle R i s i ng, N orfolk .

I n various quarters of the country the Act of 1832 s uppressedparl iamentary representat ion for Amersham and Wendover, i nB ucks ; Appleby , i n Westmoreland ; Hedon , A ldborough , andBoroughbridge , i n Yorksh i re ; Weobly, i n H erefordsh i re ; B rackleyand H igham Ferrers

,i n N orthamptonsh i re ; Bishop ’ s Castle, i n

Shropsh i re ; and N ewton , i n Lancash ire . Such were the boroughsplaced i n the famous l i st cal led Schedul e A of th is at once des truct ive and beneficent measure . I n Schedule B we have the boroughs ,th i rty i n number, with a population under 4000, which , hav ingh itherto sen t two representat ives to Westminster, were henceforthto send one . The un i ted boroughs of Weymouth and Melcombe

HOME AFFA IRS AND REFORM LEGI SLATION. 183

Regis , i n Dorset, would have two members instead of four. Thesechanges i n the boroughs gave 143 members for disposal amongnew const i tuenc ies, of which there were 6 3 created i n England andWales . I n London , eight more members were assigned to thefou r new boroughs of Marylebone , F insbury, the Tower Hamlets ,and Lambeth , and , th roughout the country, towns wi th a populationof and upwards were now to return each two members .Among these were B i rmingham , Manchester, Sheffield, Leeds , andmany towns that had risen to importance i n the north and themidlands of E ngland . I n Scotland , the number of town repre

s entative s was raised from 1 5 to 2 3, the total representat ion of thecount ry being i ncreased from 45 members, appoin ted by the U n ionAct of 1 707, to 5 3. I reland had 5 more members, i nclud ing onefor Dubl i n U n iversi ty, and her representat ion in Parl iament therebyconsis ted of 105 . I n E ngland, 2 1 new boroughs , with populationsof and upwards, were to return each a s ingle representat ive .I mportan t changes were made in the conduc t of elect ions by

the settlement of conven ient pol l ing- districts , and by the shorten ingof the time for pol l i ng i n county e l ect ions , from the prev ious termof fi fteen days , to two i n England , Wales, and Scotland , and to fivein I reland. I n the great matter of the qual ification for boroughvoters

,a compromise was made between the advocates and the

opponents of reform . The corporate bodies , sel f- elected and largelycorrupt, had created a great number of new voters, under the nameof freemen for the purpose of defeat i ng, i f possible, the ReformBi l l whose success meant speedy destruct ion to the old mun ic ipalsystem . The “ freemen were perm itted to retai n thei r votes , oncondi t ion of residence with in the borough , and of having becomefreemen prior to March , 183 1 . The new borough- franch ise restedon the basi s of res idence , and was conferred on al l i nhabi tants ofabodes , of various k inds, of the yearly value of £ 10 ,

with certa incondi tions as to reg i s tration , payment of rates and taxes , and lengthof res idence . I n I reland , great changes were occasioned by th issettl ement of the borough - franch ise , because the corporat ions therehad been , to the last degree , corrupt i n the use of thei r powers forcreating voters . I n Scotland , the people became , i n some measure,for the fi rs t t ime real ly represented at al l , the town- counc i ls beingdeprived of the powers wh ich they had long and grossly abused .

We have dwel t at th i s length upon the circumstances which


attended the struggle for, and the tri umph of, the Reform Bi l l of1832 , wi th i ts ch ief prov i sions , because th i s measure , after the closeof the great war i n 18 1 5 , was qui te immeasurably the most importan t event occurring to the Bri t ish Empi re wi th i n the whole rangeof the n i neteenth century. The firs t, and , because i t was the fi rst

,

the greates t franch ise- reform A ct, was the prol ific and beneficentparent of the legis lat ive and social progress towards h igher th ingswh ich have made the century, and especial ly the V ictorian age ,i l l ustrious to the end of time . N0 even t of an importance approaching th is had come in our c iv i l h is tory S i nce the Revolut ion of 1688 .

That Revolution had decided that the people , as then representedby the House of Commons , Should be the ch ief power i n the state .

I n course of t ime, however, the House of Commons i tsel f had, toa large extent, ceased to represent the nation , because the choiceof members had so greatly come wi th in the control of a landedaristocracy which , i nc l ud ing the enl ightened , unselfish , and publ icspi ri ted men who took a ch ief part i n carrying franch ise - reform

,

was also , to a deplorable extent , composed of selfish ol igarchs who ,

not sati sfied wi th the possess ion of heredi tary weal th i n landed andother property, sought to retain , i n the i nterest of themselves andthe i r dependents, a large control over votes i n the other branch ofthe legislature . That control was for ever abol ished i n J une, 1832 .

The manufacturing and the commerc ial elements of the nat ion , menwho had long been ris ing i n n umbers , wealth , and enl ightenment,had wrested

,for thei r own middle class

,an ample share of pol i ti cal

power out of the hands of those who had long enjoyed , and , i nmany gross i nstances, misused i ts possession . Wealthy peers andother capi tal ists could no longer buy votes i n Parl iament i n theshape of boroughs whose parl iamentary seats Should be fi l l ed bythe purchasers ’ subserv ient nom inees . They could now purchaseseats only by brib ing the voters to pol l fo r thei r candidates, at therisk of success being undone for such venal i ty . Corrupt mun icipalbodies could no more hold the usurped rights of c i t izens , and returnmembers for towns . The great h ives of i ndustry and weal th , i nthe centre and the north of England

,and thriv ing ports of recent

growth,could now make thei r wil l fel t by the speech and vote of

representatives wi th in the wal ls of the House of Commons . Thecotton - towns of South Lancash i re

,the wool len trade of West York

s h ire , the i ron of South Staffordsh i re and bordering d istricts , the


pol i t ical i nfluence . The Whigs,or Liberals , who had carried the

Reform B il l , and espec ial ly Lord J ohn Russel l , spoke of “ final i tyin connection with the re cen t parl iamentary reform , and seemed t oregard further change as needless . Large numbers of those whowere st i l l excluded from the power of choos ing men to govern thestate began to clamour for an extended franch ise

,and when thei r

aspi rations were reduced to form,and focussed i n specific demands

,

the resul t was a document cal led the Cna r ter , and the movementstyled Cna r tism . A real pol i t ical gri evance

,apart from social and

industrial evi l s , l ay at the root of the agi tation , and i t was from th isthat i ts real power was derived . The Reform Act had not onlyleft the bulk of the working- class , i n a pol i ti cal s ense,

“ out in th ecold but i t deprived working-men

,i n not a few towns , of pecul iar

franch ises wh ich had given them a vote at parl iamentary elec tions .An exampl e i s found i n the Lancash i re town of Preston , where ,under the old system , almost un iversal suffrage had existed . I twas widely bel i eved, among the class suffering from various causeso f disconten t

,that a great extens ion of the franch ise, wi th other

changes connected with elections to the House of Commons , wouldhave a wonderful effect i n d im in ish ing social wrongs . There wereRad ical s i n h igh places , such as the Earl of Durham , who wereprepared to go very far i n the way of a wider suffrage , and therewere men of good standing i n the House of Commons who heldwhat were then general ly regarded as democrat i c doctri nes .When , i n th e fi rs t Parl iament of Victori a’s reign , M r. Wakley,M. P. for the new metropol i tan borough of F insbury, moved aresolution for a w ider franch ise, he was seconded by S ir Wil l iamMolesworth, an i n timate fri end of J eremy B entham and J amesM il l , and the leader of the body known as

“ ph i losoph icalRadical s ” , of whose organ , the Wes tminster Review, he had latelybecome propri etor. The motion was supported by only 20

members,but among these was M r. George Grote, the banke r,

M.P. for the ci ty of London , the pers is tent and able advocate ofvote by bal lot

,and dest i ned to become i l lustrious for al l t ime as

the author of the grand H is tory of Gr eece, i n wh ich the democracyof anc ient A thens was, for the fi rs t t ime, fai rly and ful ly presentedto modern readers . On the same s ide appeared the h ighlyrespectable J oseph H ume

,a powerful and practical and thoroughly

honest reformer of economic,legal

,and social abuses of every k ind .

HOME AFFAIRS AND REFORM LEG I SLATION . 187

More than 500 votes were given agai nst the motion , and th i soverwhelming defeat wi th in the Commons was the immediatecause of Charti sm in i ts concrete form . A conference was heldbetween a few of the Parl iamentary Rad ical s and some leadersamong the worki ng-men .

“ The People’s Charter ” , an admi rablename for starting a pol i t ical campaign or series of campaigns

,was

drawn up as a programme of the cause now launched . I t containeds ix poin ts . These were ( 1 ) un iversal (manhood) suffrage, or, aparl iamentary vote for every male nat ive of the U n i ted K ingdomwho should be twenty- one years of age, of sound mind , and uncon

v icted of c rime ; (2 ) equal electoral di stric ts ; (3) vote by bal lot ;

(4) annual parl iaments ; (5 ) abol i t ion of the property qual ificationfor members of the House of Commons ; and (6 ) the payment ofmembers of parl iament for thei r serv ices . The state of th ings nowexisti ng i n what concerns the House of Commons amply provesthat the advocates of change accord ing to the above programmewere not very formidabl e revolu t ion ists i n thei r pol i ti cal demands.They were s imply men who were about a generat ion i n advance ofthei r t ime . Taking i n order the “ poin ts wh ich made the Whigs ,or mode rate Liberals , as we l l as the Tories or Conservatives , of1837 bristl e up wi th ind ignation or sm i l e w ith contempt, we findthat the first, un iversal suffrage, has been nearly approached i n thehouseholder and lodger franch ises . The second

,equal elec toral

d is tricts , has been almost reached i n the red istribut ion of seatsarranged i n 1885 . The th i rd , vote by bal lot, has at th i s time beeni n operat ion for about twenty - five years . The fou rth , annualparl iaments , i s absurdly unpracti cal , and would be an unendurablenu isance, both to voters and to elected legislators . The fi fth ,demanding the abol it ion of what was always evaded wi th impun ity,has long been formally conceded by statute. The sixth , paymentof members , i s probably near at hand .

The Clta r ter was received wi th great enthus iasm by largenumbers of the working- classes , and vast meetings in behal f of thecause thus promulgated were held in many parts of the country .

The word Clca r t ism fi rs t makes i ts appearance i n the A nnua l

Reg ister for 1838 , and i t was thence forth , for ten years, not merelya “ topic of the day ”

,but a d isturbing element to be reckoned with

by governme nts . There soon came to be a div is ion in to moralforce

”

and physical - force Chartists . The leaders of both classes


were , i n many cases , no mere vulgar sel f- seek ing demagogues , buti ncluded men of fine eloquence and abi l i ty, earnest and devotedfanat ics , real sel f- sacrificing lovers of thei r fel low-men . M r. A ttwood , the dist ingu ished head of the B i rm ingham Pol i t ical U n ionduring the agi tation preceding the Reform Act, and a member ofthe House of Commons for that great borough , was a Charti st, aswas also h is col league , Mr. Scholefie ld. Mr. F ie lden, member forO ldham , a man of very benevolent and dis interested character, agreat promoter of factory legislat ion on behalf of the workers , wasanothe r supporter of Chartism . Thomas Cooper

, the Chartis tpoet , was a shoemaker

’s apprent ice who learnt Lat in,Greek ,

Hebrew, and French , became a schoolmaster and Methodis tpreacher, then a newspaper reporter, and , final ly

,a leader of the

Charti sts at Leicester. I n 1842 , he lectu red i n the Potteries ata riotous t ime, and was sentenced to two years

’ imprisonment i nS tafford jai l on conv iction for conspi racy and sed i t ion . I t wasduring th is confinement that he wrote , i n the Spenserian stanza ,Tli e P u rg a tory of Su icides . M r. E rnest J ones , a s incere andzealous advocate of the cause, was the son of Major J ones , equerryto the Duke of Cumberland who became K ing of H anover i n 1837.

Cal led to the bar in 1844, he soon became associated wi th the mostadvanced pol i t ics of the day , and was the most prominen t leaderof the Chartists duri ng its later t ime . He re s igned a fortune ofabout £2000 a year rather than abandon h i s principles , and hebecame

,l ike Cooper, a sufferer, i n h i s own person , on behal f of

Chart ism,at the hands of the government . I n 1848 , he was sen

tenced to two years ’ sol i tary confinement for the part wh ich he tooki n certa i n proceedings at Manchester. A gentleman and a scholar

,

by bi rth and educat ion , E rnest J ones was almost a man of gen iusi n h is l i terary powers . Henry Vincent, a working-man of someabil i ty and of spotless character

,an excellen t popular speaker, was

another man who suffered imprisonment for h i s Chart i st u tterances .Among the less wise of the supporters of Chartism was a dissenti ng min ister named S tephens

,a man of excitable character and

eloquent Speech,who used language that caused h im to be im

prisoned for eighteen months . Mr. Feargus O’

Connor, a memberof the I ri sh bar

,was one of the ch ief Chartist leaders . I n 1832 he

became M.P. for Cork , and devoted himself wi th great zeal to thecause of the E ngl i sh working- classes . He was a man of huge s ize


assemblage, but were met wi th forc ible resi stance, and a troop ofcaval ry only succeeded i n clearing the ground after some blood hadbe en Shed by the use of bludgeon and steel . There were otherriotous proceedings

,which culm inated , on J uly 1 5 th , after the

reject ion of M r. Attwood ’

s motion,i n a se rious outbreak . The

smash ing of windows and stre e t- lamps, and the tearing up of i ronpal i sades for weapons

,were fol lowed by the forc i ng of houses, the

pi l laging of warehouses,and the burn ing of thei r contents i n bon

fi res . The street—lamps were then extingu ished by the mob, andsome houses were burnt down . The exaggerat ion of pol i t icalprej udice i s seen in the Duke of Well i ngton ’s declaration that hehad never seen a stormed and sacked town in so bad a pl igh t .He must have forgotten the aspect presented by Badajoz afterthe atroc ious outrages committed by h is own troops i n 18 1 2 , onthe persons and property of ou r Span ish al l i es . The caval ry andthe R ifles succeeded in restori ng order, but i t was some daysbefore the peaceable c i t i zens of B i rm ingham could feel at ease .

The re were al so serious d isturbances at Sheffield , and the causeof the Charter was greatly damaged . A t N ewcastle

,S tockport ,

Manchester,and other towns , assemblages intended to int imidate

authori ty were dispersed wi th some d i ffi cu l ty .

The N ational Convention , which had no connection with theabove wicked and senseless acts of ignoran t and crim inal elementsi n the populat ion

,now sought to coerce the legislatu re by re com

me nding a general run on the sav ings - banks for gold , abst inencefrom the use of al l articles paying duty i n excise , and , i n the lastresort

,un iversal cessat ion from labour . Some of the Chartist

leaders,includ ing the two secretaries of the Convention , Lovett and

Coll i ns,with Stephens

,the d i sse nting m in ister, and H enry V incent ,

were brough t to trial,and sentenced to imprisonment . Some of

the B i rm ingham rioters were condemned to death , but that punishment was commuted to transportat ion

,and large numbe rs of minor

offe nders went to jai l . The Convent ion was d i ssolve d , after hotdebates

,the matter being carri ed only by the cast i ng- vote of the

chai rman . Towards the end of th is ye ar, 1839, N ewport, th eMonmouthsh i re town , saw an outbreak wh ich assumed the proport ions of an insurrect ion .

A t N ewport there was a l inen - draper named John Frost, whohad , some years before, been created a magistrate of the borough at

HOME AFFA IRS AND REFORM LEGI SLATION . 191

the request of the townsfolk, who admired h im for h is advancedpol i ti cal op in ions . The town was i n the cen tre of a h il ly min ingd istrict where most of the working - class he ld Charti st doctri nes .I n Fe bruary, 1839, th is man was cal le d to account by Lord J ohn

Ru ssell,the Home Secretary , for v iolen t language at a publ i c

meeti ng. H e repl ied i n a tone of extreme insolence , and was soonafterwards removed from the commission of the peace . Frost thentook i nto counc i l a bee r- shop keeper named Zephan iah Wil l iams

,

and Will iam J ones,a watchmaker, and, relying upon the aid of the

m in ing populat ion,who were mostly Chartists of the physi cal- force

school,they formed a conspi racy for the release of V incen t and

other prisoners from N ewport jai l . The n ight of Sunday, N ovembe r 4th,

was appointed for the enterpri se , which was to be conductedby three d iv is ions of insurgents march ing on the town . The bridgeove r the U sk was to be broken down

,the troops were to be attacked ,

and the mail was to be stopped . I t was hoped that the non - arrivalof the mail - coach at B i rm ingham would be fol lowed by a ri s ing,according to arrangement

,i n the M idlands and the N orth . The

weathe r was bad , the j unct ion of the columns of attack was frust ra ted, and the intended n ight- surprise could not take place . I t wasnot unt i l ten o ’clock on Monday morn ing that F rost, at the head ofs ix or seven thousand rudely - armed men , came down upon N ewport . The mayor, Mr. Thomas Ph il l ips

,had made skil ful arrange

ments for defence, and had garrisoned with troops the ch ief hotelof the town , the West Gate I nn , stand ing i n the market - place.About th i rty in fantry and a party of spe cial constables were cal ledupon to surrender, and a prompt re fusal was fol lowed by a vol leyfrom the mob, di rected against the bay -window of the ch ief room .

The rioters, almost at the same moment , broke i n the door andpoured into the house . The mayor

,wi th due decis ion

,gave the

officer in command h is orders to fire , and a crash ing vol ley, poureddown the passage, put the assailants to fl ight . Mr. Ph i l l ips, whoshowed great cou rage and coolness th roughout

,fearl essly opened

the three shutters of the ch ief window that looked upon the. street ,and enabled the t roops to pour a cont inued fi re upon the throngoutside. The mayor and seve ral Others were wounded by slugsfrom the muskets carried by some of the i nsurgents , most of whomwere armed with bludgeons, pikes , and pickaxes. When abouttwenty of the mob had been shot dead and many more wounded ,


the i r compan ions fl ed i n al l d i rect ions , and a sortie of the soldiersand constables qu ickly cleared the streets of al l d isorderly persons .The three leaders were tried by a Spec ial Commiss ion i n J anuary

,

1840, conv icted of high treason , and sentenced to death, but theapproachi ng marriage of the young Queen , combined wi th aj udic ious des i re of the government to avoid extreme measu res

,

caused th is penalty to be changed into transportation for l i fe. Themayor was received at Windsor with s ignal honour, and departedfrom the Castle as S i r Thomas Phi l l ips .The downfal l of the Whig m in istry at the general elect ion of

184 1 was i n some measure due to the voting of Chart is ts who werei ndignan t at the act ion of those who cal led themselves “Liberals ” .

They now transferred thei r support to the Tory candidates, whoseparty came i nto power under the leadersh ip of S i r Robert Peel .The Chartist agi tation , cont in ual ly checked , i n sed itious and riotousforms , by the steady appl ication of the exist i ng laws , was partlysuperseded by the efforts of the Anti -Corn - Law League men , whomwe shal l see hereafter engaged in seeking the wel fare of the people

,

not i n thei r possession of d i rec t pol i t ical power, but th rough theaction of free - trade . Many of the Chartists were host i l e to thismovement , which they regarded , very unj ustly, as one whi ch a imedmainly at the advantage of the capi tal i sts and manufacturers . A tthe same time

,many of the more enl ightened and the weal th ie r

advocates of Chart ism turned the i r energies i n the new direction,

and the cause of the Charter suffered a correspond ing decl ine . I nthe session of 1842 , however, another great peti t ion was sent to theHouse of Commons, with a demand for a heari ng at the bar of theHouse . Mr . Duncombe, member for F insbury, claimed that thIS ‘

enormous document,which requi red 16 men to carry i t i n by pieces ,

when , as a whole, i t could not enter at the door, represented i n i tss ignatures the v iews of householders . The cause wasinjured by the tone adopted i n th is peti tion . N ot only were thes ix poi nts of the Charter advocated as subjects for immediatelegislat ion

,but wi ld re volutionary social is t i c proj ects were urged ,

and M r. Roebuck , one of the able st Radicals i n the House, s tronglyin sympathy with the s uffering people

,was obl iged to denounce the

author of the peti t ion as “a fierce,mal ignant , and cowardly dema

gogue ”. The pet it ioners were refused a heari ng at the Bar by theoverwhelming majori ty of 238 .


w i th i ts exti nction for a t ime as a pol i ti cal force. The final andfatal impulse came from the F rench Revolution of February , 1848,when the O rlean is t king, Louis Ph i l ippe , was driven to abd icat ionand exi le as a j ust retribution for years of m isrule, under a systemof m ingl ed corruption and repression , admin istered by M . Guizot .The Chart ists began to l i ft up thei r heads , and many meetingswere held at wh ich v iolent speeches were made, and the forciblees tabl i shment of republ ican rule was advocated . A new “Nat ionalConvention ” began to s i t i n London , and a new pet i t ion wasprepared . Cool ly as suming that the working- classes consti tutedthe whole Bri t i sh nat ion , the extreme Chart ists now demanded theCharter or a Republ ic for “ the E ngl i sh people A vast meetingwas to be held on Kenn ington Common , i n London , on Apri l l oth,

and a great procession was to take the peti t ion to Westminster forpres entation to the House of Commons . A d isplay of physicalforce was to overawe the legislature and the government, nowrepresen ted by Lord John Russel l as P remier, with S i r GeorgeGrey as Home Sec reta ry . The D uke of Wel l ington was commander- in- chief, and h is mi l i tary arrangements were marked by theutmost ski l l , sagaci ty, and prudence. Every great publ i c bu ild ingwas duly guarded , and the strategi cal poi nts of a vast capital wereoccupied by troops careful ly concealed from publ i c v iew , but readyto appear i n strength for instan t action i n a way that would haves ignal ly defeated any v iolen t attempts . The intende d processionto the House of Commons was forbidden , and the younger andmore exc itable Charti sts were rejoic ing i n the prospect of a col l is ionwi th the authori t i es . Li ttl e was known to them or to the publ i c atlarge concern ing the m i l i tary preparations , but a great effect wasproduced by the upris ing of the orderly elements of society , theupper, the m iddle , and the best part of the working classes , onbehal f of the i nterest i n wh ich all have an equal s take, the preservation of peace . N early two hundred thousand special constableswere en rolled , and th i s demonstrat ion completely overawed theparty of physical force . I nstead of hal f a mil l ion , about one - ten thof that number gathered at Kennington Common . They wereal lowed to meet in peace , but the leader, Feargus O

’

Connor, whowas h imsel f Opposed to any v iolence, was in formed by a pol icecommissioner that the procession would be stopped at WestminsterB ridge . I n spite of O

’

Connor’

s advice , some thousands of men d id

HOME AFFA IRS AND REFORM LEGISLATION . 195

form in rank and march wi th the peti t ion to the 'Surrey s ide of thebridge . There th ey found themselves confronted by a . pol iceinspector and a few constables , behi nd whom appeare d the: muzzlesof two fie ld-guns, with the gunners bes ide them'

, l ighted match i nhand . A dozen of the Charti sts were al lowed to proceed, i n chargeof the pet i tion , and the rest, not caring to attempt the storm ing ofthe bridge

,faced round , walked back to Kenn ington Common , used

much bad language , and mel ted away . Charti sm was thus . s lai nat the last by tha t terribl e solven t; rid icu le. The peti t ion ‘

to theCommons was th e final blow . That document was declared by

O'

Connor to contai n ov er five mill ion s of s igna tures . The Houseresolved to bring the matte r to a test , and the Committee ' on Publ i cPe ti t ions were des i red to m inutely e xamine i nto i t . A hos t of'

law

stat ioners’ clerks went to work, and they found‘

that the wholenumber of s ignatu res was under two mi ll ion s. An ‘ analys is of thes ignatu re s produced lud ic rou s resul ts : Not only

'

we re whole sheetsof them wri tten in one and the same hand , but the s igners; accordi ng to the written words , i ncluded the Queen, P rince A lbe rt; theDuke of Well ington , S i r Robert Peel , the Prime M in ister, “ Punch ” ,“Davy J ones ”

,and al l

'

ki nds of absu rd and ficti t ious persons . Theexposure of th i s document

’

s real character did not, i ndeed , brandi ts promoters with any conv iction of fraudulent intent; but i t provedthe gross carelessne ss and haste involved

'

in its product ion , wh ichhad left i t l iable , as i ts sheets lay about in al l k inds ofp laces, to them isch ie vous work of

’

s choolboyS' and other practi cal j okers . The

gene ral shou t of laughter that arose from the nation,when the

matter was made known , was real ly a vol ley fi red over the grave ofCharti sm In Its ex i st ing semi - revolutionary form . There 'we re i nthe same year ; 1848 , some riots i n Lancash i re, and some arrestswere made both there and i n London ; where Mr; E'

rnest‘ J ones , aswe have seen , was sentenced to imprisonment on . a charge ofsedi t ion . The doctri nes of the Charter, stifl ed for a se ason i n thehands of unwise agi tators were al ive in the hearts and m inds ofmany earnest men , both Ins ide and outside of Pa rl iame nt, who ,

trust ing only to reason,argument , growing educat ion , and the great

worker, t ime , were dest ined , in some cases; to witness their subs tant ial acceptance during the course of the following forty years .The social disconte nt on which Chart ism had

'

been largely basedfor the least d iscern ing of its su pporters

'

died‘

away with the


prospe ri ty that came afte r the repeal of the Corn - laws . Cheapfood, h igher wages , a great i ndustrial and colon ial expans ion , combined with better knowledge and gre ate r th ri ft, wrought wondersfor the working- classe s whose members had , i n ev i l days , bee n l edastray i n demanding remedies wh ich were e i ther beyond thei r reach

,

or were no remedies at al l .“Slow but su re ” i s the motto of B ri ti sh cons ti tutional change .

Thirty -five years were to elapse , afte r 1832 ,before a second Reform

Bi l l rece ived the assent of the sovereign , and was enabled to influe nce elect ions to the House of Commons . The quest ion of Re formlay over from 1848 t i l l 18 5 1 . I n J une, 1848 , Mr. J oseph H umehad moved a resol ution i n favour of household suffrage , vote bybal lot , tri enn ial Parl iaments , and a large redistribution of seats .He was supported by M r . Cobden and M r. C . P . Vil l iers

,cham

pions of free - trade , the latte r of whom represented in Parl iamen t the same great borough , Wolverhampton , for more than60 years , a fact unexampled i n the history of the House ofCommons . The motion was, of cou rse , defeated by a very largemajori ty . I n 185 1 , Mr. Locke- King

’s B il l for reduc ing the countyfranch ise from a 50 to a 10 rental was defeated , on the secondread ing, by a majori ty of 2 16 . I n the fol lowing year

,Lord J ohn

Russel l (February , j ust before he was driven from office ,brough t i n a bil l p roposing to reduce the borough - franch ise from

£ 10 to £5 , and the £50 county - franch ise to £20 . The matte r

e nded with the defeat of the min i stry on thei r M i l i tia B il l, but isnoteworthy as showing that the Whigs were, afte r twenty years ,beginn ing to find out that the exist i ng representation of the peoplewas inadequate . I n the same year, Mr . H ume , retu rn ing to thecharge with a Tory government i n office , was defeated by 1 5 5 , andM r. Locke- King again fai led i n an effort to assim i late the coun tyto the borough franch ise . Again

,i n February, 18 54, Lord John

Russel l proposed to lower the borough - franch ise to a £6 re ntal , butthe outbreak of war wi th Russ ia caused the abandonment of theB i l l . Two or th ree years later the Tory party began to Show signsof i nterest i n the quest ion of franch ise- reform , as i f they in tended akind of rival ry on the subject wi th the Liberals . We may mentionthat i t was i n 1858 that M r. Locke- K ing carried a Bil l for theabol i tion of the property qual ification fo r E ngl ish and I ri shmembers , and thus secured one of the “ S ix Points of the Charter ” .


reform was carri ed . The change thus effected, al ong with theReform Act s for Scotland and Ireland in 1868 , was s trik ing andsubstant ial e nough . The Reform A cts of 186 7

—68 rai sed thenumber of electors from nearly 1% m i l l ions to nea rly 2% m i l l ions .Seven seats were trans ferred from E ngland to Scotland , reduc ingthe Engl ish m embers from 500 to 493 , and rais i ng the number i nScotland from 5 3 to 60 . Al l boroughs wi th a population u nder

of which there were 38 , were reduced to a s i ngle -memberrepresen tation , and the s eats thus placed at disposal were transferredto la rge towns and to newly-made borough - consti tuencies . Manchester, Liverpool , Bi rmingham , Glasgow, and Leeds had now eachthree members , a nd one member was given to represent graduatesof London U n ivers i ty . The borough- franch ise was assigned to al lhouseholders who paid rates, and a new lodger- franch i se gave avote to occupants paying rent, for rooms unfurn ished , to the clearannual val ue of £ 10 . I n the coun ti es, tenan ts of land or houses tothe annual value of £ 1 2 rece ived the parl iamentary vote . We mustnote that i n London two new boroughs, Hackney and Chelsea,each wi th two members , were created . Twenty- five borough - seats

,

i n E ngland and Wale s , partly take n from four towns di sfranch ise dfor gross bribery, and partly from boroughs of less than 5000 inhabitants

,were assigned to new d iv is ions of counties . I n Scotland

,th e

Univers i ti es of Edinburgh and S t . Andrews had join tly one seat,and the same represen tat ion was given to the U n ivers i t ies of Glasgow and Aberdeen i n conj unction . I n I reland

,the occupat ion

franch ise was reduced from £8 to £4 . Such was the beginn ing ofdemocrati c rul e in G reat Bri ta in and I reland . The artisans of thetowns had at last obtained much of the pol i tical power to w hichCharti sm had pointed .

The end had been attained in a general ly peaceful way , th roughthe readiness of the House of Commons to reform its own cons t itu

t ion,under a certa i n amount of pressure from without e xe rted by

the members of a number of Reform Leagues and Reform U n ions ,of wh ich the London Reform League w as headed by M r . EdmondBeales

,a barrister of h igh characte r and abi l i ty. The only d isturb

ance which occurred in connect ion wi th the agitation was due to the

unwise action of Mr. Walpole , the H ome Secretary, i n proh ibi ti nga meeting of Reformers i n H yde Park . M r . B eales and h is colleagues , being refused admiss ion , reti red wi th a large crowd and

HOM E AFFAIRS AND REFORM LEGI SLATION . 199

held a peaceful meeting i n Trafalgar Square, at wh ich resolu tionswere passed demanding the extension of the suffrage , and thankingMr. Gladstone , Mr. Bright , and others who had just been striv ingto obtai n i t . Meanwhi le, a large assemblage, conta i n i ng some realReformers

,but mainly composed of s ight- seers , misch ievous lads ,

and London roughs , was gath ered round the Marble A rch andalong Park Lane . The i ron rai l i ng between that thoroughfare andthe Park was very i nsecure, and i n a few minutes the mob, by themere pressure of thei r bodies , overthrew hal f a m il e of the barrier,and swarmed i nto the enclosure . A fight wi th the pol ice - forceensued

,i n wh ich stones and truncheons were freely used , but there

was no serious damage done . A body of the Guards , received wi thloud cheers by the people, helped to restore order, and the HydePark riot ” of J uly 2 3rd, 186 6 , came to an end , after caus ing at theWest E nd a pan ic as i f a revol ution had arisen . There can be nodoubt that th is i nciden t had i ts effect on the Tory ministry whichhad j ust come into office, but the greatest infl uence in promot ingthe cause of Re form was exerted by the meetings wh ich were heldin the great towns during the autumn and winter prior to the sessionof 186 7. The processions which marched along i n these demons trat ions contained large numbers of orderly and stubborn workingmen be longing to the Trades Un ions , and thei r presence , impos ingi n i ts d isplay of s i len t and un i ted strength , made clearly known thee xiste nce of a new element of power wi th wh ich statesmen mus thenceforth careful ly reckon .

Seventeen years more passed away, and , wi th a Liberal m in istryi n power

,headed by Mr. Gladstone, the question of Parl iamentary

Reform was again to the front . The toi lers of the towns hadobtained a voice i n publ i c affai rs . The ti l le rs of the soi l and thetenders of the flocks and he rds were st i l l , pol i ti cal ly , dumb as thecattle wh ich they drove afield , or as the clods wh ich they trod i nthe i r dai ly task . The matte r of franch i se- reform in the countieshad been st i rred from time to t ime i n the House of Commons byM r. (afterwards S i r George) Trevelyan , i n success ive motion s .N otably, i n 1877 and the two fol lowing years , h is proposals to th iseffect had been rejected i n a H ouse which

,unde r M r. D i srael i ’s

(Lord Beaconsfie ld’

s ) second m in istry, contained a strong majori tyof Tories , with many lukewarm Liberals . The resolution s movedby Trevelyan in 1877 were for un i form ity of borough and county


franch ise, and for a red istribution of seats . He contended that thevoice of the coun ty- householders, i n other words , of the cottagers oragricul tural l abourers , needed to be heard , by d i rect repre sentat ion ,on several important subj ects i n which they were nearly concerned .

H is motions fai led by majori t ies varying from 50 to 60 , and the

matter was left as ide for some years of excitement concern ingfore ign affai rs and of activ i ty i n leg i s lat ion for other interests .I n 1883 the question was raised again by M r . J oseph Chamber

la i n in a letter to a Radical Associat ion , and a great meeting washeld at N ewcastle- ou -Tyne , at which resolut ions were carried i nfavour of further franch ise- reform . This was fol lowed by a greatconference held at Leeds , where 2 500 delegates appeared , represent i ng 500 Liberal Associat ions . Mr. J ohn Morley was i n thechai r

,and resol ut ions were passed i n favour of immediate action .

U nder the democrati c system of rule , the M in i stry accepted th i sdemonstration as a mandate , and on February 29th, 1884,

Mr .Gladstone i ntroduced a B i l l , i n wh ich he proposed to admi t to thefranch ise the i nhabi tants of the counties not yet possessed of a parliamentary vote , i ncl ud i ng smaller tradesme n , ski l led labourers ,artisans of a lower class , the great class of m iners , and the peasantry .

The redistribut ion of seats was to be left over to the next year . I nthe face of s trong Opposit ion from Tory members of the Commons ,th e second reading was carried by a majori ty of 1 30 , and the

th i rd reading passed without opposi t ion . Then came a strugglewith the House of Lords , the majori ty of wh ich Chamber i ns istedthat the redistribution of seats should go along wi th the extensionof the franch ise . The measure was there rej ected by a majori ty of205 agai nst 146 , and the Government at once resolved to prorogueParl iament at the earl iest poss ible t ime, and to hold an autumnsess ion for the re i ntroduct ion of the defeated B i l l . The matterwas promptly taken up by the country , and a series of gre at me etings was held during the autumn . A mass - meeting i n Hyde Parkincl uded some thousands of agri cul tural labourers, who were broughtup to London and marched to the ground by way of the ThamesEmbankment , Parl iament S tre et, Pall Mall , and P iccadi l ly. A t aLiberal gathering in Manchester ; at S t . J ames

’ Hall , London ; atB i rm ingham , and elsewhere , some strong language was di rectedagainst the House of Lords

,and the Tory leaders began to see the

need of a compromise . I n N ovember, 1884 , the second reading of


each , Manches ter s ix, Leeds and Sheffield each five, and so oni n proportion ; the re being , roughly speaking, at th is t ime, one

member for every people i n the larger Engl ish boroughs .

A near approach was thus made to the Chart ist “ po in t of equalelec toral d is tricts, or representat ion i n proport ion to numbers . Thischange, and the creation of the s ingle-member d iv is ions i n the count ies and great boroughs , were the most remarkable features of themeasure wh ich launched democracy in ful l s trength on a careerwh ich must i nfluence to a vast degree the future of the Empire .

We must note that the i ncrease of populat ion and weal th i n Scotland was duly recognized by the ass ignmen t to the northern kingdomof twelve addi t ional seats , rais i ng her representat ion from 60 to 72 .

I reland now, for the fi rs t t ime, was placed on an electoral equal i tywith the two other countries i n the possess ion of pure and simplehousehold - suffrage . The Reform Acts of 1884 - 8 5 made the cons t itution of Great B ri tai n and I reland that of a republ ic, withpowerful ari stocrat ic and plutocrati c elements, but a republ i c wi ththe i nestimable and unparal leled advantage of a hereditary dynast i cpresiden t i n the person of a sovereign whose pedigree goes backto the earl ies t t imes of Engl ish h istory, and , embrac ing every l ineof descent and every strai n of blood

,Bri ti sh (Welsh or Tudor) ,

E ngl ish , N orman , Danish , S cottish,German , Lancastrian and

York ist al ike , Stuart and Hanoverian i n one, binds up every claimconnected with right of bi rth along with the const i tu tional powerdue to the Parl iamentary ti tle to the throne granted i n the Act ofSettlement. The h istory of B ri t ish royalty thus i ncl udes everystage i n the growth and development of the realm over wh ich i tpres ides .

FORE IGN POLICY AND WARS IN EUROPE . 203

CHAPTE R IV .

FORE IGN POLICY AND WARS IN EUROPE ( 18 15 to present time) .

Relations w ith France— Tah iti and Queen Pomare— The Ors ini outrage— The Com

m ercial Trea ty— Re lat ions w ith Aus tria and Prus s ia— The Holy Al liance— LordPalmerston

’s s ympathy w i th Kos suth— Spa in and Portuga l— Ferdinand VII.

— The

South Am erican republ ics recogniz ed— Portuga l sa v ed from Spanish in va s ionSweden and Norway— The Trea ty of S tockholm— I taly— D es ire for un ification

The Carbona ri— M az z ini organiz e s“ Young I ta ly — Unpatriotic act ion of Lord

Aberdeen and Sir Jame s Graham— Charles A lbert and Victor Emanue l— Gariba ldi— Mr. G ladstone expos es the tyranny of the Neapol i tan go vernment - Baron Poer io— Policy of Count Ca vour— Greece made independent of Turkey— Lord Pa lmerstonand the Don Pacifico afla ir— Be lgium and Hol land— B rit ish policy of non- interven

t ion— Ci v i l wars in Portuga l and Spain — Sch lesw ig and Holste in taken fromD enmark — Rus s ia— Her des igns upon Turkey — The Cr imean War — Fa l l of

Sebastopol— Renewed war between Rus s ia and Turkey— The Treaty of Ber lin.

The relations exist ing between Great B ri tai n and France, duringthe eighty years that have e lapsed s ince Waterloo, have been i n themain pacific

,and have more than once , i n E urope and i n the East ,

shown the nations al l ied i n warl ike operations . There have been ,however, several occasions when , from d ivergence of interests , oraccidental causes, the frie ndly feel ing between the Governmentswas severely tried , and an outbreak of hosti l i t ies was thought to beimpend ing . The gre at figure i n B ri ti sh diplomacy , for nearly fortyyears after the death of Canning i n 18 2 7, was the strong-willed ,restless , somewhat d ictatorial Lord Palmerston , whose energe t icv i ndicat ion both of the nat ional dign ity and in terests

,and of the

cause of constitut ional freedom in E urope , made h im hateful tofore ign tyrants and oppressors . Palmerston held the office ofForeign Secretary from 1830 to 184 1 , and from 1846 to 18 5 2 ,

and,

at other t ime s, h is i nfluence on the conduct of foreign affai rs , e i theras a col league in the Cabinet or as Prime M in iste r, was stronglymarked .

A serious d ispute arose i n 1844 between the two Gove rnmentsconce rn ing inc idents at Tah i t i (O tahe i te , i n Captain Cook

’s day) ,the largest of the South Pacific group cal led the Soc iety I slands .France, eager for colon ial extens ion i n that quarter of the world ,had compelle d the native queen , Pomare , to place her domin ionsunder a French protectorate . She was a convert to Christ ian ity,under the teach ing of Engl ish m issionaries , and was very friendly


to our country . The protectorate had be en twice offere d to GreatBri tai n and tw i ce refused , with a promise of ou r assi stance againstthe in terference of any other nation . The que en

’s subjects weremuch averse to the French assumption of control

,and certain

d isplays of a hosti le feel i ng towards French res ide nts were attributedto the influence of the Engl i sh consul , Mr. Pri tchard . A Fre nchadmiral arrived , i n h is man - of- war

,requi red the queen to hois t the

French flag above her own,and

,on her refusal

,landed wi th a force

of seamen and marines,hauled down her colou rs , and proclaimed

her deposi t ion , with the annexation of the island as French te rri tory .

