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Dissertations Graduate College

8-1986

Successful Women: A Racial Comparison of Variables Successful Women: A Racial Comparison of Variables

Contributing to Socialization and Leadership Development Contributing to Socialization and Leadership Development

J. Baraka Love Western Michigan University

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Recommended Citation Recommended Citation Love, J. Baraka, "Successful Women: A Racial Comparison of Variables Contributing to Socialization and Leadership Development" (1986). Dissertations. 2251. https://scholarworks.wmich.edu/dissertations/2251

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SUCCESSFUL WOMEN: A RACIAL COMPARISON OF VARIABLESCONTRIBUTING TO SOCIALIZATION AND

LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT

by

J . Baraka Love

A D is s e r ta t io n Subm itted to the

F acu lty o f The G raduate C ollege in p a r t i a l f u l f i l lm e n t o f th e

req u irem en ts fo r th e Degree o f D octor o f Education

Department o f E d u ca tio n a l L eadersh ip

W estern M ichigan U n iv ers ity Kalamazoo, Michigan

August 1986

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

SUCCESSFUL WOMEN: A RACIAL COMPARISON OF VARIABLESCONTRIBUTING TO SOCIALIZATION AND

LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT

J . Baraka Love, Ed.D.

W estern Michigan U n iv e r s ity , 1986

The p u rp o se o f t h i s s tu d y was to i d e n t i f y v a r i a b l e s t h a t have

co n tr ib u te d to the grow th and development o f s u c c e s s fu l women and to

e x p lo re w h e th e r th o s e v a r i a b l e s w e re th e sam e f o r B lack and W hite

women by comparing th e p e rc e p tio n s and backgrounds o f women who have

re a c h e d to p l e v e l p o s i t i o n s in th e f i e l d s o f e d u c a t io n , b u s in e s s ,

human s e rv ic e s , and government.

D ata w ere c o l le c te d by q u e s tio n n a ire s from 547 women respondents

o u t o f a sam p le o f 1 ,500 i d e n t i f i e d i n Who's Who in A m erica (4 3 rd

ed ., 1985) and Who's Who Among B lack Am ericans (4 th ed., 1985). The

response r a te was 38.4%; 298 (19.9%) w ere Black women and 278 (18.6%)

were W hite women.

The q u e s tio n n a ire covered th e l i f e h i s to r i e s of B lack and White

women le a d e rs w ith q u e s tio n s drawn from th e re se a rc h l i t e r a t u r e and

from taped in te rv ie w s . The d a ta were su b m itted to ch i-sq u a re c ro ss

t a b u la tio n s o f each ca teg o ry of nom inal v a r ia b le s by ra ce . I n te r v a l

v a r ia b le s were analyzed by _t t e s t s .

R esearch q u es tio n s which guided th i s s tudy were:

1. Are t h e r e d i f f e r e n c e s b e tw e en r a c e s in th e p a t t e r n s o f

grow th and development of s u c c e s s fu l B lack and W hite women?


2. Are t h e r e d i f f e r e n c e s b e tw e en r a c e s i n th e v a r ia b l e s t h a t

a f f e c t c a re e r developm ent o f su c c e s s fu l B lack and White women?

3. Are th e r e d i f f e r e n c e s b e tw e en r a c e s i n th e im p a c t o f ra c e

i d e n t i ty and gender i d e n t i t y in th e experiences of su c c e s s fu l B lack

and W hite women?

4. Are th e r e d i f f e r e n c e s b e tw e en r a c e s on v iew s o f w ork and

le a d e rsh ip of su c c e s s fu l B lack and White Women?

The co n c lu sio n s from th i s s tudy were th a t (a) s u c c e s s fu l women

o f b o th r a c e s a p p e a r to s h a r e common c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f s i m i l a r

p e r s o n a l i t i e s , s u p p o r t iv e f a m i ly backgrounds re g a rd le ss of ra c e o r

so c io e c o n o m ic s t a t u s , h ig h a c h ie v e m e n t d u r in g t h e i r s c h o o l y e a r s ,

some a d o le s c e n t tu r b u le n c e , p o s i t i v e r o l e m o d e ls , an a w a re n e ss o f

i n e q u i t i e s i n o r g a n iz a t io n s and i n s t i t u t i o n s , and an a b i l i t y to

c o n f r o n t and to overcom e n e g a t iv e s o c i a l f o r c e s d i r e c t e d to w a rd s

women; and (b ) i t a p p e a rs t h a t p a t t e r n s o f g ro w th and d e v e lo p m e n t,

c a re e r developm ent, th e im pact of race and gender, and th e view s on

work and le a d e rsh ip a re d i f f e r e n t fo r B lack and W hite women.

F u tu re s tu d ie s can focus on id e n t i fy in g v a r ia b le s th a t su cc ess

f u l women have in common and on id e n t i fy in g unique a re a s fo r i n t e r

v e n t io n i n th e g u id a n c e and t r a i n i n g o f B la ck and W hite women who

a s p ire to p o s itio n s o f le a d e rsh ip .


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8714653

Baraka-Love, J . N.

SUCCESSFUL WOMEN: A RACIAL COMPARISON OF VARIABLESCONTRIBUTING TO SOCIALIZATION AND LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT

Western Michigan University Ed.D. 1986

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Copyright 1986

by

Baraka-Love, J. N.

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Copyright by J . Baraka Love

1986


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Once in many l i f e t im e s an id e a sp rin g s f o r th , tak e s on a l i f e o f

i t s own, and d raw s th e b e s t o f t a l e n t and g o o d w il l in p e o p le . T h is

p ro je c t has been such a work.

I m ust f i r s t ack n o w led g e th e Suprem e I n t e l l i g e n c e w h ich has

in s p ir e d a sense o f purpose w ith in me to do th i s s tudy .

My deepest a p p re c ia tio n i s ex pressed to my s tro n g -h e a rte d , mag

n i f i c e n t , v e r s a t i l e h u sb an d , P a u l— my s o u lm a te — who s h ie ld e d and

p r o t e c t e d me in a cocoon o f lo v e , w a rm th , s u p p o r t , and f i n a n c i a l

s e c u r i ty and provided a s tro n g fo u n d a tio n fo r th e p r iv i le g e of i n t e l

le c tu a l p u rs u i t and e x p lo ra tio n .

I extend my love and a p p re c ia tio n to my son, Jam es, my d augh te r,

Shashu, and my s tep d au g h te r, A p r il , fo r t h e i r p a tie n c e , su p p o rt, and

w ill in g n e s s to a s s i s t . My g r a ti tu d e a ls o goes my my au n t, Joseph ine

Logan-Woods, whose love o f in q u iry and re se a rc h has served as a model

and a s tan d ard in my p u rs u i t of s e l f - a c tu a l i z a t i o n .

To my p a re n ts , Philemon and Jeanne M itc h e ll , I ex tend my thanks

f o r g iv in g me l i f e , a lo v e o f r e a d in g , and a l a r g e c a p a c i ty f o r

l a u g h te r . T hose g i f t s e n a b le d me to e x p lo re w ith c o u rag e and a

degree of o b je c tiv i ty what could p o te n t i a l l y have been a very p a in fu l

s u b je c t .

To my yo u n g er s i s t e r s , M a r ie - C e le s te E le c h i and V e ro n ic a

M a r g u e r i te M i tc h e l l , I e x te n d a h e a r t f e l t th a n k you f o r y o u r un

s e l f is h n e s s , your toughness, c o u n tle s s hours of ted io u s work, and fo r

i i


h o ld in g f o r th th e p ro m ise o f B la ck womanhood ev en as you w ork su c

c e s s f u l l y a g a i n s t th e o dds. A lo o k i n to y o u r p r e t t y , i n t e l l i g e n t

fa ces makes our fu tu re look b r ig h t .

1 want to thank my com m ittee members fo r t h e i r m oral su p p o rt and

f o r th e c o n t r i b u t i o n o f t h e i r i n d iv id u a l i n s i g h t s and s t r e n g t h s :

D r. C harles W a rfie ld was th e f i r s t to encourage me to pursue a doc

t o r a l d e g re e and h a s re m a in e d a s t e a d f a s t s u p p o r t e r i n m o b i l i z in g

re so u rc e s to g e t th e job done; Dr. Lethonee Jones, as th e essence of

Black womanhood's s t re n g th and in t e l l e c t u a l c r e a t iv i t y , served as a

beacon fo r me as I sought to address t h i s s u b je c t and a r t i c u l a t e th e

common ground upon which a l l women stand .

I e s p e c i a l l y w an t to th a n k my c o m m itte e c h a irm a n , Dr. Jam es

Sanders, fo r h is g i f te d tea ch in g , h is example o f p a tie n c e and p o s i

t i v e th in k in g in th e f a c e o f s e t b a c k s , h i s e x a c t i t u d e , and f o r

having th e id e a l temperam ent fo r my s ty le of le a rn in g . He ra n i n t e r

fe re n c e fo r me, k ep t p r i o r i t i e s in f r o n t o f me, and never l e t me lo s e

p e r s p e c t iv e . As a m e n to r , he h as g iv e n me th e c o u ra g e to overcom e

th e r e s t r i c t i v e messages about s t a t i s t i c s th a t were r o u t in e ly a p a r t

o f th e s o c ia l iz a t io n of women o f my g e n e ra tio n and b e fo re .

I a l s o owe a d e b t o f g r a t i t u d e to my n e ig h b o rs , A le x a n d e r and

Anne L ipsey and W il l ie McCants, fo r the c o u n tle s s tim e s they served

as s u rro g a te p a re n ts to my daughter when 1 was u n a v a ila b le to h e r .

As I r e c a l l th e s t e p s t h a t w ere ta k e n from s t a r t to f i n a l p ro

d u c t , 1 f i n d m y se lf b le s s e d by th e c o n t r i b u t i o n s o f many w o n d e rfu l

peo p le .

i l l


I m ust th a n k th e H o n o rab le S h ir le y C h ish o lm ; th e p r e s id e n t of

C h ild re n 's T e le v is io n Workshop, Ms. Joan Ganz Cooney; th e Honorable

M ill ic e n t Fenwick; and Dr. Ruth Love fo r so g en ero u sly g iv in g th e i r

tim e and fo r so ca n d id ly sh a r in g t h e i r p e rso n a l su cc esses w ith me.