Pomare appealed , i n a letter couched i n pathetic terms , to QueenVictoria for aid, and the Frenchman

’s act was promptly d isavowedand strongly condemned by the French min ister, M . Gu izot . Alarge party of exci ted and susceptible Frenchmen were e nraged atthe thought of wi thdrawal from the posi t ion assumed by thei rhot - he ade d countryman at Tah it i

,and much s trong language was

being exchanged by the newspapers on both s ides of the Channe l ,when the Bri ti sh governme nt and people were j ustly aroused bythe t id i ngs of an outrage perpetrated on the person of our con sul ,Pritchard . Without the sl ightest reason he was arrested by theF rench admi ral

,flung i nto prison

,and , afte r some detent ion , expel led

from the i sland . H is arri val home wi th the story of the treatme ntwh ich he had rece ived caused an outburst of i ndignation , and S irRobe rt Peel , the Prime M in ister, and the Foreign Secre tary , LordAberde en , denounced the act ion of the French admi ral i n thestrongest terms . A demand for sat isfact ion was addressed to theFre nch government , and , afte r much resi stance , due to Lou i sPhi l ippe ’s and Gu iz ot

’

s fear of publ i c Opin ion i n F rance, an apologyand a promise of pecun iary indemn ity were extorted , at the risk ofwar, for the wrong done to our consul and to the national d ign i ty .

The Queen of Tah i ti , nom inal ly restored to power, l ived for th irtyfour years as a shadowy sovereign under the French protectorate ,

and the island , s i nce 1880 , has been ful ly a French possession .

Passing ove r the affai r of the Span ish marriages inwh ich the French king and Gu izot showed the most d isgrace fu l

pe rfidy towards our government, and especial ly towards QueenVictoria in person , and le av ing to another place al l Bri t ish relation swith France i n connect ion wi th the “ Eastern Quest ion we come

to the year 18 58 , and the famous affai r of the “ O rs i n i bombs ” .


Tories,l ed by D i s rael i , with many Liberals , caused the defeat of

min isters, and Lord Palme rs ton’

s reti remen t from office . The stateof feel i ng i n London was clearly proved on the acqu i ttal of D r.S imon Bernard

,a French refugee , who was tried at the Old Bai l ey

as an accompl i ce in O rs in i ’s plot. The ev idence agains t him wasby no means sat isfactory , but M r. Edwin J ames , hi s counsel ,became a k ind of popula r hero for h is dec lamation against tyrantsi n general , and h is impass ioned appeal to th e j ury for the absolut ionof hi s cl ien t as an answer to the French tyran t i n part i cular. Thematter

,as one between the B ri t i sh and F rench governmen ts , was

ended i n a friendly way by Lord Derby ’s m in ist ry succeed ing the

Cabinet headed by Palmerston . The inc iden t had a most impo rtan tpermanent effec t i n the establ i shment of the Volunteer Corps as areply to the French colonels ’ plain h in ts at the invas ion of ou r shores .The Commercial T reaty wi th F rance of 1860 , wh ich was nego

t i ated between the Emperor and hi s adv isers on the one side , andM r. Cobden , i n an unoffic ial capaci ty, on the other, was a movemen ti n extension of free- trade which , for a t ime , th rew open an immensemarket to B ri t ish product ions , and caused a vas t development ofou r Continental commerce . One effect of th is treaty was the subs titu tion, i n E ngl ish social use, of the F rench l ight wines of Bordeauxfo r the brandied ports and fiery sherries of Po rtugal and Spain .

A ustri a and Great B ri tain are Powers wh ich ,s i nce th e conclu sion

of the gre at war, have had l i ttl e d i rect concern with each other’s

i nte rests or aspi rations . I n 18 1 5 , when Lord Castlereagh wasForeign M in iste r, the sovere igns of Russia , Austria , and Pruss iaconcl uded a convent ion , know n as th e H oly A l l iance , i n wh ich theyundertook to govern thei r own peoples

,and to deal wi th foreign

s ta tes on Christ ian principles , “ the precepts of j ustice,chari ty and

peace What they really in tended was to main tain the power ofthei r respective dynasties , to aim at terri torial aggrand izemen t , andto repress al l popular desi res after freedom and reform . A l l theE uropean rulers , except the Pope , j oi ned th i s league, but i t neverga i ned much sympathy in Great Bri tai n , and the Duke of Well i ngton , when he was asked to append h is S ignature to the declaration ,remarked that the E ngl ish Parl iament would re qu i re someth ingmore precise . Mr. Cann ing was Foreign Secretary from 18 2 2 to

18 2 7, and h is influence was at . once th rown into the scale against

FOREIGN POLICY AND WARS IN EUROPE . 207

the same three sovereigns who , i n conference at Laybach, nearTrieste

,had proclaimed the doctri ne that “ usefu l or necessary

changes in legislati on , and in the adm in istration of States , oughtonly to emanate from those whom God has re ndered responsibl efor power

”

. This declarat ion of war, by des pot ic rulers , againstconst i tut ional gove rnmen t , proceeded, i n the cases of the Emperorof Austria and the K ing of Pruss ia , from monarchs who had al readyden ied to thei r own subjec ts the representat ive government wh ichthey had once promised .

Lord Palmerston was a special object of avers ion to the Fore ignOffice a t V i enna . A t every turn he strove to thwart thei r mov eme nts against freedom for oppressed peopl es , and , though he wasa moderate Conservative i n home - pol i t ics , he appeared almost arevol ut ion ist i n deal ing w i th foreign nations . When the fai l ure ofthe H ungarian rebel l ion against Austria, i n 1849

—50 , had aroused

de ep reg re t i n E ngland , and the heroic and able Louis Kossuth ,the H ungarian leader

,arrived in London in 18 5 1, Palmerston , who

was then Foreign Secretary, was hardly d issuaded by his col leaguesfrom according a reception to the distingu ished exile. He gaveoffe nce later on , both to them and to the Queen , by rece iv ing at theFore ign Office addresses from deputations bri ng ing votes of thanksto h imsel f, carried at publ ic meetings , for the i nfl uence which hehad exe rted i n preven ting the surrender of Kossuth to Austria bythe governmen t of Turkey . On one of these occasions , the headof our Fore ign Office heard the Austrian emperor denounced as an“odiou s assass i n ” and a “merci less tyrant ” , and , though he m ild lyd iscla imed approval of these express ions , h is unguarded conductgave reasonable umbrage to the Austrian government .With Pruss ia , during the n ineteenth century, the relat ions of

Great Bri tai n have been wholly frie ndly. The pol icy of nonintervent ion in Continental affai rs , which has, during the reign ofQueen Victoria , become a cardinal poin t in Brit i sh admin is trat ion ,caused us to stand aloof whi l e A ustria and Prussi a deprivedDenmark of terri tory i n 1864 ; during the struggle between the twoPowers i n 1866 ; and at the pe riod of the great F ranco -GermanWar i n 1870 . The Fore ign Sec retary, Lord Granv i l l e , strove toprevent that con test by conci l iatory counsels , and , when h is effortshad prove d vain

,our Government concl uded a treaty with France

and Prussia to guaran tee the i ntegri ty and i ndependence of Belgium .

208 OUR EMPIRE AT HOM E AND ABROAD.

Mr . Cann ing , as Fore ign M in is ter, was much concerned wi thaffai rs i n the Peninsula . I n the autumn of 18 2 2 the Duke ofWell ington , representat ive of thi s country at the Congress ofVerona , found France much aggri eved by a recent Span ish ris ingwhich had forced the fai thless K ing

,Fe rd inand V I I . , to gran t a

free const i tut ion . Portugal had followe d the example, and theI nquis i t ion

,wi th other older wrongs and m isch iefs , had been swept

away . Loui s XV I I I . , the Bourbon king of France , feare d the

spre ad ing of the fever of Liberal ism , and was project ing an in te rference i n Span ish affai rs . Canning ’s i nstruct ions to Wel l ingtonrequi red a frank and peremptory declarat ion at the Congress thatthe Bri t ish sovereign would not be a party to any such i n trus ion onthe affai rs of the Span ish nation . This u tterance preven ted theCongress from adopting any measure host i l e to the Span iards , andwas a decide d success for the new system of our Fore ign O ffice .

When , i n the spring of Fre nch troops crossed the front ier toaid Ferd inand against h i s revolted subjects , Cann ing, i n the Houseof Commons , gave an emphatic warni ng as to B ri tish action indefence of Portugal , i f she were i nvolved , and let events take the i rcourse i n Spain . The French intervent ion had been welcome d bythe clergy and a large part of the people , and the Spanish sovereignwas enabled to overthrow the Liberals, and to resume h is rule asan absolute monarch . When i t appe ared that F rance was wish ingto subj ugate the Span ish revol ted colon ies i n South America, e itherfor Spai n or for her own aggrand izement , Cann ing at once i nte rvened with decis ive effect . “We wil l not perm i t ” , he declared tothe French government, any th i rd power to attack or reconquerthose colon ies for Spain . I t was two years late r, i n 18 2 5 , thatCanning, i n defend ing h imsel f agai nst party- attacks for not havinggone to war i n behal f of the Span ish Liberals

,pointed to h i s action

in regard to the South American colon ies . “ I resolved , he sa id ,“ that i f F rance had Spain i t should not be Spain wi th the I ndies .I cal led the N ew World in to existence

,to redress the balance of the

O ld . I n February, 18 2 5 , the royal speech v i rtual ly recogn izedthe new South American republ ics

,and treaties of am ity and

commerce were concl uded with those countries . The great m in iste r,at the close of 18 26 , amply and nobly redeemed h is undertak ingin behal f of Portugal . I t was on Friday , December 8th , that ourGovernment rece ived a letter from the Princess- Regent , earnestly


un ion wi th N orway, suffered the loss of F inland , after muchwarfare, a t the hands of her powerful and unscrupulous neighbour.The question of securi ty for Sweden and N orway against Russiawas re opened by the Crimean War. The great northern Power

,

always eager for extens ion of her vast terri to ri es , and especial lydesi rous of obtain ing outle ts on unfrozen seas, had long cast theeyes of ambit ious greed westwards from the Gulf of Fi nland . Thecession of Fin land

,i n 1809, had given Russia possession of the

group call ed the A land I slands , at the entrance of the Gulf ofBothn ia

,the largest of them , A land , bei ng only abou t 2 5 miles

d istant from the coast of Sweden . The Emperor N icholas thereconstructed s trong fort ificat ions at Bomarsund

,and th is pos t

,from

i ts contigui ty to Stockholm , made the Russian occupation a di rectmenace to the Swedish capi tal . I n 1854, the guns, sai lo rs andmarines of the Anglo - French fleet i n the Bal ti c were u seful lyemployed i n the captu re and destruction of the Russ ian works

,and

Sweden was thus rel ieved from imm inen t peri l . The Treaty ofS tockholm , concl uded i n N ovember, 18 5 5 , between Great B ri tain ,Sweden and France, was a document of special importance to th i scountry and to Sweden . Russ ia had long aimed at obtain ing afoothold on the A tlant ic shore of N orway , with the v iew of erecti nga naval fortress , a northern Sebastopol , i n that quarter. Thes in iste r sign ificance of her action i n the north -west of E u ropeattracted the attention of Bri t i sh and French diplomacy , and thet ime for dec is ive action came when i t was found that Russ ians tatesmen

,by threats , tempting offers , and cajol eries , were striv ing

to induce th e Swedish monarch to give thei r country a sl igh t stripof terri tory

,

“merely for a fi sh ing stat ion ” , on Varanger Fiord ,north of Lapland . This speciou s request covered a des ign of

creeping westwards to the At lant ic , and was now deal t wi th bythe al l ied Western Powers . The Treaty bound the Scandinav iangovernment not to cede to Russia, nor al low her to occupy , anyport ion of terri tory belong i ng to the c rown of Sweden andN orway ,

.nor to concede any rights of pastu rage , or any fish ingground

,on any port ion of the N orwegian coast . I f any such pro

posi tion were made, i t was to be at once commun icated to th eBrit i sh and French governments

,who undertook , for thei r parts ,

to prov ide naval and m i l i tary forces for resistance to any act ofaggress ion .

FORE IGN POLICY AND WARS IN EUROPE. 2 1 1

The regeneration and un ificat ion of I taly const i tute one of thegreate s t E urope an events , and the greatest tri umph of the principleof nat ional i ty

,known to the n ineteen th centu ry. I n 18 1 5 , that

h istorical,beauti ful and hapless pen insula was left d is integrated

,

parcel le d out among d ivers possessors , monarchs and petty sovereigns mostly al ien to I taly i n race and speech , wi th rights of possess ion derived only from conquest i n the days of I tal ian degeneracy

,

disun ion and seemingly hopeless decay. The K ing of Sard i n iaruled i n the great i sland of that name , and i n P iedmont, Savoy andGenoa. The hated Austrian was master i n Venetia and Lombardy .

I n dependence on the German power, Tuscany, Lucca, Parma andMode na were subject to as many dukes or grand- dukes . I n centralI taly

,the Pope held sway over the S tates of the Church . The

Bourbon sovereign of “ the Two S icilie s played the tyrant in thekingdom of N aples, extend ing to the southern extrem ities of theland

,and i n the splend id is land cu t off by the S trai t of Messi na .

A desi re for un ion and independence ex isted i n the hearts ofthe people of I taly, and th e governments at N aples and othercentres of tyranny were i n cont inual confl i ct w i th secret pol i t icalsocieti es

,such as that whose members were cal led Ca r l onar i ,

charcoal - burners from the ch ief occupation of the people i n theAbruzz i

,a rugged district of the cen tral Apenn ines

,where thei r

fi rs t associat ion was founded , i n 1 808 , by republ icans from Naples .A fter th e Bourbon restorat ion i n 18 1 5 , th i s society reached i tsh ighest point of development, and i ncluded pri ests, army- officers ,

Charles A lbert (afterwards K ing of Sardi n ia), Lord Byron , theh is torical prisoner S i lv io Pel l i co, and the noble patriot Mazz in i .The organ ization , i n 1 8 20 ,

probably numbered hal f a m il l ion ofpe rsons , compris i ng most of the patriot ism and i ntel l igence of theland . The strength of revolutionary I taly , i n th is form , was brokenthrough the fai l ure o f ris ings i n 18 20 and 182 1 , and despot ic rulebecame more rigorous than ever .

A fter the French Revolution of 1830 , i nsurrect ions took placei n Modena, Parma and Bologna, but they were suppressed byAustrian troops

,and then Giuseppe Mazzin i, a native of Genoa , of

h igh education and attai nments , formed the organ izat ion known asYoung I taly ”

. I n the journal sent forth from hi s head- quartersat M arse il l es , he cal l ed for a popular i nsurrect ion and the un ion ofal l the separate states i nto one powerful national ity. Expelled in


tu rn from France and Switzerland,Mazzin i took refuge i n England ,

and l ived a l i fe of poverty in London from 184 1 to 1848 , doinggood by educat ing h is neglected young countrymen , the organboys, i n n ight- classes , and carrying on an act iv e correspondencewi th the patriots of I taly . I t i s at th is poin t that th e cause ofI tal ian freedom comes fi rst i nto d i rect con tact w ith the action ofB ri ti sh statesmen , and , i n th is i nstance , greatly to thei r d isgrace .

I n 1844, the Earl of Aberdeen was Foreign S ecretary, and S irJ ames Graham held charge of the Home O ffice , i n the m in i stry ofS i r Robert Peel . I n an ev i l hou r for thei r own fame, these meny ielded to appl ication s from the N eapol i tan and Austrian governments, and , for the space of four months , sanct ioned the secretopeni ng of letters at the postoffice i n London , i ncl ud ing those ofMazz in i , and of several members of Parl iame nt and other Engl ishmen who were known to sympath i ze wi th the cause of I tal ian freedom and un i ty . The I tal ian patriot took the matter up , and i t wasbrought forward i n the H ouse of Commons by M r. Duncombe ,M.P. for Finsbu ry , whom we have seen as a stu rdy Radical i nbehal f of the fi rs t Reform Bil l . He was supported by his col league ,Mr. Wakley

,by M r. J oseph H ume and other Liberals , and Mazz i n i

’

scharge of detain ing and opening letters , reseal i ng them i n such away as to avoid detection , and then forward i ng them to the i raddress

,was ful ly proved . Legal power for th i s action was claimed

under statu tes of Queen Anne and George the Th ird ; but publ icd isgust was aroused by such a system of espionage , and th i s fee l ingwas deepened into horror wh ich spread through the c iv i l i z ed worldwhen i t was found that the two Bri t ish offic ial s had , by the information which was given to the N eapol i tan pol ice , caused the

deaths of two young I tal ian patriots . A tt i l i o and Emil io Bandiera ,young Venetian s of high bi rth , devoted to what they, and assu redlymost Engl i shmen , held to be the good cause of freedom , wereentrapped from thei r refuge at Corfu to N aples , and Shot i n J uly,1844, with seven of thei r comrades , c rying “ Viva l’Italia ! wi ththei r last breath of l i fe . Lord Aberdeen , during the i nvestigationmade by committees of both Houses , was gu i l ty of del iberate publ i cfalsehood , and S i r J ames Graham was forced to apologize i n theCommons for the cal umn ies wh ich he had utte red agai nst Mazz in i .As that great and good man has been , at various t imes , mal igne dby other Engl ishmen , we may quote in h i s favou r the tes t imony .


i n i n iqu i ty than the worst j ud icial wickedness of our S tuart days ,these v ictims were l inked toge ther by pai rs wi th chains that werenever removed by day or by n ight. On h is return to E ngland

,

after a carefu l i nqu i ry i n to the whole system of N eapol i tan m isrule , Mr . Gladstone , i n two letters addressed to Lord Abe rde en ,arraigned the tyrant and h is i nstruments before the judgment- barof the c iv i l ized world and of h istorical records . He proved , withthe utmost cogency of testimony, i l l us trat ion and argument , thattheir system was a v iolation of every law, unwritten and eternal ,human and div ine ; a wholesal e persecut ion of combined inte lligence and v irtue ; a bi tter and cruel hosti l i ty to al l real l i fe , movement, progress and improvement i n the nat ion ; an awful profanation of publ ic rel igion , by i ts notorious all iance, i n the govern ingpowers , with the v iolation of every moral rule ; a perfect prost i tut ion of the j udic ial office i n the reception

,as testimony

,of the

v i lest forgeries , wi l ful ly got up by the adv isers of the crown inorder to destroy the peace , the freedom and even the l i fe of menwho were amongst the most v i rtuous

,upright

,i n tel l igen t

,d isti n

g uished and refined of the whole communi ty . N ever was ind ictmen t of any human rule , here j ustly denounced as “ the negation ofGod erected i nto a system of government ” , more tremendous ; a ndnever was proof more conv i ncing and complete . The personsassai led by Mr . Gladstone

’

s bu rn ing words were fool i sh enough toattempt repl i es which left M r. Gladstone’s case whol ly untouched .

The atti tude and action and speech of Lord Palmerston i n th i smatter d id the h ighest honour to h imself and the B ri t i sh nationand government wh ich he represen ted . I n reply to a quest ionaddressed to h im in the House of Commons on J uly 1 7th , 185 1 ,

he stated , fi rs tly , his Opi n ion that Mr . Gladstone’s energeti c and

unselfish conduct , i n search ing out the gross abuses wh ich he hadexposed , had done himself very great honour, and , secondly, thathe had sent copies of the pamphlet contain i ng h i s letters to theBri t i sh m in isters i n the various courts of E urope, d i rec ting themto give a copy to each government, i n the hope that they m ightuse thei r i nfluence i n promoting a remedy for the evi ls described .

This statement was received with loud and general cheers . TheN eapol i tan envoy i n London afterwards sent one of the “ repl iesto Lord Palmerston , and requested him to send that also round tothe E uropean courts, but ou r Foreign Secretary decl i ned to g iv e

FORE IGN POL ICY AND WARS IN EUROPE. 2 15

his aid in c i rculating a composi tion which he described as only at issue of bare assert ion and reckless den ial , mixed up wi th coarseribaldry and commonplace abuse of publ ic men and pol i t ical parties ” .

He then proceeded to give a severe lecture , th rough th e envoy, tothe N eapol i tan monarch and h is adv isers , warn ing them of thecertai n consequences Of “ long- conti nued and wide- spread injust ice The recipien ts of h i s d iscourse were pas t al l shame and all

reformation , but th e moral effect of the Whole affai r was very greati n securing the sympath ies both of the B ri t ish people and theB ri tish rulers wi th I tal ian efforts towards freedom . Abundanthelp , both in purse and person , came from E ngl i sh me n andwomen , at a later time, as private supporters of that noble cause.The doing of the work does not d ire c tly concern B ri t i sh h istory,

but we here give the facts i n the briefest outl i ne. The K ing ofSardin ia’s ch ief min is ter, Count Cavou r, one of the greatest ofmodern statesmen , had l ived for years i n E ngland , where he hadthoroughly learned the pri ncipl es and pract ice of const i tutionalgovernment . A fter doing wonders for the trade , commerce andfinance of the country

,he proceeded to carry out h is far- reach ing

plans for the un ificat ion of I taly under the rule of h is master,Victor Emanuel , a bluff, brave monarch of straightforward andsteadfas t character, cal led by h is subjects Il Re

’

Ga lantuomo,

“ thehonest ki ng ”

, i n contrast with the pe rfidious despot Ferdinand ofN aples . I n J anuary

,185 5 , Cavour, by a master- stroke of pol icy,

brought h is country before the world i n an honourable way, andestabl ished a claim on the sympathy and serv ice of Great Bri tai nand France . The al l ied armies encamped before Sebastopol wereat that t ime short of men , and i n a posi tion of discouragement andd ifficul ty. The I tal ian statesman made an offer which was readi lyaccepted , and on the House of Commons voting an advance of amil l ion pounds he despatched to the Crimea a wel l- equipped forceof men , under the command of Gene ral La Marmora .

These sold iers , i n August, 185 5 , fought with disti ngui shed gal lantryand success at the s ide of the French i n the battle of the Tchernaya or Trakt i r B ridge

,and aided i n the dec is ive repulse of

Russ ians . When the war had ended , Cavour, admi tted to a seatat the Congress of Pari s i n 1856 , brought before the representat ive s of the Powers the unhappy condi tion of h is countrymen outs ide P iedmont and Sardin ia

,and denounced Austria as the arch


enemy of I tal ian i ndependence . A due impress ion was made, andin 1859 Cavour

’

s efforts to embroi l Austria wi th F rance werecrowned with success . The Franco-A ustrian war gave Lombardy,as far as Peschiera and Mantua , to V ictor Emanuel , and the sameyear saw him master of the duch ies of Tuscany, Parma andModena, and of Bologna, i n the Papal S tates . I n 1860 , the swordof Garibaldi

,an ideal hero and patriot, aided the Sardinia i i army in

conquering the ki ngdom of N aples , after h is vol unteers had driventhe N eapol i tan king’s troops out of S ic i ly. The Papal domin ions ,except the c ity of Rome , held by a F rench garrison , were annexed ,and before h is death , i n J une , 186 1 , Cavou r saw Victor EmanuelK ing of I taly reign ing over al l the land except Venetia and thec ity of Rome , with a smal l terri tory around i t. I n al l these latertransact ions Cavour had been aided , agains t F rench jealousy andAustrian hosti l i ty, by the powerful moral support of th e B ri t ishgovernment

,represented by Lord Palmerston , who was Premier,

and Lord John Russel l , the Foreign S ecretary . The complet ionof I tal ian un ity was effected by the cession of Venetia from Austriaafter the Austro - Prussian war of 1866 and the occupat ion of Romeby I tal ian troops i n October, 1870 , when the downfal l of Lou i sN apoleon had removed the French garrison . I n J une, 187 1 , thecapital was transferred from Florence to Rome , and I taly assumedher ful l pos i t ion as the s ixth great Power of E urope .

The modern kingdom of Greece i s one whose establ i shment,

with the freedom of her people from Turk ish m isru le , i s largelydue to B ri t i sh i ntervention , sympathy and aid . The Greeks , from145 3 t i l l 18 2 1 , were under the rule of Turkey . I n March of thelatter year a ris ing took place under a leader named Yps i lanti , andthe desperate struggle made for i ndependence incl uded the nobleefforts of Bozzaris, Constan t ine Kanari s , and Mavrocordato, andsoon aroused E uropean sympath ies . Lord Byron joined them i n18 2 3, and aided them with money and counsel unti l h i s death atM issolongh i i n Apri l , 18 24. The great B rit ish seaman , LordCochrane

,helped the patriots to organ ize thei r fleet , which was

handled with great sk i l l and valour. Kings and people subscribedmoney for the redemption of Greek captives , and the support ofGreek outcasts , and , i n spite of al l proh ibit ions of governments,many volunteers from France

,England

,I taly and Germany sought


the independence of Greece. Great B ri ta in , France and Russ iadecided on the form of government for the new state , and , afte r thec rown had been decl ined by Pri nce J oh n of Saxony , and by Leopold of Saxe-Coburg

,widower of our Princess Charlotte , and after

wards k ing of th e Belgians , i t was final ly conferred on O tho , aBavarian prince, who became K ing of Greece i n 1832 . He ruledi n a tyrann ical way

,and fi l l ed the government wi th h is German

friends , causing a rebel l ion to break ou t i n 1843. He then grante da consti tut ional form of rule, but n ever became popular.I n 1850 , Greece became embroi led with Great B ri tai n on a

matter which seemed of trifl i ng moment, but Lord Palmerston ,then at the head of the Foreign O ffi ce for h i s second term , wasplayi ng another part than merely bul ly ing, as h i s enemies affi rmed ,a nation that could not dream of res i st i ng Bri t ish arms . Thegovernment of G reece was be ing secretly supported by Franceboth i n m isrule at home

,and in certai n arbi trary and i rri tat ing acts

towards B ri t i sh subj ects , i n cluding the boat ’s crew of one of ou rmen - of- war. Palmerston resolved to make an end of th is , when h isopportun i ty came, and he found i t when the Greek rulers decl inedto pay compensat ion for i nj uries done by an A then ian mob

,i n

Apri l , 1847, to the property of Don Pacifico , a J ew of Portugueseorigin

,whose bi rth at G ibral tar made h im a Bri t ish subject .

There i s no doubt that th is man was a greedy rascal c laim ing fortyt imes h is due , but at the close of 1849 Palmers ton , seeing beh indGreek res is tance the stimulati ng action of both French and Russ iand iplomacy

,carried matters with a h igh hand . I n J anuary

, 1 850 ,

the B rit ish fleet, under Admiral Parker, went to the P i raeus , theport of A thens, and on further refusal to settl e the cla ims wi th intwenty- four hours , the port was blockaded and Greek men - of- warand merchantmen were seized . After much d iplomacy betweenGreat B ri tai n and France , the Greek government y ielded i n Apri l ,and the French min istry, angered by thei r vai n attempts to havea hand i n the settlement, recal led thei r ambassador, M . Drouyn deL

’

Huys . Assai led in the House of Commons by a formidablecoal i t ion , i ncl ud ing Peel i tes headed by S i r J ames Graham , Palmerston won a s ignal triumph by a speech of five hours ’ duration , i nwhich he went straight to the heart of the House by his avoweddeterm ination to prote c t our subj ects i n all lands by “ the watchfuleye and the strong arm of England ” . A majori ty of forty - seven ,

FORE IGN POLICY AND WARS IN EUROPE .2 19

i n a d iv is ion of nearly 600 members , was thus gained for the

min istry headed by Lord J ohn Russel l , who ful ly supported h iscoHeague .

I n 186 2 ,the Greek people could no longer endure the rul e of

K ing O tho,and he was forced to abdi cate . The th rone was offered

fi rst to ou r Pri nce A l fred , afterwards Duke of Edinburgh , and nowDuke of Saxe - Coburg-Gotha , but was wisely decl ined , on h i sbehal f

,by the Queen and min istry, and i t was accepted i n March ,

186 3, by Prince George of Denmark , brother of the lady who hadjust be come Princess of Wales . He has si nce held the throne formore than th i rty years , and governed well as a consti tut ional sovere ign . I n 1864, Great B ri tai n res igned the protectorate of theI on ian I slands , and they were , greatly to the sat isfaction of thepeople

,annexed to Greece . I n 1870 , the k ing and al l good ci tizens

of Greece were horrified by the murder, at and near Marathon ,wi thin a few miles of the capital , of a party of B rit ish tourists ,i n clud ing M r . Herbert , a brother of the Earl of Carnarvon . Thecriminals were brigands , a class of men with whom the country hadlong been infested , so that i t was imposs ible to v i s i t safely many ofthe historical scenes of the class ic land . The inc ide nt caused a closepursui t , and the capture and execut ion of se veral of the band , andsince that t ime persistent efforts have cleared the country of thosepests of pe acefu l traffic and travel . From time to t ime , the influence of Great B ri tain has been useful ly employed i n preventingGreece from embarking on dangerous confl ict wi th Turkey , mainlyi n connection with chron ic i nsurrection i n Cand ia

,the anc ie nt

Crete , due to Turki sh misrule, and the de s i re of th e people for

political un ion with Greece . I n 188 1 , the k ingdom obtai ned a verysubstantial and useful access ion of terri tory i n Thessaly and partof Epi rus

,a boon largely due to the B ri tish gove rnment , which

brought the pressure of the Powers to bear upon Turkey i n accordance wi th suggestions in the Treaty of Berl i n

The flourish ing l i ttl e realm of Belgium is another of the m i norE uropean states owing i ts independent existence to the diplomati caction of the v igi lant and energeti c Palmerston , during his fi rstterm of office as Foreign Secre tary . We have seen that, by theE uropean settlement of 18 1 5 , Holland and the Austrian N etherlands had been formed into one state as the “ Kingdom of the


N etherlands This s tep soon proved to be a m istaken pol icy.

The southern N etherlands were an agricul tu ral and manufacturingcountry , and most of the people were Roman Cathol ics . Hollandwas commerc ial

,mari time

,and ch iefly Lutheran i n rel igion . I n

the parl iament th ree d i fferent languages were spoken— French,

Flem ish and Dutch,— and the members could not readi ly under

stand each other in debate . There was thus a d ivergence ofmaterial and rel igious i n terests

,combined wi th practical and adm ini

s tra tive difficul ti es,and the people of the southern prov inces S t rongly

des i red a separation . The revolut ion of J uly, 1830 , i n Paris , wasas flame to tow in the neighbouring country, and a revol t brokeou t, i n which the volunteers of Liege, Tournay , and Mons weresal uted by the Flem ish i nsurgen ts as Belgians ” , according to theancient name of J ulius Caesar

’s day, and th i s was taken as thepatriot i c designation of the revol ted people . The D utch t roopswere dri ven from Brussels

,and the ci tadel of A ntwerp was reduced

by the vertical shel l -fire of a Fre nch force under Marshal Ge’

rard,

a Napole on i c veteran of Austerl i tz . A congress of the Powersassembled i n London , and the cause of Belgium was warmlyembraced by Lord Palmerston , who succeeded i n overcomingres istance i n Parl iament, i n i nduc ing the French government towithdraw thei r troops without claim ing any terri torial advan tage

,

and in gain ing the consen t of the Powers to the construction of thenew kingdom . I n December, 1 830 , the separation of Belgium wasre cognized as an accompl ished fact , and i n J une , 18 3 1 , afte r thecrown had been offered to and decl i ned by the D uc de N emours ,

a son of Lou is Ph il ippe, the new king of the French , Leopold ofSaxe- Coburg became sovereign of the new state , and reigned forthi rty- fou r years of progress and prosperi ty . Great Bri tain wasagain closely concerned i n the i nterests of Belgium at the t ime ofthe Franco - German war. The cyn ical candour of the Prussianm in ister B i smarck revealed a project, i n J uly, 1870, by wh ich theFrench ambassador at Berl i n , M . Benedetti , had proposed , i n thename of h is government, to obtai n possession of Belg i um forFrance i n exchange for certain concessions to be made to theGerman Power. The independence of Belgium was a ch ief andtradit ional poin t i n ou r fore ign pol icy , and Lord Granv il le,Foreign Secretary i n M r. Gladstone ’s fi rst m in ist ry , took Up thematter w ith a prompti tude and v igour corresponding to the indig


The affai rs of Spain , during th is period, drew Brit ish soldiersi n to the field . I n 1830 , Ferd inand the Seventh of Spain , underthe influence of h is wi fe, Maria Christ i na, a Bourbon of Naples ,abol ished the law wh ich excluded females from the throne, and thesuccess ion thus passed from his brother, Don Carlos, to h is i n fantdaughter I sabel la . On the death of Ferd i nand , i n 1833 , a terriblec ivi l war broke out, and the rival names of Carl is ts and Chris t inosresounded throughout E urope . A body of B ri t i sh troops , cal ledthe “ Span ish Legion ” , under Colonel S i r De Lacy E vans , foughtfor the young queen agai nst the Carl i sts i n the Basque country ofnorthern Spai n during 1835

-

37. Some bri l l ian t successes weregained , especial ly i n the s torm ing of the Carl is t l i nes near SanSebastian , and the war ended , i n 1840 , with the success of thequeen ’s party . Both there and i n Portugal there was a troubledt ime fo r many years, with occasional armed outbre aks, and , i n1868, a revolution wh ich drove I sabel la from Spain . AnotherCarl is t c i vi l war arose i n 1 872 , when Amadeus of Savoy was k ing,and h is abdication i n 1 873 was fol lowed by the establ i shment of arepubl ic , and severe fight ing against the Carl is ts i n the north .

I n none of these matters d id Bri tish statesmen act ively i ntervene .

They had unconsciously adopted the v iews of M r. Cobden , asexpressed i n 1 847, that

“ al l attempts of E ngland to control ori nfl uence the destin ies , pol i t ical and social , of Spai n are worse thanuse le ss . They are m isch ievous al ike to Span iards and Engl i shmen .

”

The growi ng d istaste of the B ri t ish publ i c for i nterference i nforeign affai rs where i n Brit ish i nterests are not d i rectly concernedwas i ncreased by the somewhat ignomin ious issue of two suchattempts made by Earl Russel l

,when he was at the head of the

Foreign O ffice from 1 8 59 to 186 5 . I n 185 2 , a “ Treaty ofLondon after the Schleswig- Holste i n war

,had guaranteed the

i ntegri ty of the Dan ish monarchy . I n 1 863, Pruss ia and A ustri ai nterfered , on the death of the Dan ish king , and demanded fromthe new sovereign , Christ ian IX .

,the w ithd rawal of arrangements

granting a form of sel f-government for H ols tein . B ismarck andth e Austrian m in iste r we re merely pick ing a quarrel , with a v iewto the incorporat ion of the terri tori es of Schleswig and Holste i ni n the German ic Confederation . The l i ttle country was i nvaded i noverwhelming force, and the fortress of Duppel was stormed , after

FORE IGN POL I CY AND WARS IN EUROPE . 223

a gal lant defence by the Danish troops . Accord ing to the treatyof 185 2 , i t was the plai n duty of F rance and th is country to takeup arms i n defence of Denmark , but Lord Russel l merely cal leda Conference i n London , which began i ts s i tt ings i n May , 1864.

The Prussian envoy repudiated the arrangements of 185 2 , as beingannul led by war . France and Great B ri tai n held to the Treaty ofLondon

,but would not fight for i t , and Lord Russel l meekly

suggested that Denmark should cede absol utely H olstein , Lauenburg, and the southern or German part Of Schleswig . The Daneswere thus le ft helpless , and the re newal of war caused thei r loss ofthe whole terri tory i n di spute .

During the Pol ish i nsurrect ion of 186 3 , caused by Russ iantyranny, Lord Russel l , wi thout the i n tent ion , or the least opportunity, of employing force, had taken upon h imse l f to go back tothe Vienna Treat ies of 18 1 5 , and requ i re Russia to grant to Polanda national consti tu t ion . The Russ ian m in ister, Pri nce A l exanderGorts chakoff, a d iplomati st and statesman of h igh abi l i ty, repudiatedall B ri t i sh claims to i nterfere i n the i nternal affai rs of Russ ia, andpracti cal ly told Lord Russel l to m ind h i s own bus iness .The Eastern Question , which means , decaying Turkey and

e ver-growing, aggress ive Russ ia, i s the one matter on which theforeign pol icy of Great B ri tain has been concentrated , during thelatte r hal f of the n ineteenth century, whenever ou r d iplomacy hasbeen employed i n a form that led to , or that threatened , act ive andforc ible i nterposi tion . Bri t i sh in terests are v i tal ly i nvolved inmatters wh ich concern our empi re i n the East, and our roadth ither by the M edi terrane an Sea and the Suez Canal . I n trac ingbriefly the h istory of affai rs connected with th is quest ion , we shal lsee that i t real ly d iv ides i tsel f i nto two parts . On the one hand ,we have the i ncessant decl i ne of Turkish power, and the recu rri ngd im inution of Turkish terri tory i n the loss of prov inces th roughrevol t i nduced by persistent and incu rabl e m isrule . On the otherhand, we find the systematic and often successful attempts ofRussia to i ncrease her own terri tory , both i n E u rope and i n As ia,at the expense of the O ttoman empi re . The keys to Russ ianintrigue, diplomacy, and aggress ion , so far as E urope i s concerned ,l i e i n the two words

,

“ Cons tantinOple”

, and “ Medite rraneanOn both fanat ical and ambit ious grounds , Russ ia eagerly des i res topossess the former capi tal of the Greek or Eastern Empire . For


ambit ious reasons alone, and with a v iew to naval developmen t,she des i res a free ou tle t to the great southern sea of E urope .The Eastern question may be regarded as fi rs t opened i n 1 774

by the Peace of Kainardji, i n Bulgaria , which gave to Russ ia , afte ra war wi th Turkey, the ch ief ports on the Sea of Azov , free nav igation of the B lack Sea, a free passage to the Mediterranea nthrough the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles , and , more than all , theprotectorsh ip over al l the Greek Christians w i th i n the Turkishempire . The Christ ian ity of Russ ia was rece ived from Constant inople at the close of the tenth century . A t the m iddle of thefifteenth century

,Constant inopl e was captured by the Turks .

Before the close of that cen tury , I van I I I . freed Russia fromTartar dominat ion

,and i t was he who, married to the n iece of the

las t Byzanti ne emperor, or Greek ruler at Constant i nople , i n troducedi nto the Russian coat- of- arms the double- headed eagle of her house .