I w an t to th a n k P e a r l "P e rk y ” B a s k e r v l l l e - R o b in s o n , Dr. Mary

Anne Bunda, Dr. L e th o n e e J o n e s , and Dr. Jam es S an d ers f o r t h e i r

an a ly se s of the in te rv ie w ta p e s; Linda R o lls fo r h e r ex p e rt a s s i s t

ance in draw ing a sam ple; Mabel S tenesh and h e r s t a f f fo r f a c i l i t a t

in g th e use o f th e Kalamazoo P u b lic L ib ra ry re so u rc e s ; and a s p e c ia l

thank you to Linda Comer, B ettye D aley, C aro lin e Ham, Wanda Lipscomb,

B e tty Ongley, and S hery l S cu lley fo r t h e i r in v a lu a b le feedback on the

q u e s tio n n a ire p i l o t s tudy .

I could not have m ailed 1,500 q u e s tio n n a ire s w ith o u t th e h e lp of

my husband, Paul; my s i s t e r s , M arie and V eronica; Connie Hudson; and

S oro rs Mary S p rad lin g , Dorothy Jam es, P a t W ilson , and Toni Woolfork.

Also, many thanks to A p r il , Shashu, "Mo" and "Bo,” and A lla .

To a l l o f my s o r o r i t y s i s t e r s , who make D e lta S igm a T h e ta a

l i v i n g i d e a l , I owe a d e b t o f g r a t i t u d e f o r t h e i r en d o rse m e n t and

t h e i r com prehensive su p p o rt. M usette B e ll-E l Mohammad, e s p e c ia l ly ,

was unsurpassed in h e r en th u siasm , i n t e r e s t , and su p p o rt. She played

a key r o l e in g e t t i n g o u t th e i n i t i a l m a i l i n g , e d i t i n g , and co p y in g

th e f i n a l d r a f t ; and sh e p ro v id e d crew f o r th e m a i l in g w i th th e

hardy , in d u s tr io u s team o f A ll "Mo” El Mohammad IV and R obert Jackson

"Bo" P a r f e t .

My many th a n k s go to a l l 573 busy women who to o k th e tim e to

com plete and re tu r n th e q u e s tio n n a ire and to th e superb coding crew

iv


who made th e s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s p o s s ib le : th e o u ts ta n d in g K e lly

S e r v ic e s s t a f f , M arc A n se l and A ngela M i l l e r i n p a r t i c u l a r ; S o ro rs

S ach ik o and N in a , W a lte r B ram e, L o r r a in e D e F lo re , A b d e lg a d e r E l -

M u s r a t l , Jo h n H a re , D e lo r is P h i l l i p s , Mohammed Q a d ir l , Fahad

Ruwaished, Chip Toland, Ikuko Torlm oto, and Mary V eele.

A v e ry s p e c i a l th a n k s goes to L o r r a in e D e F io re , w hose b io n ic

f in g e r s made t h i s document a r e a l i t y through h e r s k i l l , s tam in a , and

e x p e r t is e . She had never touched a com puter b e fo re t h i s p ro je c t ; y e t

th i s document i s tes tim o n y to h er g r i t , d e d ic a tio n , and in te l l ig e n c e .

L o rra in e 's c o n tr ib u t io n o f ty p in g , o rg a n iz in g , and e d i t in g was su r

p a s s e d o n ly by h e r p a t i e n c e , r e s o u r c e f u ln e s s , k in d n ess , encourage

m en t, and s u p p o r t iv e n e s s . And, th a n k s to L iz C la rk and S a l ly

W illiam s fo r sending L o rra in e to become my in v a lu a b le p a r tn e r in th i s

p r o je c t .

Many th a n k s go to N inah M i l l e r , O r is G r i f f i n , and J u l i e S c o t t

fo r t h e i r su p p o rt w ith th e m assive job of s t a t i s t i c a l a n a ly s is ; to my

s i s t e r s , M a r ie -C e le s te , V eronica, and P. Jo sep h in e Woods, fo r t h e i r

im p o rta n t c o n tr ib u tio n s to assem bling th e append ices, along w ith my

h u sb a n d , my d a u g h te r , and S o ro rs B ly th e F lo w e rs , L in d a H a l l , Jo y e

M ercer, and E to i le L. O'Rear L ib b e tt. 1 a ls o have g re a t a p p re c ia tio n

fo r th e o u t-o f- to w n g u es ts o f Sorors L ib b e tt and F low ers, A ngelique

V. W illiam s, T eresa V. W illiam s, and Cheryl A. Hampton, who took tim e

du rin g t h e i r v a c a tio n s to lend a s s is ta n c e a t a c r i t i c a l tim e .

F ir e s and com puter breakdowns were no m atch fo r th e d ete rm in a

t i o n and p e r s i s t e n c e o f th e o u ts ta n d in g and e f f e c t i v e team o f

L o rra in e DeFiore and Joan O'Bryan, whose s p e c ia l b lend o f t a l e n t s

v


made a m a ss iv e t a s k p o s s i b le and fu n a t th e same t im e . J o a n 's un

f la p p a b le d is p o s it io n and keen a t te n t io n to d e t a i l made th e Im posing

m ainfram e com puter a t th e WMU Academic Computer C enter as f a m i l ia r

and easy to use as a household ap p lian c e . I am deeply In h e r d eb t.

Thanks a l s o to th e s t a f f s o f th e A cadem ic C om puter C e n te r ,

p r in t in g s e r v ic e s , t e s t i n g s e r v ic e s , and th e T ate C enter. A s p e c ia l

th an k you I s e x te n d e d to Subbash Sonnad, a lo n g t im e f r ie n d and

ad v iso r on su rvey ing tec h n iq u e s , and to th e c o rp o ra te and In d iv id u a l

co n tr ib u to rs l i s t e d In -Appendix 6.

Warm thanks and fond memories accompany my deep a p p re c ia tio n fo r

th e u m b re lla o f su p p o rt, un d ers tan d in g , and com passion p rovided by

th e dean of The G raduate C o llege , Dr. l a u r e l G ro tz inger; th e support

o f th e dean o f th e C o lle g e o f E d u c a tio n , Dr. A rno ld G a lle g o s ; th e

c h a irm a n o f th e D e p a rtm e n t o f E d u c a t io n a l L e a d e r sh ip , Dr. E dgar

K elley , fo r g enerously g iv in g o f h is tim e to gu ide me w ith h is impec

ca b le c r i t i c a l th in k in g and e d i t in g s k i l l s ; Lee Pakko, fo r h e r superb

ty p in g s k i l l s and m a s te r y o f r u l e s and form w h ich added g r e a t l y to

th e q u a l i t y o f th e f i n a l docum en t; D o re th a M o rtim o re o f th e WMU

F o u n d a tio n ; and N e l l i e S t e l l , Sue B eougher, and L i l l y R a lk ie w ic z ,

s e c r e t a r i a l s t a f f in th e Departm ent of E d u ca tio n a l L eadership.

I t I s t r u ly a hum bling and in s p ir in g ex p e rien c e to depend upon

and re c e iv e th e a s s is ta n c e of so many w o n d erfu lly s p e c ia l people.

J . Baraka Love

v i


TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ..................................................................................................... i i

LIST OF T A B L E S..................................................................................................... x i

CHAPTER

I . STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM.............................................................. 1

D e fin it io n s .................................................................................... 1

Im portance of th e S t u d y .......................................................... 3

R esearch O b jec tiv e s ........................................ * 6

L im ita tio n s .................................................................................... 7

Overview o f th e D i s s e r t a t i o n ................................................. 8

I I . REVIEW OF LITERATURE.................................... .............................. 9

S u cce ssfu l Women o f America ................................................. 9

D e f in it io n s of Success . . . . . ............................... 9

Comparative S tu d ie s o f S u ccessfu l Women in th e L i t e r a t u r e ........................................................................................ 11

S u cce ssfu l Women in America ............................................ 11

Occupations and Income o f Women in A m e r ic a .................. 14

O ccupations, Women in G eneral ........................................ 15

O ccupations, B lack Women ................................................. 16

Income, Men and Women......................................................... 16

A sse ts , Men and Women........................................................ . 17

F ac to rs in the Growth and Development ofS u cce ssfu l Leaders ....................................................................... 18

F a c to rs in the Growth and Development ofS u cce ssfu l Women Leaders .......................................................... 23

v i i


Table of Contents— Continued

CHAPTER

R esearch S tu d ie s .................................................................. 24

F a c to rs In the Growth and Development ofS u cce ss fu l B lack Leaders ......................................................... 44

Known D iffe re n ces In the Growth and Development of S u cce ss fu l Men and Women Leaders by Race . . . . 72

S u m m a ry ............................................................................................ 86

I I I . DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY................................................................. 88

P o p u la tio n and Sample .............................................................. 88

D e s ig n ................................................................................................. 89

D ata C o l l e c t i o n ........................................................................... 91

D ata A n a l y s i s ............................................................................... 91

IV. THE DATA AND FINDINGS OF THE STU D Y ....................................... 93

Data A n a l y s i s ................................................ . .......................... 94

Research Q uestions . . . . . 98

Q uestion 1 ................................................................. 98

Q uestion 2 ............................................................................... 98

Q uestion 3 ............................................................................ . 98

Q uestion 4 ............................................................................... 99

Demographics ................................................................................... 99

Success C r i t e r i a ........................................................ 103

F a m ily and C h i ld h o o d ............................................................ 108

S im i la r i t i e s ........................................................................... 117

D i f f e r e n c e s ............................................................................... 118

A d o le s c e n c e ..................... 121

v i i i



CHAPTER

S im i la r i t i e s . . . . . . ................................................. 122

D i f f e r e n c e s ................................................................................ 124

C ollege Years ................................................................................ 124

S im i la r i t i e s ........................................................................... 125

D i f f e r e n c e s ............................................................................... 129

M a r r ia g e ............................................................................................. 130

D i f f e r e n c e s ................................................................................ 131

S im i la r i t i e s ........................................................................... 1 35

F ir s t C areer D e c a d e ................................................................... 136

S im i la r i t i e s ........................................................................... 137

D i f f e r e n c e s ................................................................................ 1 41

C areer M atu rity ........................................................................... 1 43

S im i la r i t i e s ........................................................................... 149

D if f e r e n c e s ............................................................................... 151

P erc ep tio n s of Gender Impact ................................................. 1 53

S im i la r i t i e s ........................................................................... 1 61

D if f e r e n c e s ............................................................................... 162

P erc ep tio n o f Race I m p a c t ..................................................... 166

D i f f e r e n c e s ............................................................................... 1 7 0