Russ ia was henceforth devoted to the task of restori ng the fallenG reek Church at the olden centre of that fai th , and of changing thecrescen t for the cross on the mosque of S t . Soph ia . I n 1 792 , theTreaty of J assy, i n Moldav ia, near the river Pruth , confi rmedRuss ia i n the possess ion of the Crimea, and the fortress ofSebas topol , or “ City of the Cza r

”

, began to rise, on a fine naturalharbour, as a mari t ime arsenal giv ing i ts possessors a commandof the B lack Sea . The other powers of E urope began to lookaskance at Russ ia , France and E ngland hav ing heed to theMediterranean , and Austria to her Danubian trade . The Peace ofBucharest , now the capi tal of Rouman ia , i n 18 1 2 , advanced theRuss ian front ier to the Pr

’

uth and to the northern mouth of theDanube . The Treaty of Adrianople , i n 1829, besides acknow ledgi ng, as we have seen , the independence of Greece, gave to theambitious and strong-willed Czar N icholas the protectorate ofMoldav ia and Wallach ia , from wh ich Turks were henceforthexcl uded as res idents . I n 1833, by g iv ing a id to Tu rkey again stI brah im Pasha , an adopted son of Meheme t A l i , th e v iceroy ofEgypt , who had revolted from Turkey and conquered Syria , Russ ia ,i n the famous Treaty of Unkiar Ske le s s i , engaged the Porte , orTurkish government , to close th e Dardanel les , i n case of need , tothe sh ips of al l foreign powers . Constant i nople was thus la id opento attack from the B lack Sea squadrons of Russ ia , whi le al l helpfrom the nations of western E urope was to be excluded at th e


March , on the v i rtual refusal of Russia to wi thdraw her troopsagain beyond the Pruth , the two western Powers declared waragainst Russ ia . On the Danube, the Russ ian forces were comple te ly beaten by the Turks, without any help from the Frenchand Bri t i sh arm ies sent out to thei r support.The Crimean War brought no advantage to Great Bri ta in

beyond the demonstration of what was already known,that the

B ri t ish and I rish troops are men unsurpassed i n the h is tory of theworld both for daring attack and for heroi c resi stance againstn umerical ly superior forces . A splend id army

,the finest i n

physi cal qual i t ies that eve r le ft ou r shores , and nearly seventym il l ions of money, were sacrificed wi thout any permanent benefi te i ther to th i s count ry or to Turkey . We shal l here only touch onthe main i nc idents of the struggle that took place i n the Crimea

,

the peninsu la lying on the north of the Black Sea . The capture ofSebastopol became the obj ect of the al l i es , afte r they had lostlarge ly by cholera and fevers i n the arm ies encamped on the westcoast o f the E uxi ne . O n S eptember 2o th, 18 54,

betweenand troops

,of whom one - hal f were Bri ti sh , drove the

Russians from the heights above the l i ttle river A lma, as theyblocked the road from our landing- place, E upatoria , on the westcoast of the Crimea, southwards to the great fortress lyi ng a fewm iles east of Cape Khe rs one se , near the south -western extremity

of_ the pen insula . The Bri ti sh commander, Lord Raglan , a \Vaterloo veteran

,wished to fol low up the v ictory by a rush upon the

forts on the north s ide of Sebastopol harbour . They were practical ly undefended

,and would have eas i ly fallen , and as thei r fi re

commanded the town and works on the sou thern s ide , the reduct ionof Sebastopol would have been an affai r of a few hours , or , at most ,of some days . I t i s only fai r to state that S t . A rnaud , the Frenchcommander

,was almost i n a dyi ng state after an attack of cholera,

and hi s obje ction caused Lord Raglan to yield the poin t . A flankmarch was made round to the south s ide of the place , which thefleeing Russians had j ust entered i n a s tate of d isorde r anddemoral i zat ion . An immediate attack on the works would havei nev i tably succeeded , but now S i r J ohn Burgoyne , the commanderof our engi neers , blocked the way , and another opportun i ty waslos t .

A formal s iege was begun,and i t was soon found that a form id

FORE IGN POLICY AND WARS IN EUROPE .227

able task confronted the all i ed armies . The Russ ians had menthat wel l knew the i r bus iness i n the persons of Colonel von

Todleben, an officer of engineers who chance d to be i n the town ,and of Korniloff, the admiral of the Russian fleet . The harbourmouth was blocked by the s inki ng of seven l i ne- of-battle sh ips ;the i r crews had been landed to reinforce the garrison ; the i r gunswere u sed to arm earthworks on the south s ide wh ich were raisedwi th wonderful energy and ski l l . I n a few days

,whi le the al l i es

were preparing for a bombardmen t, Sebastopol had been made, fora long t ime, impregnable . The fi rs t bombardment

,begun on

October 1 7th , was a fai lure . The French fi re was crushed by thatof the Russians ; -the attack of the fleets on the Russian forts at theentrance of the harbour was decis ively repulsed wi th severe loss .Then came Russ ian attempts to raise the siege by attacks from

the e xterior, i nvolv ing the famous caval ry- actions of Balaklava

(October 2 5 th) , and the battl e of I nkerman on N ovember 5 th, anaction i n wh ich about 9000 Bri t ish in fantry, bearing the ch ief sharei n repel l ing the attacks , during eight or n ine hours, of five timesthe number of Russians, gained a glory unequal led i n the whole ofthei r records. Here again

,a lack of enterprise in the French com

mander, Canrobert, who had succeeded St. A rnaud , caused a grandopportun i ty to be thrown away . The enemy were ret i ring i nsul len mood , dismayed by the repulse wh ich had caused them aloss of one- th i rd of thei r force . The Bri t ish troops were exhansted by thei r efforts , but there were 6000 Frenchmen on theground who had scarcely fi red a shot , and Lord Raglan urged animmediate and close pursui t, which would have turned repulse forthe Russ ians in to utter rout, and have ensured the capture of everygun of the i r nume rous arti l lery. Canrobert, a skil led tact ic ian , butno man for such a t ime , thought “ enough had been done ” , anddecl i ned to fol low up the success ach ieved .

I nkerman was fol lowed by the terribl e and historical Crimeanwinter

,duri ng which our troops

,i l l- shel tered

,i l l - fed , i l l - clothed , and

overworked,perishe d by thousands i n the trenches and i n camp .

The s ick and wounded i n the hospi tals at Scutari , near Constan t inOple , happi ly came under the charge of a body of volunteer ladynurses from E ngland

,headed by M iss Florence N igh tingale , a

Hampsh i re lady of h igh accompl ishments , who had for ten yearsdevoted her abil i t ies to the art of nurs ing . She had v is i ted and


i nspected hundreds of E uropean c iv i l and m i l i tary hospi tals,and

had acqui red a knowledge of san i tary needs and systems that,

combined with her i ntense devotion to the work of al lev iatinghuman suffering, acqui red for her immortal renown . I n a fewmonths after her arrival at Scutari she had S ick andwounded men under her care . Early i n 185 5 , she was s trickendown wi th fever caused by excess ive anx iety and toi l

,but she

would not qu i t her pos t unt i l the country was evacuated by Bri t ishtroops at the close of the war.The sufferi ngs of the B ri t i sh troops were mainly due to the

breaking down of a m il i tary admin i stration wh ich had never bee nwell o rgan ized for war as regarded the supply of necessaries andthe tendance of the d isabled . The ci rcumstances of the campaignand the local i ty did the rest of the m isch ief. A parade of war

,

i nvolv ing one battle, and the immediate fal l of the Russ ian fortre ss ,had been the programme of the al l ied generals , and i n the fatalW i nter of 1854, the B ri t ish troops found themselves from seven toten m i les , accord ing to the i r pos i t ion , from our base of Operationsat Balaklava Harbou r, with no proper road , but what was often asea of mud, or a depth of snow, between themselves and thesuppl ies brought into the harbour from England and othe r sourcesof help . Want of transport for the men e ngaged , and lack of menfor the warl ike work i n hand , were the e vi l s that caused m isery andloss arous ing wrath at home . The min istry was defeated

,by an

immense majori ty, i n the House of Commons , i n res i st i ng a motionfor a committee of i nqu i ry in to the condi tion of the army beforeSebastopol

,and Lord Palmerston , i n February, 185 5 , became

prime - min ister. A rai lway was made early i n the spring fromBalaklava to the camp , and rei n forcements of men , with abundantsuppl i es of every kind , put a new aspect on affai rs . The bombardment of the Russian works on the southern s ide was vigorously resumed i n Apri l , and the s i ege-works were pushed nearer to the foe .

A th i rd bombardment took place early i n J une , and some importan toutworks were captured

,bu t the fi rst assaul t, made on J une i 8 th,

after a fourth bombardment,was repulsed by the Russ ians , and,

ten days later,Lord Raglan died , and was succeeded by a wholly

unfi t man,General S impson . The determ ined General Pe l i ss ie r

had replaced Canrobert i n the French command , and the Russ ianswere now headed by the resol ute Pri nce M ichael Gortschakoff,


Crimea , though better concealed than our own by the absence ofoutspoken agen ts of a free Press , had been very great , and Francehad no good reason for a conti nuance of the struggle. The Tre atyof Paris

,concl uded i n March , 18 5 6 , made the B lack Sea neutral ,

freely Open to al l mercanti l e marines , but closed to al l sh ips ofwar (save petty cruisers for revenue- purposes and coast- defe nceagains t p i rat ical attack) , not only of nations ou ts ide that area , butalso of Turkey and Russ ia . Turkey was admi tted to what may becal led th e “ comi ty of nat ions ” , and henceforth disputes betwe enthe Porte and any of the great Powers were to be referred to thei rj oin t dec is ion . The Christ ian subjects of the Sul tan were to beprotected by a firman or decree of thei r ruler’s volun tary i ssue, andRussian cla ims to i n terference were thereby annul led . The nav igat ion of the Danube was th rown open ; the pri ncipal i t i es on andnear that ri ver, Wallach ia and Moldav ia , were made pract ical lyi ndependen t under the suzerai nty of the Turk ish monarch . Animportan t change i n mari t ime law , not connected wi th the EasternQuest ion , was effected at the same t ime . Great Bri tai n , for herown probable advantage , yielded the claims wh i ch had , duringprev ious periods of warfare

,endangered peace between hersel f and

neutral mari t ime Powers . H enceforth , the neutral flag was toprotect al l goods carried at sea , except only stores known ascontraband of war ”

,and the property of neutral nations , even

under a hosti le flag, wi th the same exception , was not l iable tocapture . These concess ions

,which seemed to wrest from ou r

hands a ch i ef weapon for impai ring the resou rces of hosti l e nat ions ,were held , by Lord Palmerston , to be amply compensated by theabol i t ion of privateering, which would afford a n ew and greatsecuri ty, i n the event of war, to ou r world -wide commerce. TheU n i ted S tates alone decl ined to accede to thi s last arrangement ,on the ostens ible ground that the E u ropean Powers would notexempt private property from capture at sea . Deal ing i n orderwi th the ch ief terms of th i s t reaty

,as compared with the state of

th ings now existi ng we find that Russ ia , i n 1870 , takingadvantage of the Franco-German war then waging , declared thatshe would no longer be bound by that article of the Treaty of18 5 6 which neutral ized the Black Sea . Great Bri ta i n was notprepared to endeavour (alone) to enforce i t, and i n March , 1 87 1 ,

a Conference removed the clauses which closed the Black Sea to

FORE IGN POL ICY AND WARS IN EUROPE . 2 3 1

sh ips of war owne d by Turkey and Russ ia . The fleets of othernat ions were sti l l excluded by the closu re of the Dardanel les andBosphorus i n t ime of peace . The effe ct of th is change has beenthat Sebastopol , captured and destroyed at so vast an expendi tu reof money and human l ives , i s once more a mighty naval arsenaland fortress , and that Russ ia has agai n a Black Sea fleet to menacethe coasts of Turkey, and to bear down , when opportun i ty mayserve , on coveted Constant inople . As for the Christ ian subjects ofthe Porte , the Turkish governmen t has never even attempted tocarry out the obl igat ions imposed by the treaty, and the pre sen tcondi t ion of the Christ ians i n A rmen ia i s a terrible commentaryon Turkish prom ises and Turkish ru le . A fte r th e Russo- Turkishwar of 1877— 78, Roumania , composed of Wallachia and Moldav ia

,

became wholly i ndependen t of Turkey, and i n 1 88 1 rose from aprincipal i ty to a ki ngdom , under the rule of Carol (Charles) I. ,

aprince of the Prussian house of Hohenzol lern .

The las t s truggle between Russ i a and Turkey arose from aserious insu rrect ion i n the north-west of her E uropean terri tory,the prov i nce cal le d H erzegovina . The ri sing, due to Turkishtyran ny over Christ ians , occurred i n August, 1 875 , and soon spreadto the neighbouring Bosn ia. I n J uly , 1876 , Serv ia and Monteneg ro joi ned i n the contest for freedom , and the E asternQues tion was again before E urope i n a formidable shape . TheServ ian i nsu rrect ion , j o ined by many Russian volunteers , wasSuppressed by the Turkish troops . I n May, 1876 , th e atroc iousmassacres perpetrated i n Bulgaria, between Rouman ia and theBalkans, by the C ircassian and other i rregular lev ies of theSul tan , brought Russia i nto the field

,and her troops crossed the

fron t ie r i n Apri l, 1877. S ince the period of the Crimean War the

mil i tary strength of Russia had been vastly developed , and muchil l - handl ing of her forces

,save where Todleben, Skobe leff, and

Gourko we re i n charge,did not preven t her from overwhelm ing ,

at gre at cost to hersel f, the gal lan t defence made by the Turk isharm ie s . Avoid ing al l de ta i ls of the party- an imosi t ies wh ich ragedi n th is country

,making the Eastern Question a forbidden topic at

London dinner- tables,we proceed to record that i n the spring

of 1878 the Russ ian arm ies, vic torious over al l oppos i t ion , werealmost at the gates of Constanti nople . The government headedby Lord Beaconsfie ld took prompt measures , sending our Medite r


ranean fleet through th e Dardanel les to an anchorage i n the Seaof Marmora, but a few miles distant from the Turki sh capi tal .The progress of the Russians, i f i ndeed they had ever intended toenter Constanti nople

, was at once arrested , and the uselessness ofthe Crimean War was thoroughly proved . N o hos ti le power couldpossibly hold the Turkish capi tal u nder the guns of a Bri t i sh fl eet

,

which the Porte could always summon to her aid . I n J u ly , 1878 ,

the Treaty of Berl i n,conclude d at a Congress of the Powers, now

incl ud ing I taly,once more settled the perenn ial E astern Quest ion .

This instrument gave great advantages to Russia , i n the possessionof the powerfu l fortress of Kars , i n the north- east of As ia M inor

,

already taken by her troops , and of the port of Batoum , on theeastern coast of the B lack Sea . This country gained possession ofCyprus , under a tribute payable to the Sultan as suzerai n , and wewere bel i eved to have therei n obtained a valuable post for ou rpower in the Mediterranean

,and especial ly as regards the secu ri ty

of the Suez Canal . The Turkish empire was greatly contracted inE urope by the loss of Serv ia

,which became an i ndependen t

k ingdom ; of Bosn ia and H erzegovina, ceded to Austria ; of Monteneg ro , final ly released from Turkish claims ; of B ulgari a, northof the Balkans

,now becom ing a nom inal tributary, and real ly an

independent pri ncipal i ty . The cess ion of Thessaly and part ofEpi rus to Greece i n 1 88 1 has been al ready not iced . I n 1 885 , theterri tory south of th e Balkans known as E astern Roumel ia wasadded to Bulgaria, and the Sul tan

’s domin ions i n E urope were thu sreduced to the strip of terri tory south of the Balkans representingthe anc ient Thrace, Macedon ia , part of Epi rus, and I l lyria , betweenthe B lack Sea and the Adriatic .

2 34 OUR -EMPIRE AT HOME AND ABROAD.

party i n France, eager to espouse the cause of Meheme t A l i , wasenraged at the conven tion made by Palmerston with the two otherPowers . There was much talk on the Pari s bou levards of w arwith “

pe rfide A lb ion”

, but Loui s Phi l ippe was not prepared fors uch a course , and the res ignat ion of Th iers , who was succeeded byGu izot, al lowed France to joi n the other Powers i n the Treaty ofLondon , concluded i n J uly, 184 1 , which , as we have seen , settledTurkish affai rs for a time .

The Syrian war was a brief and decis ive contest . The B ri t i shfleet i n the M editerranean , a very powerfu l armament underAdmiral S i r Robert S topford and Commodore Charl es N apier,with a few Austrian and Turkish men - of—war carrying troops ,blockaded the Egyptian and Syrian ports . The Egypt ian sold ierswere driven from works along the coas t of Syria ; S idon wa s

s tormed , and the army of I b rahim Pasha, i n the mountai ns nearBeyrout , was defeated by Turks led by N apier, who was equallyadven turous on sea and land . I n N ovember, 1840 , th e strongfortress of S t . J ean d’

Acre was severely bombarded by the B ri t i shships and those of thei r al l ies, and the garri son were driven tosurrender

,after fearful loss due to the e xplos ion of the ch ief

magaz i ne . The power of Meheme t A l i i n Syria was brought toan end

,and he was reduced to h is former posi t ion , being now

perm itted to hold Egypt alone , as an heredi tary pashal i c underthe Turki sh Sultan .

I n 1860 ,four years after the conclus ion of the Crimean war

,

Bri t ish and F rench d iplomacy and action were requ i red i n Syriath rough the d isas trous effects of Chris t ian and Turkish fanat ic i smand the m isrul e of a Turki sh governor. The D ruses and theMaron i tes

,two rel igious sects i n the Lebanon moun ta in s, were

engaged i n one of thei r frequent quarrel s , and a Turkish officer, ata town under M oun t H ermon , perm itted the D ruses to massacrea large number of thei r Christian foes , d isarmed by h is au thori tyunder prom ise of protect ion . The exci temen t spread to Damascus ,and i n J uly a Turkish mob assail ed the Chri stian quarter of the

c i ty,and burn t most of i t down , i nc l uding the fore ign consulates .

About two thousand Christ ians were sla in , i n spi te of the efforts ofsome of the best Mussulman ci t izens , and the Turkish governor,with a large m il i tary force at h i s d isposal , made no serious attemptto save them . A convention of the Powers al lowed Great Bri tai n

FORE IGN POL ICY IN ASIA .2 35

and France to restore order, Fre nch troops being, i n the fi rsti nstance

,employed for the purpose . The Sul tan despatched to

Syria h i s able m in ister, Fuad Pasha , di rect ing fore ign affai rs , andLord D ufferi n went th i ther as B ri ti sh Commissioner. Prompt punishment was deal t out to the gu i l ty . The governor of Damascus

,

A chm e t Pasha ,‘ bad h is epaule ts torn from h is shoulders , and was

executed along with the commander of the Turkish troops , andabout s ixty persons , ch iefly belong ing to the Turki sh pol i ce- force ,were publ icly put to death . The Sul tan , i n h is posit ion as a sovere ign protected by the Powers , and so l iable to be correcte d andd i rec ted by the Powers

,was obl iged to nominate a Chris tian

governor for the Lebanon , to the great advantage of al l the people .

Lou is Napoleon,hav ing some of h i s troops i n Syria, under the

convent ion,clearly showed h is des i re to keep them there wi th

ul terior v iews , but Lord Palmerston , our Prime M in ister, was thewrong man on whom to try such an enterprise, and h is fi rmnesscaused the French wi thdrawal i n J une, 186 1 .

The fi rst quarrel that arose between Bri t ish rulers and China,

known as the Opium war, had i ts real origi n i n the sp iri t of ignorance and scorn wi th which Western c iv i l i zation had long regardedthe Chinese people, i nsti tu tions , and modes of l i fe , and in the col l is ion of our traders , eager for gain , with the regulations laid downby an O rien tal government admin is tered by men who , on the i r s ide ,had often d isplayed a contempt for Western nations, based on i nca

pacity to bel ie ve i n the existence of any excellence apart from thei rown trad i t ional s tandards , consecrated by many centuries of hereditary usage . The

'

Chine s e rulers and people had for ages beennoted for the exclus ive pol icy wh ich , barely al lowing foreigners totrade at the outports , forbade thei r adm ission to the interior of thecountry, and decl ined al l d iplomatic or friendly intercourse wi thE uropean powers . I n 18 16 , an embassy headed by Lord Amhers t,afterwards Governor-ge neral of I nd ia, sought to obtain leave fora B ri t ish min ister to res ide at Pekin , and the open ing of ports onthe northern coas t to B ri t i sh trade . Amherst did not evensucceed i n seei ng the Chinese emperor, owing to h is refusal toperform the ceremony of Kou tou , or prostrat ion at the “ Ce lestialruler’s feet , and he returned to England with a letter from theemperor to the Prince Regent , contain ing the words “ I have se nt


th ine ambassadors back to thei r own country wi thout punish ingthem for the h igh crime they have commi tted ”

( i n approach ing me) .The East I ndia Company

,t rad ing wi th Canton for tea, si lk , and

othe r products , had introduced , before the close of the e ighteenth

century, a traf fic i n opium manufactured i n I nd ia, eagerly boughtby some of the Ch inese ,

but s tric tly forbidden by imperial ed ict .A s long as the Ch ina- trade was solely in the hands of the Company

’

s agents,the i l legal traffic was peaceful ly arranged by bribery

of the Chine se local offic ials . The opium was thus smuggled i ntothe country , and al l parties , save the h igh imperial authori ties atPekin

,were wel l sati sfied . I n 1 834, however, the Company

’smonopoly i n the Ch ina - t rade came to an end , and trouble began .

The adro i t agents of the Company were superseded by Bri t ishoffic ial s i ncl i ned to carry matters wi th a h igh hand , and the i ll i c i ttrade i n opi um was greatly increased i n the hands of the i nd iv idualspeculators who were now engaged in commercial deal i ngs wi thChina . Quarrels arose between the nat iv e offic ials and the newBri t i sh superin tendents , and the imperial government ordered thesuspens ion of trade i n every class of goods . The Opium on shorewas sei zed

,along wi th other B ri t i sh property, and i n September,

1834, two Bri t ish frigates , summoned from I ndia , were i n confl i c t ,at the fi rs t pass of the Canton river, with the Bocca Tigri s orBogue forts , and with a crowd of Ch inese war-j unks , the fire ofwhich was easi ly s i lenced . For some years afte r th is use of force

,

matters dri fted on , with occasional i nterruptions to t rade, unti l , i n1839, the H igh Commiss ioner Li n caused the se izure and de s truct ion of al l the opium i n the Canton river and elsewhere on the

coast, amounting to twenty thousand chests , and surrounded wi thChinese troops Captain E l l io t, the B rit i sh superin tenden t, and allou r countrymen in the Factory, or trading- station , at Canton .

I n October, two Bri t i sh frigates arrived , Canton was blockaded , andthe Opium war began in earnest .I n J anuary, 1840 , an imperial ed ict d i rected al l t rade w i th Great

Bri tai n to cease for e ver, and i n J une an attempt was made wi thfire -j unks to destroy al l ou r sh ipping. A powerful B ri t ish squadronarri ved off the coast, carrying 4000 troops, and i n J uly, the Chusanislands were Occupied . The e ast coast was blockaded

,and the

d isplay of force so far int im idated the Pekin government as tocause them , i n August, to remove Commiss ioner Lin from office.


the h igh offi cers of the empi re . On August 29th the Treaty of

N ank ing,s igned on board the B ri ti sh ship Cornwa llis , concl uded

a sat isfactory peace . China undertook to pay compensation fordamage to B ri t ish property

,with war- expenses to the amount of

2 1 mil l ions of dol lars . The ports of Canton , Amoy, Foo- choo ,N i ngpo

,and Shanghai were th rown Open to Bri tish merchants ,

with res ident consular officers , and j us t tari ffs and in land trans i tduties . The island of Hong- Kong was ceded to Great B ri tain .

A l l B ri tish subjects were promptly released , and correspondencebetween the offic ials of the two governments was henceforth to beconducted on terms of perfect equal i ty, without any of the absurdand arrogant pretens ions h i therto made by Ch inese et iquette .

The Chinese government fi rmly refused to give a legal sanction tothe Opium - trade, and repl ied to the B ri tish arguments as to theimprovement of thei r revenue thereby, that they decl ined “ to puta value upon riches and to sl ight men ’s l ives ” . The trade i n thisdrug therefore remained i l l ic i t, and the Ch inese authori t ies, afraidto en force thei r laws agai nst i t, were obl iged to see i t rev i ve on ane ver-growing scale , for the benefi t of the I nd ian revenue and to thedetriment, as many al lege, of thei r own people . The chief advantage to Great Bri tain derived from th i s fi rst Ch ina war, was thebreak ing- down of Ch inese excl us iveness

,and the open ing of the

northern ports to trade , at points of the coas t nearer to the teagrowing districts , of which Shanghai now became one of theprincipal outlets .The interests of truth are h igher even than those of patrioti sm ,

and truth compels us to admi t that the second China war, of18 5 7

—58 , was due to flagran t i l l egal i ty and injust ice on the part,

fi rstly , of Bri t i sh offic ials at Canton ; secondly, of the m in i stry ofLord Palmerston , who supported those offic ial s, in stead of di savowing thei r act ion ; and th i rdly , of the majori ty of B ri t ish electors who, a t a general elect ion

,endorsed at the pol ls the pol icy

of that min istry . I n October, 18 56 ,

th e Chinese authori t ies atCanton seized a nat ive sh ip

,a l ight sai l i ng- vessel carrying guns ,

bu il t in the E uropean style,but rigged l ike a j unk , and styled ,

from a Portuguese word , a Lorcha ” . This famous vessel , whosename was the A r row , became a word of dread i n the House ofCommons , from the long and bitter controversy connected wi thher capture by Ch inese official s . She was

,rightly or wrongl y,

FORE IGN POLICY IN ASIA . 2 39

be l i eved by them to be a pi rate , but she was flying at th e t ime

the Bri t ish flag . Her propri etor was a Chinese, not a B ri t i sh ,subject ; and her righ t , as a vessel registered by our governmentat H ong- Kong to carry the Bri t ish colours for a year, had expiredi n the prev ious month . He r sei zure i n nowise concerned ou rofficials

,but M r. Parkes , our consul at Canton , demanded the

surrende r of the captured crew from Yeh , th e Chinese governorof the c ity . The Bri t i sh plen ipotent iary at H ong- Kong, S i r J ohnBowring

,acknowledging that the A r row had no right to carry

our flag,s upported the demand for surrender on the ground that

the Chinese official s d id not know that he r l i cence had expi red .

He further requi red, on a threat of host i l i t i es with i n 48 hours ,an apology

,and a formal pledge that no such act should ever

be committed again . The ev iden t effect of th is was that theChine se authori ti es could be safely bearded i n the i r own watersby a pi rate- captain or any other rascal who had the impudenceto hoist B rit i sh colours . Commiss ioner Yeh refused reparat ion ,and Bowri ng summoned the B rit ish flee t u nder S i r M ichaelSeymour. On October 2 3rd some forts near Canton were taken ,and then Yeh surrendered the men , but requested that two shouldbe returned for trial o n a charge of pi racy . Mr. Parkes sentback the men

,decl i n ing to rece ive them without a formal apology

,

and then he and Bowring set the fleet to work . The Bogue fortsand other works were taken , j unks were destroyed , the suburbsof Canton were battered down , and the c ity i tsel f was bombarded .

The Chinese, for thei r parts , burnt down the foreign factories ,or trading- posts , and massacre d the c rew of a Bri t ish merchan tman . Commiss ioner Yeh so far lost h i s sel f- control as to offera price for the heads of “ the Engl ish and French dogs ” , theFrench authori t ies hav ing now urged certain claims on the

Chinese . A repulse of our sh ips by some strong works i n one

branch of the Canton river caused th e despatch of troops fromEngland , but th i s force , i n th e autumn of 185 7, was d iverted to

I nd ia on account of the outbreak of the Sepoy war.A t home

,a union of Tori es wi th Radical s defeated Lord

Palme rs ton’

s mini stry i n the Commons by a majori ty of 16 , buthe re turned to power after a ge neral election in wh ich many o fh is opponents

,i ncl ud ing M r . B right and M r. Cobden , lost thei r

seats . H is elec tion - addre ss to the voters at T iverton , denouncing


Yeh as an insolent barbarian who had “ v iolated the Bri t ishflag ”

,&c. , had a great success wi th const i tuencie s that knew l i ttle ,

and cared less,about the rights of the unhappy quarrel . I n

J anuary, 185 8, the war was resumed wi th v igour, Canton wasen tered

,Yeh was captured and sent off as a prisoner to Calcutta .

The Bri tish and French commiss ioners , on receiv ing no answerto demands forwarded to Pek in , wen t wi th the al l ied fl eets to th emouth of the river Peiho , where the forts were taken or destroyed ,and the armament went up as far as T ie n - ts i n . I n J uly , theChinese governmen t gave way, and the Treaty of Tien - ts i nsettl ed that a B ri t ish min is ter should permanently reside at Pekin ,that more ports should be opene d to fore ign trade , with res ide n tconsuls

,and that the rights of the Chinese and B ri t ish govern

ments over the i r subjects i n j udicial matters should be clearlydefined . The arrangement thus made by Lord E lg in , afterwardsViceroy of I ndia , and Baron Gros , the French plen ipoten tiary ,proved to be noth ing but a truce, and i n 18 59 the conte st brokeout afresh i n what i s somet imes known as the th i rd Ch ina war.The rat ificat ions of the treaty made at T ien- ts i n were to be

e xchanged , at Pekin , with i n a year, and Lord E lg i n ’s brother,Mr . Bruce , was sen t ou t for that purpose . Admiral H ope

,the

naval commander i n the China stat ion , and the French admi ral ,suppl ied an escort of n ineteen vessel s , mostly gun - boats

,for M r.

Bruce and the French e nvoy . The Taku forts , at the mouthof the Pe i ho river, were found to have been restored i n far greate rstrength , and the passage was encumbered by booms and otherobstructions . The all ied attempts to force a way met w ith asevere repulse, several gun -boats be i ng at once s unk or disabledby a powerful and wel l - serv ed arti l l ery, whi le an effort to stormthe forts by a landing ended in disastrous fai lu re on mud - bankslashed by a hot fire from the works . N early 500 men , mostlyBri t i sh , fel l , and the loss would have been s ti l l greate r bu t for thegenerous help afforded by the captai n of an American man - of-war,who

,disregard ing i nternat ional law

,and vowing that “ blood i s

th icker than water in terposed to draw off some of the fi re fromBrit ishers ” who were being destroyed by Chinamen . A fter th is,the Bri t ish and French governments had no choice bu t a regularwar with the Chi nese . Lord E lgin and Baron Gros , as thed iplomatic au thori t ies , were now backed up by arm ies under S i r


I t was not ti l l after the m iddle of the n ineteenth century thatGreat B ri tai n was brought i nto any di rect relations with thegovernment and people of J apan , an empire wh ich , for more thantwo cen turies, had pursued towards foreign nations a pol icy evenmore exclusive than that of China . The Portuguese

,who fi rst

landed there i n 1 543, and carried on a l ucrative trade, were final lyexpel led in 1638 , and the most rigid isolat ion was afterwardsmaintained , under an absolu te , feudal system of rule enforced bya stric t and cunn ing espionage. N o fore ign vessel was al lowedto touch at any J apanese port, and J apanese sai lors, wreckedabroad , could barely obtai n permiss ion to return home . TheDutch alone among E uropeans were perm itted to trade

,and thei r

presence was restricted to thei r “ factory ” at D esh ima,an island

in the Bay of Yokohama . I n 18 5 3, however, the J apanese , l i v i ng“ l ike frogs i n a wel l ”, according to the i r own proverb , weresuddenly aroused by the advent of a squadron of men - of-war,under Commodore Perry, of the U n i ted S tates . The S/z iog un ,

the hered i tary mil i tary ruler,better known to E uropeans by the

Chinese t i tle Tycoon , was awed into a treaty, concl uded i n March ,1854 , which restored J apan to a place wi th i n th e family of nat ions .

The cit izens of the U n i ted States obtai ned certa in rights of trade ,and the same priv i leges were granted by degrees to other nations .I n 18 58 , Lord E lgin , after concluding wi th China the Treaty ofT ien - ts in

,s igned a treaty of trade and friendsh ip with the Tycoon

at Yedo . F ive ports, i ncl ud ing Yokohama, Hyogo, and N agasaki ,were Opened to B rit ish trade, with consular agents , and a res identB ri t ish diplomat ist at Yedo . Foreign quarters or settlementswere establ ished at these places

,with perm iss ion to t ravel i nland

wi th in a radius of twenty-five miles . The ice was thus fai rlybroken , but for some years trouble was caused by the j ealousyof the more conservat ive J apanese under a decay of the oldfeudalism p a process hastened by the i ntrus ion of foreign elements. The Japanese gove rnment was not responsible for theoutrage which caused the only warfare that has occurred betweenthe B ri t ish nat ion and the peopl e of J apan . I n September, 186 2 ,

Mr. R i chardson , a member of our embassy , rid ing with somefriends along a road open

,by treaty

,to foreigners , was attacked

and ki l l ed by the reti nue of a da im io, or noble, Pri nce Satsuma,one of the most powerful of the feudal rulers . The Tycoon

FORE IGN POL ICY IN ASIA . 243

readily made,on appl i cation , a ful l apology, and paid

as compensation , but Satsuma, who was required to pay onequarter of the sum , and to exerc ise h is j u risdiction against themurderers

,requ i red th e appl icat ion of force . There had been

other isolated acts of assassination perpetrated on foreigners , andthe B ri t i sh embassy, as a precaut ionary measure, was removedfrom Yedo to Yokohama . Satsuma persistently refused to complywith ou r just demands , and a host i le sp iri t was shown i n the

closi ng of the ports to E u ropeans . I n August, 186 3, the Bri t ishsquadron in the Eastern seas, under Admiral Kuper, came uponthe scene

,and

, in bombarding the forts which fi red on h is sh ipsafte r the seizure of some J apanese steamers , the large woodentown of Kagos ima

,Satsuma ’s capi tal , was almost destroyed . Few

l i ves were lost, as non - combatants had wi thdrawn , and theJapanese prince finally subm itted, paid the requ ired sum , andpromised j ust ice on the assass ins of M r . R i chardson . There weresome fu rther troubles of the same kind , and a settled state ofpeace wi th the Japanese peopl e was due to an in ternal revolu tionvery rapid and complete i n character. I n a struggle which endedearly i n 1868 , between the Tycoon and hi s supporters and someof the mos t powerful nobles and the i r c lans

,the power of the

m il i tary governor was overthrown , and al l rul e was placed inth e hands of the M ikado, or emperor, as both the temporal andspi ri tual head of the realm . The imperial party then abandonedthe old trad i t ions , and strove to bring J apan abreast of westernideas and civ i l izat ion . The name of Yedo

,the large and splendid

capi tal , the centre of J apanese pol i t i cal , commerc ial , and l i teraryact iv i ty, now contain ing more than a m il l ion i nhabi tants , waschanged 10 Tokio, or “ eastern capi tal ”

,and the emperor set up

hi s court therei n , with a publ ic i ty in strong contrast to the oldsecl uded styl e of l i fe . The da im ios , or feudal nobles , resignedthe i r fie fs , and were pensioned by the state , and a system ofconst i tu t ional and admin istrat iv e rule

,at al l points arranged on

good E uropean models,was qu ickly establ i shed . Hundreds of

young J apanese are receiv ing education i n European capi tal s ,and the coun try i s

,i n all respects, on the h ighroad to a prosperous,

powe rful , and bri l l iant futu re . Japan imports from Great B ri tai nand her colon ies produce and manufactured goods to the value ofabout five mil l ions sterl ing .


The war which has been lately waged between J apan andChina has ful ly confi rmed the opin ion of those who have held thatprogress i n the E astern world i s poss ible, and that improveme nti s not

,as some wiseacres have ins isted , solely a Western idea .

By sea and land, the J apanese forces won s ignal v ictories over theneighbouring country w hich , with a vast terri tory and countlesspopulation

,has remained , for the most part, steeped in her old

lethargy and fatal i sm , and has regarded J apan wi th lazy indi fferenceand contempt . The J apanese have copied E uropean civ i l i zationto some purpose . They have absorbed E uropean ideas, put themin to action , and advanced with the t imes . They have stud iedpol i t i cs , tactics , and strategy al ike i n the best E uropean schools ,and

,hav ing establ i shed sel f-governmen t and purchased qu ick - firing

guns , they succeeded i n teach ing China a much - needed lesson .

I t i s st i l l too early for a forecast of th e permanent resul ts andissues of the events wh ich showed forth J apan as the great nativePower of the Eastern world . So far as the in teres ts of the B rit ishEmpire are concerned , i t must suffice to state that i n the autumnof 1895 the most friendly feel i ng towards th i s country prevai led i nJ apan , and the leader- wri ters i n the J apanese press were ardentlyadvocat ing an al l iance with Great Britain . The strengthen ing ofher navy was, at that t ime, a mai n object of the pol icy of J apan , i nfu rtherance of which new sh ips of war were being bu i l t i n Englandto the order of the government . I n reply to the expressed fearsof Bri t i sh manufacturers and journal i sts who anticipated d im inut ionin our Eastern trade from Japanese competi tion

,a shrewd Observer

and sound econom ist wrote “ That many th ings which Englandnow suppl ies , J apan wi l l hersel f manufactu re, i s true . I n somel ines she i s doing so al ready . But as her product ive powerincreases so wi l l her wants expand . I n the year 1894, whenJ apan ’s m ill s were most active , the imports from England weregreatly in excess of those of any other year

,and that qui te apart

from the importation of war material s . As the wages of the labouring classes improve , so wi l l thei r wan ts multiply .

”


the Pasha of Tripol i . I n the Spring of 18 16 , the B ri t i sh government took the matter i n hand for the general good of peacefuldwel lers on the Med iterranean shores . Lord Exmouth , a bri l l ian tand brave commander i n the great war, as S i r Edward Pe llew ,

took a squadron to A lg i ers , Tunis , and Tripol i , and effected therelease of nearly 1800 Christ ian slaves, wi th treaties of peace andami ty i n behalf of the m inor states on the Mediterranean . Tunisand Tripol i solemnly renounced the pract ice of k idnapp ing Christ ians as slaves

,but the Dey of A lg i ers refused to agree to th is

s tipulat ion wi thout the consent of h is suzerain , the S ul tan . Adelay of th ree months was granted for thi s purpose, and Exmouthreturned to E ngland with h i s sh ips . An unworthy clause of thearrangement wi th A lgiers prov ided that the S ici l ian and Sardin iangovernments should pay ransom for the release of thei r subj ects,and the pi rati cal rul er actual ly received a very large sum underth is st ipulation .

The Bri t i sh fleet was dismantled and the crews were paid off,when news arr ived of an outrage which had real ly been committedbefore Exmouth ’s sh ips had left the Mediterranean . I n 1806 , ourgovernment had made an arrangement with the Dey of A lgiers forthe occupation of Bona, a town wi th a good harbour on the A lgerin ecoast , for the coral - fishe ry to be there carried on under the protect ion of the B ri tish flag. On May 23rd, 18 16 , duri ng the fisheryseason , a large number of boats from the I tal ian shores was thereassembled , and the crews were prepari ng to hear mass for thefest i val of the Ascens ion fal l i ng on that date. A gun was fi redfrom the A lgerine fort, and a force of infantry and cavalry camerush ing down on the fishers who had landed

,with vol leys fi red at

those who were st i l l on board the boats . The guns from the fortjoined i n the massacre , and then the B ri t ish flag was torn downand trampled under foot, and the house of our v ice- consul wasplundered . The inc ident was due

,as i t appears

,to no orders from

A lgiers, but to a sudden outbreak of ferocious fanati c i sm on thepart of the Moslem sold iery . The Bri t ish cabi net a t once resolvedon i nstan t action , and a powerful armament, carryi ng many volun

teers , was equipped at Portsmouth . The sh ips went forth wi thnot a man impressed for the serv ice on board

,and on J uly 28th

Lord Exmouth sailed from Plymouth on the 100-gun sh ip QueenCna r lotte, with the Impr eg naole, of 98 guns, th ree seven ty- fours, a

THE LIBERATION OF CHRISTIAN SLAVES AT ALGIERS

BY A BRITISH NAVAL FORCE .

The numerous and impudent acts of piracy by the Dey of A lgiers hadat length become so intolerab le that, in 1 8 1 6

, the British governmentde term ined to bring them to an end. For this purpose a naval exped itionwas despatched to A lgiers , and its commander, Lord Exmouth , sent a

demand to the Dey for redre ss in the case of certain recent misdeeds .

Th is demand having been treated with silent contempt, the British squadron opened fire upon the town and fortifications . In about s ix hours theenemy ’s defences were utterl y destroyed , whi le the A lgerine fleet in the

harbour was a mass of flame . Then the Dey surrendered ; and in the

treaty wh ich he was compe l led to sign he agreed to abol ish Christians lavery

,and l iberate all the Chris tian s laves— nearl y e leven hundred— who

were at that time dy ing of despair in his dungeons .

FORE IGN POL ICY IN AFR ICA. 247

50-gun ship

,four strong frigates , and several brigs and bomb

vessels . A t G ibral tar he w as j oi ned by the Dutch adm iral Van

Cappe llan,with five frigates and a l Op, and , re inforced by some

gun - boats,he started for A lg i ers . Adverse W i nds delayed h is

arrival t i l l August 2 7th. He already knew, from a sloop - of-warwhich he met on the way, that the Bri t ish consul at A lgiers hadbeen put i n chai ns

,and that two boats ’ crews were also detained .

A l l demands for redress were sl ighted , and the guns of the sh ipsOpened on the powerfu l works of A lgiers at a quarter before th reei n the afternoon . The fi ri ng which ensued, las ting ti l l n i ne o’clock ,was terrific on both s ides . The B ri t i sh squadron lost nearly n inehundred men in kil led and wounded , the D utchmen , who gaveeffic ient help, bei ng lessened by s ixty- five . The darkness of n ightwas i l lum i ned by the blaze from n ine A lgeri ne frigates and manygunboats burn ing i n the bay , and from storehouses wel l al ight onshore . The enemy ’s batteries , save those i n the upper c i ty , whichcould not be reached by shot and shel l

,were knocked in to heaps

of rubbish . The Dey was thus brought to consent to the enti reabol i tion of Chri stian slavery ; to the restoration of al l the Christians laves , nearly eleven hundred i n number, with i n h is domin ions ; tothe repayment of al l the ransom received from the kings of Sardin iaand Naples, and to a treaty of peace and amity with the Dutch .

Three days after the battle, a touch ing sight was presented on thearrival of the released I tal ian captives , as they crowded eagerlyi nto the Bri tish boats , wi th hats waving and voices cheering forthe K ing of England , and for the Engl ish admiral . The incorr ig ible character of A lgerine pi racy was displayed i n 18 24, when aBri t ish naval captai n , sen t wi th two sh ips to arrange a disputebetween the Dey and our consul , saw two Span ish merchantmen ,lately captured , the crews of which were held as slaves . CaptainSpencer at once demanded thei r release , and, four days later, whenno answer came, he rescued by a t rick al l the E uropeans thenashore, attacked the A lgeri ne pi rat ical vessel that had taken theSpaniards

,and del ivered seventeen of them found on board . Our

government then declared war agains t the Dey, and sent a squadronwhose appearance brought h im to submiss ion . A few years later,the French government of Loui s Phi l ippe began the career ofconquest i n northern A fri ca wh ich made an end of A lgiers as aMoslem state .


Before the year 186 7, there were few of.

the B ri ti sh publ ic whoknew much or thought much concern ing the mountainous reg ionsouth of N ubia wh ich has been known for ages as Abyssin ia .

The people,partly of Semit ic and partly of African origin

,are

Chri st ians of a debased type, whose convers ion dates from the 4thcentury

,under the spiri tual d i rect ion of the Patriarch of A l exandria .

The Mohammedan conquest of Egypt i n the 7th century cut thepeople off from the rest of the world, drivi ng thei r front ier back tothe l im i ts of the huge rugged tabl e - l and , with an average elevat ionof 7000 feet. cut by streams i nto sect ions d iv ided by ravi nes ofvast depth , and con tain ing the source of the B lue N i le . I n the18th century , the country had fal len under the control of severalgreat ch i efs , rul ing i n independen t prov i nces . I t was in 1 770 thatthe famous Scottish travel ler, J ames Bruce, arrived from Egypt atGondar

,the capi tal of the country as a single s tate

,and spent

about two years i n the land . H is Travels , contai n ing s trangeaccounts of the manners and habi ts of the people, were publ ishedi n 1 790, and were rece ived in some quarters with accusations asto the ficti t ious character of many statements , but h is generalaccuracy has been proved by modern research .

I n 1850, an adventurer of some abi l i ty , ambit ious , c ruel , andenergetic, began a career of conquest wh ich , i n 185 5 , made himNegus (king) of Abyssin ia, with the assumed name of Theodore .

He acqu i red for a t ime the mastery of the whole country, and ,under the advice of two E ngl ishmen named Plowden and Bel l, heruled at fi rs t wi th some wisdom and moderat ion . I n 1 860 theywere both ki l led in battle, fighti ng on Theodore’s behalf against arebel ch i ef, and from that time the emperor went forward towardsru in under the influence of van i ty

,tyranny

,and capri ce . Claiming

to represent Solomon and the Queen of Sheba i n h i s descent, heaimed at all iance on equal terms with France and Great B ri tai n ,and the neglect of h is approaches i nspi red h im with a hatred ofE uropeans . I n 1 864, he was hold i ng as prisoners i n the rockyfortress of Magdala

,his capi tal

,Captain Cameron

,Bri tish consul at

the Turkish i sland of Massowah , on the Red Sea coast of Abyss in ia, some German miss ionaries and thei r famil i es , i ncludingE ngl i sh women

,with a number of E uropean teachers , arti sts, and

workmen of d ivers nat ions . Our government sent as envoys toTheodore , with a letter from the Queen , Mr. Ras sam , Bri ti sh


troops , and the body of Theodore, Shot dead by h is own hand , layins ide . The stronghold was blown up , and the expedit ion , i nperfect safety , retu rned to the coast and embarked for home inI nd ia and England . The leader was rewarded by a peerage asBaron N apier of Magdala, and , after hold ing the command - in

ch ief of I ndia, died a F i eld-Marshal and Constable of the Tower.The widow of the hapless Theodore died i n the E ngl ish camp beforethe coun try was enti rely evacuated by the army. Their l i ttle son ,A lamayou, seven years of age , was taken to I ndia under theQueen’s orders for spec ial care of h is person and educat ion . Hewas afterwards brough t to E ngland, where he faded away froml i fe i n no long t ime, i n spi te of the utmost k indness and atten tion .

The latest i ntervent ion of Great B ri tai n i n Egyptian affai rsforms a yet unfin ished phase of our h istory, the detai ls of wh ichwould need a volume . A bri ef summary i s al l that can be hereset forth . Between 1854 and 1863 Egypt, under the ru le of theenl igh tened Said Pasha , made considerable progress i n the path ofmodern c iv i l i zat ion . E uropeans were now fi rs t employed i n theadm in i strat ion ; restric ti ons upon trade and commerce were removed ;the fella/teen , or peasantry, compris ing about three - fourths of thepopulat ion , were regarded as something better than mere beasts ofburden and toi l , to be worked and taxed to death ; rai l roads andtelegraphs , i n troduced through Bri tish influence, were extendedover the country , and , i n 1859, the S uez Canal was begun . TheEgyptians saw machinery of al l k inds at work , and , as the resul tof these improved methods , the annual revenue i ncreased by s ixm il l ions of money . U nder Said Pasha’s successor, I smai l Pasha ,second son of the famous I brah im of Meheme t A l i ’s day, the“ Egyptian question fa i rly came before the diplomacy and statecraft of E urope . I n 1866 , three years after h is access ion , I smai lobtained from the Porte

,or Turki sh government, the t i t le of

Knedive, or “ lord ”,i n place of Va l i , or v iceroy, and the priv i lege

of heredi tary rule i n h is family,by di rect descent of the new title

from father to son . I n N ovember,1869, the open ing of the Suez

Canal gave th is country a new and most importan t i nterest i nEgypt . A conti nuous water- way was thus prov ided for the conveyance of troops to and from our I nd ian domin ions, and for ourv ast commerce wi th the East and wi th Australas ia. I n 1872, the

FORE IGN POLICY IN AFR ICA. 2 5 1

Khed ive bought further concess ions from the Sultan , i ncl ud ing theright of making treaties wi th foreign Powers , of rais ing troops, ando f owning vessels of war. H is power grew steadi ly , but h is lav ishexpendi ture on matters wh ich promoted commerc ial prosperi ty

,as

wel l as on h is own personal d isplay and grat ificat ion,ended in

financial ru in . I smai l was, at last, so deeply i ndebted to E uropeancapital ists

,that i n N ovember, 1875 , he was glad to sel l al l h is

s hares i n the Suez Canal to Great Bri ta i n for the sum of fourm il l ions . This country thus became possessed of hal f the ownership i n the great commercial i n ternat ional h ighway , and acqu i reda moral right of intervent ion in order to protect her property .

The Khedive ’s financial posi t ion was only bettered for a short t imeby his sale of the shares , and French and Engl ish combined i nterference wi th the affairs of Egypt ended in h is deposi t ion

,i n 1878 ,

by the S ultan . He was succeeded by h is son Tewfik Pasha, amere cypher i n Egyptian pol icy, which was, for the t ime, d i rectedfi rs t by two res ident B ri tish and French commissioners , and thenby deputies of al l the Powers, excepting Russ ia . A kind of nat ionalparty soon arose , hostil e to any E uropean i nfluence, and th is partywas supported by the Egyptian army

,l ed by A rab i Bey, who

quickly assumed the posi tion of a dictator.I n the early days of 1882 , France and E ngland , the ch ief

foreign actors i n Egyptian affairs , began to di ffer i n thei r v i ews .A rabi Bey was strengthened i n h is posi t ion , and became WarM in ister, with the rank of Pasha, and s igns of impend ing disordercaused B ri ti sh and French i ronclads , i n Apri l , 1882 , to be despatchedto A lexandria . The army decl i ned to recogn ize any authori ty butthat of the Porte ; the fort ification of A l exandria was being rapidlyeffected ; and many threats of massacre for foreigners were heardthere and at Cai ro . The cris is came at A lexandria on J une 1 1 th,

when an outbreak occu rred i n wh ich many French and Engl ishpeople were ki l led, and the B ri t ish consul , Mr. Cookson , narrowlyescaped wi th h is l i fe . Thi s tragedy was fol lowed by a generalfl igh t of E uropeans from A lexandria and from Cairo, but ourgovernmen t sti l l refrained from land ing troops i n the country .

A t th is j uncture, the i nfluence of A rabi was further augmentedby the Open patronage of the Sul tan , and he assumed a defiantatti tude towards Great Britain and France . The works on thesea- front of A lexandria were resumed and pushed on wi th much

2 5 2 OUR EMPIRE AT HOME AND ABROAD.

energy, and thi s last demonstration wearied out the patience of

our g overnment . Admiral S i r Beauchamp Seymour, on A rabi ’srefusal to stay the progress of the fort ifications , Opened fi re fromhis e ight i ronclads and five gunboats on J uly I i th . The Frenchfleet had steamed away to Port Said , and we were left to do thework alone . Duri ng the day, a severe bombardment S i l enced al lthe Egyptian forts , and on J uly 1 2 th a few more shots caused thehoist ing of a flag of t ruce i n the town . I t was found that Arabiand h is troops had qu itted al l the works , and the c ity was i n a s tateof anarchy . The B ri t ish admiral had no regular force on board tooccupy the town , and the conseque nce was that for two days A lexandria was at the mercy of a furious mob . More than 2000 E uropeans were massacred , and the finest parts of the beauti ful c i ty

,

with i ts great square, bazaars , palaces , and busy streets , becamea smoking, blood- stai ned , ru inous spectacle . O rder was thenrestored

,when the m isch ief was done, by the Bri t ish sai lors and

marines,and Tewfik, the Khedive, was escorted back from his

palace at Ramleh , fou r mi les from A lexandria, and re - i nstated inh is shadowy rule

,while the whole Khed iv ial army was with A rabi

Pasha,who was assum ed to be i n rebel l ion against h is master.

Bri t ish troops were then poured into Egypt under the commandof S ir Garnet Wolsel ey, and the safety of the Suez Canal was fi rs tsecured . O n August 28th Arabi ’s troops were defeated in a bri l l ian tact ion at Kassass in , 2 1 miles west of I smai l ia, when the I st L i feGuards drew thei r swords in act ion for the fi rst t ime s ince Waterloo .

The deci s ive engagement occurred on September 13th , whenWolseley, with a force of 1 i n fantry , 2000 horse, and 60 guns ,stormed the enemy ’s s trongly- i n trenched posit ion at Tel - el- Kebir,west of Kassassin . The occasion was remarkable for the strangen igh t -march ’ by our troops across the sand , while the way wass tee red by compass and by stars watched by officers leading thel i ne ahead . Frequent hal ts were made to enable the regiments tokeep touch wi th each other

,and dayl ight was j ust breaking when

the assai lants arrived with in a thousand ya rds of the enemy ’sworks

,form ing a vast square whose front stretched across a cana l .

There were l ines of sol id earthwork bound together by wattl es , thefront face being four m iles long

,and the flanking faces two m iles .

A t i ntervals were bastions armed with cannon , and protected i nfront by a series of deep trenches . I n the B rit ish ranks were


i n the spring of 1 883. The bod ies of Palmer, Charri ngton , andGi l l were recovered

,and interred with al l honour i n S t . Paul

’

sCathedral .The occupation of Egypt by Bri t ish troops had been an easy

task,bu t a far di fferent burden was laid upon ou r government,

officers,and men i n the contest known as the Soudan War. We

had taken upon ourselves the respons ibi l i ty of setti ng s traight theaffai rs of a coun try that was demoral ized , disorganized , and deeplyi n debt . We may di smiss th is subj ect w i th the statement that ,during the twelve years that have passed t i l l the present daythe B rit ish control of Egyptian affai rs has produced great benefi tto the fella/teen or agricu l tural class , to the finances , the trade , andevery interest connected with the country . From time to t ime ,

French j ealousy , and a certain school of pol it icians at home , havesought to bring ou r occupation and rule of Egypt to a close

, but.

there we are , and i t seems l ikely that there we shal l remain , unti lsome nat iv e elements o f government are created such as can replacea fore ign sway wi th a fai r prospect of successfu l admin istration .

The Egyptian dependency cal led the Soudan was a vast te rritory to the south , extending from the Red Sea on the east beyondDarfou r on the west, and from the borde r of Upper Egypt to theN yanza lakes . I n an ev i l hou r for the future of Egypt, Meheme t

A l i,i n 18 19, establ i shed h is power at Khartoum , on the N i l e, and

during the next fifty years Egyptian rulers extended thei r swayover the prov i nces to the west and south of that c i ty . Most of theSoudanese are of negro descent, and ei ther pagans or nominalMahommedans , but about one - fou rth of a popu lation estimated at16 mill ions are of Ham iti c or Sem itic origin , and fanatical adherentsof the fai th cal led I slam Many points of the region were occupied by Egyptian garrisons , and our m in istry advi sed the Egyptiangovernmen t to wi thdraw by degrees from most of the Soudan .

Thei r troops were endangered by a patriot ic outbreak of theSoudanese that had occurred i n 188 1 , when a kind of MohammedanM ess iah , known as A l- Mahdi , “ the wel l - di rected one appeared ashead of a rel igious war against the Egyptian government . D uring1882 , he won some successes over thei r troops , and i n J anuary,1883, he captured the town of E l-Obeid i n the prov ince ofKordofan . I n N ovember, 1883, an Egyptian army under th ebrave General H icks , known as H icks Pasha in the Khed ive

’

s

FOREIGN POLICY IN AFR ICA. 25 5

service , was destroyed with i ts leader near E l-Obeid . With th isforce fel l also the bri l l ian t war- correspondent of the Da i ly News ,

Mr . O ’

Donovan,famous for h is exped i tion to Merv

,the Russ ian

posse ss ion i n west - central As ia . The Egyptian troops at Berber,

Dongola, Tokha, Kassala, S inkat , and other points were now inextreme danger, l iable to be destroyed by ru th less foes . A t Khartoum

,i n part icular, where the White and B lue N i le branches joi n

the i r waters , Colonel de Coe tlogen, a B rit ish officer, was shu t upwith 4000 Egyptians , a force far too small to man the ramparts ,and placed among a large black population i n the c i ty which m ightat any moment joi n the cause of the Mahdi , and turn fiercely uponthei r nominal defenders .Early i n 1884, the B rit ish min istry ins isted on the abandon

ment of Egyptian Soudan , and announced that an officer of highauthori ty would be sent to Khartoum to arrange for the futuregovernmen t of the terri tory, and also for the W i thdrawal of theEgyptian garrisons . The man chosen for th is important enterprisewas the eminen t Christ ian sold ier known as “ Chinese Gordon ”

,

from his wonderful explo i ts i n command of the imperial armyagains t the Taip ing rebels . He had become in 1874, under theKhedive I smail , governor of the Soudan , where he d id much goodwork i n open ing up the count ry towards the N yanza Lakes , and i nsuppressing the slave - trade wh ich has long been a curse to thepeoples of central Africa . He retu rned to E ngland i n 1879, onthe depos it ion of I smail

,and with h is departu re the order which he

had establ i shed was overth rown,and the rebel l ion of 1 88 1 ensued .

Gordon’

s character was that of a noble and marvel lous combinationof knight - errant and Puritan

,and h is sk i l l i n affa i rs was such that,

i f the task i n hand could have been accompl ished at al l , he was theman who would have won success . But the c i rcumstances hadchanged since he was last at Khartoum

,and , though the people at

fi rst welcomed h im enthus iastical ly as “ Sul tan,Father

,and Saviour

of Kordofan ”

, he was desti ned to become the v ictim of treachery .

I n March,1884, he was compel led to shoot , after court-mart ial , two

pashas whose m isconduct had caused the defeat of a sortie agai nstthe rebels who surrounded the town , and then for some months hewas almost lost to the knowledge of h is countrymen . Too late forthe purpose , i n August, 1884, an expedi tion was sent out underLord Wolseley to make its way up the N i l e for Gordon ’s rel ief.


Some desperate battles with the A rabs,charging spear i n hand

against B ri t i sh squares under a rai n of bul lets from breech - loadingrifles and Gatl i ng guns, were fought on the way. I n J anuary

,

1885 , at Abu - Klea wells , west of the N i le, about 100 miles north ofKhartoum , i n one of these actions , Colonel B urnaby, of the Blues,the hero of the ride to Khiva ” i n 1875 , fel l bravely fighti ng as avolun teer. Two days later, at the battle of Me tammeh,

nearer toKhartoum

,another v icto ry for our men was cl early bought , amongst

other losses, at the cost of a mortal wound rece ived by General S i rHerbert S tewart. On J an uary 2 8th, Colonel S i r Charles Wilsonreached Khartoum with steamers fighting thei r way up the river,only to find the Mahd i ’s banners floating on the ramparts of theconquered town . The rel i ev ing force had arrived two days i narrear. I n ternal treachery had done its work . The enemy hadentered the town on the 2 6 th, and Gordon had been sla i n by thetrai tors i n the hour of i ts capture .

Severe fighting had occurred before these events at other partsof the Soudan . The Egyptian government sen t Baker Pasha(formerly Colonel Baker i n our serv ice) to Suakin , on the westcoas t of the Red Sea , to attempt the rel ief of the garrisons ofTokha and S inkat , i n the eastern Soudan . The Mahd i ’s forceswere there commanded by h is fierce and resolute l i eutenan t

,

O sman D igna . The Egyptian force under Baker was mai nlycomposed of fella/teen or peasants , forced to fight, untrained towar, and in mortal fear of the A rabs . O n February 4th, 1 884,

Baker advanced from Trink i tat towards Tokha,Colonel B urnaby

serv ing wi th h im as a friend . A t a place cal led El- Teb the enemyswept on and broke the wretched Egyptians i n an i nstan t

,and

Baker and Burnaby, afte r brave and useless efforts to ral ly thefugi t ives , had to ride for thei r l ives . Our government thenresolved to send troops to Suaki n for a serious contes t againstOsman D igna, one of ou r mai n objects being to counteract the ev i leffect, on the minds of Mohammedan subjects i n I ndia, of repeateddefeats i nfl i c ted by A rabs , not i ndeed upon Bri t i sh forces , bu t onarm ies led by Bri t i sh officers . The rumou r was aris ing i n thebazaars of the East that the arms of Bri tain were being beaten fromour hands by sold iers fighting under the banner of I slam . On February 24th, 1884,

General Graham arrived at Suaki n wi th troops ,and found that the Egyptian garrison of Sinkat had bee n cut to


CHAPTER V I I .

GREAT BR ITA IN AND THE UN ITED STATES ( 18 15 to present time) .

The Ashburton Treaty— Suppress ion of the s lave - trade— S ettlement of the Oregonques tion— B ritish recruiting in the United S tates— Vis it of the Prince of Wa le sAttitude of Great B ri tain during the American civ il war— Affa ir of the Tr ent

Running the b lockade— Confede rate cruisers built in B rit ish sh ip-yards — The

Treaty of Wash ing ton— The A labama claim s— Grow th of socia l and sympatheticre lations between the United S ta tes and Great Britain.

During over e ighty years , s i nce the close of the war i n 18 1 5 ,

Great B ri tai n and the U n i ted States have remained on terms ofpeace and friendsh ip wh ich , as t ime rol ls on , are ever less l ikely tobe d is turbed . There have been disputes between the great k indrednations , e i ther settl ed by negotiation , or, i n these latter days, by th earbi trati on of friendly Powers . There have been provocat ions fromboth s ides . N ow and again , high official s of the States , adoptingthe tone of certai n sections of thei r countrymen

,have shown a

tendency to i ndulge i n the amusement described,i n p icturesque

slang, as “ twist ing the Brit i sh l ion ’s tai l ” . On th i s s ide of theAt lantic , Bri t ish arrogance and contemptuous al lusions to , partlydue to m isconcept ions of

,American insti tu t ions , parties , feel ings ,

and tastes have , on d ivers occasions , been i n ev idence . The bes tpart of the soc ieti es which represent most fully and fai rly mon

arch ical and republ ican democracy have been conspicuous i nabstai n ing from these hazardous de l ights .I n

,

August, 1 842 , the Ashburton Treaty final ly arranged theboundary between the State of Maine and Canada. I n the earl iert imes , when the region was settled , the front ier had been left vague ,and the res idents on the debated ground were therefore ignorantwhether they were l iv ing under B rit i sh or American governmentand law. The arbi trat ion of the K ing of the N etherlands wascal led in , but h is award was decl i ned by both parties i n the controv e rsy. The Bri t i sh m in istry at th i s t ime was headed by S i r RobertPeel , and he now made an excellen t choice of a special envoy toWashington . Lord Ashburton , formerly M r. Al exander Baring ,

head of the famous London house of that name, and President ofthe Board of Trade i n Peel ’s fi rst bri ef admin istrat ion , was not onlyan admirable man of bus iness , but one who was so connected withthe U ni ted S tates by commercial and fami ly relations, drawn closer

GREAT BR ITAIN AND THE UN ITED STATES . 2 59

by a residence of some years i n the S tates, i n the serv ice of h isfi rm

,that, though he was a thorough Engl i shman in mind and

manners, he could largely sympath ize with American feel ings , andpossessed a ful l knowledge of American ins ti tutions, customs, andmodes of thought . He was rece ived wi th the utmost cordial i ty inAmerica, and i n due time he concluded an agreement wh ich gaveto the U n i ted S tates seven- tw elfths of the disputed terri tory

,but ‘

was , i n other respects , advantageous to Great B ri tain in securing abetter m i l i tary front ier, with the possess ion of heights commandingthe river S t . Lawrence . The disconten t of some pol i t ic ians on bothS ides with the Treaty of Wash ington was good evidence of theequal i ty and fai rness of i ts prov is ions . Lord Ashburton

,on h i s

return , j ustly received the thanks of Parl iament .I n the fol lowing year

, 1843, there was a sat isfactory settlementof a compl icated question which had g i ven rise to much i rri tationin both countri es . The B ri t ish cruisers engaged i n control l i ng theslave- trade , under certain treat ies to wh ich the U n ited States wasnot a party, frequently overhauled vessels carrying slave - cargoes

,

and flying the American flag . The purpose was, of course , not tomolest real American merchantmen

,but to exam ine the papers of

sh ips which m ight be falsely bearing the colours of the U n i tedStates . The mild temperament of Lord Aberdeen

,then at the

he ad of the Foreign Office , was of serv ice at th is t ime, and hi sexplanat ions to the American m in ister at S t . James ’ were such as toful ly sat isfy the American Pres ide nt, Mr . Tyler, and the Congress orHouse of Representatives . That body agreed that the honour ofthe American flag “ demanded that i t should not be used by othersto cover an in iqui tous traffic ”. I t was now arranged that, withl iab i l i ty i n the Bri t ish government to make reparation for damageor de lay in case of undue in terference with American sh ips, thecaptai ns of our c ru isers could requ ire the product ion of a sh ip’spapers , whenever there was fai r s uspic ion that the U n i ted S tatesflag was being wrongful ly used . The American government alsoagreed to maintain a squadron off the West African coast , i n orderto guard against such an abuse .

The O regon Treaty, concluded i n 1846 , brought the end of along- stand ing dispute wh ich had , at various t imes , appeared toi nvolve a serious risk of war. O regon was at that t ime a vastterri tory on the Pacific coast, adjoin ing what became afterwards


known as Brit i sh Columbia. The State of O regon , as now const ituted, i s d iv ided from our terri tory by the S tate of Wash ington.

I n 18 18 , a treaty arranged for the join t occupation of the O regonregion by c it izens of the U n i ted States and of Great B ri tain , andN ew Englanders began to settl e there i n 1832 . I n 1843, theAmerican President, Tyler, announced that he was going to negot iate for a final settl ement of B ri t i sh claims on the terri tory .

A rdent spiri ts i n and out of Congress were eager for immediateAmerican occupation i n mil i tary force, and caravans of restlesspeople began to make the long and then dreary journey to, over, andbeyond the Rocky Mountai ns , a route on which tribes of host i l eI ndians and myriads of buffaloes were then to be encountered .

Duri ng 1844 and the fol lowing year, much exci tement arose, andthe new Pres ident, Mr. Polk, i n h is i naugural address del i vered i n1845 , even h in ted at the poss ibi l i ty of war. S i r Robert Peel , i nthe House of Commons , drew enthusiast ic cheers from both s ideswhen he declared that h is government was resolved and prepared

,

after exhausting all efforts for peace, to main tain i ts rights . Betterfeel ings

,on reflect ion , came on both s ides, and negotiations were

resumed,end ing i n a compromise offered , i n a moderate and con

ciliatory fash ion , by Lord Aberdeen , and accepted in J une, 1846 , asthe settlement of the O regon quest ion . The boundary - l i ne , passingfrom the Rocky Mountains westwards , along the 49th degree oflati tude

,to the middle of the channel separat ing Vancouver’s I sland

from the mai nland , left to Great B ritain the possession of that fineterri to ry

,with the free nav igation of the Columbia river.

I n 18 56 , some trouble arose i n connection wi th the Russian orCrimean War. The American governmen t al leged that Bri t i shagents, i n try ing to obtain recrui ts for our serv ice i n the contest,had v iolated the mun ic ipal law of the U n ited S tates . Some of ourconsuls were summari ly dism issed, and M r. Crampton , our m in i sterat Washington , was treated i n l ike fash ion , on the ground that hehad been aware of these i l legal acts . Lord Palmerston , the PrimeM in ister, was blamed for not d ism iss ing Mr. Dal las, th e Americanenvoy, but h e treated matters very cool ly , and , finding that theAmerican law had real ly been i nfri nged, he made an apology to theU n i ted States, and ended the serv ices of the enl ist ing agents . Amotion of censure in the House of Commons was rej ected by anoverwhelm ing majori ty .


confl ict affected the interests of Great B ri tain . For various reasons,

the “ upper classes ”, as they are cal led, i n th is count ry , or“ society

represented by the Times newspaper and some other “ leadingjournals took part, i n the main , with the Confederate cause .

The B ri t ish democracy, i n i ts better represen tat ives , and many ofour most eminen t and far- seeing pol i t ic ians, bel i eved i n and hopedfor the success of the Federals, stri v ing by force to bring back theseceded S tates to the U n ion . The min istry, i n which Lord Palmerston was Premier and Lord Russel l the Foreign Secretary, strovefrom the fi rst to main ta i n an absol ute neutral i ty . They could not,however

,avoid the recogni tion of exist ing facts , and the Federal

government,at a very early stage , resented our acknowledgment,

as a bel l igerent power, of those whom the N orthe rne rs regardedas Rebels . I t was forgotten in the N orth that the Federal blockade of the Southern ports, i f i t were to be respected by fore ignnations

,must be regarded as an act of war, S i nce a state cannot

blockade i ts own ports . I n war both S id es must be bell igerents ,and the act ion of the B ri ti sh m in ist ry i s at once j ust ified . I t mustbe remembered to the cred i t of our Governmen t at th i s tryi ng timethat they would not l is ten to the proposals of Louis N apoleon

,

Emperor of the French , to joi n him i n recogn iz i ng the SouthernS tates as a government and a nation .

I n the last days of 186 1 occurred the unfortunate affai r connectedwith the B rit i sh mai l- steamer Tr ent . The Confederate government, eager for E uropean recogni t ion , had resolved to send envoysto Paris and London . Mr. Sl idel l , a prominen t lawyer and pol i ti c ian ,was to plead the i r cause with Louis Napoleon ; Mr. Mason , authorof the famous Fugitive S lave Law, was to be the i r agen t at theBri t i sh court . These two gentlemen , escaping on a dark n ightthrough the Charleston blockade, made thei r way to Cuba . Theythere embarked for Southampton on the Tr ent

,a neutral vessel

,

and the sh ip was i n the Bahama Channel , when i t was compel led ,by a shot across the bows

,to heave to i n presence of the Federal

sloop - of-war San jacinto, commanded by the hot- headed Captai nWilkes . An armed party was sent on board , and , agai nst the protests of the B ri t ish captain and the Admiral ty - agen t in charge ofthe mail s

,and amid the utmost exciteme nt of wrath amongst

Brit ish passengers,the Confederate envoys and thei r secretaries

were seized from under the B ri t i sh flag, and carri ed prisone rs to

GREAT BR ITA IN AND THE UN ITED STATES. 26 3

N ew York . Lord Palmerston resented wi th the greatest promptitude th is flagran t v iolation of i n ternational law . The surrenderof the captured men was demanded , and , when some hes i tation wasd isplayed

,a m il i tary force was sen t to Canada, and the mil i t ia and

volunteers there were prepared for war. Pres ident Lincoln , thehead of the Federal government, and Mr. Seward, the Secretary ,released the four prisoners on the fi rs t day of 186 2 . Much hosti l efe el ing was displayed i n the S tates. The Secretary of the N avyhad commended Captai n Wi lkes , and Congress passed h im a voteof thanks . This episode created feel i ngs on both s ides of theA tlanti c wh ich were not whol ly al layed for many years .As the struggle proceeded , with costly and painful resul ts to

B ri tish manufacturers and workers aris ing from the dearth ofcotton , to be hereafter not iced , our Government was sorely t riedby demands made , i n and ou t of Parl iament, for recogni tion of theConfederates as an i ndependen t nation , and for in te rference withthe blockade that withheld the cotton from the Lancashi re mi l ls .The y held fi rm to thei r neutral i ty, i n wh ich they were supportedby the friendly atti tude, towards the Federal S tates, of the workingme n who were suffering most from the blockade of the Southernports . The stoppage of commerce thus exist ing along an extensivesea- board i n the A tlan tic and the Gulf of M exico caused a rise ofprices for cotton , on th is s ide of the ocean , and for commodi ties ofmany kinds , i n the Confederate States , that strongly exc i ted thecupid ity of capi tal is ts

,and gave scope to the adven tu rous spi ri t o f

many daring and able mariners . Runn ing the blockade ” becamea regular combined business and peri lous pleasu re, offering enormous profi ts to the men who found the money for the ventures ,h igh pay to the officers and crews of sh ips , with the risk of beingh i t by shot from the heavy guns of the Federal c ru isers , or of confinement , i n case of capture , i n a Federal prison . The price ofcotton

,which i n 1860 j ust exceeded S ixpence per pound , reached

two sh il l ings and fourpence i n 1864, and , for a brief t ime , amountedto threepence more . The prices paid for certain art icles i n theSouthern S tates were such that a good profi t could be made onexports from E urope

,i f bu t one vessel i n three escaped capture

by the Federal sh ips . Cal ico was fetching several dollars peryard ; coffee cost three sovereigns per pound ; French gloves were

worth pounds instead of sh i l l i ngs per pai r, and a pound of pepper


sold at £ 10 . P ins were so rare that they were picked up eagerlyi n th e streets . Paper was an expens i ve article . Sugar

,butter

,

and whi te bread were consumed only by the wealthy . Womendressed themselves i n garments made of material carded , spun ,woven

,and dyed by thei r own hands . Quin ine and other drugs

fetched fabulous amounts . Hai r- pins were made of large thornsfi tted with waxen heads . S uch was the condi t ion of affai rs thatbrought to the southern coast of the S tates many Brit ish steamers

,

expressly bu i l t for speed : long, narrow, low, pai nted to the colourof mud, and with furnaces burn ing smokeless coal . The neutralport of N assau

,i n the Bahamas, w as a ch ief stat ion for the vessels

engaged i n the enterprise . I n case of success, after sel l i ng thecargo i n Wilmington , Mobile, or other southern port , the “ blockaderunner” came forth heav i ly laden with bales of cotton , some packedon deck around the funnel , and special ly used to guard the enginesfrom the effects of Federal shot and shel l .The A laoama i s , for Great Bri tain , the one name of si n ister

sound i n connect ion with the Ameri can c iv i l war. The Federalgovernment

,i n that matter, was almost whol ly right, and th is

country, th rough some of her Ci t i zens and officials , was almost e ut ire ly i n the wrong . The Confederate government, endeavouringto lessen the resources of thei r powerful foe, waged war against themercant i le navy of the Federals . A privateer cal led the F lor ida

,

with i n th ree months, captured 1 5 vessel s, of which 13 wereplundered and burnt, and the other two converted i nto cruisers .The F lor ida was bui l t i n B i rkenhead , nominal ly for the I tal iangovernment

,but her real dest ination was known , and she left the

Mersey wi thout di fficul ty, al though the Federal M in ister at ou rCourt, Mr . Adams, warned Lord Russel l , the Foreign Secretary ,of her intended purpose . A navy of such vessel s was , i n fact ,being created i n B ri t ish sh ip - yards for the Confederate States

,the

vessel s bei ng sen t to some appointed place,where they were armed

and commiss ioned by Confederate captains,and then scoured the

seas for the discomfiture of the hated “Northerners The Georg ia ,

the Rappa/zanac, the Snenandoan, were among th e most de struct i veof the seven ch ief privateers

,five of wh ich were constructed i n

B ri t ish yards . The most notable of al l was the A laoama , bu i l t onthe Mersey by the famous fi rm of Lai rd

,whose ch ief was then

M.P. for B i rkenhead . As She lay on the stocks i n 186 2 , she was


lack of intervention in thei r favour wh ich might have caused adi fferen t issue to thei r brave struggle against overwhelming odds .For some years the government of the reconsti tu ted U n i ted Stateshad pressed the A labama quest ion on the noti ce of ou r m in isters,and had only met wi th refusals to entertai n the i r demands . I n1870 ,

the matter was brough t more seriously forward , and a se ttlement was demanded of pecun iary claims aris ing out of the damagedone by th e A laéama and other c ru isers wh ich had been bu il t i nB ri t ish dockyards and had sai led from Bri ti sh ports .I t was M r. Gladstone

’s cabinet that , i n 1871 , resolved on anattempt to settle the matter by arbitrat ion . Bri t ish and AmericanCommissioners

,i n May, concl uded the Treaty of Wash ington ,

under wh ich the A la lama claims were to be submitted to a tribunalof five gentlemen , s i tti ng at Geneva, appoin ted by the Queen , theAmerican Pres ident, the K ing of I taly, the Swiss Presiden t , andthe Emperor of B raz i l . O ther subj ects of d ispute were to be alsoreferred to arbi trat ion . The fri endly att i tude of Great B ri tai ntowards the U n i ted S tates was indicated by the formal express ionmade at Washington , by the Queen

’

s command ,“ of regret for the

escape, under whatever c i rcumstances , of the A laoama and othervessels from Bri ti sh ports , and for the depredations committed bythose vessels Three rules, concern ing the duties of neutralgovernmen ts towards fri endly states at war wi th other powers

,

were laid down as appl icable to the A la l ama case , though suchrules or principles were not i n force at the time of the Americanc iv i l war. I n other points ou r Government made concess ionswh ich aroused some ind ignation amongst patriot ic B ri tons of theless reflect ive type , but wh ich were probably a very cheap purchaseof American good-wil l , for coming t ime , towards th is country . Thefive arb i trators began thei r s i tt ings at Geneva i n December, 187 1,

and i n J une , 1872 , the cou rt almost unan imously awarded to theU n i ted S tates the sum of about th ree and a quarter m i l l i ons ascompensation for al l losses to American commerce, and a finalse ttlement of al l c laims . S i r A l exander Cockburn , Lord ChiefJ usti ce , who was the E ngl ish arbi trator, cons idered the damagesexcess iv e, and was afterwards shown to be right by the fact thatthe claims of merchan ts , as proved i n the American court appoin tedby Congress , fel l short of the sum awarded . A l l ’s wel l that endswel l

”

, i n publ i c as i n private affai rs . For the fi rs t t ime i n h istory,

GREAT BR ITAIN AND THE UN ITED STATES. 267

an in ternational question that, on the old system , would have probably ended in a destruct ive war, was peaceful ly settled before acourt of learned and able men , and Great B ri tai n was a vast gaineri n adopting a pol icy which not only conci l i ated our kinsmen beyondthe A tlantic, but, being in i ts elf wise , honourable, and j ust, established a great principle for the benefi t of al l coming generat ions .U nder the Treaty of Washington , arb itrat ion was also employedi n a matter connected wi th the O regon Treaty of 1846 . Thefrontier- l i ne then defined down the m iddle of the channel separati ng Vancouver’s I sland from the ma inland left undeterm ined thepossess ion of the is land of San J uan , lying i n the cen tre of thatwaterway . The Emperor Wi ll iam of Germany , as arbi trator, i n1872 , assigned i t to the Un i ted States .The pol icy of the great Republ ic ’s government has been from

time to t ime , i nfluenced i n some degree by the “ I rish vote dueto the exis tence, as American cit izens , of great numbers of I ri shmen

,form ing an element general ly hosti l e to Great B ri tain , i n

various parts of the S tates , espec ial ly i n the c i ty of New York .

This infl uence has been subject to counteraction by the numerousEngl ish and Scottish emigrants who have, duri ng the presen tcentury, settled i n the S tates , retain ing, for th e most part , friendlyfeel ings towards thei r nat ive land . The great I rish “ exodusacross the A tlantic was caused by the potato- famine that occu rred ,i n two or three success ive years

,just prior to the m iddle of the

centu ry . I n 1880,there were

,i n the U n ited S tates , nearly two

m i l l ions of people who had been born i n I reland . Between 18 2 1

and 1889, nearly 3% mil l ions of I ri sh settl ed there, of whom morethan 2% mill ions emigrated between 1 85 3 and 1889. The figuresconcern ing the general em igration from the Bri t ish I sles to theS tates are very i nteresting and important . Duri ng the th i rty- sixyears 185 3 to 1888, j ust over s ix m i l l ions of people left B ri t i shports for that great fie l d of enterprise , and of these about twoth i rds were of B rit ish and I ri sh origin . The I rish element being ,

as above, 2% mil l ions

,we may probably estimate the E ngl i sh

emigrants at a m il l ion and a hal f, and the Scottish at one -fifth of

th is las t number.The social influence of the people of the U n i ted S tates upon the

B ri t ish I sle s i s a very wide subj ect to which we can here devotebut a narrow space . Many fresh words have become thereby


natural ized among us . O f these , some are enti rely of Americanorigin , such as caucu s , loafer , and l oss . O thers

,such as sma r t , for

“ clever ” , stor e for “ shop”

, fix for“ arrange r un for “ manage ”

,

pr etty for“ rather ” , locate, and many more, are E ngl i sh words used

i n a di fferent sense from ours . Abundant S lang express ions,derived

from the gambl i ng habi ts and the m in ing occupations of the “ wildWest ” region in the S tates , have also been exported to and adoptedon th i s s ide of what i s facet iously cal led “ the b ig drink ”

. To thesame source we owe, i n a large measure , the modern “spi ri tual i smwhich exercises so many m inds i n th is age . The “VVomen

’

s

R ights movement i s probably the most importan t pract ical outcome of American republ ican ism i n i ts effects upon th i s country .