Views on Work and L e a d e r s h ip ................................................. 1 74

S im i la r i t i e s ........................................................................... 1 75

D if f e r e n c e s ............................................................................... 182

V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS .......................... 185

ix



C o n c l u s i o n s .................................................................................... 196

Recommendations ........................................................................... 197

P a r e n t s ........................................................................................ 197

E ducato rs and C ounselors ................................................. 198

F u tu re R esearch ....................................................................... 199

Departm ents of L ea d ersh ip , B u s in e ss , andE d u c a t io n .................................................................................... 201

APPENDICES.......................................................................... 203

A. In te rv iew T r a n s c r i p t s ..................................................................... 204

B. L i s t e n e r 's N o t e s .......................................................................... . 246

C. Q u e s tio n n a i r e ....................................................................................... 251

D. Code B o o k ................................................................................................ 275

E. Responses to " F i l l In" and "O ther" C a teg o rie s .................... 311

F . Who's Who C r i t e r i a .......................................................................... 338

G. L is t o f C o n t r i b u t o r s ...................................................................... 340

H. Complete L is t o f V a r i a b l e s ......................................................... 342

BIBLIOGRAPHY.......................................................................................................... 402

x


LIST OF TABLES

1. A g e ................................................................................................................. 95

2 . M a r ita l S t a t u s ........................................................................................... 96

3° P r o f e s s i o n ..................................................................................................... 97

A. Demographics; How F a c to rs A ffec t S u cce ss fu l B lackand W hite W o m e n ........................................................................................ 100

5 . Success C r i t e r i a ; How F ac to rs A ffec t S u cce ssfu lB lack and White W o m e n ........................................................................... 104

6. Number o f S i s t e r s ................................................................................... 109

7. Number o f B r o t h e r s ................................................................................... 109

8 . Fam ily and Childhood; How F a c to rs A ffec t S u cce ss fu lBlack and White W o m e n ....................................... 110

9. A dolescence; How F a c to rs A ffec t S u cce ssfu l B lackand W hite W o m e n ................................................................. 123

10. C o llege Y e ars ; Bow F a c to rs A ffec t S u cce ssfu lB lack and White W o m e n ........................................................................... 126

11. Age S ta r te d C o l l e g e ............................................................................... 129

12. M arriage; How F a c to rs A ffec t S u ccessfu l Blackand White W o m e n ............................................................................... 132

13. F i r s t C areer Decade; How F ac to rs A ffec t S u cce ssfu lB lack and White W o m e n ........................................................................... 138

14. C areer M a tu rity ; How F ac to rs A ffec t S u cce ssfu lB lack and White W o m e n ........................................... 145

15. P e rc e p tio n o f Gender Im pact; How F ac to rs A ffec tS u cce ss fu l B lack and White Women ..................................................... 155

16. P e rc e p tio n o f Race Im pact; How F ac to rs A ffec tS u cce ss fu l B lack and White Women ..................................................... 167

17. Views on Work and L ea d ersh ip ; How F ac to rs A ffec tS u cce ss fu l B lack and W hite Women ..................................................... 176

x i


CHAPTER I

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

The p u rp o se o f t h i s s tu d y was to I d e n t i f y v a r ia b l e s t h a t have

c o n tr ib u te d to th e grow th and developm ent o f su c c e s s fu l women and to

e x p lo re w h e th e r th o s e v a r i a b l e s w ere th e sam e f o r B la ck and W hite

women. There a re few re se a rc h s u p p o r te d t h e o r i e s s p e c i f i c a l l y f o

cu sed on th e f a c t o r s c o n t r i b u t i n g to th e development o f su c c e s s fu l

Black and W hite women le a d e rs . In f a c t , le a d e rsh ip theo ry does no t

a c c o u n t f o r th e e x p e r ie n c e s and p e r c e p t io n s o f women who have

achieved success. Indeed, acco rd ing to Ashburn (1977),

T here e x i s t s l i t t l e th e o r y f o r v o c a t io n a l c o u n s e lin g o r c a re e r development of women to f a c i l i t a t e e i th e r gu idance a 'p p l i c a t io n s o r r e s e a r c h . Most re se a rc h has co n c en tra te d on why women f a i l to e n t e r su ch [m a le d o m in a te d ] p r o f e s s io n s , r a th e r than on th e c a re e r developm ent of those who do e n t e r them . (p . 5)

The q u e s t io n a d d r e s s e d in t h i s s tu d y w as: What a r e th e v a r i

a b le s which c o n tr ib u te to th e developm ent o f su c c e s s fu l women and a re

those v a r ia b le s th e same fo r Black and W hite women lea d ers?

D e fin it io n s

V a riab les inc luded in t h i s study w ere s o c ia l iz a t io n , s ig n if ic a n t

o th e rs , ed u catio n , and p e rso n a l and p ro f e s s io n a l experiences in th e

l i v e s o f women who have a c h ie v e d le a d e rs h ip s ta tu s . S o c ia l iz a tio n

q u e stio n s about fa m ily r e la t io n s h ip s , f a m i l i a l and s o c ie ta l messages

— i m p l i c i t and e x p l i c i t — ab o u t p e r s o n a l c a p a b i l i t i e s , g e n d e r ,

1


rew ards, work, r a c i a l and socioeconom ic environm ent, p e rso n a l i n t e r

e s t s , and se lf- im a g e w ere Inc luded . (See Appendix C.) S ig n if ic a n t

o th e rs q u es tio n s covered p e rc e p tio n s of w hether the responden ts f e l t

" s p e c ia l" to anyone o th e r th a n p a r e n t s ; th e s e q u e s t io n s w ere draw n

from th e l i t e r a t u r e and in t e r v i e w s . E d u c a tio n q u e s t io n s c o v e re d

e d u c a t io n a l l e v e l , f e e l i n g s to w a rd s c h o o l and p e e r s , c h o ic e s in

c o l l e g e c o u r s e o f s tu d y , and p a r e n t s ' s u p p o r t iv e n e s s o f c a r e e r

cho ice . (See Appendix C.)

Development i s th e l i f e h is to r y of even ts th a t a re b e liev e d to

have c o n t r ib u t e d to i n d i v id u a l s a c h ie v in g s u c c e s s . The p h a se s o f

l i f e h i s to r y c o v e re d by th e q u e s t io n n a i r e w e re : (a ) f a m i ly and

c h i ld h o o d , (b ) a d o le s c e n c e , (c ) c o l l e g e y e a r s , (d ) f i r s t c a r e e r

decade, and (e ) c a re e r m a tu ri ty as c h a ra c te r iz e d by Hennig and Jard im

(1976). There was an exam ina tion o f some a sp e c ts of m arriag e , view s

on l e a d e r s h i p , and p e r c e p t io n s o f th e Im p ac t o f r a c e and g e n d e r i n

th e l i v e s o f th e r e s p o n d e n ts . In th e H ennig and Ja rd im s tu d y , ad o

le s c e n c e was d e f in e d a s th e p h ase b e f o re th e o n s e t o f p u b e r ty ; in

t h i s s tu d y th e c h ild h o o d p h ase i s from age 2 th ro u g h 13 b ase d upon

th e in te rv ie w s . A dolescence i s from age 14 through 17. These phases

a r e a p p ro x im a te , o v e r la p p in g , and f o r some a s p e c ts o f t h i s s tu d y ,

com bined i n t o one p h ase as c h ild h o o d . C o lle g e y e a r s a r e g e n e r a l l y

from age 17 through age 22. F i r s t c a re e r decade g e n e ra lly covers th e

10 y ea rs from whenever a woman s ta r te d her c a re e r . C areer m a tu ri ty

covers th e p e rio d o f a f t e r 10 y ea rs of c a re e r work.

T hose i n d i v id u a l s who have a c h ie v e d th e to p l e v e l s in e i t h e r

incom e o r r e c o g n i t io n and two o r more o f th e re m a in in g c r i t e r i a o f


ra n k , r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , and q u a l i t y o f e m p lo y in g i n s t i t u t i o n w ere

s e le c te d as being su c c e s s fu l .

The c r i t e r i a a re d efin e d as fo llo w s: (a) income— the ac h iev e

ment of s a la ry of $20,000 o r more per y e a r; (b) ran k — th e achievem ent

o f a p o s i t i o n as c h ie f e x e c u t iv e o f f i c e r o f p o l i c y and p e r s o n n e l

d e c is io n s w ith in the fram ework e s ta b l is h e d by a board of d i r e c to r s ,

s to ck h o ld ers , o r c o n s t i tu e n ts ; (c) r e s p o n s ib i l i ty — th e achievem ent of

a u t h o r i t y to c o n t r o l and e s t a b l i s h b u d g e t p r i o r i t i e s f o r e x p e n d i

t u r e s , to s u p e r v is e l a r g e num bers o f p e o p le , and to engage in work

w h ich has c r i t i c a l b e a r in g on th e f u t u r e o f th e i n s t i t u t i o n (d ) a

member o f an em p lo y in g i n s t i t u t i o n o f u p p e r o r i n t e r m e d ia te l e v e l

q u a l i t y ; and (e ) r e p u ta t i o n — th e a c h ie v e m e n t o f n a t io n w id e m edia

a t te n t io n f iv e o r more tim e s per y ea r, th e achievem ent of n a tio n a l or

i n t e r n a t i o n a l a w a rd s , o r th e same k in d o f r e c o g n i t io n on th e s t a t e

l e v e l .

Im portance of th e Study

R esearch and th e o r e t ic a l l i t e r a t u r e fo r women who a s p ire to top

le v e l management c a re e rs (Dunn & Dunn, 1977; Hennig & Jard im , 1976;

K antner, 1977; W illiam s, 1977) g ive s u p e r f i c i a l tre a tm e n t, i f any, to

th e su b je c t of w hether th e recom m endations fo r success a re s p e c if i

c a l ly a p p lic a b le to Black women. F urtherm ore , th e knowledge to be

g a in e d from th e c o m p a ra tiv e s tu d y o f s u c c e s s f u l B lack and W hite

A m erican women re m a in s u n d ev e lo p ed , and w h e th e r t h e r e a r e s p e c i a l

needs in th e t r a in in g o f B lack women le a d e rs (S c o tt , 1982) has y e t to

be in co rp o ra ted in to academic in s tr u c t io n .


The fo rm u la tio n of le a d e rsh ip theo ry has i t s founda tion in the

o b se rv a tio n and a n a ly s is of W hite male behav io r. A rev iew of theo

r i e s about what c o n s t i tu te s s u c c e s s fu l le a d e rs and le a d e rsh ip y ie ld s

a la c k of consensus on d e f in i t io n s of le a d e rsh ip and p rov ides s l ig h t

in d ic a t io n as to th e a p p l i c a b i l i t y o f th ese th e o r ie s i f th e le a d e r i s

Black, a woman, o r bo th . Conversely, th e re i s no evidence th a t th ese

th e o r ie s a re n o t a p p lic a b le . Boles (1980), a f t e r 15 y ea rs of exhaus

t iv e study , was a b le to c i t e 114 re fe re n c e s to re se a rc h which could

be in any way co n stru ed as c o n tr ib u tin g to th e u nders tand ing of the

b ehavior o f le a d e rs and fo llo w e rs . F if ty - f iv e o f those s tu d ie s were

s p e c if ic a l ly focused on th e e x p lo ra tio n of oome a sp e c t of le a d e r and

f o l lo w e r b e h a v io r . N ine o f th e s t u d ie s in c lu d e d women in t h e i r

g ro u p s o f re s p o n d e n ts , and o n ly one s tu d y s p e c i f i c a l l y s tu d ie d th e

im pact of ra ce ; th e re sponden ts were a l l male in th a t study .

In th e q u es t fo r r a c i a l j u s t i c e and e q u a l ity , a f f i rm a t iv e a c tio n

f o r B la c k s h a s , in many c a s e s , b ee n r e d e f in e d in te rm s o f a com pre

h ensive "m inority" in c lu d in g W hite women (Adams, 1978; B arnes, 1381;

C o lly e r , 1982; H a tc h , 1982; and o th e r s ) . P u b lic p o l ic y d i s c u s s io n s

have s h i f te d in em phasis from th e Im pact of a t t i t u d e s about ra ce on

economic and s o c ia l achievem ent fo r B lacks to an em phasis on a "co lo r

b l in d " s o c i e ty w h ich p re s u p p o s e s t h a t t h e r e w i l l be advancem en t

o p p o r tu n it ie s fo r a l l who work hard , a re w i l l in g , and a re q u a l i f ie d .

The h i s to r i c a l un iqueness of th e Black experience in America, and the

e x p e r ie n c e s o f o th e r n u m e r ic a l m i n o r i t i e s , i s d i s c o u n te d w ith a

P r o c r u s te a n ap p ro a c h to " m in o r i t i e s , " w h i le s im u l ta n e o u s ly , am id

c r ie s of " re v erse d is c r im in a tio n ," th e re i s a w ith d raw al of focus on


the s o c ie ta l s t ru c tu re s and b ia se s which p re c lu d e equal m easures of

In d iv id u a l m e rit and a b i l i t y . The a s s e r t io n o f le a d e rsh ip fo r B lacks

and women in a h o s t i l e environm ent i s th e b a s is fo r a need develop

ment of a d d i t io n a l s k i l l s and p ercep tio n s (Dickens & D ickens, 1982)

beyond th e p re p a ra tio n re q u ire d fo r m a jo ri ty a s p ira n ts to le a d e rsh ip

p o s i t i o n s . K now ledge o f c o m m o n a li t ie s and p o in ts o f d ep a rtu re be

tween th o se women who have achieved success in th e two la r g e s t r a c i a l

groups may be a u s e fu l r e fe re n c e in th e study of le a d e rsh ip .

Women who ex c e l a t le a d e rsh ip do so wijthout counse ling th eo ry

w h ich in c lu d e s p r a c t i c a l e x p e r ie n c e s o f women who p re c e d e d them .

S tu d e n ts and t r a i n e r s i n th e f i e l d o f l e a d e r s h ip may b e n e f i t from

concepts of le a d e rsh ip w hich a re expanded to in c lu d e the ex p e rien c es

of s u c c e s s fu l men and women le a d e rs of a l l c u l tu re s , n a t i o n a l i t i e s ,

and r a c e s . The f e m in iz a t io n o f l e a d e r s h ip c o n c e p ts may i n s p i r e

confidence in young women and be a s tim u lu s fo r d e f in i t io n s of le a d

e r s h ip which a re p o s i t iv e fo r both males and fe m a les . Females b rin g

s k i l l s to l e a d e r s h ip w hi'ch a p p ro x im a te B u rn 's (1978) c o n c e p t o f

s k i l l s o f a " tran sfo rm in g " le a d e r .

B urns (1978) p r e d ic t e d change in th e d e f i n i t i o n o f l e a d e r s h ip

and p la c e d fe m a le l e a d e r s a s i n t e g r a l to th e p ro c e s s o f c l a r i f y i n g

and u n d e r s ta n d in g l e a d e r s h ip in th e s ta te m e n t th a t , "As le a d e rsh ip

comes p ro p e rly to be seen as a p rocess of le a d e rs engaging and mobi

l i z in g th e human needs and a s p ira t io n s of fo llo w e rs , women w i l l be

m ore r e a d i l y re c o g n iz e d a s l e a d e r s and men w i l l change t h e i r own

l e a d e r s h ip s t y l e s " (p . 50).


A com parative p r o f i l e of s u c c e s s fu l B lack and W hite women should

be u s e fu l in th e ed u c a tio n and t r a in in g o f women who a s p ire to le a d

e r s h ip . One i n t e n t i o n in t h i s s tu d y was to p ro v id e a b e t t e r u n d e r

s ta n d in g o f s p e c ia l n ee d s f o r l e a d e r s h ip t r a i n i n g o f women and ad

d re s se s the q u es tio n of w hether th e f a c to r o f ra c e re q u ire s d i f f e r e n t

emphases in th e t r a in in g of B lack women to le a d . The e x is t in g body

o f r e s e a r c h on l e a d e r s h ip th e o ry may be r e f i n e d by s p e c if y in g th e

v a r i a b l e s b e l ie v e d to a f f e c t l e a d e r s h ip d e v e lo p m e n t o f women; and

in te rv e n tio n s to c o r re c t th e problem s o f teenage pregnancy, unemploy

ment, and poverty among young B lack women as w e ll as th e o b s ta c le s to

c a re e r advancement fo r a l l women may be enhanced by unders tan d in g th e

ex p e rien c es of s u c c e s s fu l women.

Research O b jec tiv e s

The o b je c tiv e s o f t h i s s tudy were:

1. to rev iew and sy n th e s iz e p e r t in e n t p u b lish e d l i t e r a t u r e on

l e a d e r s h ip d e v e lo p m e n t, th e g ro w th and d e v e lo p m e n t o f s u c c e s s f u l

women l e a d e r s , and th e g ro w th and d e v e lo p m e n t o f s u c c e s s f u l B la ck

le a d e rs ;

2. to id e n t i fy v a r ia b le s which have c o n tr ib u te d to th e develop

ment o f s u c c e s s fu l women le a d e rs ;

3. to d e te rm in e w h e th e r v a r ia b l e s w h ich c o n t r i b u t e to th e

development of su c c e s s fu l women d i f f e r by ra ce ;

4. to d e s c r ib e v a r ia b l e s t h a t c o u ld a c c o u n t f o r ra c e d i f f e r

ences in the development o f su c c e s s fu l women le a d e rs ; and


5. to d e sc rib e developm ent p a t te r n s th a t may c o n tr ib u te to the

development of s u c c e s s fu l B lack and W hite women le a d e rs .

L im ita tio n s

L is ts from which the sam ple o f 750 each was drawn, Who's Who in

America (43rd ed., 1985) and Who's Who Among B lack Americans (Matney,

1985), do no t have id e n t i c a l s e le c t io n c r i t e r i a .

The s tudy i s l im ite d to le a d e rsh ip in ed u c atio n , b u s in e ss , human

s e r v i c e s , g o v ern m e n t, p o l i t i c s , and law . T h is e x c lu d e s le a d e r s in

such a re a s as m edicine , th e a r t s , and th e sc ien c es .

The development of th e q u e s tio n n a ire was no t a ided by p rev ious

e m p i r i c a l s t u d ie s t h a t com pared s u c c e s s f u l B la ck and W hite women

l e a d e r s . T h ere i s a l a c k o f co n se n su s on th e c a u s e s of s u c c e s s f u l

le a d e rsh ip . F ac to rs e x p lo rin g t r a i t s , s ty le , su b o rd in a te m o tiv a tio n ,

and contingency as le a d e rs h ip v a r ia b le s a re ch a lle n g ed by m easures of

th e r e s u l t s o f le a d e rsh ip . Data on b i r t h o rd e r , in te l l ig e n c e , paren

t a l ed u c atio n , income, a t t i t u d e s , t r a in in g , and e a r ly job experience

a re in c o n c lu s iv e .

H i s t o r i c a l and s o c i e t a l in f lu e n c e s may have c a u sed women to

d e v a lu e o r i n f l a t e t h e i r p e r c e p t io n s o f t h e i r own e f f e c t iv e n e s s .

S e lf - r e p o r ts may be b iased by changing p e rc e p tio n s over tim e as w e ll

as in a c c u ra te p e rcep tio n s and lo s s of im p o rtan t f a c to r s due to lac k

of aw areness and memory.


Overview of th e D is s e r ta tio n

The p ro b lem s t a t e m e n t , d e f i n i t i o n s , im p o r ta n c e o f th e s tu d y

r e s e a r c h o b j e c t i v e s , and l i m i t c t i o n s have b ee n d e s c r ib e d in Chap

t e r I .

A rev iew of l i t e r a t u r e on s u c c e s s fu l women in America, fa c to r s

in th e grow th and developm ent o f su c c e s s fu l le a d e rs , women le a d e rs ,

B la ck l e a d e r s , and c o m p a riso n s o f th e g ro w th and d ev e lo p m e n t o f

su c c e s s fu l men and women le a d e rs by race com prises C hapter I I . The

rev iew of l i t e r a t u r e i s fo llo w ed by re se a rc h hypotheses.

In th e t h i r d c h a p te r , two s ta g e s of re se a rc h — taped in te rv ie w s

w ith fo u r su c c e s s fu l women and th e d i s t r i b u t io n o f 1,500 q u e s tio n

n a i r e s to women who a c h ie v e d s u c c e s s i n th e f i e l d s o f e d u c a t io n ,

b u s in ess , government, and p u b lic s e rv ic e — a re d e ta ile d .