Bri t ish leg i s lation i n favour of a new independence for women wi l lbe hereafte r not iced . I t i s remarkable that the greatest progressi n th i s d i rect ion has been made i n countries that have advancedbeyond others i n the appl icat ion to industry of the use of steam andmach inery for the sav ing of human to i l . I n accordance wi th thi spri nciple we find that the U n i ted S tates , one of whose most ing enious ci t izens , E l ias H owe , of Massachusetts , i nvented the lockst i tch sewing-mach ine, i s the country that led the way in conferri ngupon the female sex , i n some quarters of the land , the mun ic ipaland other suffrages , and i n open ing to them not only the medicaland legal profess ions , but un ivers i ty degrees , and state occupationsof many kinds . The relat ions between the U n i ted S tates andGreat B ri tai n are, with advantage to both , becoming ever closer i nthe social and sympatheti c bonds which are powerful guarantees ofi nternat ional comi ty and friendsh ip . Much of the l iterature produced by American writers i n the course of the 19th cen tury hasaroused admi rat ion and gained countless readers in the Bri ti shI sles . Washington I rvi ng and Fen imore Cooper, Will iam Culle nBryant and Longfel low, Chann i ng and Emerson , Hawthorne andM rs . S towe , Lowel l , Wendel l H olmes , Edgar Poe, Bancroft, Prescott

,Motley , Bret Harte, Browne (

“A rtemus Ward and thelater novel i sts H owel ls , Crawford , and H enry J ames , are amongthe ch ief of these del ightfu l and i nstructi ve authors . Year by year,more American c i t izens are found as touri sts i n the old country ,and the nearest and dearest relations have been i n many instancescreated by intermarriages

,th e most consp icuous of which have

un i ted B ri t ish peers to American brides rich ly dowered . I t may


flax - spin n ing,l i nen -weav ing , rope-making, sh ip - bu i lding, and othe r

trades . The agricul turi sts of U lster also long enj oyed a superiori tyover those of the res t of I reland i n the custom which pract ical lygave them fix ity or perpe tu i ty i n the tenure of thei r farms, so longas the ren t was duly paid , and the power of obtain ing compensat ion for improvements by the sale of the good-wil l when a hold ingwas trans ferred to another tenant . Thus, i n town and countryal ike

,the i nhab itants of U lster have possessed means of l iv ing in

comfort den ied,to a large extent, to the people of the other pro

v i nces,comparat ively devoid of profitable manufactures owing to

the lack of coal , and exi st ing under very different conditions asregards the tenure of land .

The progress made i n I reland during the presen t cen tury i n theway of rel igious equal i ty and of educat ion i s treated i n anothersect ion of th is work . We purpose here to deal briefly with effortsmade for the attai nment ei ther of nat ional i ndependence or of theparl iamentary separation known as the Repeal of the U n ion or,simply Repeal ” , mean ing the undoing of the Act of U n ion which ,as we have seen

,came into operat ion on January I st , 180 1 . We

shal l also g ive some facts as to legislat ive changes main ly concernedwi th that great and , for I reland , v i tal quest ion , the tenure of land .

We may here state generally , once for al l , that, apart from anyfaults i nheren t i n the great mass of her very interesting people

,

who are at once humorous, poetical , pious , c redulous , shrewd ,patriotic, clann ish , brave , und isc ipl ined , am iable , clever, and impract icable , i t has been the great m isfortune of I reland , during the pastcentu ry of active legislat ion , to be the v ict im of our Parl iamentarysystem of party-government . I t i s probable that I reland would behappiest under a very able , sympathetic, gen ial , impartial , and strongw i l led despot , but, as that species of ru l e i s not forthcom ing, she hasbeen , i n too many instances , made the sport of i ts subst i tute, a warfare between rival m in iste rs and part ies , ever contending for placeand power. Measures of rel ief, and measures of fi rm coercion andcontrol have been opposed

,mutilated , delayed i n Parl iament by

Opposit ions i n both Houses who merely regarded the fact that theGovernme nt proposed them

,and paid l i ttl e heed to the wants and

wai l ings , th e disorders and d istresses, of a country suffering fromcenturies of neglect and m isrule ; of a people subjected , over mostof the land, to a foreign and dominant race ; of a nat ion , i n the

IRELAND . 27 1

mass , l i ttl e understood by those who ruled her . I t is certa in thatthe best local governors of I reland have been

,i n every age

,men

akin , i n character and sway, to the benevolen t despot abovesuggested . I t is equal ly certain that much of the v iolence andoutrage which , i n past t imes , have made I reland a byword amongthe nations, has been due to the people

’

s perception of the factsthat thei r i nterests were being, i n the un i ted Parl iament, madesubordi nate to party- success , and that

“ concession ” , a word hatefu lto lovers of j ust and equal treatment, could only be wrung fromthat Parl iament by party—pressure with in , or threaten ing agitat ionwithout .The fi rs t and, for many years , the only attempt at rebel l ion

made after the outbreak of 1798 was the enterprise undertakenby the fool i sh and unhappy Robert Emmet . This fanat ical youngpatriot, a son of D r. Emmet, physic ian to the Viceroy, was inc i tedby hopes of aid from France, and devoted a few thousands ofpounds, j ust inher i ted from h is deceased father, i n 1803, to arrangi ng a conspi racy for the subvers ion of the government . The Castl eat Dubl i n was to be seized by armed insurgents

, who appeared , onJ uly 2 3rd, i n the s treets of Dubl in . Emmet h imsel f was horrifiedby the brutal i ty of h i s followers when , i nstead of advancing to theattack of the Castle, they k i lled Colonel B rown and other person sin the streets , and , on meeting Lord K i lwarden , the Chief- J ust i ce,i n h is carriage

,dragged h im ou t, along with h is nephew,

andmurde red them in the presence of the judge

’

s daughter . Theruffianly rabble were qu ickly d ispersed by a smal l party of troops ,and Emmet ’s depOt , with a large quanti ty of arms , was seized .

After h iding for some t ime in the Wicklow mountains, Emmetstole i nto Dubl i n for a last i nterv iew wi th a young lady whom heloved , Sarah Curran , daughte r of the famous orator . He was thenarrested

,t ried , condemned , and hanged , del ivering before h i s

sentence i n September,1803, a speech of the noblest and mos t

touch ing eloquence . Sarah Curran pined away and die d inS ic ily, a few months after he r lover

’s death , and thei r story becamerenowned in the l i nes of Thomas Moore

,begi nn ing, “ She is far

from the land where her young hero sleeps ” . The romance andthe pathos attending th is event were elements whol ly wanting i nother attempts to acqui re national i ndependence .

After the success, i n 18 29, of h i s e fforts to obtain pol i tical


freedom for the Cathol ics, Dan iel O’

Conne ll,“ the Liberator

greatest of al l I ri sh patriots and popular orators,devoted h imse l f

to the question of Repeal . I n 1 832 , he was returned M .P. forDubl in , nominati ng about hal f of the candidates elected i n I reland ,and head ing i n the House of Commons a party of 45 declaredRepealers . I n May, 1834, h is mot ion for a committee to inqui reinto the Act of U n ion was defeated by a majori ty of nearly 500,

andi t w as ev idently hopeless to pursue the matter there. When LordMelbourne came into power, i n 1835 , I reland was governed withimpartial i ty and mildness by Lord Mulgrave (afterwards Marqu isof N ormanby) as Lord Lieutenan t, Lord Morpeth as Ch ief Secretary

,and by the excel len t Captai n Thomas Drummond

,of the

Royal Eng ineers , as U nder- Secretary . This gen tleman,a man of

great cu l ture and scient ific sk i l l, who had been engaged i n the

O rdnance Survey, and was the i nventor of the famous l ime- l igh tcall ed by h is name , was one of the bes t men ever sen t by Englandto admin ister affai rs i n I reland . Conc i l iatory, wise, energetic , impartial , he won the confidence and affe ct ion of the I ri sh people,restored order to the coun try , and enl is ted the wi l l ing aid of mostpersons i n promoting the bes t i nterests of al l c lasses i n the nation .

Some of the less worthy landlords were offended by D rummond ’sfamous declarat ion , i n a letter addressed to the magis trates ofT ipperary

,that “ property had i ts duti es as wel l as i ts rights ” . In

reply to attacks made in Parl iamen t, i t was c learly proved that thelaw had been fi rmly admin istered agains t disturbers of the publ icpeace

,and the rulers of I reland at th i s t ime could poin t with just

pride to the establ i shment of the h ighly effic ien t new body of armedpol ice

,now numbering over men , known as the Royal I ri sh

Constabulary . The best proof of D rummond ’s serv ices to I relandi s found i n the fact that O

’

Connell, at a large meeting i n Dubl i n ,proclaimed h is readiness to abandon the proj ect of Repeal i n theprospect of at last obtain ing j ust ice for h i s coun trymen .

The death of D rummond i n 1840 brought a great change , andi n the same month the I rish ag i tator founded h is famous RepealAssociat ion . I n 1842 he reti red from Parl iament, and, en l i st ingthe I ri sh priesthood i n h i s cause

,sti rred the country to i ts depths

i n impassioned speeches at vast meetings,i n the col umns of the

newspaper cal led the Na tion ,and i n a great, enthus iastic , and har

monious organ izat ion formed and di rected wi th consummate ski l l .


good behav iou r. O n appeal to the House of Lords, the sentencewas reversed by three out of the five law- peers who tried the matter

,and Lord Denman , Chief- J usti ce , declared the trial before such

a j ury to be “a mockery, a delus ion , and a snare”

. On September4th, 1844, th i s dec is ion was given , and i t was welcomed in I relandby bonfi res blaz ing from sea to sea . O

’

Conne ll’

s heal th was nowbroken by the disease which ended his l i fe i n 1847, and new agitators for Repeal came into prominence.These men formed the revolut ionary party known as Young

I reland ”

,i ncluding some clever and youthful patriots who conducted

and wrote for the Na tion newspaper . One of the older ch iefs ofth is body was M r. Will iam Smith O’

Brien, a man of large propertyand good family

,descended from the famous hero and king B rian

Boru,an I ri sh A l fred , slai n by the Danes near Dubl i n i n 10 14,

after he had won a final and decis ive v i ctory over h i s country’ssavage and i nveterate foes . O

’

Brien was a man of pure purposeand ch ival rous character, but not of marked i ntel lec t or strongsense, though he had i n 1 843, when he was an Opponen t of Repeal ,del ivered in the House of Commons a ful l and temperate exposi t ionof the j ust claims of I reland . Mr. Meagher, th e most bri l l ian tspeaker of the party, son of a weal thy merchant once M .P. for Waterford

,was but twenty - four years of age at the t ime of O ’

Conne ll’

s

death . Mr. J ohn M itchel , son of a Presbyterian m in ister i n CountyDerry, was some years older, and , going too far, i n h is strength ofutterance , for the Na tion, he started , i n 1848, the Un ited Ir i snman .

Mr . Duffy, a man of about the same age as Meagher, was a jou rnalis t who had helped Thomas Dav i s and J ohn Blake D i l lon ,father of M r. J ohn D i l lon , th e famous “ Home Ruler ” of laterdays, to found the Na tion as the organ of the then ri si ng YoungI reland party . Duffy

,conv icted for sedi t ion wi th O

’

Conne ll, wassaved by the decis ion in the House of Lords

,and then gave h i s

utmost help to the cause headed by Smith O’

Brien. I t was theyear 1 848 , the year of th e th i rd French Revolut ion and of thedownfal l of Chart ism i n E ngland

,that ended the dreams of the new

Repealers . The spi ri t of the t ime suddenly changed the movementfrom what had been l i ttle more than a l i terary and rhetorical organiz at ion of young enthus iasm into a rebel l ious conspi racy . An appealfor armed aid to Lamart ine, the French poet and pol i t ic ian , whowas a leading man in the republ ican government, met with a cool

IRELAND. 275

reception,and then M itchel , the most ardent, and the one really

dangerous,man i n the ranks of h is party, strove to force the

Government in to act ion that might arouse i nsurrect ion for therescue of I ri sh patriots . The articles i n the Un ited Ir isnman con

ta ined plai n inci tements to rebell ion , and his chal lenge was acceptedby the au thori t ies . O

’

Brien, Meagher, and M itchel , tried for sed it ion under the exist ing law, were acqu i tted , and an Act was thenpassed making al l wri tten i nc itement to insurrection or resistanceto the law a felony pun ishable by transportat ion . U nder thi s , thefiery M itchel was found gui l ty, sentenced to fourteen years

’ t rans

portation,and despatched to Van Diemen’

s Land, now cal led Tasman ia . I n 1 85 3 he made h i s escape to the U n ited S tates , andduring the civ i l war he shocked many of h is former admirers byh is s trong advocacy

,i n h is Ir isli Citiz en , of s lavery and the Con

federate cause . I n 1874 he returned to I reland , was left unmolested ,and elec ted M .P. for T ipperary . The House of Commons declaredh im , as a conv ict sentence d for felony , to be inel igible as a memberof that body of legislators , and M itchel , after re - election , d ied atCork i n the fol lowing year.After M itchel ’s removal from the scene, the Na t i on s t i l l u rged

rebel l ion , and Smith O’

Brien wen t about th e country hold ing re

v iews of the “ Confederates ” , as the Young I relanders now styledthemselves . The Government

,resolved to make an end ofw hat

was becoming a mere burlesque, suspended the Haéeas Corpus A ct

for I reland , and issued warrants wh ich drove the leaders i n fl ightfrom D ubl i n . Some hundreds of O

’

Brien’

s fol lowers attacked asmal l force of the Constabulary , driv ing them for refuge into thehouse of widow Cormack

,at Bal l ingarry i n Tipperary, which they

held as a fortress, fi red on by the rebel s from the famous cabbagegarden outs ide . Not a pol iceman was h i t, whi le the shots from thehouse did some harm ,

and soon dispersed the mob . A few dayslater

, O’

Brien, who had escaped from the l i ttl e confl ic t on one ofthe constabl es ’ horses , was arrested at Thurles . He, Meagher, andtwo others were condemned to death , but a commuted sentence sen tthem to Australas ia . Trac ing briefly the subsequen t h istory ofthese men

,we find that Smith O’

Brien, who behaved , after h i sarrest and during h is trial

,wi th the dignified composu re of a gen

tleman,received a free pardon i n 185 6 , and, spending the rest of

h is years i n private l i fe , died i n 1864 at Bangor, i n North Wales .


The fate of Meagher, who had sacrificed to h i s country’s cause the

brightest and happies t prospects,aroused much commiserat ion . A l l

ki ndly hearts were moved by h is you th and h is eloquence . I nmanly and pathet i c words , when he was cal led upon to show causewhy sentence of death should not be passed upon h im , he decl i ned“ to crave wi th fal tering l ip the l ife he had consecrated to the inde

pende nce of h i s country and declared the h i story of I reland explai ns my crime and j ust ifies i t Th is b rave, however m isguided ,man made h is escape from Van Diemen’

s Land to the U n i tedS tates i n 185 2 . I n 186 1 he organ ized the “ I ri sh brigade on theFederal s ide, and fought wi th di st inguished courage round R i chmond

,at Fredericksburg , and at Antietam ,

dying by accidentaldrown ing i n the river M issouri , i n 186 7. A happier career wasreserved for M r. Duffy. Tried and not conv icted i n 1848, hebecame M.P. for N ew Ross in 185 2 , and took an act ive part i nI ri sh quest ions . I n 185 5 he wen t out to Austral ia, receiv ing anenthus iast i c welcome from the I rish who had settled there . A t abanquet i n Melbourne he declared h imsel f s t i l l “ an I ri sh rebe l tothe backbone ” . H is success i n pol i t i cs was so rapid and decis ivethat i n 185 7 he was M in is ter of Publ i c Works i n V ictoria , and ,after hold ing other offices , became Prem ier in 1871 . I n 1875 hewas Speaker of the Legislat ive Assembly, and , hav ing been al readyknighted by patent

,S i r Charles Gavan Duffy , i n 1877, was created

or Kn ight Commander of the order of S t . M ichae l andS t . George . I n 1880 he returned to E urope, and has s ince thenresided in the south of F rance . H is B a llad P oetry of Ir eland,and Young Ireland, a F ragment of Ir isli H is tory, are h ighlyvalued .

The next attempt at freei ng I reland from the dom inat ion ofthe “ Saxon had i ts origi n i n secret associations formed amongmen of the lower class after the suppression of the “ YoungI reland movement. I n February, 1866 , the Government, headedby Lord Russel l , found i t necessary to suspend the Ha l eas Corpus

A ct i n I reland, and to give the Lord - l i eu tenan t free powers toarrest and detai n suspected persons . The Fen ian B rotherhoodhad been for some time afoot . This somewhat form idable organization derived i ts name from F ionna B ir inu , the t i tle of the ancien tI ri sh national m i l i t ia, renowned i n bard ic song. The sti r beganabout 185 8, and , deriv ing much of i ts s trength , both physical and


Operat ions . Prisoners were tried and conv icted i n N ovember,and sent to penal servi tude

,by Spec ial Commiss ions s itt ing at Cork

and D ubl in , but Stephens contrived to escape, greatly to the exultat ion of the Fen ians , from R ichmond Prison , D ubl i n . He eludedrecapture, but he was never afterwards prominent, and seems tohave been daunted by h is prompt seiz ure . The suspension of theH abeas Corpus Act

,as above

,early i n 1866 , was l ike a l ive shel l i n

a powder-magaz ine to the Fen ian movement i n I reland . About500 I ri sh -Americans in that country were under the observat ion ofthe pol ice

,and most of them now fled from the country . I t was

t ime that act ion was taken by the B rit ish government, when manufactori es of p ikes, bul l ets, and cartridges had been discovered , andi t was known that hundreds of I ri shmen , brought over from England and Scotland

,were receiv i ng daily pay wh i le they awai ted the

s ummons to arms, and that Fen ian agents were try i ng to seducefrom thei r al legiance soldi ers of the regiments quartered i n I reland .

For very shame at the col lapse, some of the more energetic Fen ianss trove to rush i n to act ion , and a plan was formed for the seizu reof Chester Castle, i n Fe bruary , 1867, with i ts store of arms andammun ition . The usual i nformer was not want ing, and the promptdespatch from London of a s trong body of the Guards frustratedth is enterprise . I n the fol lowing month , I reland saw an attempt ata general ris ing , bu t the i nsurrect ion was real ly overwhelmed by avery unusual fal l of snow wh ich fi l led the gorges of the mounta inswhere the Fenians were to have thei r encampments and places ofrefuge . The attacks on pol ice- barracks i n the southern and westerncounties , Cork , Kerry, Limeri ck , Tipperary, and other parts, wererepel led with some loss of l i fe, and , wi th the H a l ea s Corpu s Acts t i l l suspended i n I reland, th e Fen ian conspi racy there remained ina paralysed and hopeless condi tion .

I t must be stated that some sympathy, not for Fen ian ism ,but

for some of i ts supporters , was created in E ngland by the manlyand s incere bearing, at the bar of j usti ce, of prominen t men i n theorgan ization . Many of them had abandoned good prospects i n theU n ited S tates to sacrifice themselves on behal f of what they bel ievedto be a sacred cause, and one which they had been persuaded wouldreceive support i n a great upris ing of the I rish people. Some ofthese culpri ts had been brave sold iers i n the American war.Among them was Colonel Burke , of d ist inguished serv ice on the

IRELAND. 279

Confederate s ide . I n May, 1867, he was sentenced to death fortreason - felony

,but h is l i fe was spared in deference to the publ ic

feel ing man ifested at a great, purely Engl ish , meeting i n St .J ames ’s Hall

,London

,where unan imous enthus iasm , backed by

the voice of the great ph ilosopher, J ohn S tuart M ill , adopted amemorial i n favour of rem iss ion of the capital pun ishment awarded .

The Fen ians showed no grat i tude for th i s len iency towards one ofthei r ch iefs . On September 18th of the same year, a party ofarmed men

,i n broad dayl ight, attacked at Manchester, i n the

publ i c street, a pol i ce- van conveying two Fen ian prisoners, Kellyand D easy

,from a mag i strates ’ court to the c ity jai l . Four of the

pol ice- escort were h i t by revolver- bul lets , and one, Sergeant B rett,seated i ns ide the door, rece ived a mortal wound . The keys weretaken from him , the prisoners were released , and never seen againby Brit ish officials . The leaders , A l len , a youth under twenty, andtwo of h is comrades , Larki n and O

’

Brien, were hanged for th isaudacious deed, and have ever s ince been regarded by I ri sh“ patriots ” as “ martyrs ” to the national cause . The B ri t ishgovernment had been ful ly aroused , and threats of Fen ian rescueat the hour of execut ion i n Manchester were met by an imposingdisplay of mi l i tary force wh ich gathered ten thousand sold iers i nand around the c i ty, and would have crushed i nsurgents not onlywi th rifle - bul lets

,but by the contents of ready - loaded cannon .

These Fen ians d ied on N ovember 2 3rd, and , not three weekslater

,on December i 3th, 186 7, a far worse deed than thei rs was

pe rpetrate d by members of thei r associat ion in the attempt madeat Clerkenwel l pri son i n London . This enterprise was one ofsense l ess and brutal atroci ty , showing reckless d isregard of i nnocent l ives , and whol ly fai l i ng to attain the obj ect i n v iew . A caskof gunpowder was placed against the prison -wall , and then fi red i norder to blow down the obstacle , and enable Colonel B urke andanother Fenian conv ict to escape. I t was supposed by thecriminals engaged that the prisoners would then be walking in theyard . I f they had

,they would almost certain ly have been k il led

by thei r i ntending rescuers ; but the governor of the prison hadwarn ing of the plot

,and kept al l h is charges to thei r cells for the

day . The resul ts of the explosion i n a crowded neighbourhoodwere of a most disastrous k ind . The shock which , at four o

’clockon that winter day

,as darkness fe l l , startl ed al l London , and threw


down s ixty yards of the prison -wal l , Shattered to pieces many of thesmal l adjacent houses . Twelve persons were ki l led on the spot ormortal ly i nj ured

,and about 1 20 receiv ed wounds . Forty ch i ldren

were prematurely born of women with i n range of th is fe arfulphys i cal and mental blow, and one - hal f of these in fants d id notsu rv ive the hour of thei r b irth . The stupid and ferocious cruel tyof the Clerkenwel l explos ion , which was pun i shed by the e xe cut ion of the only man that could be conv icted, d id more than causewail ing i n many humble homes and rouse a temporary panic i nLondon . I t created i n the m inds and hearts of countless B ri t ishvoters

,under the new democrat ic franch ise , for dwel le rs i n the

towns,which was about to come into operat ion , a fixed host i l i ty to

I ri sh aspi rations after national i ndependence that exerted afterwards a powerful i nfluence against far d i fferent schemes thanFen ian plans for an I ri sh republ i c . Meanwhi le, there was but onestep lower i n the scale of combined crim inal i ty and fut i l i ty thatcoul d be taken by the lower class of the supporters of Fen ian ism .

Vain attempts on Canada, noticed elsewhere, were made i n 1866

and in 1 871 , and for some years there were no act ive demonstrat ions i n England .

A l ater development i n America produced the “ Ski rmish ingFund raised by I ri sh -American conspi rators, members of th eClan- na -Gael or of the body cal led “ I nv inc ibles ” , who sought tograt i fy revengeful feel ings for I reland ’s past real or supposedwrongs , and to terri fy the Bri t i sh governme nt and people in togrant ing ei ther repeal of the Parl iamentary U n ion

,or total i nde

pendence of the B ri t i sh connect ion . I n pursuance of these objects ,conspi racy passed from the use of gunpowder to that of the newexplos ive

,dynamite . Between 1883 and 1885 efforts to terrori ze

the B ri t i sh publ i c caused a series of explosions and attempts,some

times attended by great damage to property and some inj ury toperson . I n 1883 , the gas -works at Glasgow were thus , withouteffect

,assai led . I n March of the same year, a serious explosion

took place at the Local Government Board offices , Whitehal l , inLondon , and at the Times newspaper- office , B lackfriars , moredamage was barely escaped . I n the following October, there weretwo outrages of the same kind on the U nderground Rai lway,London . I n February, 1884, an apparatus left at the cloak - roomin Victori a S tat ion , London , d id much damage to the property of


for the control of the rel i ef- system,and i n 1872 th i s body was

merged i nto the Local Government Board,superi n tending the

boards of guard ians of the poor, partly composed of ex - oji cio andpartly of elec ted members , admin is tering other important s tatu tesi n the i nterests of the i ndigen t and s ick . I n 184 1 , much ev i lbegan to be remedied by the Mun ic ipal Reform Ac t that set as idea thoroughly corrupt local system of rule

,i n fected wi th sectarian

i ntolerance and priv i lege . A Protestant monopoly i nvolv ing theu tmost i n iqu i ty was now deal t wi th , between 30 and 40 smal lercorporat ions being dissolved, and thei r funds vested i n commiss ione rs who appl ied them to publ i c objects . Ten large towns werecontinued as corporations . Later legis lat ion has brought more than80 towns wi th i n the prov is ions of the improved system bestowings el f-government i n mun ic ipal affai rs .

Home Rule for I reland or repeal of the U n ion Act so as togive I reland agai n a separate Parl iament

,i s a subj ect scarcely yet

fi tted for h istorical treatment, as representing a cause that i s atth is moment i n a state of suspended an imation . A few particularsof the movement

,up to date, may be given . Home Rul e ” sigu i

fies,as a pol i t ical enterprise, the attempt to obtain by peaceful ,

legislat ive means a part of what the Fenians aimed at by insurre c

t ionary force. I n 1 873, th e H ome Ru le L eag ue, started i n I reland,had for i ts leader in the H ouse of Commons a very able orator andpatriot

,I saac Butt . I n the fol lowing year

,after a general election ,

there were more than 50 I rish members pledged to Home Rul epri nciples

,and in 1 875 Mr . Charles Stuart Parnel l, a Protestant of

E ngl i sh descent,and a landowner in County Wicklow, was elected

M .P. for Meath . I n 1877 he became the leader, i n the Commons ,o f an advanced sect ion of Home Rulers who qu ickly gained predominance . Mr . Parnel l was a man of cool nature, most able as atact ic ian

,and exerci s ing undisputed ascendency among h is col leagues .

Mr . Butt was almost abandoned , and h is death in 1879 l eft a clearcourse for the extreme party . The Government, i n the H ouse ofCommons

,were systematical ly thwarted by i ngen ious and pers isten t

obstruct ion , i n the course of wh ich t ime was wasted by frequentdiv is ions on motions for report i ng progress , and by lengthy Speecheswandering, i n spi te of warn ings from the Speaker or the Chai rmanof Committees, i n to wearisome repeti t ions and i rrelevant d iscourse .

I n 1 880; th e general election largely increased the I ri sh party of

IRELAND. 283

Home Rulers, among the ch ief of whom were M r. Sexton , Mr. T .

D . Sull ivan , Mr. T . M . Healy, M r. T . P . O’

Connor, Mr. W . O’

Brien,

Mr . J ohn D i l lon , Mr. Biggar, Mr. A rthur O ’

Connor, Mr. J ust inM ‘Carthy, M r. Clancy, and M r. O

’

Ke lly. I n 188 1 , when M r.Forster

,Chief Secretary for I reland, brought i n a strong Coerc ion

B il l against the commiss ion of outrages i n I reland, the Parnell i tes ,as they were now cal led , opposed the measure with every k i nd ofd isorderly obstruct ion , and many of them were for a t ime suspended,by the Speaker’s authori ty, from the discharge of thei r duties i n theHouse .

I t was i n connection wi th land - quest ions i n I reland that M r .Parnell and some of h is col leagues were arrested there i n theautumn of 188 1 , and that, i n May, 1882 , one of the worst c rimesi n I ri sh h istory was perpetrated . Mr. Forster, offended by therelease of M r. Parnel l and h is associates i n the spring of 1882 , leftthe m in istry of M r. Gladstone, and was succeeded i n h i s post asSecretary for I reland by the excel len t and kindly Lord FrederickCavendish

,younger brother of the Marqui s of H art i ngton who

i s now Duke of Devonsh ire . I t was on Saturday, May 61h,

that he arrived i n Dubl in . There was a certain M r. Burke,a

gentleman of h igh character, very unpopular i n I reland , as anunder- secretary whose duty compel led h im to put i n act ion thesevere measures of Coerc ion Acts . This offic ial was doomed todeath by the organ izat ion of wicked conspi rators cal led “ Invin

c ibles who had narrowly m issed success i n a plan for assass inat ingM r. Forster, on the occasion of h is departu re from D ubl i n forE ngland . By an unhappy chance

,Lord F . Cavendish , on the

even ing of the day that he had landed and taken part i n the process ion attending the entry of the new v iceroy, E arl Spencer,accompanied M r. Burke into Phoen ix Park . The conspi ratorshad, and could have, no grudge against h im , but he w as walkingat thei r i ntended v ictim ’s s ide, and Shared h is fate . I t was betweenseven and eight o ’clock , and many people i n the park were en

joyi ng the bright and beauti ful even ing. Lord Spencer and h isfriends, from the windows of the Vi ceregal Lodge , saw a kind ofscuffle, only two hundred yards away, proceed ing on the grassbeside a roadway . The scene was also observed by a man walking at some l ittl e distance, and then he saw two men fal l to theground, and next, four men drive swi ftly away from the spot on a


car . Mr. Burke and Lord Frederi ck Cavendish had , by those fourmen

,been stabbed to death wi th long kn ives , and thei r bodies were

found , covered wi th wounds, amid pool s of blood . The assass insvan i shed from the eyes of men , for that t ime, as i f the earth hadopened and swal lowed them up . The horror wh ich th i s deedaroused i n Great B ri tai n was not blended wi th any wild cry forvengeance

,and the widow of one of the v ict ims, Lady F . Caven

d ish,did honour to her sex, her class , and her nat ion by express ing ,

i n a publ ic letter, her conv iction that the crime was one of personalenmity to M r. Burke, and that i t had no national character, and herhope that any beneficent and conci l iatory leg is lation for I relandwould not be in terfered with i n consequence .Retribut ion did not lag long on the tracks of the foul crim inals

of the Phoen ix Park . E arly in 1 883 , the I rish pol ice , who displayedthroughout admirable energy, secrecy , and ski l l , had twenty I nv incible s

” i n custody . J oe Brady, the ch ief murderer, was conv i ctedand hanged wi th four of h i s accompl ices i n the plot . J ames Carey

,

who was on the spot when the murders took place, and was theplanner of the deed

,tu rned in former

,and saved h is l i fe for the

t ime . I n J uly of the same year he was Shot dead on board Sh ip,

near the Cape of Good H ope , by a man named O ’Donnell, who

was hanged i n London for the c rime, which was probably a deedof vengeance wrough t on a tra i tor. Three others of the conspi rators engaged i n the Phoen ix Park tragedy wen t i n to penal serv i tudefor l i fe, and some more of the gang were sentenced to various terms .The new Secretary for I reland was M r. George O tto (now S irGeorge) Trevelyan , and , under a new Coerc ion Act wh ich was atonce passed

,the rulers of I reland had much success i n deal ing wi th

c rime and outrage during th i s and the fol lowing year, 1884 .

Early i n 1 886 , Mr . Gladstone, on becoming Prime M in ister forthe th i rd t ime , determ ined to endeavour to produce peace i n I relandby granting “ Home Rule ” i n the shape of a Parl iament for themanagement of local affai rs . O n th i s great quest ion the Liberalparty was at once rent asunder. Lord Harti ngton (afterwardsD uke of Devonsh i re) , Mr . J ohn Bright, Mr . Joseph Chamberlain ,Mr . Goschen , and S i r H enry J ames , i n the House of Commons,with the D uke of A rgyle, Lord Selborne , and many other Liberalo r Whiggish peers, formed a section known as “Liberal - U n ion is ts "or D i ssent ien t Liberals s trongly opposed to a separate legi sla


thus deprived of the opportun i ty of denying on oath the charge sbrought agai ns t h im , appl ied to the Government , i n the H ouse ofCommons, for a selec t Commi ttee to i nqui re i nto and report on theauthent ic i ty of the letters , affecti ng members of the House, whichhad been read by the A ttorney -general at the trial for l ibel . Them in is try, backed by the i r large majori ty, decl in ed to gran t th is ,but a commiss ion of th ree j udges

,J ust ices H annen , Day, and

A rch ibald L . Smith , was appoi nted to i nqui re i n to the al legationsmade against members of the H ouse of Commons by the Timesnewspaper .A t the s i tt ings of the Parnel l Commiss ion , the A ttorney-general

represented the Times , whi le the cause of the I rish members wasch i efly advocated by S i r Charles Russel l and M r. Asqu ith . Thevery lengthy i nqu i ry, which was v irtual ly a trial of M r . Parnel l andh is fol lowers , began on O ctober 17th , 1888, and brought to theLaw- courts i n the S trand wi tnesses from I reland

,i nc luding farmers

,

peasants , parish priests, and nondescripts, wi th others summonedfrom France and America . I n February

, 1 889, when the publ icwere growing weary of the i nvest igat ion , new in terest was arousedby the announcement that M r. R i chard P igott, from whom the

Times had obtained the famous letters S igned , as was al leged , byM r. Parnell , had arrived i n London to give ev idence . H is appearance and demeanour aroused suspic ion , and h is an tecedents , as theTimes might eas i ly have ascertained by inqu iry i n Dubl i n , were byno means of a doubtful descript ion . H e was

,i n fact , a man who

had for many years gai ned a l ivel ihood by fraud , forgery, and th el evying of blackmai l . He was careful ly w atched by the pol ice

,and

stayed at an hotel near the Courts, but one morn ing he was miss ing .

I t was found that, i n d read of cross- examinat ion , he had been tothe house of M r . Labouchere, M .P. for N orthampton , proprietorof the wel l - known weekly Tr ut/z, and a strong supporter of M r .Gladstone and Home Rule ” , and had there, i n h i s presence andthat of M r. G . A . Sala, the famous journal is t, handed over _awri tten confess ion that the letters obtained from h im , and sold tothe managers of the Times for sums exceeding £2 500 , had beenforged by h imself. A warrant for M r. Pigott’s apprehens ion wasissued, but th e bi rd had flown . O n March 10th he was trackedby detect ives to Madrid

,where he ended a l i fe of i nfamy by shoot

ing h imsel f. The case against M r. Parnel l and h is fri ends was thus,

IRELAND . 287

in i ts main poi nt, blown to pieces . I t was clearly proved,by th i s

and by other i ncidents, that pol i ti cal rancou r had induced the ch iefproprie tor of the Times to sow money broadcast, with the bes ti ntentions

,i n producing a crop of sp i es , perj urers , and forgers .

A fter s i tt ing for 1 28 days, the Commission reported to Parl iament,i n February

,1890 , with a number of deci s ions that acqu i tted the

accused persons of the most serious charges brought against them .

I t was found that they had entered i nto a conspi racy to promote anagrarian agitation , by a system of coerc ion and int im idat ion , againstthe payment of agricul tu ral rents, for the pu rpose of ridding I re l andof the land lords . Thei r al leged aid to notorious criminal s, and intimate associat ion wi th such persons , was found to be not proved .

They had,however, according to the j udges , made payments to com

pensate persons who had been inj ure d in the commiss ion of crime,

and had,for pol i t ical obj ects , i nv i ted the ass istance of, and received

money - subscript ions from , a certai n Patrick Ford , a known advo

cate of crime and the use of dynamite, connected with the Clan - naGael assoc iat ion . They had

,with the same object of ass i sting

thei r own pol i t i cal movement, abstained from repudiati ng and condemning the action of the

“ phys ical force ” party i n America . Mr.Parnel l, i n parti cular, was cleared of al l personal knowledge of thele ad ing I nvi ncibles and the i r ev i l work . There can be nodoubt that what was declared to be proved against the I r ish HomeRulers had a detrimental effect upon thei r cause i n the B ri t ish cons t ituencies . Mr. Parnel l ’s action against the Times for l ibel i n thepubl icat ion of the forged letters , and i n the art icles thereon , wassettled by consent . F ive thousand pounds damages , with al l costs ,were paid , and thus ended an episode i n the career of that n ewspaper which , with i n the knowledge of the present wri ter, cost theproprie tors of the Times nearly and long pain ful lyaffecte d the pecun iary i nterests of certa in smaller shareholders whohad no voice whatever i n the management of the journal .The stars i n thei r courses seemed to fight against Home Rul e

for I reland . The fl igh t and suic ide of Pigott, securing an acqu i ttalfor M r. Parne l l on the most weighty and odious charges investigated by the Commission , had been celebrated ou h is behal f at amost enthusiast ic meeting held in St . J ames’ Hall , London , whereM r. Parnel l h imsel f appeared and spoke amidst loud chee ring, wi thM r. J ohn Morley i n the chai r. I n J uly, 1889, the I ri sh leader


received the high honour of being presented wi th the freedom of thec i ty of Edinburgh . He soon afterwards fel l wi th a great fal l frompubl ic esteem i n connection wi th a d ivorce case, where in he wasco- responden t to a su i t promoted by h is former friend CaptainO

’

Shea . H is ret i rement from the leadersh ip of the I ri sh partywas then, i n December, 1890 , demanded by M r. Gladstone andhis B rit ish supporters , and a large majori ty of the I ri sh Parnel l i tesendorsed th is requ is i t ion . M r. Parnel l c l ung to h is pos t w ith theapproval of abou t one - th i rd of h is fol lowers

,and then came a pai n

ful period of oratorical warfare i n I reland,during which the former

ch ieftain bi tterly denounced those who had repudiated hi s l eadership . The main body of the N ational is ts found a new leader i n theeminen t wri ter, Mr. J usti n M

‘Carthy, and M r. Parnel l’s fol lowers

were routed at the general election of J u ly,1892 , when 72 anti

Parnel l i tes, as they were cal led , were returned, as against n ine onlywho claimed to be fol lowers of the pol icy of the now deceased aswel l as d iscred i ted leader. A sudden death at B righton i n October,1 891 , had closed the career of the ablest and most i nfluential I rishpol i t ic ian s ince the days o f O’

Conne ll.

The cause of H ome Rule, i n the B ri t ish const i tuenc ies , wasbeyond doubt severely inju red through the private conduct of theable tact ic ian and parl iamentary ch ief who had , i n a twelve years

’

confl ict,forced the quest ion to the front and secured the adhes ion

of a large majori ty of L iberals, i ncluding thei r great leader, Mr .Gladstone . That statesman , obtain ing at the polls a majori ty ,i ncluding h is I ri sh supporters , of about forty votes in the Commons

,became prem ier

,for the fourth t ime, i n August, 1892 . A

Home Rule bi l l, in troduced i n the session of 1 893 , was carriedthrough the House of Commons, after a very long st ruggl e, bya majori ty, on the th ird reading, of 36 votes . E arly in September,after a bri l l i ant debate, th e House of Lords rej ected the measu reby the phenomenal majori ty of 4 19 to 4 1 . The General E lectionheld i n J uly, 1895 , giv ing a very large “ U n ion ist ” majori ty toLord Sal i sbu ry as Prime M in ister

,was a severe blow to the cau se

of the I rish “ N ational i st members .The I rish land - question i s one which almost sends a Shudder

through the frame of the wri ter whose pen attacks the subject, as heth i nks of the reader’s feel ing of repu ls ion and movement of recoi l .We can , at any rate, prom ise brev i ty i n deal ing with the topic . The


The Quarter Sess ions Act enabled them to seize growing crops , tokeep them ti l l they were ripe

,to save and sel l them at maturi ty ,

and to charge al l expenses on the tenan t. I n 18 18 , an Act for“ c iv i l bi l l ej ectmen t ” conferred upon the landowners the power ofremov ing the tenan t from h is holdi ng. U nder George IV . andWill iam IV . ,

other statu tes extended the landlord’

s powers ofev ict ion

,appl ied

,i n too many cases , with merc i less severi ty to

holders crushed by rents wh ich i t was imposs ible, even in goodseasons

,to pay . I n every impartial accoun t of i nqu i ri es i nto the

state of I reland , and i n the reports of Commiss ions we have theconstant recurrence of the words “

e xorbi tan t rents The miseryof the country was aggravated by the growth of population , and bythe reckless subd iv is ion of farms held on lease . A tenan t wouldd iv ide h is land , by sub - lett i ng , among h is sons and nephews , andthe report of a Commiss ion , i n 1843, produced an instance often tenants subs is t ing on s ix acres .The condi t ion of I reland at the beginn ing of Victoria’s reign i s

depicted by three independent foreign observers of the h ighestcredi t. A French wri ter, M . Gustave de Beaumont, declares, aftertwo personal v is i ts to the country, that

“ I ri sh misery i n that day ,“ forms a type by i tsel f and that “ i n seei ng i t one recogn izes thatno theoret ical l im i ts can be assigned to the m isfortunes of nations ” .