C h a p te r IV in c lu d e s th e r e s u l t s o f a n a l y s i s o f th e d a ta and

C h a p te r V in c lu d e s an i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f th e r e s u l t s o f th e d a ta

a n a ly s is and a d isc u ss io n o f im p lic a tio n s fo r th eo ry , re se a rc h , and

t r a in in g o f s u c c e s s fu l women le a d e rs .


CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

R e se a rc h and p r o f e s s io n a l l i t e r a t u r e a b o u t women who have

achieved success i s l im ite d , and s tu d ie s of su ccess among B lack women

a r e even m ore l i m i t e d . In t h i s c h a p te r t h e r e a r e f i v e s e c t i o n s :

(a ) s u c c e s s fu l women of America, (b) f a c to r s in th e grow th and d eve l

opment of su c c e s s fu l le a d e rs , (c) f a c to r s in th e grow th and develop

m ent o f s u c c e s s f u l women l e a d e r s , (d ) f a c t o r s in th e g ro w th and

development of s u c c e s s fu l B lack le a d e rs , and (e) known d if fe re n c e s in

th e g ro w th and d ev e lo p m e n t o f s u c c e s s f u l men and women l e a d e r s by

S u cce ssfu l Women o f America

D e f in it io n s o f Success

F or th e p u rp o se s o f t h i s s tu d y , s u c c e s s d e v e lo p e d by G in zb e rg

and Herma (1964) p rov ides the most e a s i ly m easured o b je c tiv e c r i t e

r i a . L im ita tio n s a re noted in th e i r s ta te m e n t.

While we a re concerned w ith both d im ensions of su ccess— th e so c ia l and th e in d iv id u a l, o r the o b je c tiv e and th e su b ject iv e — to a sse ss th e d i f f e r e n t i a l le v e ls of achievem ent o f v a rio u s . . . men and women in t h e i r chosen f i e ld s , we used f i v e c r i t e r i a : incom e, ra n k , r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , q u a l i t y o femploying in s t i t u t i o n , and p erso n a l r e p u ta t io n . Income i s th e most g e n e ra lly u s e fu l s tan d ard fo r m easuring "success" in o u r s o c i e ty s in c e i t i s th e o n ly s ta n d a r d t h a t p e r m i t s easy com parisons among members o f d i f f e r e n t o c c u p a t io n a l groups and members of the same group in d i f f e r e n t s e c to r s o f th e economy. S t i l l i t has i t s l i m i t a t i o n s ; a v e ra g e

9


10

s a l a r i e s and th e range of s a l a r i e s vary among occupations w i th th e same e d u c a t io n a l r e q u ir e m e n ts ; th e y v a ry from s e c to r to s e c to r w i th in th e same o cc u p a tio n a l f i e ld ; and i t i s o f te n d i f f i c u l t to a s c e r ta in th e tru e income of in d iv id u a l s in th e sam e o r d i f f e r e n t f i e l d s o r i n s t i t u t i o n a l s e t t i n g s , (pp. 90-91)

D e f i n i t i o n s o f s u c c e s s in th e l i t e r a t u r e w ere s o c i a l , work

r e la te d , e x te rn a l , and m easurable to some degree, such as : "movement

in a h i e r a r c h i c a l o r g a n iz a t io n " (K a n te r , 1977, p. 129); "h av in g

achieved one prom otion" (D ickens & Dickens, 1982, p. x); o r perform

a n c e , a p p r a i s a l , and p r o m o ta b i l i ty r a t i n g s (H a rla n & W e iss , 1981,

p. 7 3 ); o r

(1 ) a f u l l - t i m e , c o n tin u o u s w ork h i s to r y o f s e q u e n t i a l l y r e l a t e d jo b s , (2) c u r r e n t p o s i t i o n a t th e l e v e l c o r p o r a te v i c e - p r e s i d e n t , p r e s id e n t o r CEO of a c o r p o r a t io n o r a la rg e d iv i s io n a l o p e ra tio n , (3) p o s itio n in a medium— la rg e f i r m g e n e r a l ly re c o g n iz e d in i t s f i e l d , (4) p o s i t i o n o f l i n e a u t h o r i t y and (5 ) n o t i n a t r a d i t i o n a l " fe m in in e " occu p atio n . (Hennig & Jard im , 1976, pp. 87-88)

O th er d e f i n i t i o n s w ere i n t e r n a l , p e r s o n a l , and i n d iv id u a l a s p r e

sen ted by Halcomb (1979) who sa id :

R egard less o f how g r e a t ly t h e i r in d iv id u a l t a l e n t s , vocat i o n s and c a r e e r m i l i e u s v a r ie d , th e women I spoke w ith shared some n o tio n s about success . They re fe r re d to help in g o t h e r s , c o n t r i b u t i n g to s o c i e ty , a l s o to u t i l i z i n g t h e i r a b i l i t i e s to p e r s o n a l g ro w th and a c t u a l i z a t i o n .O f te n to o th e y m e n tio n e d h a p p in e s s i n t h e i r p e r s o n a l o r fa m ily l iv e s . Very few m entioned a t ta in in g s ta tu s o r exerc i s i n g in f lu e n c e o r com m anding h ig h p ay , and a lm o s t none a tta c h e d prim ary im portance to th ese , (pp. 4-6)

According to Adams (1979), who in te rv iew ed 60 womeu w ith money,

power, re c o g n it io n , in f lu e n c e , r e s p e c t , and p re s tig e : "Success fo r a

woman i s n o t e i t h e r p r o f e s s i o n a l o r p e r s o n a l , b u t ap i n t e g r a t e d

c o m b in a tio n o f th e tw o" (p . 1 ). Adam s's d e f i n i t i o n o f s u c c e s s i s

lo o s e ly d e f in e d a s " so m e th in g som eone e l s e h as t h a t you a s p i r e to


11

[and in c lu d e s th e n o tio n th a t] p e rc e p tio n o f su ccess i s an im p o rtan t

in g re d ie n t o f success i t s e l f ” (p. 4).

Comparative S tu d ies of S u cce ssfu l Women in th e L i te r a tu r e

No s tu d ie s com paring su c c e s s fu l B lack and W hite women w ere found

in th e rev iew o f l i t e r a t u r e fo r t h i s study . No fo c a l p o in t i s appar

en t in re se a rc h surveys on women and work. S tu d ie s have ex p lo re d the

Issu e s o f women's f e a r of su ccess: achievem ent m o tiv a tio n in women;

su b o rd in a te , p e e r , and su p e rv iso r p e rc e p tio n s of women; o b s ta c le s to

th e advancement o f women; and m a r i ta l and fa m ily concerns of women.

S u cce ssfu l Women in America

S u cce ss fu l women of America a re id e n t i f ie d by s e v e ra l m ethods.

The re fe re n c e s in which they a re l i s t e d Inc lude Who's Who in America

(4 3 rd e d . , 1 9 8 4 -1 9 8 5 ), W ho's Who Among B la c k A m eric an s ( 4 th e d .,

1985), th e n a t io n a l r o s t e r o f b io g rap h ie s of members o f th e N a tio n a l

A sso c ia tio n o f B usiness and P ro fe s s io n a l Women, The N a tio n a l A ssocia

t io n o f Negro B usiness and P ro fe s s io n a l Women, l i s t i n g s o f o f f ic e r s

i n th e a n n u a l r e p o r t s o f th e F o r tu n e 500 c o r p o r a t io n s , th e B la ck

E n te rp r is e annual l i s t of top 100 Black c o rp o ra tio n s , and a number o f

n a tio n a l p ro fe s s io n a l women's o rg a n iz a tio n s . R esearch on su c c e s s fu l

women (Adams, 1979; Dickens & Dickens, 1982; Halcomb, 1979; Hennig &

J a r d im , 1976) i s v i r t u a l l y u n e x p lo re d t e r r i t o r y w ith a few e x c ep

t i o n s . S u c c e s s f u l women have a l s o been th e s u b j e c t s o f s e v e r a l

v a lu a b le s t u d i e s w h ich a r e r e s o u r c e s in d e v e lo p in g th e c o n c e p tu a l

framework fo r t h i s study , bu t s tu d ie s of success were n o t com parative


12

o f th e two r a c i a l g ro u p s (Adams, 1979; D ick e n s & D ick e n s , 1982;

E p s te in , 1973; H alcom b, 1979; H ennig & J a r d im , 1976; K a n te r , 1977;

S c o t t , 1982).

Tw en ty -five women who had reached top management p o s itio n s In

b u s in e s s and I n d u s t r y w e re th e s u b je c t s o f th e H ennig and Ja rd im

(1976) study:

A ll o f th e tw e n ty -f iv e women In th e Hennig study were born in th e O n ite d S t a t e s b e tw e en 1910 and 1915. A l l w ere f i r s tb o r n c h ild re n . Each was d e s tin e d to be an only c h ild o r th e e l d e s t In an a l l - g i r l f a m i ly o f no m ore th a n th r e e c h i ld r e n . A l l w e re b o rn in t o u p w a rd ly a s p i r i n g m id d le - c la s s fa m il ie s l iv in g on o r n ea r th e e a s te rn seaboard. The f a th e r s o f tw en ty -tw o o f th e tw e n ty -f iv e held management p o s itio n s in b u s in e s s . The o th e r th re e were c o lle g e admini s t r a t o r s . T w e n ty - fo u r o f th e t w e n ty - f iv e m o th e rs w ere h o u se w iv e s . One m o th e r w orked a s a t e a c h e r . The ed u c at io n a l le v e l reached by tw e n ty -th re e o f th e m others was a t l e a s t e q u a l to t h a t o f th e f a th e r s and in t h i r t e e n c a s e s t h e m o th e r 's e d u c a t i o n w as i n f a c t s u p e r i o r to th e f a t h e r 's . The p a r e n t s ' e d u c a t io n ra n g e d from h ig h s c h o o l d ip lo m a to th e d o c t o r a t e , w h ich was h e ld by two f a th e r s .A ll o f the tw e n ty -f iv e and t h e i r p a re n ts were American born C a u c a s ia n s b u t no d i s t i n c t i v e p a t t e r n e x i s t e d i n t h e i r r e l i g i o u s p r e f e r e n c e [ o r ] e th n i c h e r i t a g e . A l l o f th e tw e n ty - f iv e rem em bered t h e i r c h ild h o o d s a s h a v in g been happy , (pp . 1 00-101)

The Adams (1979) s tu d y i s b ase d upon I n t e r v i e w s and q u e s t io n

n a i r e r e s p o n s e s o f 60 women who w ere p e r c e iv e d by a t l e a s t t h r e e

people in t h e i r f i e l d , o rg a n iz a tio n , o r p ro fe s s io n as being su ccess

f u l .