Kohl , a famous German travel ler, states that he had seen throughout E urope noth ing l ike the physical privations of the peasant ry i nsome parts of I reland . A t a somewhat earl ier date

,S ismondi

,the

historian and pol i ti cal economist, of I tal ian descent, born at Geneva ,after a complete invest igat ion of the subject, lays i t down that thelandlords in I reland “ had shaken the foundation of soc iety i tsel f

,

by rendering the laws of property hateful . The fi rs t rightof property is that of the cult ivator to l ive on the frui t of h is labour

,

and that right they (the landlords) have v iolated . NO one, on th i ssubj ect, wil l be incl ined to dispute the testimony of the Times andthe Qua r ter ly Review . The latter, i n i ts i ssue of December, 1840,

s tates of I reland ' “ The peasant ry are ground down to powder byenormous rents, wh ich are only paid by the exportat ion of the greatbulk of the food raised i n the country, l eav ing those who grow i t abare subsistence upon potatoes eked out wi th weeds ” . The former

,

i n a leader of February 2 5 th , 1847, wrote,“The people of England

have most culpably conn ived at a nat ional i n iqu ity . Property

IRELAND . 291

ruled ( i n I reland) wi th savage and tyrannical sway . I t exercisedi ts rights wi th a hand of i ron and renounced i ts duties with a frontof brass . The ‘ fat of the land , the flower of i ts wheat ’

,i ts ‘milk

and i ts honey ’ flowed from i ts shores i n tribute to the ruthlessabsentee (landlord) , or h is less gui l ty cous in , the usurious moneyle nder. I t was al l drai n and no return . I n an in tegralpart of the B rit i sh Empire the landowner was al lowed to sweepaway the produce of the earth withou t leav ing even a glean ing forthem that were ready to peri sh . England stupidly winkedat th is tyranny. Ready enough to v indicate pol i t i cal rights

,i t did

not avenge the poor. ” There were , of course , many just, excel len t,and k indly landlords i n I reland . The m isery due to thei r fel lowsof an i nferior type, combined wi th the suffering which proceededfrom economical causes beyond thei r con trol

,exc i ted a spi ri t of

revenge ful exasperation among the people that found a cruel ven ti n endless ou trages of th reaten ing letters

,damage to property

,

m aiming of cattl e, murders of landlords and agents, and attacks'

upon tenants of land from wh ich prev ious holders had been ev icted,

and that provided some excuse for v iolent res istance to the lawenforced by the constabulary .

The woes of I reland , during the 19th century, culm inated i nthe fearful tragedy known as the Potato Famine . The people hadbecome almost whol ly dependent for subs istence on the produce of as ingle plant . The harvest of 1845 had seemed to be very rich , butduring the winter the potatoes rotted i n the pi ts

,and

,al ready i n sore

d istress , the peasantry, crippled i n the i r me ans for cropping the land,st i nted themselves of food , bared thei r backs of cloth ing, and soprepared the soi l for the harves t of 1846 , to wh ich they lookedforward with m ingled hope and apprehens ion . The seasons werewatched wi th fierce anxiety . After a spring that brought snow

,

hai l , and sleet, th e summer came wi th the promise of better th ings .I n J une, th e heat was almost t ropical , and vegetat ion grew apace .

The end of the month was marked by thunde r, l ightn ing, rain , andcold , and J uly also presented the al ternat ion of intense heat andthunder- storm , of parch ing dryness and excess ive rain . The potatofields st i l l showed promise of abundance i n the wav ing green andflowery stalks that covered the land . The early days of Augustbrought a di reful change. The presence of bl ight was i n someparts shown by a dry fog, here white, there yel low, i ssu ing from


the ground, and em itting an offens ive odour. I n one n ight,

throughou t the whole country, the potato - crop was smi tten withd isease that destroyed almost every tuber. One wide waste ofputrefying, blackened vegetation was beheld by the travel lerth rough the affl i cted land . N oth ing i n h i story or fict ion surpassesi n horror the detai ls of I reland

’

s true s tory i n th i s her day of v is itation. The misery of the people i n 1846 and i n the three fol lowing years

,when the potatoes were again whol ly or partial ly smitten

with di sease, drew the atten tion and aroused the pi ty of the.

wholeciv i l i zed world . A fter eat i ng the flesh of horses

,asses

,and dogs

,

the starving I rish peasants came to nettl es,wild mustard

,wate r

cress,and sea-weed . I n tens of thousands they crowded to the

workhouses . I n tens of thousands they d ied of sheer hungereverywhere— in thei r wretched huts , by the ways ide , and i n thestreets of towns . O ne inspector of roads had 140 bodie s buriedwh ich he found strewn along the h ighway . Sometimes the lastsurv ivor of a whole fami ly earthed up the door of h is cabi n toprevent the i ngress of p igs and dogs, and then la id h imsel f downto d ie in th is fearful fam ily- vaul t . Funerals almost ceased . H usbands lay for a week i n the same hovels wi th the bod ies of unburi edwives and ch i ld ren .

A long wi th the fami ne , fever scourged the I ri sh people . Everywhere it raged , with i n the cottage, on the roads , i n workhouses , i nhospitals

,i n jai ls . I n 1847, people d ied from fe ver, and

from dysentery. A t least an equal n umber perished fromdiseases due to lack of proper food i n 1848, and i n 1849 fever andkindred maladies s lew more than The B ri t ish people andthei r k i nsmen i n other parts of the world have never been wantingi n chari ty

,and rel ief for the starv i ng and s ick was bestowed wi th a

free hand . Many a sh ip laden wi th I ndian meal and other foodarrived i n I rish ports from the U ni ted S tates , and prov i sions werepoured into the country through the channel of private benevolencei n Great B ri tain . The mai n work fel l on the Government, underLord J ohn Russel l ’s fi rst m in istry . The Corn- l aw, formally repealedi n 1846 , but conti nu i ng i n force ti l l 1849, was suspended for I re land .

Loans of ten mi ll ions sterl i ng were raised , and the money wasexpended i n rel ief-works

,soup - k itchens , and other means of bring

ing food to the mouths both of the able - bodied and the helplesspopulation . There were great di fficul t ies i n distribut ing the rel i ef


and,apart from th e deaths due to starvat ion and disease, the dim inu

t ion of the people from eight m il l ions to les s than five is mainly dueto the enormous t ide of em igrat ion beyond the A tlant ic wh ichfol lowed th e years of fam ine.We pass on to the year 1870, when the fi rst real attempt was

made in legislat ion to afford rel i ef to I ri sh tenants . Thei r mainwants were

,compensation for improvements made on the land by

thei r own labour and at thei r own pecun iary cost,and fix ity of

t enure, so long as thei r rent was paid , i nstead of the exist ing l iabi l i tyto removal at s ix months

’

notice . The greater part of the agrariancrime of I reland i s due to the ev i l condi t ions of land- holding wh ichd isregarded these claims of those who ti l led the soi l . Wildj ustice ” sought redress , den ied by law, i n th e deeds perm itted bythe terribl e and i nexorable code of vengeance drawn up by themembers of secret associat ions . Freedom of sale for the goodwil lof the hold ing, and a fai r scal e of rents , were also desi red by thetenantry who d id not l ive under the U l ster custom or unwri ttenlaw which afforded the fi rst of these advantages i n addi tion to apracti cal cont inu i ty of hold ings . I n 1870, Mr. Gladstone , i n h isfi rst I rish Land Ac t, made an attempt to deal w i th the ex ist inggrievances . The measu re, i n operat ion , proved partial ly a fai l ure,from the undue rel iance which i t placed on the generos i ty of landlords . The right of a tenant to h is own improvements of th e soi land i n farm -bu i ld ings was recognized , and a landlord was compel ledto pay thei r val ue to the tenant i f he su rrendered the holding at h i sl andlord ’s i nstance . But the Ac t made no prov i s ion against thelandlords rais ing the rent when improvements had been effe cted bythe tenant, and, i f the latter then gave not ice to qu i t, he rece ivedno compensat ion . I n various ways

,the landlords con trived to

thwart or to evade the intentions of the new law, and ev ict ions wereeven more numerous than before . The Land Act was, i n fact,perforce accompan ied by a Peace Preservation Act for the s uppre ss ion of outrages . The R i bbon Society in West Meath was partienlarly act ive, and that d istric t was d isgraced at th is t ime by theusual phenomena of I ri sh agrarian trouble, i n outrages , murders ,and the imposs ib i l i ty of getti ng verdicts

,on the clearest ev idence,

aga inst criminals sh ielded by the sympathy,and del ivered by the

perj ured decis ions of j uries . N oth i ng would sat isfy the I ri shtenant except the pract ical ownersh ip of the land .

IRELAND. 295

We pass over nearly ten years more , and find the I rish landquestion again to the front . By th is t ime, as we have seen , M r.Parnel l and his fol lowers were on the field i n ful l force

,obstruct ing

debate , keeping the House i n continuous s i tting for more than awhole day and n ight, and compel l ing the Commons to adopt newrules of procedure . I t was in J une, 1879, that the Home Rulerstook the land- quest ion in hand . An ag i tation against rent

,or

against landlordism , was set afoot . I n October, Mr . M ichaelDav i tt, a former Fen ian conv ict , after two years ’ agitat ion i n I reland , founded the Nat ional Land League. Mr. Parnel l adv i sedfarmers to combine and ask for due reductions of rent, and to payno rent unt i l they obtained the reduct ion claimed . He bade them“ keep a fi rm grip of thei r homesteads ” , and then

“ no power onearth could prevai l against them ”

. H is obj ect was that of forcingthe landlords to sel l thei r property, at a fai r price, to the tenants .I n support of the new Land League, which aimed fi rs t at fix ity oftenure and fai r rents , with peasant propri etorsh ip , Mr . Parnel l i nperson crossed the A tlantic and sought funds among the AmericanI rish . I t was i n connect ion w i th the Operat ions of the LandLeague that, i n the autumn of 188 1 , the arrest of I rish leadersoccurred wh ich has been al ready described . I n the same year,Mr. Gladstone, i n power for the second time, strove to deal afreshwi th the grievances of I ri sh tenants . The cardinal feature of h i ssecond I ri sh Land Ac t was the principle of a “ j udic ial rent ” .

Land Courts were establ i shed to deal with dispu tes , and theseCourts could fix a ren t

,payable at that standard for fifteen years ,

during wh ich t ime the tenan t could not be ev icted except for nonpayment of rent, or for the breach of certai n specific covenan ts .Advances of money could also be made by the Land Comm iss ionto tenants and to Companies for agricul tu ral improvements , i ncl uding the reclamation of waste lands . Great good fol lowed from thepass ing of th is measu re . I n 188 2 , an A rrears Act wiped out allsums for rent due by tenan ts, on payment of only one year

’

s rent .I n 1885 , another Act extended the operation of the “ Brightclauses ” of a former statu te

,as they were cal led from M r. J ohn

Bright,the proposer

,enabl ing the state to advance twoth i rds of the

price to tenan ts wish ing to purchase the fee- S imple of the land fromowners d isposed to sel l . Five m il l ions sterl ing were thus suppl ied ,and the state

,now lending money to cover the whole pri ce, l eft the

296 OUR EMPIRE AT HOME AND ABROAD

borrower to clear h imself from the whole amount by paying in terestat fou r per cent for forty - n ine years . I n 1888, five m ill ions morewere granted for the same purpose , and i n 1890 the sum wasextended to about th i rty m i l l ions . A real and substantial advancehas thus been made towards the creation of a new large land - pro

prie tary i n I reland , by a series of enactments that consti tu te thelargest effort yet made in any country to establ i sh an independenttenan try , and then to convert tenan ts i nto owners of the soil .I n taking l eave of I reland unti l such t ime as we shal l be cal led

upon to note her advances i n rel igious freedom , i t i s a pleas ing dutyto record a great u nm istakable growth i n material prosperi ty duringthe latter hal f of the n ineteenth century . I n spi te of al l obstaclesand disadvantages , the revenue produced for the common exchequergrew from less than 4% mill ions i n 1850 to above 7% mill ions i n1888 . The deposi ts and private balances i n joi n t - stock banksgrew from about ten mi l l ions of money i n 18 5 2 to nearly th i rtym il l ions i n 1 885 . The sav ings

’- banks , which contain the resource s

of the poore r classes of depos itors, held £ 1 , 200 ,OOO i n 1849. I n1885 , th i s sum had increased to nearly 4% mil l ions . The Postoffice Sav i ngs ’- banks, i n 1884, had deposi tors , wi th anaverage balance of nearly £ 18 standing to the cred i t of each . I n1854, on ly 1 person i n 132 of the total populat ion of the countrywas a deposi tor i n a sav ings ’ - bank of any k ind ; i n 1887, about 1 i n28 was thus showing the possess ion of prudence and thri ft . Awonderful improvement also appears in the condit ion of the dwe ll i ngs of the people . The Census Comm issioners of 184 1 div idedthe I ri sh abodes in to fou r classes . The lowest class i ncluded al lthe mere mud - cabins, of only one room . The th i rd class wascomposed of somewhat better houses , sti l l bui l t of mud , butcon tain ing from two to fou r rooms and windows . The secondclass were ord inary, comfortable farm - houses , of from five to n inerooms and windows . Forty years later, i n 188 1 , the one- roomedmud - huts had d im in ished from nearly hal f a m il l ion to j ust overforty thousand . The th i rd class houses were instead of

The second class abodes,or decent farm- houses , from

had become Superior dwell ings, of the fi rstclass , had increased from to nearly For every100 fam il i es l iv ing now in mud- cab ins

,there were 700 at the begin

n ing of V ictoria ’s re ign . Making the largest al lowance for the


CHAPTER IX .

DOMESTIC EVENTS OF THE CENTURY.

The frost of 18 14 and summer of 1893— The 0 . P . r iots at Covent Garden Theatre .

Notab le fires : York M inster— We stm inster Abbey— Bonded stores in Dubl inChambers of Par l iament— Roya l Exchange , London— Inner Temple, LondonCov ent Garden Theatre— Tooley S tree t, London— Crys ta l Pa lace— Her Majes ty ’sTheatre

,London.

— Mar itim e d i sas ters : The K ent,Ea st Ind iaman— Th e Rot/zesay

Cas tle — The Forfa rs/z ire — Grace Darl ing — The Amaz on, mai l- s teamer — The

B i rkenhead, troopsh ip— The Roya l Cha r ter— The iron- clads Capta in and Van

g uard— The P r incess A lice— The Vi ctor ia , iron- clad.

— Rai lway d isasters : S taplehurst— Abergele— Abbots R ipton— The Tay B ridge .

The “ frost of the century i n the B rit ish I sl es , was that whichmarked the wi nte r of 18 1 3

— 14. The ch ief i nc ident of th is longperiod of cold

,i n the southern part of the i slands , was the hold ing

of a fai r on the frozen Thames at London . A t “ Frost Fai r” , as i twas styled , i n the early days of F ebruary, 18 14, thousands ofpersons were gathered on the ice , and donkeys were seen trotti ngon the hard safe road wh ich extended along the m iddle of the frostbound river. Some merrymakers warmed themselves at sk i ttles,dancers tripped i n reels to the sound of many a fiddle, the dri nkingtents were th ronged with revel l ers , wh i le others sat outs ide aroundlarge fi res

,imbib ing tea, coffee, and other s tronger drinks . Booths

and s tal l s were there for the sale of toys and books, while everypurchaser rece ived a label s etti ng forth that the art icle was boughton the frozen Thames . Prin ti ng- presses of the rude sort commoni n that age, mach ines l i ttl e changed since the days of Caxton , we restriking off various papers, one of wh ich records some facts ofi nterest . “ Pri nted to commemorate the remarkable severe frostwhi ch commenced December 2 7, 18 13 , accompan ied by an unusualth ick fog that cont i nued e ight days and was succeeded by a tremendons fal l of snow, which prevented all commun icat ion betweenthe northern and western roads for several days . The Thamespresen ted a complete fiel d of i ce

,between London and Blackfriars

bridges , on Monday , J an uary 3 I s t, 1 8 14. A fai r i s th i s day

(February 4, 18 14) held , and the whole space between the twobridges covered wi th spectators . About the same time, to thenorth of the Border, a fest ival was held on the frozen Tweed,

atthe pleasan t l i ttl e town of Kelso

,i n the county of Roxburgh .

DOMESTIC EVENTS OF THE CENTURY. 299

A large tent was erected on the ice i n the m iddl e of the river,and

a numerous and respectable company sat down to a good hotd inner. The marquee, wel l heated by stoves , was surmounted byan orange flag, and the un ion flags of E ngland and Hol land wered isplayed on the tables . One of the toasts al l uded to the pre cedingwi nter i n Russ ia

,which had caused such havoc among N apoleon ’s

i nvadi ng host,

“ General F rost, who so s ignal ly fought last w interfor the del iverance of E urope, and who now supports the presentcompany ” . An i ncident of th is d i nner w as the presence of an oldi nhabitant of the town who had, seventy - th ree years before, i n thewinter of 1 740, d ined on the frozen Tweed at Kelso, when part ofan ox was roasted on the ice .

Among the seasons of the century wh ich spec ial ly favoured thetrips of the touris t, by river, sea, and land , the pride of place, i n therecords of the B ri tish I sles , must undoubtedly be given to the long,unmarred, and glorious summer of 1 893 . The agricu l tu ri st

,i ndeed ,

had reason to deplore the loss occas ioned i n h i s hay- crop and h isroots by long- continued drought . The south and east of E ngland ,above al l

,suffered from an almost un iversal lack of rain . The

M idlands and the northern counties were fai rly suppl ied w i thneedful moistu re . The Scottish farmers, i n hay and corn and rootcrops al ike , gathered an abundance scarcely ever known . Thewestern counties of England, i n the orchards of Dorset and D evon ,of Hereford , Somerset, and Gloucester, were richly gi fted wi thsuppl ies of apples rarely equall ed i n the m emory of man

,and the

foaming cider- presses c rushed out the wholesome ju ice of the ruddyand yel low frui t i n rivers ample enough to fi l l the casks for theconsumption of several years to come . To the dwellers i n thecountry, and the t ravel lers who went forth to see the coun tlessbeauti es of thei r nat ive islands

,and to bask on sandy shores by

Sh in ing seas, the time was one that, i n the longest l i fe, would neverbe forgotten . For weeks and months the sky presented l i ttle butblue depths of ai r, i l l um inated during the long- drawn days by ararely- clouded sun . The season rushed at once, without a springt ime of approach

,i n to fulness of summer before March was closed,

and held i ts course,i n bri l l iancy and warmth

,unti l long after August

had ended her career.I n the fi rst decade of the n ineteenth century, a series of i ncidents ,

forming one memorable transaction i n dramatic h istory, serves to


i l l ustrate at once the manners of the age , and the i nte rest wh ichwas then taken i n theatrical amusement . For s ixty - one nights theO . P . R iots , d istu rbances i n wh ich popular pass ion produced a rarecommingl ing of the serious and comic , agitated London , dividedsoc iety

,and conv ulsed the prec incts and theatre of Covent Garden .

The old play- house had been burnt down on September 2oth,1808 ,

with the loss of twenty l ives, of Handel’s organ , th e wines of the

famous Beef- Steak Club, the wardrobe of M unden the comedian ,and the j ewels of the actress M iss Bolton . The new theatre, bu i l tfrom the des igns of the younger Robert Sm irke , was Opened to thepubl ic on Monday , September 18 th, 1809, under the managementof J ohn Phi l ip Kemble , who had fi rs t appeared on the Londonboards as Hamlet i n 1 783 , and was brother of M rs . S iddons , theunrival led L ady M acéetn. Publ ic feel ing, i n democratic c i rcles , hadbee n al ready exci ted by the novelty of reserv ing a saloon for annualren ters beh ind the th i rd t ier of boxes . The ch ief grievance wasthe rai s i ng of the charges from the “ old prices ” (O . P . ) of s ixshi l l i ngs i n the boxe s to seven , and of 3s . 6d. i n the pit to 4s .

Pol i tical feel ing was imported in to the affai r by the Tory papers’

advocacy of the new prices , whi le al l the Whig newspapers supported the old charges .When the cu rtai n rose for M acoetlc on the fatefu l n igh t , and

Kemble s trode forward to speak the ope n ing address , be wasrece ived with a s torm of m ingled bark ing, groan ing, shouting,screech ing

,cat—cal l i ng, and a roar of Off ! O ff!— Old prices ! ”

The proud performer, with h is s trong black brows compressed intoa frown , and a cloud on h i s dark lum inous eyes , rec i te d h is address ,and the play began . I t was carried on am id universal uproar

,and

Mrs . S iddons , i n her grandest scenes, had her vo ice drowned byboots and clamour. Two magistrates from Bow Street

,when the

after- piece was over, came forward to the foot- l ights , but weredriven off with h isses . The pol ice se i zed some people in the uppergal lery, but nei ther they nor a body of fi fty sold i ers could clear ou tthe rioters unti l hou rs after the curtai n fel l . The Times , nextmorn ing, supporte d the brawlers i n an i ndignan t and “ patriotic ”

arti cle, and the cri t i cs of the cl ubs and the wits of the press fel l fou lof Kembl e and al l h is works and ways i n j est

,epigram

,and song .

On the th i rd n igh t, the opposit ion was ful ly organ ized, and M acoetn

was performed in v i rtual dumb- show,am id h iss ing

,whistl ing

,and


agai nst B randon the box - keeper. A publ i c d inner, attended bythree hundred persons , celebrated th i s even t on December 14th ,and a committee was formed to defend the persons then underprosecution for a share i n the riots . The proprie tors gave way

,

and the old pri ce of the pi t, 3s . 6d. ,was restored , whi le the charge

for the boxes remained at seven sh i ll i ngs . The O . P . men theni nsi sted on the d ism issal of B randon , and peace was restored byKemble

’

s consent to th i s sacrifice of h is zealous servan t . Aplacard , “We are satisfied ” , was hoisted three t imes from the pi t,amid thundering cheers , and the O . P . rio ts passed away intoh istory .

The records of acc idental conflag rat ion i n Great Bri ta i n duringthe n ineteenth century are main ly concerned wi th commerc iallosses , but some of these events ei ther thre atened or involved thedestruction of pricel ess h istori cal edifices devoted to the uses o frel igion , l egis lation , or the arts . O n Monday, February z ud,

1 8 29, between s ix and seven o’clock i n the morn ing, a chori ster

boy, pass ing through the m inster- yard , saw smoke i ssu ing fromvarious parts o f the roof of York Cathedral . H is S ight was d i rectedupwards through a fal l on h is back as he trod on a piece of ice. Aspeedy entrance revealed the fact that the fine carved wood - workof the choi r was ablaze . This beau ti ful and curious production offourteenth - cen tury ski l l and steel was clearly doomed , and thesafety of the whole magn ificen t structu re seemed to depend on th eroof fai l ing to catch fi re . The wood-work there was very dry

,and

was soon kindled by lapping tongues of flame , and at hal f- past eigh ti t fel l i n with a crash . The crowd of c i t i zens that now looked onbel ieved that the mi nste r of thei r pride wa s about to be wrecked

,

but strenuous effort, with the lack of fuel for the flames when theyreached the great s tone tower that surmounts the transept

,happi ly

saved the main bu i ld ing. The great east window , the glory of thesuperb fabri c, suffered l i tt le damage , and the stone screen d iv idingthe al tar from the Lady Chapel was not beyond repai r . Theclustered pi l la rs of the choi r, made of magnesian l imestone, readi lyspl i tt ing under heat, were whol ly destroyed . The disaster was dueto a l unatic named J onathan Marti n , who jou rneyed to York i n thebel ief that a div ine voice had bidden h im destroy the m inster. O nthe Sunday eveni ng, after serv ice , he secrete d himsel f i n the bu i ldi ng, st ruck a l ight late at n ight with a razor, fl i n t, and ti nder, shouted


Glory to God ! t i l l he was t i red , and at three i n the morn ing collected the cush ions , fi red them with a bundle of the long brimstonematche s of the period , broke a window, and let h imsel f down to th eground outs ide by the knotted rope of the prayer- bel l . This accoun tis due to the statements of the incendiary himsel f, and i t was partlyconfi rmed by the ev idence of persons who heard noises i n thecathedral during the n ight, and had not the energy or good senseto asce rtai n the cause . A good restoration of the choi r was effectedthrough the l iberal funds subscribed , and the use of some drawingsof the choi r- stal ls and screen that were i n the possess ion of theDean and chapter. J onathan Marti n was confined for l i fe after h isnotable and pern icious exploi t.On Apri l 27th, i n the same year, Westminster Abbey had a

narrow escape . About ten o ’clock at n ight, flames i ssued from thenorth transept, and were rap idly mounti ng to the roof, when anentrance was made and the misch ief stayed by energetic work . I tw as feared that a man ia for destroyi ng ecclesiast ical bui ld ings wasabroad , but i n th is case, though noth ing was clearly proved , i tseemed that th i eves, who had come to steal lead from the roof, hadby acciden t ign ited lumber, i ncluding a cast- off scene of the Westm inster plays , la id away in a corner.Our next incident takes us beyond the I rish Channel . I n the

summer of 1833 a terrific fi re consumed the bonded stores connectedwi th the custom - house at Dubl in . A vast amount of property wasde s troyed , but much valuabl e merchandise had been placed i n fireproof vaults , and the sh ipping at the quays was saved , whi le punche ons of sugar were flaring up i n success ion l ike huge torches

,and

tal low was sending up columns of flame into the n ight, and fieryfloods of whisky rushed over the edge of the quay -wal l i n to theL iffey , spread ing sheets of blue flame over hal f the breadth of theriver towards the coal—sh ips towe d to the further s ide . N0 offerof reward re vealed the source of the fi re , which was bel ieved tobe the work of i ncendiary hands .The next sensat ional ” fi re was that wh ich , on the n ight of

Thursday,October 16 th , 1834, destroyed the two chambers of Par

liament, with most of the adjoin ing bui ld ings, and seriously th reatenedWestminster Hal l . The House of Lords caught fi re about sevenO’clock , owing to the carelessness of workmen engaged to burn i nthe stoves about two cart- loads of old exchequer- tal l ies . These


were squar’

e rods of wel l - seasoned hazel or wi l low, marked on ones ide with notches i ndicat ing the re ceipt of d ivers sums of publ icmoney

,and inscribed on two other s ide s with the same sum in

Roman characters,along wi th the name of the payer and the date

of payment . This ant iquated method of keeping publ ic accountshad been di sused s ince the beginn ing of the century, and a clearancewas needed i n the tal ly- room of the exchequer. The fierce blazei n furnaces rashly fi l led with fuel caused overheated flues wh ichki ndled the dry wood -work of the hal ls that had echoed wi th theeloquence of Chatham , Burke, P i tt , Fox, and many other renownedorators . The Commons , at th is t ime, sat i n the Old S t . Stephen

’

sChapel

,wainscoted to h ide the pictures of the Cathol i c days , with

a wooden floor above the stone pavement, and the roof h idden bya modern cei l i ng. The flames rapidly spread , th e t ide i n the riverwas low

,and the paltry engines of that day had but a scanty supply

of water. I n v i ew of a vast mul t i tude,and amid shouts that bade

the fi remen to Save the H al l ! ” the conflag rat ion swept away , bes ides the two leg i s lat ive chambers

,the l ibrary of the Commons

,the

Pai nted Chamber of the Lords,many committee - rooms

,the Clerk ’s

house, and part of the Speaker’s, and many other places of offic ial

residence or use . The law - courts wh ich then,and for many years

later, s creened from v iew the western exterior of the great h istorichal l, were preserved, with the i r papers , but the roofs were strippedoff, and the i nteriors del uged with water. The Serjeant - at- armssaved the mace of the Commons , but the loss i ncl uded , amongmany other valuable and i nteresting documents

,the original death

warran t of Charles the F irst . The rough wi t of the hour attributedthe catastrophe to the i nstigation of Mr. J oseph H ume , M .P. , theable, honest, and zealous economist and reformer, who had repeatedlystriven to procure a vote i n favour of erect i ng a new chamber forthe Commons, declari ng that he would no longer bear the discomfort of the d ingy, contracted room i n wh ich they sate . A s theflames cleared the ground for a better hous ing of the legislature ,some of the crowd exclaimed

,Mr. H ume ’s motion carried wi thout

a d iv is ion ! ” That most worthy member,i n fact

,was at the t ime

engaged in sav ing wi th h i s own hands a part of the Commons’

l ibrary. The fi re was one of real serv i ce to the nation . Theparl iament - houses had been long very unfi t for the t ransaction ofbus i ness , and detrimental to the heal th of members. As a tempor


deep pi t was uncovered , fi l led with remains of Roman London,

specimens of which are preserved i n the museum at Gu i ldhal l .I n March

, 1838, but two months after the destruction of theExchange , the I nner Temple was the scene of a pecul iarly mischievous fi re. A l awyer, coming home from h i s club at two o ’clockA .M . ,

left a candle burn ing near some papers, and th is was the originof a conflagration that consumed more than eighty sets of chambers ,with nearly al l thei r contents , i nclud ing deeds and other documentswhose loss was i rreparable and value beyond calcul ation . TheA t torney - General , S i r J ohn Campbel l , afterwards Lord Chancel lor,lost a law- l ibrary worth £3000 , and that was not h i s ch i ef reasonfor deploring the carelessness of a profess ional brother.I n May

,1840,

York M inste r was agai n on fi re , probably owingto the heedlessness of workmen engaged , with a braz ier, i n repai ri ngthe le aden covering . The roof of the nave was utterly destroyed ,and the south - western tower was reduced to a shel l , with the lossof the fine peal of bel l s that fel l from thei r supports th rough thefloors below .

We turn from devastat ion wrought on structures engaged i nthe more serious uses of mankind to a di saster befall ing a famousscene of dramati c and musical art . The destruct ion of Coven tGarden Theatre , i n March , 18 56 , was d i rectly due to the debasement of a nobl e temple of the M uses to the meanest purposes offrivol i ty and v ice . The structure wh ich , as we have seen , hadbeen i naugurated with the turmoi l of riotous disconten t on thepart of those who loved the drama, had contained , during i tsex istence of nearly fi fty years , coun tless thousands of intel l igen tmen and women enraptured by the speech and gesture of J ohnPhi l ip Kemble and h is s i ster, Mrs . S iddons, of Macready, H e l enFaucit (Lady Marti n) , and Samuel Phelps . I n 1847, a secessionfrom the old operati c house known as H er Majesty ’s Theatre haddevoted Covent Garden to the mus ical d rama, and the operas ofB el l in i and Ross in i , of Mozart, Meyerbeer, and Donizetti , hadreceived the grandest and most efficient performance from amagn ificent company that i ncl uded Tamburin i as bari tone

,th e

unrival led Don Giovann i i n Mozart’s splendid work ; Formes , thesonorous and massive German l a sso, with Giul ia Gris i as Chiefsopr ano, and Mario , the tenor, queen and king of I tal ian tragicopera . The band , of more than 100 performers , di rected by


Michael Costa of Naples, styled by M eyerbeer “ the greatestcnef d

’

orcltes tr e i n the world was one of the finest bod i es ofexecutants that ever was brought together. I n an ev i l hou r

,Mr.

Gye,the very abl e and successful lessee, sub- l et the theatre

,then

known as the Royal I tal ian Opera , to a performer of juggl ery whocalled h imsel f Professor Anderson , “ the Wizard of the N orth ”

.

The Operati c season was approach ing when th i s man requestedperm iss ion to close h is performances wi th a specimen of the styleo f e ntertai nment , at once dreary and immoral , known in Pari s asa oa l ma sque

’

. Mr. Gye , who was then i n Madrid , engaged i nsecuri ng performers , at fi rs t gave a decide d refusal , but was induced to yield 5. reluctant assent, by telegram , to Anderson’spathet ic representation that the matter had been announced

,and

w as eagerly expected , and that wi thdrawal would cause h im ase rious loss . The resul t of M r. Gye ’s concess ion was one ofm ingled good and evil . A nobl e theatre was burnt, bu t maskedbal ls fel l

,i n th is country, i n to last ing d iscred i t . Up to m idnight

,

the house , with the pi t floored over for dancing and promenade,

prese nted a fairly decorous spectacle. The reti rement of themore re spectable and orderly v is i tors then left beh ind the material sof a mere Bacchanal ian revel . The fi remen of the theatre, whoseduty i t was to remain aloft and watch among the i nflammablecontents of the workshops and painti ng- rooms

,le ft thei r posts to

gaze on the tipsy throng below wh irl i ng i n the dance, brawl ing atthe bars , or staggering to and fro i n the exuberance of thei rdegraded del ight . A startl ing change came between fou r andfive o ’clock , when most of the revel lers, wearied out, had wi thdrawn

,and bu t two or th ree hundred reckless men and women

remained . The word had been given by Anderson for the lowering of the

‘ gas , and for the close of the orgies with the gross profanat ion i nvolved in playing the nat ional hymn . Before themusicians could begi n the a i r

,the cei l i ng around the great pri s

matic central chandel i er opened wi th a crackl ing d in , and a showerof sparks came down upon the floor. The musical performersle apt from thei r seats i n affrigh t

,l eav ing thei r i nstruments beh ind .

The votari es of Venus,D ionysus

,and the dance cut a sorry figure

under the i nfluence of Pan , the dei ty of terror suddenly i nspi red .

I n the rush for the doors,women were crushed and trodden under

foot by thei r recen t partners i n merriment , and the people that

308 OUR EMPIRE AT . HOME AND ABROAD.

had quickly gathered i n Bow Street and Covent Garden Marketmocked at the d ishevel led masquers i n motley array pouring forthin the i r fright, as the flames dashed out from the upper windows ,and volumes of dark smoke whi rl ed up beneath the moon . Therewas no loss of l i fe occas ioned by the fi re, and the only suffererswere those who had l imbs fractured or bodies bru ised i n thefrant i c struggle for escape . As usual i n the case of fi res attheatres , the destruct ion was complete . A t hal f- past five o ’clockthe roof fel l i n . A t eleven A .M . the present wri ter v iewed, bypermission of the fi remen , the fou r bare walls that enclosed a sceneof smoking and enti re desolat ion and ru i n . I t was almost certainthat the fire arose i n spontaneous combust ion Of waste matter,saturated wi th o i l and varn ish , i n the workshops at the top , whe reM r. Grieve, the great s cene- painter whose brush produced manya beauteous s tage- picture i n th i s Old Covent Garden ”

,had before

cal l ed attent ion to the danger of such accumulat ions . The I tal ianOpera of M r . Gye ’s performers found shel ter at the Lyceum ,

andthe splendid new theatre of Covent Garden was opened i n 185 8 .

The London B ridge, or Tooley S treet, fi re of J une— J uly, 186 1 ,

was the greates t and most costly conflag ration i n the B ri t ish I sless i nce the Gre at F i re of London . I n the early even i ng of Saturday

,

J une 2 2nd, M r. Braidwood , the famous ch ief of the London F i reB rigade ,_ rece ived a

“ cal l ” at the he ad- Office i n Watl ing S treet,

City . An outbreak of fi re had occurred at Cotton ’s Wharf, TooleyS treet

,on the Surrey s ide of London Bridge, fronting the river

near S t . Olave’

s Church , and adj acen t to the arches of the LondonBridge rai lways . The bui ld ings wh ich were attacked covered aspace of three acres , and rose to a heigh t of s ix stories , fi l led inthe upper part wi th tea, coffee, bales of s i lk, and other valuablemerchandise ; whi le the lower floors and basement contai ned a vaststock of oi ls, Russian tal low, tar, sal tpetre , hemp , rice, bales o fcotton , hops , grain , and sugar. I t was seen from the fi rst that afi re of unusual magn i tude had obtained a fi rm hold of h ighlyinflammabl e materials . The whole of that quarter of London wasl i t up wi th the flames from a huge furnace, and the countlessspectators on London Bridge and the opposi te shores wi tnessed ascene of unequal led character. Cataracts of blaz ing fat pouredover the mass ive stone front of the wharves i nto the blood - redriver, and streams and floating i slands of flame that water could


I tal ian music and dramatic display then utterly peri shed , to theregret of al l who had there l i stened wi th del ight to the notes ofPasta

,A lboni, and many other queens of song, i nclud ing the

Swedish n ight ingale ”

,J enny Lind ; of Luigi Lablache , finest

of deep basses for combined volume and ri ch qual i ty of tone , aman of grand h is trion i c presence and power, a fri end and instructorof Queen Victoria ; of Rubin i at an earl ie r, and of Giuglini, at alater day

,each the unrival led tenor of h is t ime ; or had witnessed ,

i n the palmy days of theatri cal dance,the surpris i ng grace and

ag i l i ty of Maria Tagl ion i and Fanny E l l sler,of Ce rito , Carlotta

Gris i,and Luci l le Grahn . The theatrical world was made poorer

by the loss of scenery pain ted by the brushes of Te lbin, Calcott ,

and Grieve . The great H ungarian sop rano, Teresa T ietjens,one of the noblest impersonators of operat ic characters for powerand puri ty of voice, musical ski l l , d ign i ty of form and demeanour,and energy of action , was deprived of many valuable j ewels .Calami t ies due to the power and wrath of ocean ic s torms

,or to

outbreaks of fi re on board voyaging sh ips,or to chance col l is ion on

river or sea, are certain to form part of the h istory of a nat ionunequal led for the extent al ike of her warl ike and her commercialmarine . J ust prior to the n ineteen th century , i n 1800 ,

the royalnavy had suffered a severe loss i n the burn ing, off Leghorn , of the1 10-gun sh ip Queen Cna r lotte, a tragedy i n which 700 sai lors andmarines had perished . I n 1805 , the I ndiaman A oerg avenny waswrecked on Portland B i l l , wi th the loss of 300 l ives . The sameyear saw the A ur ora transport, with an equal loss of human beings ,engulfed i n the terribl e Goodwin Sands . I n 18 10 , with the M inotaur , of 74 guns, 360 mari ners perished i n the waves of the N orthSea . I n the fol lowing year, the S t . Georg e, of 98 guns, and theDefence, 74, were wrecked off J utland , with the total loss of 1400Bri t ish seamen .

The year 18 2 5 wi tnessed a noble display of coolness , courage,and endurance i n B ri tish officers and men when the K ent EastI ndiaman took fi re during a storm i n the Bay of B iscay. TheK ent was a fine new ship of 1400 tons, commanded by Captai nH enry Cobb

,and bound to Bengal and China . Leaving the Downs

with a fine fresh north - easter on February 19th, she carried 20

officers, 344 soldiers , 43 women , and 60 ch i ldren belonging to the

3 I st Regiment, with 20 private passengers, and a crew, with officers,

DOMESTIC EVENTS OF THE CENTURY. 31 1

of 148 . The total human freight thus amounted to nearly 6 50persons . On March I st, the vessel was rol l ing heav ily in a gale ofwind , as she lay - to under a tripl e - reefed main topsai l . J ust beforedawn on March 2 nd, a rum - cask adri ft i n the hold knocked a lanternout of the hand of one of the sh ip

’

s offi cers , as the vessel gave aheavy lurch . The cask was stove i n, the rum was ki ndled at thelantern - l ight, and the K ent was instan tly on fi re . The conflag rat ionspread to the cable - t ier, and the seamen and troops were workingat the pumps , passing buckets along, and fl i nging wetted sai ls andhammocks on the burn ing matter. Captai n Cobb

,i n th i s hour of

awful ri sk , showed dauntless courage, combi ned wi th the utmostfi rmness of wi l l and prov iden t resource . The carpenters

,and the

m il i tary pioneers,with thei r axes , were made to scuttle the lower

decks , and open the lower ports to the wash of the waves, i n thehope that the water would extinguish th e fi re . The vessel soonbecame water- logged , while the uppe r deck was crowded with thehundreds of the people, displaying every phase of conduc t fromcool composure to the frenzy of terror and despai r. The sea -waterwhich had come aboard had partial ly checked the flames for a time

,

and so lessened the ri sk of thei r reach ing the spi ri t- room and thepowder-magazi ne . Amidst countle ss touch ing sce nes, the dangerof the conflag rat ion grew, and the v iolence of the waves increased .

Major M ‘Gregor enclosed a few l ines of wri t ing to h is father i n abottle wh ich was dropped i n the cabin and forgotten . I t floatedfrom the wre ck at a later hour, and was afterwards picked up onthe coast of Barbadoes . When noth ing but death , by drown ing orby fi re, was present to the v iew and thoughts of al l , a man at theforetop gave a Clear, sharp Shout, “ A sai l on the lee bow ! ” R i nging Cheers from the men were fol lowed by the flutter of flags ofdis tress

,th e fi ri ng of guns

,and the hoisti ng of sai l for the R ent to

move towards the hope of rescue . The Caml r ia , a Bri t ish brig of200 tons , bound for Vera Cruz , i n Mexico, was the vessel i n s ight,and she soon bore down towards the burn ing sh ip . With the u t

most di fficul ty and danger,i n the h igh - runn ing sea, some of the

wives and Ch ildren of the officers and troops were taken in theK ent

’

s cutter to the Camor ia , and the rescu ing vessel’

s boats cameastern of the K ent , and picked up people who were let down byropes . Many l i ves were lost, but far more were saved , as n ightcame on

,and Colonel Fearon and the Major, commanding the


troops,with Captain Cobb

,remained ti l l al l had le ft the doomed

vessel,save men that feared to risk the drop in to the sea . The se

officers escaped in the Gamar i'

a’

s boat , and at hal f- past one i n themorn ing the magazi ne exploded and blew the R

'

ent to pieces whenshe was abou t three m iles from the Camor ia . Prior to thi s even t,the masts had fal len overboard , and those who had before refused toleave the vessel now sprang into the sea and clung to the floatingtimber . After the explosion , the Ca roline, a barque bound fromA lexandria to Liverpool , came upon the scene, attracted by thefire

,and

,i n the end, saved more than a dozen l ives . The Caml r ia ,

wi th her rescued hundreds of human beings, made her way to Falmouth through the heavy gale . The people saved from the peri l sof fi re and sea were received with the utmost kindness by thei rCorn ish fel low- countrymen , the Quakers of Falmouth being conspicuous i n good works . A spec ial serv ice of thanksg iv ing was amov ing spectacle of grat i tude and joy . The officers and men ofthe 3 i s t were conveyed to Chatham , where they were al lowed aperiod of rest and quiet before re - embarking for I nd ia . TheSecretary at War, Lord Palmerston , afterwards prime m in ister,awarded the sum of £500 to the captain and crew of the Camor ia ,

and that commander, whose name was Captai n Cook , rece ived apiece of plate from the officers and passengers of the R ent, W i thwel l - deserved pecun iary and honorary rewards from other quarters .The Eas t I ndia Company ass igned him £600, with proportionatesums to h is offi cers and crew, and to the m iners who had been hispassengers . The total loss of l i fe i n connect ion wi th the K ent

amounted to 8 1 persons , i ncluding 1 woman , 2 5 ch i ld ren , 1 seaman ,and 54 sold iers .The loss of the Rotnesay Castle, i n August, 183 1 , was a tragedy

due to the fol ly of a man wholly unfi t for command . The vesselwas a leaky, battered old steamer plyi ng between Liverpool andBeaumaris , on Menai S trai t . The captai n started i n rough weather,refused to seek a port when excess ive leakage came, swore thatthere was no danger when the cabins were fi l l i ng with water, hoistedno l ights, and refused to fi re a s ignal -gun for help

,when the lamps

of Beaumaris were v is ible ahead . The hapless sh ip dri fted along,and wen t to pieces at m idnight , with her groups of tou rists , hermusic ians, and her crew . But twenty- two were saved out of nearly1 50 persons who l eft Liverpool . Two of the surv ivors honoured


the means of rescue. Mrs . Darl ing, when she saw them launch ingthe l i ttle open boat

,i nsi sted on sharing the peri l of her husband and

her daughter,but she was i nduced to stay beh ind, as bei ng use less

i n the boat,and to prepare fi re, and blankets, and cloth ing, and

food for those who might come back over the boi l i ng waters . Byn ine o ’clock

,i n two separate trips

,of which Grace shared the fi rst,

the n i ne persons,i ncl udi ng a woman - passenger

,were al l landed at

th e Longstone,after desperate s truggles wi th a rag i ng sea . For

three days and n ights the hero ine tended the rescued people, someof whom were severely i nj ured . One of the old seamen cl inging tothe wreck had been moved to tears when he saw a young woman ,of s lender form

,imperi l l ing her l i fe for h is preservat ion . The fame

of her exploi t flew th rough the world , whi le sh e protested , i n hers impl ic i ty o f soul

,that there were girl s al l along the coast who

would,and d id

,accompany the i r fathers and brothers over stormy

seas when human l i fe w as cal l ing fo r aid . She had , i n fact , oncemore revealed the exi stence of the moral wealth that long abidesunknown in ou r m idst, of the v i rtue that obscurely l ives and qu ietlyacts wh i le the turbulent elements of human l i fe are making tempestson the surface of ou r social system . Grace Darl ing had, withoutany thought or i ntent

,won renown by her deed , and had therewi th

lost the peacefulness of l i fe . The l ittl e room i n the l ighthouse ,where she sat at her sewing

,was i nvaded by many of the ri ch and

high - born who came to pay homage to he ro ic worth . She wasoverwhe lmed wi th presents of money and other gi fts , and the Dukeof Northumbe rland found i t needful to become her guardian againstthe pressure of importunate admi ration . Her l i fe, though not hermanners and mind

,had los t for ever th e preserv i ng Charm of s im

plicity, and her heal th gave way under the want of repose . TheLongstone l ighthouse had become a shrine, but the i nmate d id notlong surv ive . I n O ctober, 1842 , th e news of Grace Darl i ng’s deathby consumption , after a year of decl i n i ng strength , spread a tendersorrow through the nation ’s heart. Her body l ies i n Bamboroughchu rchyard , and her monument presents an image of perfect resti n the sculptured form recl i ned wi th oar on arm .

The d isasters.

of the deep, i n V ictoria’s reign , i ncl ude the total

loss, i n 184 1 , wi th ci rcumstances to th is day wholly unknown , of theP r es ident s teamship, voyaging between N ew York and Liverpool ;of the Reliance E as t I ndiaman

,near Boulogne, i n 1842 , with the

DOMESTIC EVENTS OF THE CENTURY . 3 15

sacrifice of 1 16 l ives ; of the Ocean lll ona r cn, burned in 1848 , offGreat O rme’s H ead , on the north coast of Wales , when 1 78 personspe ri shed ; of the Roya l A dela ide, off Margate, i n 1 849,

with theloss of about 400 l ives . I n 1850 ,

200 persons pe ri shed i n theemigrant- Sh ip E dmund on the west coast of I reland . I n the fi rstdays of 185 1 , the publ ic m ind was s ti rred by the tragedy that befel lthe fine new West I nd ia mail - steamer A maz on . Sai l ing fromSouthampton on the even ing of F riday, J anuary 2nd

,she was at

m idn igh t on Saturday wel l to the westward of the Sci l ly I sl es . Anhour later, with a heavy sea runn ing under a strong south -westerlygale, the alarm of fi re was caused by flames that seemed to startfrom the eng i ne - room . The conflag rat ion quickly mastered al le fforts to

'

save the sh ip wi th her 1 6 1 passengers , besides the crew,

for whom but one l i fe- boat was ready to launch . A l l save forty pe rished by water or fi re , and the explos ion of the magaz ine sent thehul l to the bottom . One of those who d ied was E l iot Warburton ,the I ri sh landowner and author

,born at Aughrim in 18 10,

andbest known in l i terature by h is Spi ri ted description of eastern landsent i tled Tne Cr escen t and t/ze Cr oss .

The name of the steamship B irken/zead i s one that wi l l evergrateful ly recal l a typ ical example of d iscipl ine and cool couragei n Brit i sh soldiers . Th is troopsh ip

,of the royal mari ne , was con

veying drafts of various regime nts to A lgoa Bay, on the southcoast of Cape Colony

,for serv ice i n the Ka ffir War. The detach

ments i ncl uded m en of the 74th H ighlanders , and were al l underthe orders of Lieutenant - Colonel A l exande r S eton , commande r ofthat d ist ingu ished corps . A t two o ’clock on the morn ing ofFebruary 2 7th , 185 2 , i n a fai rly smooth s ea , the vessel , s team ingat the rate of about ten m iles an hour

,struck on a sunken rock

near Poi n t Danger, midway between the Cape of Good H ope andCape Agulhas . The shock was such that a huge rent was madei n the i ron plates of the lower hul l

,j ust aft of the foremast .

The water,pouring i n

,drowned in thei r hammocks most of the

men on the lower troop - deck , while the rest hu rried to the upperdeck , where no l igh t was seen except that of the s tars . ColonelSeton and Captai n Wright commanded the main tenance of d iscipl i ne and si l ence

,and most nobly were the i r o rders obeyed .

The sold iers,ch iefly young recru i ts

,uttered not a murmur or cry,

but drew up on the rock ing and loosen ing deck with as steady and


firm a spi ri t as i f they were paraded for dri l l . Death was al laround them as they stood i n thei r ranks . About 1 20 men hadbeen set to the pumps, and the res t were gathered astern so as toease the fore part of the vessel . Only two boats could be usedfor rescue, and these conveyed the women , th e Ch i ld ren , and thes ick . The water around was al ive with sharks, which seized someof the horses that were driven out of the port gangway, to have aChance of swimming ashore. When the helpless people had beenplaced i n the sh ip ’s cutter, the whole bow of the vessel broke offat the foremast , and the funnel fel l over on the s ide , carrying awaythe starboard paddle- box and boat . About 60 men were crushedi n the fal l of the funnel , and as many more were drowned belowat the pumps . The B iréennead then broke i n two crosswi se

,and

the stern - part fi l l ed and wen t down . About 70 men were carriedsafely to shore cl ing i ng to the main - mast rigging or to dri fti ngfurn i ture , and about 50 more were taken off the wreckage in theafternoon by a schooner that had picked up the people i n theboats and conveyed them to a place of safety . N early 500 l iv es ,ou t of about 690,

were los t,i nclud ing that of the gal lan t S eton

who , with so many i ntrepid fol lowers , thus nobly died on h is fi rstfield of act ion . This grand d isplay of m il i tary obedience andhero ic sel f- sacrifice el ic i ted a notable eulogy from the Duke ofWell i ngton , i n one of h i s lates t publ i c u tterances , del ivered at theRoyal A cademy d inner of 185 2 , four months prior to h is death .

The old F ield- Marshal dwel t not on the bravery d isplayed by thetroops, assuming that a sold ier should be brave, but on the d isc ipl i ne of wh ich h i s v ictorious career had shown h im so manysplend id examples . A mural tablet and brass plates at ChelseaHospi tal , contain ing the names of the officers and men whoperi shed , 35 7 i n al l, were placed there by Queen V ictoria

’s command , “ to record heroic constancy and unbroken disc ipl ineThe loss of the Roya l Cnar ter steamship , i n October, 1859,

gave a name to one of the most v iolen t storms that ever blew i nthe latitude of the Bri t ish I sles . The “Roya l Cna r ter gale wi l ln ever be forgotten by those who

,at the sea - shore

,wi tnessed some

effects of i ts terrific force . The vessel was homeward bound fromAustral ia , carryi ng hundreds of passengers and nearly th ree - quarters of a m i l l ion ste rl ing value of gold i n nuggets and coin . Onthe north - eas t coast of Anglesey, the captain was trying to make


September, 1870 ,

near Cape F in iste rre, on the north - west coast ofSpai n . Captain Cowper Phipps Coles , of the royal navy , tu rn inghis m ind to naval construct ion

,i nduced the Adm iral ty to bu ild a

turret - ship from h is designs,on the plan so gre atly developed by

the famous Swedish engineer E ri csson , i n the naval serv ice of theU n i ted S tates . The Capta in had l ittle more than si x feet of freeboard

,or heigh t of deck above the water at rest , and was from

the fi rs t pronounced , by some h igh authori t ies , whol ly unsafe forocean - serv ice . This double - sc rew “ moni tor ” of abou ttons carried armour- plates from three to eight inches th i ck , withtwo revolv i ng turrets, the stronges t and heav iest yet constructed .

The forecastle and the after- part of the sh ip were ra ised above thefree - board and were connected by a l igh t hurri cane- deck wh ichplayed an important part i n what occurre d near Spain . TheCap ta in was one of a squadron of eleven men - of-war when

,a

l i ttl e after m idn igh t on September 7th, i n a heavy gale , she wasslowly proceeding, under th ree double - reefed topsai ls and foretopmast s taysai l . I t i s doubtfu l whe ther her screw was real ly i nmotion , bu t i t i s almos t certa i n that ful l s team - power would havesaved the vessel . About the Cap ta in gave a terrible l urchto starboard , but soon righted , and a few m inute s later she heeledover on the same side , and went on her beam - e nds , qu ive ringth rough al l her frame with the blows of the Short, angry seas ,while the shriek of the s torm was m ingled with the roar of steamfrom the boi lers

,and both sounds were overpowered by the cries

of the engineers and stokers who we re being drowned and scaldedbelow . The vessel was soon bottom uppermost, and went downstern fi rs t, carry ing with her nearly 500 l ives . The loss incl udedher commander

,Captai n Burgoyne , Son of F ie ld -Marshal S i r

J ohn Burgoyne ; Captain Coles , the designer of the sh ip ; a son ofM r. Chi lders

,then Fi rst Lord of the Admiral ty, and several sons

of B ri t i sh peers . Seventeen sai lors and a gunner escaped in oneof the sh ip’s launche s , w h ich was found floating, and was coveredwith canvas that kept i n the oars . A fter twelve hours ’ pul l ingthey made thei r way to Corcubion , north of Cape F in isterre , andon the morn ing of September 8th the telegraph had broughtthe terrible t id ings to Brit ish readers . The vessel should nothave carried sai l at al l

,and

,when she once heel ed over, the

under- part of the hurricane - deck,acti ng as one vast sai l , gave


th e leverage that main ly th rew he r on her s ide and made hercase hopele ss .The next mari ne disaster i n our record was due to the gross

carelessness,and the fearful loss of l i fe wh ich i t occas ioned was

mainly caused by the outrageous i nhuman ity , of the peopl e i ncharge of a Spani sh steamer . I n 1873, the Nor tkfleet, an em igran t sh ip

, was ly ing at anchor, on a clear n igh t, off Dungene ss,on the south coast of K ent . The passengers were al l i n thei rbe rths below when the steamer ran i nto the vessel , and left herto s i nk with about 300 persons, she ering off and hurrying awaywi thout any attempt to save a s ingle soul .The loss of the fine i ronclad Vang ua rd was happ i ly unattended

w i th any sacrifice of l i fe , owing to the stri ct d isc ipl ine, coolness,and courage displayed by al l on board the stricken sh ip . Thecatastrophe was the fi rs t wh ich , i n our own navy, gave proof ofthe e normous power of the “ ram ”

, or sharp heavy proj ection ofmetal , placed below the water- l i ne at the bow- end of some modernmen - of-war. On September I s t, 1 875 , the reserve squadron ofthe Channel F leet, i ncl ud i ng the Wa r r ior

,A cki lles , H ector , Ir on

Duke, and Vang uar a’

,under the command of V ice-Admiral Tarl e

ton , started from Kingstown , co . D ubl in , for Queenstown , co . Cork .

The A cki lles hoisted a farewe l l s ignal,and made for Liverpool .

The other ships were soon envelope d In a fog off the Wicklowcoast , and at afternoon they had slackened speed from 14

to le ss than 7 knots an hour . The “ look - out ” could not see fiftyyards in fron t, and the Vang uard, with a sai l ahead reported , puther helm hard down to avoid m ishap . Her speed was che cked ,and he r broadside , i nste ad of her stern , was thus prese nted to thevessel i n her wake , the Ir on Duke. The commander of that sh ip ,Captain H ickley, ordered h is engines to be reversed , but i t was al ltoo late . The Iron Duke

’

s ram struck the Vang ua rd on the portquarte r, abreast of the engine- room , about fou r feet below thearmour- plates . A huge ren t was made, and the water rushed bytons i nto the hold . A brave and re ady- witted workman hurriedto the e ngine - room and let off steam ,

thereby pre ven ting anexplosion which would probably have destroyed al l on board .

Captain Dawkins , of the Va ng ua rd, cal led for order to be preserved , and the men formed on deck , without anothe r movementmade til l the word of command . The after- part fi l l ed

,the fi res


were extingu ished,and the vessel s lowly settled down . The boats

were launched , and i n the fifty minutes of t ime afforded betwee nthe blow of the Iron Duke

’

s ram and the s ink i ng of the Vang ua ra’

,

every Officer, man , and boy was put safe on board the vesse l thathad wrought the m isch ief. Captai n Dawkins had remained ath is pos t on the bridge

,and was the last man to qu i t h i s s ink ing

sh ip,which

,after two or three twists

,plunged suddenly down into

deep water.The catalogue of mari ne calamit ies brings next before us the

train ing- sh ip E u rydice, which , with more than 300 men on board ,i n the spring of 1878 , suddenly sank near Shankl in , on the coastof the I s le of Wight . She was a wooden sai l i ng - sh ip, bu il t i n1 842 , and was return ing from the West I ndies off a train ing- cru ise .

O n the afternoon of Sunday,March 24th , carryi ng ful l sai l , and

wi th the ports Open on both S ides , the E u rydice was struck suddenly by a squall and snow- s torm when she was five m i les d is tan tfrom the headland cal led D unnose . She at once caps ized

,and

but three men were picked up by a pass ing schooner . A l l theothers perished , by a crue l fate, with i n an hour of the t ime whenthey hoped to anchor safely at Sp ithead , e ighteen days after sai li ng from Bermuda.

The summer of the same year, 1878 , brought the most grievousdisaster that has ever occurred on the river Thames . The P r incess

A lice, a river saloon - steamer, was run down near Woolwich by acol l ier named the Bywell Ca stle, with a loss of abou t 6 50 l i ves ofexcurs ion ists on her crowded deck . The vessel was almost cu t i ntwo by the towering how of the other steamer, go ing down riverafter d ischarge of cargo . The unhappy v ict ims were fl ung bymasses i n to the water, and some were actual ly smothered to death .

Many other wrecks , and losse s of sh ips that have sai l ed fromport and van i shed for ever i n the m ighty deep

,might be added to

the l i s t of marine d isasters i n the n ineteenth century,but we have

had space only for a few typ i cal cases,mostly i nvolv ing severe loss

of l i fe, and we must end wi th the most fearful i nstance of calam iti esi n the royal navy that the reign of Victoria has seen . The magnifi

cent i ronclad that worth i ly bore the sovereign ’s name, carryingthe flag of Vice -Admiral S i r George Tryon

,commander- in- ch ief of

the Medi terranean fleet,was sunk by a blow from the ram of

the Camperdown , flagsh ip of Re ar-Admiral Markham , the second

THE SINKING OF H .M.S. VICTORIA AFTER COLLISIONWITH H .M.S. CAMPERDOWIV.

On Thursday,2 2nd J une , 1 893 , the Med iterranean Squadron

, withAdm iral Sir George Tryon in command , was s team ing towards the port ofTripol i in two l ine s abreast. There were thirteen sh ips in all, and the two

lines were headed b y the Victor ia , wh ich was the Admiral’s flag-sh ip, andthe Campera

’own, commanded by Rear-Adm iral Markham . About two

o’clock in the afternoon Sir George s ignal led from the Victor ia

, that thesecond d ivis ion was to turn to starboard wh i le the first d ivision turned to

port. At once the Rear-Admiral saw that th is evolution, if carried out inthe c lose quarters at wh ich the fleet was sai l ing , wou l d bring his own

vesse l and the Victor ia into col lision. Therefore , he asked the s ignal tobe repeated ; and onl y hes itatingl y gave the order to put the he lm over

after the Admiral had peremptori l y s ignal led “What are you waiting for ! ”Then the fatal evolution began ; the two great battle - sh ips swept towardseach other in a hal f- Circle, and met where the c ircle intersected ,— the ram

and bow of the Campera’

own crash ing hal f-way across the Victoria . The

latter at once began to settle down, and with awfu l suddenness sank,canting to starboard and turning bottom upwards . Of the crew about2 50 were saved by the boats of the fleet, wh i le nearl y 350 perished.

( 16 )


fact that Charles D i ckens was one of the passengers i n the trainthat was wrecked , bri nging with h im for publ ication a portion ofthe MS . of Ou r M u tua l F r iend, then appearing i n the usual serialform . The cause of the catastrophe was as simple as i t was blameworthy to the rai lway- officials . N ear S taple hurst, on the Ashfords ide

,the l i ne is carri ed by a bridge across a narrow stream flowing

i n a sort of rav ine . The road on the bridge was under re pai r,and

some of th e rai l s on the up - l i ne had been l i fted , so that a gap ofbare earth broke the conti nu i ty of the metals . A fast t idal - trai n

,

carrying more than 100 passengers , had left Folkestone i n theafternoon

,and , though the l i ne at S taplehurst i s perfectly straigh t

for many miles in each di rec tion , runn ing nearly due east and west,and the trai n could be seen whi le i t was yet far away

,no ade quate

effort was made to stay i ts rush ing course to ru in . The engine,

at ful l speed,with fourteen carriages i n i ts rear, came on to the

gap,and eight of the “ coaches ” were fl ung over i nto the rav i ne

and dashed to pieces . Ten persons were ki l led by crush ing or bydrowning, twenty more were fearful ly maimed , and many others hadless serious hurts . Mr. D i ckens , displaying, i n th is hour of mostreal demand upon personal effort, al l the prompti tude, energy, andhumani ty that had always marked h is passage through l i fe

,gave

ready and effic ien t help to the sufferers. He afterwards wrotesome account of the d isaster, the e ffects of wh ich upon hi s ownsensi t ive nervous system were probably of a serious kind

,partial ly

revealed i n hi s bodily cond it ion during h is five remain ing years ofl i fe . A verd ict of manslaughter against the d istrict i nspector andthe foreman platelayer marked the sense of the coroner’s j u ryconcern ing the care di splayed by some rai lway companies i nenforci ng bye- l aws against passengers, and thei r neglect of dueprecaut ions for the publ ic safety .

The Abergele rai lway acc iden t of August 2oth, 1868 , remainsto th is day unequall ed in our rai lway annals, not for the amount ofsacrifice of human l i fe , though i ts record, in that respect, has onlyonce been surpassed i n the B ri tish I sles

,but for the pecul iar horror

of the mode of destruct ion . On that summer’s day, i n the countyof Denbighsh i re

,N orth Wales

,on the l i ne from Chester to H oly

head,the I ri sh l im i ted mail

,runn ing west at ful l speed, and nearing

Abergele, came into col l i s ion with some trucks from a goods trainon the l ine ahead . A t Llandulas “ bank ” , a sharp incl i ne, these


wagons had become detached through breakage of the coupl i ngs,

and,after coming to a stand when impetus was exhausted

,they

ran backwards,by grav i tation , down the i ncl ine , and crashed in to

the advanc ing mail . The engine was shattered, and several of thelead ing “ coaches ” were flung across the rai ls , with death or inj uryto the passengers i ns ide . This was but the beginn ing of thetragical event . The pe troleum i n some barrels form ing part of thefreight of the shattered goods wagons was ign i ted by the fire of theengine furnace , and the whole of the wreckage was soon enwrappedi n the fiercest flame s . The passengers who had emerged from thebinde r carriages we re powerless to help their hapless fel lowcreatures, who were burn t to ashes be fore thei r eyes . The th i rtyth re e v ictims of th is frightful d isaster i ncl uded Lord and LadyFarnham , of county Cavan ; S ir N i cholas and Lady Chinnery, ofco . Cork ; and Mr. Berwick , an I ri sh judge . The Duchess ofAbe rcorn , wife of the Lord - Lieu tenant of I reland , and some of herfamily, were i n the last carriage of the mai l , and escaped unhurt .A few heaps of charred remains, reverently gathered , and laid inone grave i n Abergele churchyard , were al l that represented th ev ict ims at burial . Colonel R i ch , the government i nspector, i n h isreport after the inqui ry ordered by the Board of Trade, accusedrai lway compani es o f “ systematical ly al lowing ” many of thei rexce l len t printed rules , i ssue d to thei r servants , to be dai ly brokenwithout not ice taken . A ttent ion was drawn , i n the publ i c m ind ,to the dange r atte nding the passage of goods trains and passengertrai ns ove r the same l i nes of rai ls . I t was clear that the timing ofthe trai ns was faul ty, and that due pre caution was wanting i n thecarriage of such an artic le as petrole um .

The Abbots R ipton accident,one of tragical note , was mainly

due to atmospheric condit ions, and i ts fatal resul ts we re partlycaused by the e xtremely rare event of double col l i s ion . The disaster derives i ts name from a v i l lage lying near to the GreatN orthern Railway, about s ix mi les north of H untingdon . Thel ine near th i s poin t runs th rough a very deep cutting, and on theeven ing of J anuary 2 I s t

,1876 ,

a snow- storm of the fie rcest character was raging. The driv ing flakes wholly obscured the red dangerl ight hoisted to warn the approach ing up

- express from Scotland ,and the driver

,supposing the road ahe ad to be clear, sent h is engine

i nto the end of a coal - tra in which was being shunted on to a siding.


The rai ls were covered with the wreck of carriages and wagons,

and many persons were lying kil led and wounded , whi le the un

hurt were engaged i n the work of rescue , when a down - expre ss ,bound for Leeds , hav ing passed through H untingdon wi thout anycheck from signals , came rush ing through the storm ful l on theshattered t imber, i ron , and human forms wh ich were the d i refulwork of the prev ious col l i s ion . Twelve persons , i n al l , were k i lledon the spot

,and scores were more or less seriously maimed . The

people slai n i ncl uded the son of M r. D ion Boucicaul t, the populardramatist and actor, and M r. Mui r, a Scotti sh barriste r. TheRuss ian Ambassador, Count Schouvaloff, was one of those whoremained unhurt. Mr. Boucicault ’s affect ion for the son thus lostcaused h im to strive, i n a most becoming and admi rable way, toperpetuate the memory of a sad event . A t h is sole charge , thehal f- rui nous bui lding where the scholars of the H untingdon Grammar School assembled for tu i t ion , was finely restored with a duedi splay of the N orman archwork and pi l lars of the 1 2 th century.

The bases of the columns had,i n course of t ime, been buri ed some

feet deep by accumulated earth . The bui ld ing, i n i ts new form ,

became a striking adornment of the market- place at H untingdon .

O l iver Cromwell , i n h is boyhood , was taught wi th in the old wal ls ,but a few yards d istant from the church which wi tnessed h i s baptismand marriage . The present wri ter was the fi rs t head -master of theschool to profi t i n h i s work by the bounty of M r . Boucicaul t .The most fatal rai lway- acciden t that ever occurred i n the B rit ish

I sles was that of the Tay Bridge , cross ing the estuary to the southeas t of Dundee . I n 1878 , that flouri sh ing town rece ived di rectrai lway - commun icat ion with the south by means of a bridge abouttwo m iles long . The engineer, whose name it i s a ki ndness to forget

,had received a knighthood as the reward of h is work , when his

reputat ion for pract ical ski l l , and the fabri c which he had des ignedand erected , were destroyed by subj ection to a sudden and mostsearch ing test. On Sunday

,December 28th, 1879, a hurricane of

tremendous v iolence was raging on the east coast of Scotland . I nthe even ing, a trai n was pass ing over the bridge, when i t was blownfrom the metals against the i ron -work at the s ide, and toppled overin to the water below , with the loss of the whole l iv ing freight ofmore than 80 persons . A large part of the structu re was at thesame time destroyed by the shock from the capsized trai n and by


h igh pos i t ion,had wasted t ime i n s tati ng thei r opin ion of M r.

Fauntle roy ’s meri ts , the j ury, i n twenty m inutes , returned a verd ictof “ gui l ty ” The sentence of death was fol lowed by the usualunj ust and i rrat ional efforts to save the condemned man from theworst penalty of h is c rimes, for no apparent reason save thei r vast

e xtent , and the fact that he, above al l others , should have respectedthe rights of property . I n N ovember

, 18 24, Faun tleroy die d byhanging on a scaffold outs ide N ewgate J ai l , i n presence of a vastc rowd of spectators

,i ncl ud ing many cruel wretches who gloated

over the s ight of a gentl eman and banker being turned O ff”

.

O nly two more persons were executed for forge ry between thatdate and 1832 , when the law exempted al l fo rgers from the gal lowss ave those who deal t i n wi l ls and powers of attorney for the transfer of stock . Five years later, i n the open i ng year of V ictoria

’sreign

,capital pun ishment for forgery was abol ished .

The commerc ial c ri s i s or pan ic of 18 2 5—6 was a period of d i sasterand d isgrace to the B ri ti sh nat ion

,l ed astray by the temptat ion due

to sudden prosperi ty and by the prov is ion of u nusual fac i l i t ies fortrade - gambl ing. The sharpe rs of soc ie ty— schem ing attorneys,company - promoters, and al l the i r ki n— sti rred the spi ri t of sangu inespeculation for the i r own base ends

,and fool i sh peopl e i n every

class , save that of labour for a weekly wage, became the prey ofthei r own cupid i ty and of the Charlatans who sough t to t urn i t toaccount . I n 18 24, the weal th of the country , as displayed i n warehouse and shop ; i n stackyard , barn , and flocks and herds ; i n thefactori es and the stores of raw material ; i n the balances of moneyresting wi th London and prov i nc ial bankers ; i n the low rate ofinterest , and the price of Consols , had vastly increased s i nce theclose of the war . By the spring of 18 2 5 , the large exportat ion ofgold and s i lver, contrasted wi th the greatly i ncreased issue of note sby the Bank of E ngland and prov incial banks

,was excit ing alarm

amongs t sagacious men of bus iness . These processes cont i nuedunti l , by the autumn of 1 8 2 5 , the country was de l uged wi th papermone y . A rage for speculat ion arose

,and extended

,far beyond

the l imi ts of t rade, to ret i red profess ional men , l i v i ng on acqu i redmeans , to lad ies deriv i ng thei r i ncome from the funds , and tofami l ies whose money was out on mortgages at low in terest . I nvestments were made in every ki nd of scheme , i ncl uding joint- stock

DOMESTIC EVENTS OF THE CENTURY.

327

compan ies for baking, wash ing, brewing, wool -growing, steamnavigat ion , and canals . The newly- made republ ics of SouthAme rica d rew off many mill ions of B ri t ish capital for ge tti ng s i lverand gold in places where the precious metals e i ther d id not exis t o rcould not poss ibly be worked at a profi t . Legit imate trade i n thesame quarter of the world was carrie d to the wi ldest excess

,and

,

i n a few weeks , more cotton - goods from Lancash i re were landed atR io J anei ro

,i n B raz i l , than had bee n before requi red for 20 years .

I t is posi t ively asserted , and is probably true , that warming- pansfrom B irmingham were despatche d for use i n that burn ing Cl imate,and that skates from Sheffield were offered for sal e to people whohad never seen such a th ing as ice . M ilkmaids from Scotland weresent out to Buenos Ayres , for the m ilk ing of the cows and themaking of butter i n the prov inces of R io de la Plata

,only to return

when i t was found that the butter would not keep , and that thepeople of the country preferred to use oi l . We are rem inded of thelatte r days of the i 9th centu ry whe n we read of large i nvestmentsfor cutt ing a canal through the I sthmus of Panama

,and of poe t ical

descript ions of the scene to be witnessed when the A tlant ic watersshould pass in to the Pacific, and the procession of the merchantsh ips of the world should ride through on the new -made current .Towards the end of 18 2 5 , prices of commodit ies , i n wh ich speculat ion had been made for a rise

,had greatly fal len ; th e capi tal of

trade rs was locked up in en terprise s reach ing in to a d is tant future ;money began to be scarce . Bankers had lent out thei r funds ondiscoun t - bi l l s of long dates

,and

,at th is cri tical t ime , the Bank of

England began to raise the rate of discount, and to contract herissues . Panic ensued , and wide - spread ru in supervened . Fi rmafter fi rm stopped payment, bank afte r bank gave way . Securi t iesbecame waste - paper ; a run on the banks began i n London and theprov i nces . With i n s ix weeks from December 6 th, 1 8 2 5 , nearly 70

banks had closed the i r doors . Hundreds of thousands of people ,h i th erto enjoying comfort i n l i fe

,were deprived of al l or of a large

part of thei r i ncomes . The widow and her Ch i ldren had no moneyfor the trade smen

’

s b i l l s . The dying man was forced to al te r h iswi l l , and lessen h is ch i ldren

’s port ions to a mere pi ttance . Themarriages of lovers were perforce postponed . The market- people,bri nging produce to the stal l s

,we re appal led by the s ight of closed

doors at the dis tri ct - bank . The pawnbrokers ’ houses were crammed


with goods from the cel lar- floor to the rafters . The skil led weaverand h i s wi fe , i n the cottage - i ndustri es, l eant fain t wi th hunger againstthei r idle loom . During the latte r hal f of 18 26 , matters began toslowly mend

,and certai n changes in the financial system , arranged

by the Government and the Bank of E ng land, provided agai nstfuture dangers from i nsecure bank ing.

The Rai lway Mania of 1844—46 was the resul t of excess ive

speculation i n the development of steam - commun icat ion by land .

Knavery and rashness were again abroad , and the rapacious madea prey of ignorance and fol ly in the plann ing of l ines that couldnever pay

,or that were never mean t to be constructed at al l . Un

paid - up stocks and shares i n l i nes not yet authorized by Parl iamentwere pass ing freely from hand to hand, and the prodigious amountof gambl ing i n “ rai lway- scrip ” re called the days of th e South SeaBubble . Much loss and d istress were caused by the speculat iverage of the t ime . Up to O ctober 3 I s t, 1845 , more than 1400 rai lway- enterprises had been regis tered

,i nvolv ing a suggested outlay

of above 700 mil l ions s terl ing. The market was flooded both wi thB ri tish and foreign proj ects , and mu l t i tudes i nvested the i r sav i ngsi n scrip that turned out to be worth less save to l ight a fi re . On thelast day of N ovember, 1845 , a wonderfu l scene was witnessed atthe rai lway - department of the Board of Trade i n London . Thearrangements of that important office had been remodel led to meetthe wants of the t ime, and N ovember 3oth had been named as thelast day for receiv ing plans

,spec ificat ions

,and drawings

,conveying

complete i n formation on proj ected l i nes,as essential for Parl ia

mentary sanct ion to thei r schemes . Li thographers’ c lerks anddraughtsmen were work ing n igh t and day

,and one prin ter was

compel led to engage 400 men from Belg i um . Horses were keptready to carry plans to London at the last moment, and specialtrains were sometimes engaged . The doors o f the Board of Tradewere to be Closed at midn ight

,and

,as the hour drew on , the depart

ment was beset wi th incessan t arrival s . Masses of papers werepouring i n when the clock began to strike

,and at a quarte r- past, a

post - chaise , drawn by four reeking horses , rushed up to the door.Three gentlemen , wi th armfuls of plans, al ighted . The door wasclosed , and they rang the bel l . An inspector of pol ice came andrefused admiss ion , but the papers were fl ung into the hal l , break ing


some of the di rectors were very l igh tly pun ished by a year s

imprisonment .

I t i s a rel ief to turn from these workings of the baser elementsi n human nature to the Cotton Fam ine of 1 86 2— 186 5 , a matter ofgrievous and wide - spread trouble i n wh ich countless v i ctims

,

whol ly i nnocent themselves, d id honour to the Bri ti sh name andnation by patie nt subm iss ion to i nev i table i l l - fortune. The suppl ie s of raw cotton for the m il l s of the north- west of Englandwere almost e nti rely wi thdrawn through the blockade of the portsi n the Southe rn (Confederate) S tates of America by the N orthe rn(Federal ) squadrons . The smal l quanti ty procured by blockaderunn ing fel l far below the needs of the t rade , and the cotton oh

ta ined from I ndia and Egypt was not only scan ty i n amount,but

o f v ery inferior qual i ty . Most of the Lancash i re cotton -mil ls weree i ther en ti rely closed , or the mach ine ry ran only for a few hoursper week , and many thousands of ope ratives were th rown out ofwork . The distress became severe by the m iddle of the year186 2

,and was encountered wi th the u tmost courage of endurance

and re signation by the class that had be e n forced i n to idlene ssand consequen t penury . M r. Lincoln , the noble -minded Pres ide ntof the Federal S tates , a man whose name and fame have al readylong conquered the base detract ion and shal low misj udgme nto f certa in sect ion s of the B rit ish press and nation i n h is ownday

,received an address from the working -men of Manchester

,

express ive of thei r hatred of slavery . I n h is reply, dated J anuaryi 9th, 186 3, he j ustly described the utterances made to h im bysuch persons

,under such ci rcumstances

,as “ an i nstance of subl ime

Chris tian heroism which has not been surpassed i n any age or i nany coun try Special measures of rel ief were adopted by the

Poor- Law Board,th rough Parl iamentary act ion , and nearly th re e

m il l i ons sterl ing was con tributed i n subscript ions to d i ffe ren t rel ieffunds

,more than one- hal f being prov ided i n Lancashi re alone .

Funds poured i n from I ndia,Canada , Austral ia , and al l other

B ri ti sh colon i es and dependencies,and from foreign lands , and

nearly hal f a m il l io n came th rough th e Mansion House Committe e ,heade d by success ive Lord Mayors of London . Food and clothing were also profusely bestowed , and the northern S tates ofAmeri ca

, in the m idst of thei r own struggle , de spatched more

DOMESTIC EVENTS OF THE CENTURY. 33 1

than one Sh ip - load of prov i sions for the suffe ri ng people of Lancash i re . The resources of th is we l l - deserved chari ty were adm inis

te red by local persons with great energy and wisdom,Lord D e rby

,

the eloquen t ex - Premier, pre s idi ng wi th abundant devotion ofpersonal e ffort over an Execut i ve Committee of twenty- four gentlem e n chose n from landed proprietors, capital is ts, and large em

ploye rs , without dist i nction of re l igious or pol i t i cal c reed . Thesel f- respect of the people was maintained i n the methods used forthe d istri but ion of alms . The chi ldren were kept at school bypayment of the fees . About men, at thei r own desi re ,were employed upon useful and necessary publ ic works

,partly of

a san i tary k ind , and the paralys is of an i ndustry on which hal f am il l ion of persons were depende nt passed away i n the open ingof the cotton - ports at the close of the American c iv i l war

,with

out any serious i nj ury even to the health of the impoveri shedpeople .

May 1 1 th,1866 , was the day known i n the Ci ty of London,

and long remembered , as “ B lack Friday ”

. The principle ofl im ited l iab i l i ty restrict i ng a shareholder’s risk to the ful lypaid - up val ue of h is own shares i n any commercial enterpri se ,had been so largely employe d that nearl y 2 50

“ l im i ted ” com

panie s , e i ther n ew associat ions or enterprises developed out ofprivate fi rms

,had sprung i nto existence with i n a few months .

O n the day above - named , the largest of these insti tu tions, thegreat d iscount house of Ove rend, Gurney, and Co . ,

was found tohave stopped payment, n e ar the close of busi ness hours on Thursday afternoon , wi th l iabi l i t ies amounting to eleven m il l ions s terl ing .

The utmost confidence had been placed i n the stab i l i ty of thefi rm , so that the shares had at one t ime reached 10 per centpremium . The terror and loss corre sponded to th e extent ofi l l- founded trust

,and even the Bank of England could not s e e a

way to h e lp . The bank - rate of discount went up as h igh as 9 perce nt , and Lombard S treet and i ts approaches were bes ieged byeager and exci ted crowds of men ru ined or expe ctant of ru in .

A financ ial earthquake shook the City,and fi rm after fi rm , bank

after bank,wen t down with a crash . Reckless unde rtak ings

tumbled to pieces l ike houses of cards, and thousands of famil ies ,si nking from affluence and comfort to penury and suffe ring, had


reason to deplore the speculat ive spi ri t of modern finance . M r.Gladstone, then Chance l l or of the Exchequer, under pressure fromthe mercanti le world , enabled the Bank of England to afford somerel ief by a suspension of the Bank Charter Ac t, so that notes couldbe i ssued beyond the l imi ts fixed i n that law. The general stateof the country was sound i n financ ial affai rs

,and i n a few months

the t roubl e passed away .