They a re company p r e s id e n ts , v ic e -p re s id e n ts and tr e a s u r e r s . They a re p r e s id e n t ia l a d v ise r s , d o c to rs , and law yers.They a r e m a n u f a c tu r e r s , c o n s u l t a n t s and e n t r e p r e n e u r s .They a re p u b lish e rs , jo u r n a l i s t s and p roducers. They a re d ea n s and p r e s id e n t s o f u n i v e r s i t i e s and c o l l e g e s . They a re c r e a t iv e d i r e c to r s , w r ite r s and a d m in is tr a to rs . They a re women in p r iv a te e n te r p r i s e , governm ent, academ ia, and th e p r o f e s s io n s . They e a rn from $25,000 to $750,000 a yea r. They a re m arried and s in g le , widowed and d ivo rced ,


13

w ith c h ild re n and w ith o u t; women who come from a l l so c io economic fa m ily backgrounds, (pp. 8-9)

There was no m ention of th e r a c i a l com position o f th e s u b je c ts of the

Adams (1979) s tudy .

Halcomb (1979) in te rv iew ed 40 women " in v a s t ly d i f f e r e n t c a re e r

f i e ld s , women whose ages, backgrounds, i n t e r e s t s and p r i o r i t i e s vary

co n sid e rab ly " (p. 4). E leanor Holmes N orton was th e only B lack woman

id e n t i f i e d in t h i s study.

The E p s te in (1973) s tu d y i s b ase d upon i n t e r v i e w s o f 31 B lack

women "who achieved success in th e p re s tig io u s m ale-dom inated p ro fe s

s io n s and occupations o f law , m edicine, d e n t i s t r y , u n iv e r s i ty tea ch

in g , j o u r n a l i s m , and p u b l i c r e l a t i o n s ” (p . 14). Her f i n d in g s w ere

t h a t su c c e s s fu l Black women were ab le to overcome b a r r i e r s to women

because they were Black and overcome b a r r i e r s to B lacks because they

were women. E p s te in a ls o found th e s u b je c ts o f h e r s tudy to be more

s e l f - c o n f id e n t, le s s f e a r f u l of f a i l u r e , and w ith le s s c o n f l i c t about

work and fa m ily than th e i r W hite fem ale c o u n te rp a r ts .

B lack women who occupy a double m in o rity s t a tu s a re l o s t in much

o f th e re se a rc h on s u c c e s s fu l women and s u c c e s s fu l B lacks. A ccording

to S co tt (1982),

What we know a b o u t B la ck women l e a d e r s i s b ase d on s m a l l s c a le s tu d ie s and b io g ra p h ic a l or a u to b io g ra p h ic a l works on p o l i t i c a l e l i t e s and p ro fe s s io n a ls , and th e se works p re se n t an in co h e ren t p ic tu re .

On th e o th e r hand, th e f i r s t person accoun ts of Black women e x e c u t iv e s i n a r e c e n t i s s u e o f B la c k E n t e r p r i s e r e v e a l a m b iv a le n c e a b o u t p ow er, c o n f l i c t o v er w ork and fa m i ly dem ands, and d i f f i c u l t y in w o rk in g r e l a t i o n s h i p s w ith su b o rd in a te s. Whereas th e a u to b io g ra p h ic a l w r it in g s o f p o l i t i c a l and I n t e l l e c t u a l l e a d e r s su ch a s S h ir le y C h ish o lm . B a rb a ra J o rd a n , P a u l i M urray , and A nge la D av is


14

p re se n t a mixed p ic tu re of women who emerged from su p p o rtiv e fa m il ie s in to male spheres where they encountered host i l i t y from s e v e ra l camps as they grew to n a t io n a l prom in en c e . H ow ever, th e p i c t u r e we have o f B la ck women's le a d e rsh ip i s incom plete . L ike th e t r a d i t i o n a l l i t e r a t u r e on l e a d e r s h ip , th e new r e s e a r c h i s b ia s e d in te rm s o f s t a t u s , (pp . 5 -6 )

D ickens and D ickens (1982) i n v e s t i g a t e d th e co p in g s k i l l s of

s u c c e s s f u l B la ck m an a g ers . S u cce ss was i d e n t i f i e d a s " e a rn in g a t

l e a s t one prom otion in th e company" (p. x). The au th o rs hypo thesized

th a t :

S u ccessfu l Blacks have developed a f a c i l i t y fo r focusing on behavior. They have lea rn ed th e a c t and p ro cess of behavi o r a l o b se rv a tio n — th a t i s , they have le a rn e d to recogn ize th e c o n d i t io n s in w h ich b e h a v io r sh o u ld be c lo s e ly obs e r v e d . They know w hat to lo o k f o r , e s p e c i a l l y in a c o n - f l i c t [ i n g ] s i t u a t i o n . S u c c e s s f u l B la ck m anagers have lea rn ed how to e x t r a c t key m essages by o bserv ing b ehav io r, th e n to d e s ig n and im p le m e n t a p la n to g e t w hat th e y w ant from an in te r a c t io n , (p. 8)

N um erically , women of both ra c e s rem ain in th e m in o rity o f upper

le v e l p o s i t io n s .

M ales a re s t i l l in command of th e th re e g re a t b a s tio n s of power in t h i s coun try : th e c o rp o ra tio n s , the government,and the m i li t a r y . As o f 1978 K a th erin e Graham was the only c h ie f ex e cu tiv e of a company on e i t h e r th e f i r s t o r second F ortune 500 l i s t . (Halcomb, 1979, p. 40).

The s tudy of th e few who have managed to succeed in th e c ircu m stan ces

o f break ing new ground i s in s t r u c t iv e in th e s tudy of le a d e rsh ip .

O ccupations and Income o f Women in America

The U.S. Departm ent of Labor (USDL) Women's Bureau (1983) p u b li

c a tio n , Time of Change: Handbook on Women W orkers, g iv es an a n a ly s is

o f th e occupation and income p ic tu re fo r women s in c e the 1980 census.


O ccupations, Women in G eneral

As American women e n te re d th e decade of th e 1980s, they c o n tin

ued to be co n c en tra te d in th e t r a d i t i o n a l fem ale o cc u p atio n s ' l a r g e s t

c a te g o r ie s of c l e r i c a l and s e rv ic e work (USDL Women's Bureau, 1983).

They were 43% of th e t o t a l employment fo rc e and they were in occupa

tio n groups la rg e ly d i f f e r e n t from men. S ix ty - s ix p e rcen t of women

versu s 43% of men worked in " o ff ic e jo b s .” S p e c if ic a l ly among fem ale

w o rk e rs , 150 m i l l i o n (55%) w ere em ployed in c l e r i c a l jo b s i n 1981,

compared w ith only 6% of male w orkers.

N o n tra d it io n a l jobs fo r women a re those in which women a re 25%

o r l e s s o f th e t o t a l p e r c e n ta g e o f w o rk e rs (USDL Women'3 B u reau ,

1983, p. 5 4 ). The p e r c e n ta g e o f women e n t e r in g th e s e f i e l d s i s

in c re a s in g . The p ro p o r tio n of women law yers in c re a se d from 4% to 14%

in th e d ec ad e from 1972 to 1981. The p r o p o r t io n o f women d e n t i s t s

in c re a se d from 2% to 5%; p h arm a cis ts in c re ase d from 13% to 26%. In

e n g in e e rin g , th e numbers of women experienced an 800% in c re a se from

a b o u t 9 ,000 in 1972 to 68 ,000 in 1981. T hat co m p a res w i th a 33%

grow th r a te fo r men. The numbers o f women acco u n tan ts in c re a se d from

34 ,0 0 0 to 434 ,000 . The num ber o f women in s u ra n c e a g e n t s , b ro k e r s ,

and u n d e r w r i t e r s in c r e a s e d from a b o u t 51,000 i n 1972 to 142 ,000 in

1981, r e p r e s e n t in g a g a in from 12% to 24% o f a l l w o rk e rs i n th e s e

occupations (USDL Women's Bureau, 1983, p. 57).

The f a s te s t grow ing m ajor m anagerial occupation fo r women d ev e l

oped in th e c a te g o ry o f bank o f f i c e r s and f i n a n c i a l m an ag ers to a

l e v e l o f 38% o f a l l w o rk e rs in t h a t c a te g o ry (USDL Women's B u reau ,


1983, p. 51). B etw een 1972 and 1981, th e num ber o f women m anagers

ro s e from 1.4 m i l l i o n to 3.2 m i l l i o n (17 .42 ) com pared to 14.62 o f

male managers. Growth o p p o r tu n it ie s fo r women were o ffe re d in s a le s ,

b an k in g and f in a n c e , b u y in g and p u rc h a s in g , and h e a l th and p u b l ic

a d m in is tr a t io n (USDL Women's Bureau, p. 61).

Teaching rem ains th e la r g e s t p ro fe s s io n a l occupation o f women.

In 1981, 2.3 m ill io n women who were nonco llege te a c h e rs accounted fo r

312 o f a l l women in p ro fe s s io n a l and te c h n ic a l occupations. At the

c o l l e g e l e v e l , t h e r e w e re 206 ,000 women t e a c h e r s in 1981— a 60%

in c re a se from 1972— accoun ting fo r 352 of a l l c o lle g e le v e l te a c h e rs

i n 1981 (USDL Women's B u rea u , p. 61).

O ccupations, Black Women

Of th e number of a l l employed women in 1981, 37.4 m ill io n were

W hite and 5.6 m ill io n were Black and o th e r m in o r i t ie s . The occupa

t i o n a l d i s t r i b u t i o n f o r m in o r i ty women u n d e r 35 d i f f e r e d from th e

o ccu p a tio n a l d i s t r i b u t io n fo r m in o rity women over 35, who were more

l i k e ly to be p r iv a te household w orkers. Over 502 o f Black and o th e r

m in o rity women were in w h ite c o l l a r jobs in 1981 compared w ith more

th a n 682 o f W hite women. More th a n 42 o f em ployed B la ck and o th e r

m in o rity women were managers o r a d m in is tr a to r s , up from 22 in 1970,

about h a lf th e p ro p o rtio n of W hite women in th e se jobs.