The last commercial trouble deal t wi th i n th i s record i s thatof the City of Glasgow Bank . On O ctober 2nd, 1 878 , that greatconcern

,whose shareholders were not guarded by l imi ted l iabi l i ty

,

shot a pang th rough many hearts by suddenly stopping payment .N one had a warn ing of the wreck that was to come . On the daybe fore i ts doors were closed the shares were advertised i n thepubl ic market at over double thei r original price . A loss of morethan s i x m il l ion s sterl i ng spread rui n and desolat ion over Scotland .

The shareholde rs lost every penny of thei r i nvestments , and werel iable to make good five times the amoun t paid - up for shares .The most reckless m ismanagement had been shown i n i nvestmentsthat i ncl uded Austral ian and N ew Zealand lands, Ameri can rai lway - stock

,property i n I nd ia and B urmah

,build ings at home and

i n the colon ies,sh ipping

,produce , and other matters beyond the

usual range of legi t imate business . Most of the sufferers werepeople of l im ited pecun iary means

,and i n numerous cases they

were deprived of e very part of thei r possess ions . Trade wasseverely Shaken , cred i t much impai red, suspicion ri fe . The onlypoor sat i sfact ion accorded to the plundered people was the arres tof the s ix di rectors , the manager, and the secretary of the Bank ,fol lowed by the conv iction and sentence

,to short terms of im

pri sonment, of al l save the secretary, who was d ischarged fromcustody , and gave ev idence agai nst the rest when the trial came on .

This narrat ive is not a N ewgate Calendar,nor must i ts pages

be pol luted wi th the h ideous detai l s of many murderous crimes .There are, however, a few cases worthy of mention , i n part i l lustrat ive of the fol ly of the comfortable maxim

,Murder wi l l ou t ”

,by

wh ich society strives to console i tsel f for the occas ional i ncapac i ty ofi ts official guardians , and to h ide from v iew the absolute impun i tyof many criminals of the most atrocious k ind . The reign of QueenVictoria alone presents us with scores of undetected murders . We


adopted by the assass i n i t may be safely averred that at l east eigh tof these crimes were the work of the same hand . The v ict imswere

,i n al l cases , women of the same fal le n and unhappy Class .

The y were i n al l cases slai n by the severance of the throat . Theirbodies were i n al l cases muti lated i n the same region

,wi th the same

indescribable feroc ity, by the use of a blade wi th th e keenest edge .

N o one who did not, l ike the presen t wri ter, i nspect the scene ofat least some of these fe arfu l t rage dies , can apprec iate the daring,the swiftness

,suddenne ss, and ski l l needed for successful action

and escape . I n the darker recesses of publ i c thoroughfares unde rregular patrol of the n igh t - pol ice ; i n back - yards of lodging- housesteeming with persons whom a S ingle scre am would have aroused ;withou t a cry from the slain ; wi thout a s igh t of the slayer eve robtained

,without a sound of h i s steps as he went to or qu i tte d h is

loathsome work , the deadly s teel wrought deed after de ed of themost savage c ruel ty . The s lash ing of the v ictims’ flesh caused thev ulgar to dub th i s miscreant “ J ack the R i pper ” . N ot the fain testc lue was ever obtained . Like a fiend he came and l ike a fiend hevan ished, laugh ing man to scorn i n the lonel iness of some secureretreat

,or exul ting, i n the depths of h i s wicked heart, over h i s

u tter defeat of al l the resources of ou r boasted c iv i l i zat ion for thedetect ion of crime .

The h ighwayman’s exploi ts i n robbery of riders on horseback ,

or i n coach, or i n post—chaise, on the roads i n the earl i er decades ofthe n inete enth century came to an end wi th the i nst i tution ofeffic i ent patrols of county- pol i ce, and , espec ial ly, through the useof rai lway- travell ing. Few instances of murderous v iolence, forpurposes of robbery or other reasons, have ever occurred i n ou rrai lway- tra ins . The most notable was th e crime of Franz Mul l er,who

,on the n ight of J u ly 9th, 1864, s lew a gentleman named

B riggs i n a firs t - class rai lway- carriage on the North LondonRai lway

,during the short j ourney from Fenchurch S treet station

to Hackne y-Wick . The v ict im was ch ief c lerk to Messrs .Robarts

,bankers of Lombard S treet, and was found lying on the

space between the two l i nes of rai l at a spot c lose to HackneyWick

,the station be fore Hackney . He was then j us t l iv ing, but

was covered with blood aris ing from severe wounds on the headcaused by some blun t weapon . He di ed wi th i n a few minutes , andwas found to have been robbed of h is watch and chain , the latte r


broken off close to the l i nk which attached i t to the button - hole ofh is waistcoat . The compartment i n which he had travel led wasfound empty at Hackney station , but the floor, the wi ndow , the

s ide , and the cushions were bespattered wi th blood , and a roundfel t hat

,not belonging to M r . B riggs , was left beh ind . The

assass in had not had time to complete the despoi l i ng of the man

whose se nseless body he had flung out on the railway- l i ne . A pairOf gold eye - glasses was m iss i ng , but money and a si lve r snuff-boxwe re found in the pockets , and a diamond- ri ng remained on i tsusual finger. A week later, a sharp - wi tted cabman gave valuablei n formation to the pol ice . A young German who had been lodgingi n h is house, at O ld Ford , Bow,

had come home,about eleven.

o ’clock on th e n ight of the murder,i n a very confused and agi tated!

state . A day or two later, he had given to one of the cabman ’s .

ch i ldre n a card - board box,such as j ewel lers use

,marked with the

name of M r. Death , of Cheapside . That tradesman , quest ioned bythe pol ice

,declared that he had given th is box

,along wi th a watch

chain,to a young man of fore ign appearance

,i n exchange for another

chain , which was found to be that of the murdered M r. B riggsThe hat found i n the rai lway- carriage was shown by the cabman tobe one which he had bough t for h i s lodger

,Franz Mul ler, a native

of Cologne . A photograph of Mul le r was proved by M r. Death tobe that of the man who had barte red the chain , and , on th is information

,the pol ice made search for the man who had van ished from

h is usual haunts . He was found to have sai led for N ew York i n ash ip named the Victor ia ,

and two detect ives , with the j ewel ler andthe cabman , started i n pursu i t by a swift mai l - steamer that reachedNew York four days before the slower ve ssel . A rmed wi thwarran ts procured i n London

,and e ndorse d by the American

authori ties, the officers boarded the Victor ia on her arrival, and

found Mul ler i n possess ion of M r. Briggs’ watch , and of h is hat, cu t

down and al tered to su i t i ts new possessor. The hat was proved to.

be the murdered man ’s by the hatter, doing business at a shop outside the Royal Exchange, with whom M r. Briggs was a regularcustome r. These were the ch ie f l inks i n a Chai n of the most com

ple te c i rcumstantial ev idence on re cord . Mul ler stoutly den ied h i sguil t both before and for many days after conv iction . Some of the

German colony i n London talked loudly of “ murdering an innocentman ”

,and fool ishly

,of i nterfere nce from the Pruss ian government .

336 .OUR EMPIRE AT HOME AND ABROAD .

Thei r m inds were set at rest by M uller’s words,Ic/z kaé

’

es g etkan

(’Twas I that d id i t) , whispered, at the momen t when the rope wasput round his neck at N ewgate , i n to the ear of th e Lutheran chaplai n who attended him on the scaffold . H is denial had been mainta ined to that final momen t of h i s l i fe th rough the vain hope arousedby h is countrymen

’

s talk concern ing a repri eve . This remarkablecase had no smal l i nfluence in inducing rai lway compan ies to prov ide i n carriages some means of communication wi th the guards ofa tra in . A much later i nstance of rai lway murder

,commi tted by

Lefroy on the B righton Line , needs no deta iled descript ion here.An autobiograph ical work of the late M r. Mon tagu Wi l l iams

,the

famous criminal counsel , contains the whole of h is most ingen iousbu t fru i tless speech for the defence .

The bases t method of murder is that adopted by the secretpoisoner. I n the annals of crime there are scarcely any worsecases of cold - blooded , systemati c, slow assass inat ion than thoseconnected wi th the names of Palmer and Pri tchard . Both weremembers of the medical profess ion , though of w idely d ifferen tstanding and repute prior to the d iscovery of thei r gui l t . Will iamPalmer

,a surgeon of Rugeley, i n Staffordsh i re, had almos t ceased

to pract i se h is profess ion , i n order to devote h is t ime and tale ntsto horse- rac ing and betti ng . H is character was not i n h igh esteemamong h is townsmen , and h i s pecun iary posi t ion had , unknown tothem

,been long sustained by means of bi l l s bearing the forged

name of h i s mother, a lady possessed of considerabl e wealth .

Early i n 185 6 , he was i n desperate stra i ts . O n the death of h iswi fe

,afterwards proved to have d ied by poison , Palmer had

rece ived the sum of for wh ich he had i nsured her l i fe.He then i nduced h i s brother to effect an insu rance for the samelarge sum

,and to assign the pol icy to h im . When the brother

died , by poison , as exhumat ion afterwards proved , the officedecl ined to pay the money over to Palmer. I n the summer of185 6 , th i s man was put on h is trial at the Central C riminal Cou rt,i n London , on a charge of hav ing poisoned h is friend J ohnParsons Cook , a young man of respectable fami ly but loose conduct, who had inheri ted a fai r fortune , and had, as the phraseruns , “gone on the turf ” . I n an ev i l hou r for h imsel f, he becameentangled with Palmer in pecun iary matters . The hab i tual forgers igned Cook ’s name as endorsement to a cheque , and was thus


the verd ict was given , by handing to h is attorney a sl ip of pape rwith the words : “ The rid ing d id i t i n all usion to Cockburn ’sspe ech for the prosecut ion . Palmer d ied on the scaffold withthe firme s t assertion , to h i s last breath , of h is perfec t i nnocenceconcern ing Cook .

I n 1864,D r. Edward Wi ll iam Pritchard , a native of Southsea,

Hampshi re,a man of h igh intel l igence and marked abi l i ty

,who

was a fel low or member of many learned societ i es i n the U ni tedKingdom

,was establ i shed i n medical practice at Sauchiehall Street

,

Glasgow . H is person and demeanour were attracti ve , and hisprofe ssional knowledge had been shown i n many publ i shed s cien

t ific works on various d iseases and thei r t reatment . He was aman who had seen much of the world during a seafari ng careeras a surgeon i n the royal navy, hav ing thus v is i ted the M editerranean

,and the Pacific and A rct i c oceans . He had married

M iss Taylor , a n iece of D r. Cowan , formerly surgeon - in - ordinaryto Wil l iam IV . A bri l l i an t and useful cou rse of l i fe lay straightbe fore D r . Pri tchard , when he was taken down to the lowestdepths of gu il t by two propensi t ies wh ich lay h idden below thesu rface for ord inary observers , but had been noted by some towhom he was best known . He was utterly untruthfu l both i nword and action , and he was capable of crue l ty to a remarkabledegree . I n real i ty, h is nature was cold, crafty, calcu lat ing, cunn ing,sensual

,and absolutely fiendish i n i ts capac ity for slowly murde ring

with a sm i le upon the face,and for changing smiles at wi l l i n to

what seemed to be the tears of honest and he artfel t sorrow .

On March 2o th, 186 5 , D r. Pri tchard was arrested at Glasgow onthe charge of hav i ng poisoned h i s wi fe , who had d ied three daysbefore after an i l l ness extending over about three months . Hermother

,Mrs . Taylor, who had come from Edinburgh to nurse

her daughter, had d ied suddenly on the even ing of February 24th.

Analys i s proved that both ladies had been done to death , theyounger one after many weeks of agony

,the elder very speedi ly,

from the admin istrat ion of tartarised antimony, or tartar emet ic .The trial began at Edinburgh on J uly 3rd,

i n the H igh Court ofJ ustic iary , before the Lord J ust ice Clerk (Lord A rdmil lan) andLord J e rv iswoode . The utmos t i nterest was aroused throughoutGreat B ri tain

,and reporters for the publ ic pre ss were present from

every great town . I t was concl usively proved, i n a trial extending


over five days , that the prisoner had purchased large quanti ties oftartari sed antimony in Glasgow, and that he had given th is poisonto both the deceased ladies . H is motives were never accu ratelyknown . H is wife , Mrs . Pritchard , may have died because hewished to be free to marry some wealth ie r woman . H is motherin- law, Mrs . Taylor, probably pe rished because he saw that shesuspected foul play towards her daughter, and she was about toremove that lady from his Cl utches by taking her away to Edinburgh for nurs ing. The j ury, after less than an hour

’s consul tat ion , found an unanimous ve rd ict of “ gui l ty ”

, and on J uly 28th

Pri tchard d ied by hangi ng at Glasgow , le av ing behind h im thereputat ion of being one of the v i les t criminals of modern t imes .There is Only one i nstance , with i n the B ri t ish I sles , during

the 19th century, of sentence of death for murde r be ing passedupon a clergyman of the E s tabl ished Church of England . Weal lude he re to the deplorable case of the Reverend J ohn SelbyWatson , M .A . , gold me dal l is t i n class ics of Trin i ty Col lege, Dubl in ,and for many ye ars head - master of the Proprietary GrammarS chool at S tockwell , i n London , an i nst i tution now defunct , theni n un ion with K ing

’

s Col lege, London . Mr . Watson’s attainments

i n Lati n and Gre ek were ev i nced by his t ranslat ions from somec lassical authors in Bohu

’

s wel l- known series , and he was alsothe author of a meri torious L ife of P or son and other works . A tChristmas, 1 870 ,

he had rel i nqu ished h is educational post , andi n the fol lowing September, 187 1 , he was re siding at Stockwell .On a Sunday e ven ing i n that month

,the one servant of the house

was for some hours absen t according to custom , l eav ing Mr. andM rs . Watson , a ch i ldless coupl e, togethe r i n a s i tt ing- room on thefi rs t floor. When the maid returned , her mistress had disappe ared .

Her master stated that a telegram had come , summoning Mrs .Watson to v is i t a dying sister i n I reland , and that she had hasti lypacked up and departed

,locking the door of her own bedroom ,

and taking the key away wi th her. This chamber lay at the backof the house

,Mr . Watson ’s room being in the front . The ser

vant,satisfied with this explanat ion as to the bedroom - door being

locked,went about her bus i ness as usual . Mr. Watson , i n the

course of the two following days , caused the construct ion of a largewooden chest

,which he stated would be used for the conveyance

of books . On Wednesday afternoon , the maid heard groan ing

340OUR EMPIRE AT HOME AND ABROAD.

from his bedchamber,and

,entering the room , saw her master

prostrate on the bed . H is medical attendan t was . promptlyfetched

,and he found M r. Watson suffering from a dose of weak

or greatly- d iluted prussi c ac id,which

,i n i ts normal s tate, would

have certain ly been fatal . The sufferer was rev ived by remediesappl ied , and the doctor, read ing a note on the drawers addressedto h imsel f, found therein a statemen t that the body of M rs .Watson would be found i n her bedroom at the back of the house .The pol ice were summoned ; the door was broken open ; the bodywas found , with the head batte red i n . The wretched man hadk i l led h i s wi fe wi th repeated blows from the butt - end of a heavybrass- mounted horse- pistol , several of wh ich weapons, long i n h ispossession as fam ily hei rlooms, we re found i n the house . Thewooden ches t had been i ntended , as i ts d imensions proved , fori nclos i ng the body, to be sen t away by rai l as a prel iminary tofl ight

,but the murderer’s nerve had fai led h im at the last, and he

resorted to a real or s imulated attempt at su ic ide . When the trialcame on at the Central Crim inal Court , i n N ovember, beforeM r. J usti ce Byles , a feeble attempt to prove i nsan ity as a defencewas made by M r. Watson ’s medical attendan t and by certai nexperts or mad doctors but as noth ing was shown beyond ahabi t of talk ing to h imsel f as he passed along the streets , the j uryqu ickly arrived at a verd ict of “ gui lty ”

, with a strong re com

m endation to mercy “ on the ground of the prisoner’s age andprev ious good Character ” . The Home Secretary , Mr. B ruce

(afterwards Lord Aberdare), adv i sed the sovereign i n accordancewith th is humane suggestion , which was i ntended to save soc ietyfrom the scandal of a clergyman

’s execution . The unhappy man,

whose countenance i n the dock presented th roughout a sul lenapathy of despai r, was reprieved , and d ied , many years later, i na conv ict prison . The “Watson murder ” was

,i n fact

,a warn ing

to wives who, i n stead of being a helpmeet and solace to thei rhusbands, become a source of constan t m isery and tortu re . Thepresen t wri ter succeeded Mr. Watson i n the charge of the Stockwel l Grammar School , and , from his re s idence close to the sceneof the crime, and other sources of information , i s enabled to affi rmthat the murdered lady was one who

,with a rigid devotion to the

outward forms of rel igion , and a Puri tan ical precis ion of practicei n the face of the world , was abandoned i n her home to the odious


were cases where the . garrotters made mistakes , of an awkwardissue for themselves , i n thei r cho ice of v ict ims . A t the e ast endof London

,a tal l man , thus attacked by three of these wretches ,

evaded the attempt to enc i rcl e h is throat, and ret i red wi th h isback to a wal l . A desperate rush was made upon him , bu t intwo seconds

,by right and left fis ts sen t wel l home, he felled

two of the men senseless with blows that would have shaken an

ox . A lec Keene,the assa i led , a profess ional prize-fighter i n good

train ing,then went wh istl ing on h is way, l eav ing the men to be

picked up by the pol i ce . The th i rd man had al ready vanishedi n terror at the pun ishme n t deal t out to h is comrades . A t Leeds ,i n the great thoroughfare called Brigga te , an athletic tradesman ,after a rough - and - tumble fight with three assai lants , captured two ,of whom one was senseless from blows , and handed them over tothe care of the constables attracted by the struggle . A t Cambridge

, in 1859, an undergraduate was“ tackled ” i n the narrow

thoroughfare cal led Senate- house Passage , betwe en the Senatehouse and Caius Col lege , by a gang of three men . H is resistancewas so v igorous

,and help, i n the person of a col lege- waite r

,so

t imely,that two of the robbers were secured , and , as old offenders ,

they rece ived at the ensu ing Cambridge ass ize s sen tences of 20years’ penal serv i tude. The wri ter, then a studen t at Cambridge ,wel l remembers joi n ing i n the cheers del ivered from the undergraduates ’ galle ry ou degree- day i n the Senate - house , “ for theplucky undergrad who fought the garrotters ” . For some years

,

impri sonment with hard labour was the sole penal ty ass ignedfor the crime of robbery wi th v iolence

,but i n 186 3 an Act imposed

flogging with the “ cat ” as an addi t ional pun ishment wi th in thed i scretion of the j udge. An immediate change resul ted from thelaying- on of strokes by strong- armed warders i n the pre sence ofwitne sses who reported some of the detai ls for the benefi t of al lconcerned . I n spi te of the pe rs is tent den ial s of squeam ish faddistswho oppose every kind of corporeal pun i shment , i t i s a fact thatth is form of retribution , i nvolv ing severe physical pain , had a verygreat effect on the m inds of the rougher class of crim inals , so thatth i s method of robbe ry became almost ext i nct .Our accoun t of B ri tish crimes i n the n ineteenth cen tury must

here be closed . The events j ust described , and other forms ofh uman i l l - doing, are the dark s id e of all c iv i l izat ion , and , rightly

DOMESTIC EVENTS OF THE CENTURY . 343

read and cons idered , they are fu l l of ins truct ion to the patrioticreformer

,the moral ist, the legislator, and the student of psychology .

Those who desi re to make a wider acquaintance with the subj ect,

as regards Great Britain in the later Georgian and the Victoriant imes

,wil l find accounts of many interesting crim inal deeds and

judic ial i nvest igat ions i n M r . Serj eant Ballan tine ’s Exper iences ofa B a r r i ster

’

s L ife, and i n M r. Walter Thornbury’

s Old S tor ies

Re- told. Mr . Ballanti ne’

s book also contains not ices of prominentj udges and counsel

,and of ou r judic ial system in E ngland

,over a

period of about s ixty years , with interest ing matter concern ing thesocial l i fe of London prior to , and in the earl ier days of, the Vic

torian age .

END OF VOL. 11.

NE W EDITION, RE VISED AND GREA TL Y A UGMENTED.

Og i lvie’

s Impe rial Di ct ionary Of the

Eng lish Language

A COMPLETE ENCYCLOPEDIC LEX ICON , L ITERARY, ETYMOLOG ICAL , SC IENT I F IC ,TECHNOLOG ICAL , AND PRONOUNC ING .

EDITED BY CHARLE S ANNANDALE,M .A .

,LL.D.

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D I STINCTIVE PO INTS .I . It is the lates t revised dictionary , and has a supplement ofmany thousand new words .I I . It conta ins more words , exc lu s ive of compound and obsole te words , than any o the r Eng lish dict i onary .I I I . The pronuncia t ion is e xpla ined on a plan w h ich is s impl ic ity i tse lf.IV. It g ive s the pronunciat ion and the meaning of the word as recog nized to-day .

V It has more i l lus trat ions than any othe r Eng l ish dictionary.V I It has fu l l -pag e pla te s (coloured and othe rw ise ), wh ich are an outs tanding fea ture of the work . No othe rEng lish dictionary contains fu l l -page pla tesV I I . It has clear type , beautifu l ly pri nted on fine pape r, and is subs tantia l l y and e legant l y bound.V I I I . It has a spe cia l l y prepared Supplement issued w ith each vo lume , ins tead of the usua l plan of re legat ing the

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The IM PERIAL DICT IONARY 1: a w or k wh zch f a z'

r ly deserves the efizthet of m onum en ta l . It is rea lly wha t z t f ro

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lz ter a ry ,sczen t ific, a nd technolog ica l In othe r w ords , i t is the bes t

dz’

ctzonam ey’

rts hmd in the E ng lzsh la ng uag e , a nd i ts hand zs the bes t .

” —St J ame s’

s Gaze tte .

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Imper za l — The T imes .

NE W AND RE VISED EDITION.

The Casqu e t Of L i te ratu reA SELECT ION I N PROSE AND POETRY from the works of the be st Authors . Ed ited , w ith Biograph ica l and Literary Notes, by CHARLES G IBBON , Author of “ Robin Gray and revis ed byM iss MARY CHRIST IE. To be published in 6 volumes , bound in cloth , gi l t elegant, w ith Ol i v ineedges , price 7s . 6d. per volume ; a lso in 18 parts , price 2s . each .

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In I7 parts , e xtra demy 8vo, at 2s . each ; or 5 volumes , cloth e legant, gilt edges , at 8s . 6d. each .

NE W PICTORIAL EDITIOIV.

The Works of Robe rt Bu rns,

With a series of Authentic Pictorial I llustrat ions , Marg inal Glossary, numerous Notes , and Append i xes .

Also the l i fe of Burns by J . G . LOCKHART ,and Essays on the Genius , Character, and Wri tings Of

Burns, by THOMAS CARLYLE and PROFESSORW ILSON . Ed i ted by CHARLES AN NANDALE, M .A . ,LL.D.

,

ed itor Of the Imperial D ict ionary ” , &c.

In this edition of Burns t w rit ing s are pres ented in two se ctions , the one conta ining the poe try , the othe r the prose .

Marg ina l explana t ions of Scot t ish words accompany e ach piece tha t re quire s uch a id, enabl i ng anyone a t a g lance to

app rehend the meaning of even the mos t diffi cu lt pas sa g es .

The P i ctoria l I l lu s tra t ions . which cons is t of F i fty -S ix be au t iful Lands ca pe s and Portra its, engraved on s te e l in the mostfin is hed manne r , form a ve ry dis tinct ive fe a ture of th is edi t ion. The Landsca pes embrace the principal sce nes identifiedwi th the L ife andWrit ing s of the Poe t , and are from p i cture s pa inted by D. O. HILL

,R .S.A .A ltoge the r in no other edit ion is so much l ight tln own from all points of view upon Burns the poe t and Burns the man ,

and it may there fore be sa id to be comple te in the bes t s ense of the word.

In ( 8 parts , super-royal 4to, at as . each ; in 6 divismns at 6s . each ; and also in 2 volumes , large 4to,

e legantly bound in cloth , g ilt edges, price 24s . each .

The Natu ra l H i story Of A nimals(CLASS MAMMALl A— AN IMALS WH ICH S UCKLE THE IR YOUNG), In Word and Picture . ByCARL VOGT, Professor of Natura l H istory

, Geneva , and FR IEDR ICH SPECHT,Stuttgart . Translated

and Ed i ted by GEO. G. CH ISHOLM,M .A .

,B . sc. I llustra ted by above 300 fine Engravings on wood .

Th is account of the an imals comprised in the class Mamma lia has a decidedly popu lar characte r— not through la ck ofscientific va lue , but because the au thor pre sents the facts in an at tract ive form

,and s tudie s to smoo th the path of those

who ca n g ive onl y the ir le isure hours to le arning the resu l ts of scient ific research. The au thor’s s tyle is above al l th ing sc lear , S imple , and di re ct, and, whe re occas ion oiIe rs

,l ive ly and anima ted.

The a r t is t has port rayed in the mos t spiri t ed manne r the anima l s as the y appe ar in the varied C i rcums tances of rea ll i fe , in que s t of the ir pre y, cares sui g the ir young one s , or s port ing wi th the ir fe l low s The e ngravi ng s have be en executedin the m os t care fu l and fin i shed manne r , unde r M r Spe cht's own dire ct ion

The Princip le s and Practice of

Mode rn House ConstructionInclud ing se ctions on Water-supply and Fittings— Sanitary F ittings and Plumbing— Dra inage and

Sewage - d is posa l - Warming— Ventilation— Ligh t ing— Sanitary Aspects of Furn iture and Decoration

Cl imate and S i tuation— Stables— Sanitary Law , &c. Ed ited by G . L ISTER SUTCL I FFE, Arch i tect,As sociate of the Roya l Inst itute of British Architects ; Membe r of the Sanitary Institute ; Author Of

Concrete : Its Nature and Uses &c.

Th is book is an a ttempt to describe the new ma te ria ls and the new use s of old materia ls , to se t forth the new dis

cove ries and the ir 15 5 118 5 in pract ica l work, and to i l lus tra te thos e new appl iances which appe ar to be va luable and use fu lEach porti on of the book i s w ri tten by a spe cia l ist in his own part icu lar branch of the subj ect, the contribu tors all be ing

men whose nam es a re fam i l i ar in the rea lms of arch ite cture , CiVll eng ineering , m edi cine , a nd san ita ry scie nce .

THE I LLUST RAT IONS form a mos t importa nt fea ture , be ing upwards of 700 in number , and cove ring pract ica l l y thew hole rang e of house -cons truct ion Bes ides the se the re are many plate s printed in colours , wh ich g rea t l y enhance theva lue of the wo rk .

A VE RY FULL IN DEX renders the whole informa tion conta ined in the book e a s y of re fe rence

T0 he completed in four hal f- volumes , super-royal 8vo, at 125 . 611. each.

The S team Engi neA TREAT ISE ON STEAM ENG I NES AND BOI LERS . Compri sing the Principles and Practice of the

Combustion Of Fue l, the Econom ica l Generation of S team, the Construction of S team Boi lers ; and thePrInCIples, Construction, and Performance of S team Eng ines— Stationary , Portab l e , Locomot i ve, andMarine , exempl i fied in Eng ines and Boilers of Recent Date . By DAN IEL K I NNEAR CLARK ,

M Inst C E . M IM E ; Author Of “ Railway Machinery “ A Manual of Rules , Tables, and Data forMechanica l Engineers &c. &c. I l lus trated by abo ve I3oo Figures in the Text, and a S er ies of

Fold ing P lates d rawn to Sca le .

Th is work provides a comprehens ive , accu rate , and c learl y wri tten text-book, fu l ly abreas t of all the recent deve lopmentsin the princ iples and pract i ce of the Steam Engine.

In 20 parts , supe r- royal quarto, 2s . each ; or 8 d ivisions , 55 . each.

The Carpente r and J o ine r’

s A ssistantBy JAMES NEWLANDS, late Boroug h Engineer of Liverpool . New and Improved Edition . Be ing a

Compre hens ive Treatise on the se lection, preparation, and strength of Materials , and the Mechanica lprinciples of Framing , w ith the ir appl ications in Carpentry, Joinery, and Hand Ra il ing ; also, a com

ple te treatise on Li nes ; and an I l lustrated Glossary of Terms used in Arch itecture and Build ing .

I llus trated by above One Hundred Engra ved Plates , containing above N ine Hundred F igures ; andabove Se ven Hund red Geometric, Cons tructive , andDescriptive Figures interspersed throughout the te x t.

We know of no trea t i s e on Ca rpen t ry a nd 7oinery which a t a ll approa ches the: in mer i t We s trong ly

u rg e ou r practica l m echa n ics to obta in and s tudy i t . —Mechan ics ’ Magazine .

In 14 parts , 2s . each ; or 4 vols . , super-royal 8vo, cloth elegant, 8s . 6d. each.

The Cabine t of Irish L i te ratureA Se lection from the Works of the ch ie f Poets , Orators , and Prose Wri ters of Ire land . Ed ited, wi thbiograph ica l sketch es and literary notices , by CHARLES A. READ,

author Of “ Ta les and

S tories of Irish Life ” , Stories from the Ancient Classics ”, &c. I llustrated by a series of 32 adm irablePortra its in mesochrome , special ly prepared for this work .

The Publishe rs aim in thi s Work to supply a s tandard work in wh ich the g enius , the fire , the pathos , the humour, andthe e loquence of I rish Literature a re adequa te ly represe nted. The spe cimens se le cted, wh ich are a rrang ed chronolog ica l lyfrom the ea rlie st to the pre se nt t ime , Wi ll bo th pre s ent a h is tori ca l view of I ris h Lite ra ture , and enable the reade r to judg eof the individua l s tyle and part icu lar me ri t Of each au thor , wh i le to thos e not cri t ica l l y di spo s ed the infin i te vari e ty pre sentedin this conven ient col le ct ive form Wi l l afl'

ord bo th i ns tru ct i on and amus ement

De script ive A tlas of the Worldand Genera l Geog raphy

COMPR IS INGABOVE ONE HUNDRED CAREFULLY EXECUTED MAPS ; A DETA ILED DESCR IPT ION OF THE

\VORLD, PROFUSELY ILLUSTRATED; AND AN INDEX OF PLACES.

PREPARED UN DER THE SUPERVISION OFW . G. BLA CK I E, Ph . D. , LL.D

Fe l low of the Roya l Geog raph ica l Socie t ie s , London and Edinburgh

To be completed in 1 2 divi s ions a t 5 s . each , form ing a handsome volume, 16 inches x 1 2 inches.

The ATLAS cons ists of s ixty- four Shee ts of Maps , compris ing seventy-five numbe red maps and aboveth irty inse t maps , mak ing in all above ONE HUNDRED MAPS beaut i fu l l y pr inted in colours, prepared fromthe mos t recent and most authoritat ive ma teria ls ava i lab le .

Wh i le the O lder coun tri es of the wor l d are fu l ly Shown, Specia l prom inence l S g iven to Great Britain and

its WOl‘ ld-W lde posse ss ions , and a lso to the reg ions recent l y Opened up by the enterpri se Of ad\ enturous

trave l lers .

Two of the maps are worthy of special notice . The Comm ercia l Chart Of the Wor ld , Showing e xis t ingand ava i lab le fie l ds of comme rce ; and The British Empire a t one Vi ew, showing a ll the pos sess ions at home

and abroad , drawn to one scale , and thereby enab l ing them re lat i ve S ize to be clear ly appreciated .The GENERAL GEOGRAPHY form s a very Important sect ion Of the work . It supp l i e s information

g eograph ical , h istorica l , s tat is tica l , commercia l , and descr ipt ive , of all the countries of the world.As a use fu l adjunct bo th to the Maps and the General Ge og raphy there is given a Pronouncing Vocabulary Of Geog raph ica l Names . In add i t ion to th is , an Extens ive Index Of Places forms a very use fu l sect i on

of the work .

To be comp leted in I 5 parts, folio (size I6}{ x I IX inches) , price 5s . each.

The Practical De corator and O rnamentistFor the use of ARCH ITECTS, PA INTERS, DECORATORS, and DES IGNERS. Containing one hundredPlate s in colours and go l d . Wit h Descriptive Notices , and an Introductory Essay on Artistic and

Practical Decoration. By GEORGE ASHDOWN AUDSLEY, LL.D. ,and MAUR ICE A SHDOWN

AUDSLEY , Arch itect.The h ig hl y practica l and use fu l characte r of th is important Work wi l l a t once commend it to thos e inte re s ted indecora tive a rt , to whom i t is more immedia te ly addre ssed.It w i l l be found u se fu l to the Mode l le r, the P las te re r, the Stone Ca rve r , the Wood Carve r , the Fre t Cu tte r, the Inlaye r,

the Cabine tmake r , the Potte r, the Eng raver, the Lithog raphe r, the House Painte r , the Arch ite ct , the Inte rior Decora tor,

and, inde ed , to eve ry workman who has a nything to do w ith ornament and des ig n . To the s tudent in drawmg and orna

me nta l des ign it pre s ents a w ide fie ld of sug g e s t ive s tudy .

Fourth Ed ition. Large 8vo ( 1000 cloth , 16s .,or hal l-morocco , z os .

A Manual of Ru les , Tables , and DataFOR MECHAN ICAL ENG I NEERS , based on the most recent inve s t igations . By DAN IEL K I NNEARCLARK , author of “ Rai lway Machinery”, &c. &c. I l lus trated W i th nume rous D iagrams .

This book compris es the leading ru le s and da ta , w ith nume rous tables , of cons tant use in ca lcu la t ions and e s tima te s

re la ting to Practica l Mechanics z— pre sented in a re l iable , clear, and handy form , w ith an extent of rang e and comple tene ssofde tai l tha t has no t be en a ttempted h ithe rto Th is (the fourth) edi tion has be en ca re fu l ly revi sed, and in its prepara tionadvantag e has been taken ofmany s ugge s tions made by those u s ing the forme r ed i t ions

M r . Cla rk w r i tes w i th g rea t clea rness , a nd he has a g rea t M oor of condens ing a nd sum ma r i zi ng facts , a nd

he ha s thus been ena bled to embody i n h is volum e a collection of da ta re la ti ng to m echa n ica l eng i neer ing ,s uch a s ha s

ce r ta i nly never befor e bee n broug ht tog e the r . We r eg a rd the book a s one w h ich no m echa n i ca l eng i nee r m r eg u la r

M l“! ca n af ord to be w i thou t — Engine e ring

To be comple ted in 2 1 parts , super- royal 8vo, as . each ; or in 6 volumes , cloth e xtra, 9s . 6d. each .

The Impe ria l Bible -Di ctionaryH ISTOR ICAL, B IOGRAPH ICAL, GEOGRAPH ICAL, AND DOCTR I NAL. Ed i ted by Rev. PATRICKFA IRBAIRN , D.D. , author of “ Typo logy of Scripture ” , &c . With Introductions by the Righ t Rev.

J . C . RYLE, D.D. , Lord B is hop of Live rpool , and Rev . C . H . WALLER, M . A . I l lustrated by about

Seven Hund red Engra vings .

Th is Edit ion w i l l be augmented by an inte re s t ing discus s ion on the subject of I NSPIRATION , by the Rev . C . H .

WALLER , Principal of the London Col lege of Div in ity . To th is is prefixed a luminous introduct ion on the same subjectby the Righ t Rev. J OHN CHAR LES RYLE, Lord B ishop of Live rpoo l .

The Work take s up in alphabe t ica l order all the subjects which ente r into the contents of the B ible , wh ile the seve ra lbooks of wh i ch the B ible is composed in eve ry cas e rece ive care fu l and attentive cons idera t ion In the treatment of the

different topics , ful l advantag e is taken of the mate ria ls wh ich modern cri ticism and re search have accumulated.

New I ssue , to be completed in 6 hal f- volumes, imperial 8vo , cloth e xtra, 9s . 6d. each .

The Who le Works of J ohn BunyanAccurately reprinted from the Author’s own ed itions . Collected and ed i ted , w ith an introduct ion to

each Treatise, numerous i llustra tive and exp lanatory notes , anda memo ir of Bunyan, by GEORGE OFFOR.

I llustrated by engrav ings on stee l and on wood .Among the I l lustra tive Eng raving s w i l l be found the Portra i t of Bunyan a fter Sadler ; and a care fu l copy of the i nter

es ting Portra it by R . Wh ite , now in the Brit ish Mu s eum ; V i ews of Bedford, and Pri s on on Bedford B ridg e , of Bunyan’

s

Cottag e , the Marke t -house and Church , E ls tow ; and of Bunyan’s Tomb in Bunh i ll F i e lds . A l so , a Se r i e s of beau t i fu lI l lus tra t ions of The P i lg r zne from Stothard

’s e legant de s ig ns ; W i th Facs imi le s of Bunyan’s Writing , and Of the ear l ie s t

wood-cu t i l lus trations to The P i lg r im , and to the L if e of B adma n .

In I 5 parts , super-royal 8vo, 2s . each ; or 4 vols. , e legantly bound in cloth, 9s . each.MEMORIAL EDITION

W i l l iam Ewart Glads tone and h i s Contemporarie sSeventy Years of Social and Pol itical Prog ress. By THOMAS ARCHER, F. K. H ist Soc. Re vi sed and

E xtended to date by ALFRED THOMAS STORY .The aim of th is book, s ta ted briefly, is to g ive a readable account , fu l l , accura te . and fre e from bia s , of the l i fe

and ach i evements of Mr . Glads tone , i n a narra t ive w h ich treats in some de ta i l all the principa l events and incidentsof the pe riod covered by h i s l ife , pre senting a l so vivid portra it-ske tche s of the mos t em inent among his contempora rie s So

many years of his l i fe we re spent i n the publ i c se rvice tha t the Story of Mr. Glads tone i s necessar i l y close ly bound up w iththe his tory Of the Empire ; bu t the pri va te l ife of a man of s o larg e and comprehens ive a nature mus t needs have abundantintere st for his countrymen, and this book faithful ly presents Gladstone the man no le ss than the s ta tesman

As a h istorica l record it s trive s to s e t forth in a bright and enterta ining manne r , but s til l W i th accuracy and se rious aim,

the main events tha t have gone to the weaving of the s tory of our nat iona l l i fe from year to year . It inc lude s a ll the grea tpo l it ica l que s tions tha t have ag i ta ted the publ ic m i nd and be en keenly deba ted in Pa rl i ament from the s tormy peri od of thefirs t great Re form ag ita tion onward socia l and economic chang e s ; chang e s in manne rs and cus toms , sports and pas time s ;g rea t ca lamit ie s and disas ters .

The value of the work will be enhanced by a s eries of about forty au thentic portra its of Mr . Glads tone's con

tempora rie s , as we l l as port ra its Of Mrs . Glads tone in e ar l ier years and as w e have known he r , and portra it s of Mr.

Glads tone at four e pochs of his ca re e r

In 20 parts , 2s . each ; or 5 d iv is ions, royal 4to, 8s . each ; or one vol. , cloth , g i lt edges , 42s .

S u gg e s t i on s i n De s ig nA comprehens ive series of Orig inal Sketches in various S tyles of Ornament , arranged for appl ication in

the Decorative and Constructive Arts , compris ing 102 plates , contain ing more than 1 100 d istinct andseparate

“sugges tions by JOHN LE IGHTON , F .S.A . To w h ich is added de scr iptive and h i storical

letterpress , w ith above 200 explanatory engrav ings , by JAMES KELLAWAY COLLI N G,Thes e sugg e s t ions are throughou t or ig ina l , de s igned in the spirit, and with the prope r art fe e l ing of the various s tyle s

to wh ich they seve ra l ly be long , and are the accumu la ted re sult of long and arduous s tud i e s , ex tendi ng ove r many yearsof inve s tig a t ion and though t.

LONDON : THE GRESHAM PUBLI SH ING COMPANY ; GLASGOW, EDI NBURGH , AND DUBLI N,

the british empire - forgotten books

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