Income, Men and Women

In 1981, women who worked f u l l tim e had median a c tu a l ea rn in g s

o f $224 a w eek, 652 o f th e $347 e a rn e d by men (USDL Women's B u reau ,


1983, p. 81). Women who w orked f u l l t im e f o r a y e a r i n 1981 e a rn e d

an average of 59 ce n ts fo r every d o l la r earned by men. Men's median

e a rn in g s o f $20 ,260 w ere 69% g r e a t e r th a n th e $12,000 e a rn e d by

women. There has been no s ig n if ic a n t improvement in t h i s r e la t io n

sh ip s in c e th e e a r ly 1960s (USDL Women's Bureau, p. 82).

In th e e a rn in g s g ro u p o f $25 ,000 to $4 9 ,9 9 9 , 170 (5.0%) w ere

women and 12 ,005 (28.7%) w ere men. At $50 ,000 to $74 ,999 , 32 (0.1%)

were women and 1,347 (3.2%) were men. At $75,000 and over, 21 (0.1%)

were women, 625 (1.57%) were men. R ac ia l c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s of th e d ata

were not p o ss ib le .

Women were o v errep resen te d among low ea rn in g w orkers and under

re p re se n te d among those w ith th e h ig h e s t ea rn in g s . Men were n ea rly 6

t im e s a s l i k e l y a s women to have e a rn e d $25 ,000 to $50 ,000 . More

than 80% of the women w orkers earned le s s than th e median e a rn in g s of

men, bu t on ly 20% of th e men earned le s s than women's median ea rn in g s

(USDL Women's B ureau , 1983, p. 83).

A sse ts , Men and Women

A lthough many people b e lie v e th a t women own or c o n tro l most of

th e w e a l th i n th e c o u n try , th e d a ta show t h a t 60% o f th e to p w e a l th

h o ld e rs w ere men. Only when women a re grouped a t 70 y ea rs of age and

over do they exceed th e number and percen tag e o f w ealthy men. There

w ere 155 women in t h i s c o u n try w ith a s s e t s b e tw e en $500,000 and

$ 999,999— 50.8% o f th e t o t a l . T here w ere 90 women w ith a s s e t s in

excess of $1.0 m ill io n — 50.3% of the t o t a l . There were no s t a t i s t i c s

about ra ce provided (USDL Women's Bureau, 1983, p. 86).


Women c o n t in u e to e n t e r and advance i n p o s i t i o n s i n m a le -

dom inated f i e ld s . The p r o f i l e o f the s p e c ia l woman who has made i t

to th e to p i s j u s t b e g in n in g to be e x p lo re d ; and th e p r o f i l e s o f

women who chose management c a re e rs c o n tra s ts w ith more t r a d i t i o n a l

women in th e a re a s o f c r e a t iv i t y , i n i t i a t i n g change, s e l f - a s s u ra n c e ,

and co nfidence in h e r f e m in in ity (McLane, 1980, p. 633).

F ac to rs in the Growth and Development of S u ccessfu l Leaders

The f i r s t ta sk in th e s tudy of le a d e r success i s to s e t t l e upon

a w o rk a b le d e f i n i t i o n o f l e a d e r s h ip . " L e a d e rsh ip a s a c o n c e p t h as

d is so lv e d in to sm all and d i s c r e te meanings. A re c e n t s tudy tu rn ed up

130 d e f i n i t i o n s o f th e w ord" (B u rn s, 1978, p. 2 ). The te rm s "adm in

i s t r a t i o n ," "management," and " le a d e r s h ip " a r e u se d in te r c h a n g e a b ly

and " e i t h e r e x p l i c i t l y n o te o r i m p l i c i t l y assum e t h a t e d u c a t io n a l

a d m in is tr a t io n , b u sin ess a d m in is tr a t io n , p u b lic a d m in is tr a t io n , hos

p i t a l and o th e r form 's o f a d m i n i s t r a t i o n a r e e s s e n t i a l l y a l i k e "

(B o le s , 1980, p. x iv ) . The d e f i n i t i o n o f l e a d e r s h ip f o r t h i s s tu d y

i s a c o m b in a tio n o f e le m e n ts found in th e B urns (1978) and B o le s

(1980) d e f in i t io n s : A p ro c ess of com m unication and re c ip ro c a l i n f lu

ence betw een le a d e rs and fo llo w e rs which moves in d iv id u a ls and orga

n iz a tio n s to the su c c e s s fu l com pletion of a ta sk , o b je c tiv e , o r goal.

O th e r r e l a t e d d e f i n i t i o n s o f l e a d e r s h ip in c lu d e : "a p r o c e s s , o r

s e r i e s o f a c t i o n s , in w h ich one o r m ore p e r s o n s e x e r t i n f lu e n c e ,

a u th o r i ty , o r power over one or more o th e rs in moving a s o c ia l system

to w a rd one o r more o f f o u r p r im a ry sy s tem g o a ls " (B o le s , 1980,


p, 17 ).

The re c ip ro c a l p ro c ess o£ m o b iliz in g , by p ersons w ith c e r t a in m otives and v a lu e s , v a rio u s econom ic, p o l i t i c a l , and o th e r re so u rc e s , In a c o n te x t of c o m p e titio n and c o n f l i c t , in o rd e r to r e a l iz e g o a ls in dependen tly o r m u tu a lly held by both le a d e rs and fo llo w e rs . (Burns, 1978, p. 425)

"A d m in is tra tio n i s a p r a c t ic a l a r t , pursued by men in a w orld of

a c tio n . P r a c ti t io n e r s and th e o r i s t s must work to g e th e r in developing

th e o ry and m ust be a b le to com m unica te w i th ea c h o th e r" (H a lp in ,

1966, p. 9 ). The s tu d y o f a d m i n i s t r a t i o n w i t h i n th e b e h a v io r a l

s c ie n c e s r e q u i r e s a m erg in g o f p r a c t i c e and th e o r y (H a lp in , 1966,

p . x i i ) . Development of a d m in is tr a t iv e th eo ry has proceeded through

th re e p ro g re ss iv e and ov erla p p in g p e r io d s : job a n a ly s is , 1910-1930;

human r e l a t i o n s , 1930-1950 ; and b e h a v io r a l s c i e n c e , 1950 to th e

p r e s e n t . The jo b a n a l y s i s p h a s e s , l e d by th e w ork o f F a y o l (1949)

and T aylor (1947) examined in d u s t r i a l p ro c esses o f p lan n in g , o rg a n iz

in g , command, c o o rd in a tio n , and c o n tro l . The human r e la t io n s phase

was ushered in by F o l l e t 's (1924) id ea " th a t th e fundam ental problem

o f any e n te rp r is e , w hether i t be lo c a l governm ent, n a t io n a l govern

m ent, a b u sin ess o rg a n iz a tio n o r an e d u c a tio n a l system , i s th e b u ild

in g and m a in te n a n c e o f d y n am ic , y e t h a rm o n io u s , human r e l a t i o n s ”

(p . 106). C red ited w ith being th e f i r s t th e o r i s t to r e la t e adm in is

t r a t i o n to th e b eh a v io ra l s c i e n c e s , B a rn a rd (1938) exam ined fo rm a l

o rg a n iz a tio n s and p o in ted out th a t th e re a re in fo rm a l o rg a n iz a tio n s

w i th in them . B a rn a rd in t r o d u c e d th e c o n c e p t o f e f f e c t i v e n e s s a s a

f a c to r in the achievem ent o f o rg a n iz a tio n g o a ls and a p e rso n -o rie n te d

concept of e f f ic ie n c y which was th e f i r s t tim e th e in te r r e la t io n s h ip s

o f o rg a n iz a tio n , ach ievem ent, and in d iv id u a l s a t i s f a c t io n was noted .


Durng th e 1960s th e fo c u s o f l e a d e r s h ip s tu d y s h i f t e d from

t r a i t s o f l e a d e r s to th e s i t u a t i o n In w h ich l e a d e r s h ip o c c u rs a s a

fu n c tio n of which s ty le o f le a d e rsh ip i s most e f f e c t iv e . "The e a r l i

e s t r e s e a r c h . . . h as r e v e a le d n o t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t h a t s e p a r a te

e f f e c t iv e from in e f f e c t iv e le a d e rs , bu t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s th a t se p a ra te ,

m ost l e a d e r s from f o l lo w e r s " (S m ith , M a z z a r e l la , & F ie l e , 1981,

p . 35). S tudy o f th e g ro w th and d ev e lo p m e n t o f s u c c e s s f u l l e a d e r s

became f u r th e r com plica ted by th e advent of B lacks and women in to the

ra n k s o f m anagem ent. T h e o r ie s o f l e a d e r s h ip s t y l e w hich "make i t

p o s s ib le to become a b e t t e r le a d e r a ls o have im p lic a tio n s fo r le a d e r

sh ip t r a in in g program s. I f a theo ry can be used to improve le a d e r

s h ip b e h a v io r , i t can a l s o be th e b a s i s f o r a t r a i n i n g p rogram "

(S m ith e t a l . , p. 59). W hat, i f an y , a r e th e s p e c i a l t r a i n i n g n eed s

of B lacks and women?

Racism and sexism a re v a r ia b le s w hich co m p lica te th e r e la t io n

sh ip betw een Black and women le a d e rs and t h e i r su b o rd in a te s , bu t th e

methods o f le a d e rs who have m inim ized those c o m p lica tio n s have not

b ee n s tu d ie d . "One o f th e m ost s e r io u s f a i l u r e s in th e s tu d y of

le a d e rsh ip has been th e b i fu rc a t io n betw een th e l i t e r a t u r e on le a d e r

s h ip and th e l i t e r a t u r e ou f o l lo w e r s h ip " (B u rn s , 1978, p. 3 ). To

u n d e r s ta n d more a b o u t how f o l lo w e r s h ip r e l a t e s to l e a d e r s h ip , th e

e f f ic a c y of p re se n t le a d e rsh ip th eo ry in m u l tic u ltu r a l , m u l t i r a c ia l

s o c i e t i e s m ust be ex a m in e d . A c c o rd in g ly , B urns (1978) a l s o s a id :

"We have seen th a t th e u su a l g e n e ra l iz a t io n s a re w ithou t fou n d a tio n

( o r a t b e s t a p p ly o n ly to h ig h ly s p e c i f i c s u b c u l tu r e s [ i t a l i c s

a d d e d ]) . Can we g e n e r a l i z e ab o u t l e a d e r s h ip a c r o s s p o l i t i c s o v e r


21

time" (p. 428)?

B urns (1978) th e o r i z e d t h a t “l e a d e r s h i p , u n l ik e naked p o w e r-

w le ld ln g , I s . . . I n s e p a r a b le from f o l l o w e r s ' n ee d s and g o a ls "

(p . 19 ). In a d e p a r tu r e from e x i s t i n g s t y l e t h e o r i e s , he p r e s e n t s

tw o fo rm s o f l e a d e r s h ip i n t e r a c t i o n , " t r a n s f o r m in g " and " t r a n s

a c t io n a l ."

T ra n sa c tio n a l le a d e rsh ip . . . occurs when one person tak es th e i n i t i a t i v e in making c o n ta c t w ith o th e rs fo r th e purp o se o f an exchange o f v a lu e d th in g s . . . . The b a r g a in e r s have no enduring purpose th a t ho lds them to g e th e r , hence, th e y may go t h e i r s e p a r a t e w ays. . . . [T ra n s fo rm in g ] l e a d e r s h ip o c c u rs when one o r m ore p e r s o n s engage w ith o th e r s in su ch a way t h a t l e a d e r s and f o l lo w e r s r a i s e one a n o th e r to h ig h er le v e ls of m o tiv a tio n and m o ra li ty . T heir p u rp o se s w h ich m ig h t have s t a r t e d o u t a s s e p a r a t e b u t r e la te d as in the case o f t r a n s a c t io n a l le a d e rs h ip , become fused . Power bases a re l in k ed not as c o u n te rw eig h ts bu t as m u tu a l su p p o r t f o r common p u rp o se . . . . B ut t r a n s f o r m in g le a d e rsh ip u l t im a te ly becomes m oral in th a t i t r a is e s the l e v e l o f human co n d u c t and e t h i c a l a s p i r a t i o n o f b o th l e a d e r and le a d , and th u s i t h as a t r a n s f o r m in g e f f e c t on b o th . . . . Naked p o w e r-w ie ld in g can be n e i t h e r t r a n s a c t io n a l nor tran sfo rm in g ; only le a d e rsh ip can be. (Burns,1978, pp. 1 9 -20)

O th e r t h e o r i s t s hav e ex te n d e d B u rn s 's c o n c e p ts i n t o p r a c t i c a l

a p p l ic a t io n . S tip u la t in g a c r i t i c a l need fo r women le a d e rs , Rosener

and S ch w a rtz (1980) s t a t e d t h a t th e r e i s no l a c k o f a s p i r a n t s to

le a d e rsh ip , bu t th a t few contem porary le a d e rs can in s p ir e consensus

o r to le ra n c e fo r d iv e r s i ty (p. 25). L eadersh ip s ty le i s th e su b je c t

o f th e Rosener and Schwartz (1980) h y p o th esis :

To re so lv e th e [ le a d e rsh ip ] c r i s i s , we may need to balance tw o d i f f e r e n t s t y l e s — w hich we w i l l c a l l "A lpha” and "B e ta ." The d o m in an t A lpha le a d e r s h ip s t y l e i s b a se d on a n a ly t ic a l , r a t io n a l , q u a n t i ta t iv e th in k in g . I t r e l i e s on h ie r a r c h ic a l r e la t io n s h ip s of a u th o r ity . I t tends to look f o r d e te rm in is t ic , engineered s o lu tio n s to s p e c if ic problem s. Beta le a d e rsh ip s ty le i s based on sy n th e s iz in g in t u i t i v e , q u a l i t a t i v e th in k in g . I t r e l i e s on a d a p t iv e


22

r e la t io n s h ip s fo r su p p o rt. I t tends to look fo r In te g ra te d s o lu t io n s to s y s te m ic p ro b le m s . . . . Many o f to d a y 's s o c ie ta l problem s— e s p e c ia l ly th o se re q u ir in g v alu e cho ices and new p ercep tio n s of r e a l i t y —c a l l fo r a g re a te r em phasis on th e B e ta s t y l e o f l e a d e r s h ip . The i n f u s io n o f t h i s s ty le in to more t r a d i t i o n a l approaches re p re se n ts the opp o rtu n ity in the c r i s i s —and women can p lay an in s tru m e n ta l p a r t in c a p i t a l i z i n g on t h i s o p p o r tu n i ty . The d a n g e r in th e c u r r e n t l e a d e r s h ip c r i s i s l i e s w i th o u r e x p e c ta t io n s th a t only t r a d i t i o n a l , A lp h a -s ty le le a d e rsh ip i s e f fe c t iv e .In o u r d e s p e r a t i o n to s o lv e th e s e r io u s p ro b lem s t h a t c o n fro n t u s , we may be tem pted to c l in g to th e Alpha s ty le , p ro m o tin g i t and e m p h a s iz in g i t s u se . In th e p a s t , many women l e a d e r s have been e n c o u rag e d to em brace th e A lpha s ty le com plete ly and r e je c t th e B eta s ty le as being weak, in d e c is iv e and in e f f e c t iv e . (p. 25-26)

A m odel o f s u c c e s s f u l l e a d e r s h ip w h ich d raw s upon th e e x p e r i

ences of Blacks a t top achievem ent le v e ls i s o ffe re d by Dickens and

Dickens (1982). The s ty le s o f In te r a c tio n a re im p l i c i t l y tran sfo rm a

t io n a l and s p e c if ic a l ly ad d ress th e problem of i n t e r r a c i a l coopera

t i o n b e tw e en B la ck s and W h ites by a n a ly z in g th e b e h a v io r o f B la ck s

who have overcome o b s ta c le s of r a c i a l p re ju d ic e .

A w in -w in b o s s - s u b o r d in a te e n v iro n m e n t ca n be c r e a t e d .. . . M in o r i ty and w h i te b o s s e s w i th m in o r i ty and w h ite s u b o r d in a te s ca n a l l w in i n t h e i r p u r s u i t s o f o r g a n iz a t i o n a l and p erso n a l g o a ls . Wasted tim e and energy used in r e a c t i v e b e h a v io r to ra c is m and se x ism w i l l be g r e a t l y reduced. . . . U nderstanding can be fo s te re d by the sh a rin g o f m u l t i c u l t u r a l m anagem ent k n o w led g e . . . . T here a r e s t i l l re m n a n ts o f b e l i e f s by some w h ite s t h a t b la c k s a r e i n h e r e n t ly in c a p a b le o f m e a su r in g up to w h i te s t a n d a r d s . There i s a b e l i e f t h a t th e o ld t r i e d - a n d - t r u e m ethods o f p e r fo rm a n c e ( t h a t i s , w h i te m a le s ) a r e b e s t . . . . We a r e a t a p o in t in t h i s c o u n try , h o w e v er, when th e f e a r s , m is t r u s t s , and m isu nders tand ings we c l in g to may w e ll ru in the f u t u r e f o r a l l . (p . 11)


23

F ac to rs in the Growth and Development of S u cce ss fu l Women Leaders

S ix te e n r e s e a r c h s t u d i e s , th e o ry , and l i t e r a t u r e r e v ie w s t h a t

examine fa c to r s which a re b eliev e d to c o n tr ib u te to th e grow th and

d ev e lo p m e n t o f l e a d e r s h ip c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i n women a r e i n t h i s

s e c t i o n . The " n a tu re v s . n u r tu r e " v iew o f how l e a d e r s h ip i s d e v e l

oped i s th e un d erly in g focus of the v a r ie ty of s tu d ie s on women le a d

e r s .

E x te n s iv e l i t e r a t u r e on th e f a c t o r s t h a t c o n t r ib u t e to th e

grow th and development o f le a d e rsh ip in women i s volum inous and wide

r a n g in g in fo c u s , o f t e n c o n t r a d i c to r y and in c o n c lu s iv e . Women in

upper management have few h i s to r i c a l p receden ts . However, th e p re s

ence o f women in le a d e rs h ip p o s itio n s i s cause fo r re exam ination of

l e a d e r s h ip th e o ry . A cco rd in g to B urns (1 9 7 8 ), "The lo n g s ta n d in g

t r a i t th e o ry o f m anagem ent w hich was developed a lm ost e x c lu s iv e ly

th ro u g h s t u d ie s o f m ale m an a g ers , h a s many v a r i a n t s . . . . L ess th a n

o n e - h a l f o f 1% o f a l l women e a rn $25 ,000 o r m ore , b u t 20 t im e s t h a t

many men do" (p . 1 ). The v a r io u s l i n e s o f I n q u i r y in c lu d e d s t u d i e s

on s e x - ro le , I d e n ti ty and s e lf -p e rc e p t io n s , achievem ent m o tiv a tio n ,

p e r s o n a l i ty t r a i t s , fa m ily in f lu e n c e s , th e ro le of m others and fa th

e r s , m a r r ia g e and h u s b a n d 's a t t i t u d e s , need f o r au tonom y; f o l l o w e r

a t t i t u d e s , manager a t t i t u d e s tow ards development programs fo r women

m anagers, and c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of women who choose c a re e rs in m ale-

dom inated p ro fe s s io n s . There a re no com parative s tu d ie s of su cc ess

f u l B lack and W hite women. When no re fe re n c e to r a c i a l com position


24

i s made, i t i s assumed th a t th o se is s u e s cem ain unexamined fo r B lack

women.

R esearch S tu d ie s

In a s tu d y o f th e p e r s o n a l i t y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f 863 women

l e a d e r s who had a c h ie v e d s u c c e s s i n th e a r t s , s c i e n c e s , o r by e l e c

t io n to p u b lic o f f ic e , i t was found th a t t h e i r p e r s o n a li ty p r o f i le s

s tro n g ly resem bled th o se of men in th e same occupations* B achtold

(1976) found th a t fo u r g ro u p s o f women p s y c h o lo g i s t s , s c i e n t i s t s ,

a r t i s t s and w r ite r s , and p o l i t i c ia n s d isp la y e d p e r s o n a l i ty c h a ra c te r

i s t i c s t h a t w ere c l e a r l y d i f f e r e n t i a t e d and a d a p tiv e to t h e i r ro le

e x p e c ta tio n s :

P o l i t i c i a n s w ere more s o c i a b l e , c o n s c ie n t io u s , s e l f c o n tro lle d , and group-dependent; a r t i s t s and w r ite r s were more a f fe c te d by t h e i r fe e l in g s , spontaneous and n a tu ra l , and in c lin e d to fo llo w t h e i r own u rg es; s c i e n t i s t s were the more re se rv e d , s e r io u s and tough-m inded; and p sy ch o lo g is ts were more f le x ib le , l i b e r a l and ac ce p tin g . When c o n tra s te d w ith women in th e g e n e r a l p o p u la t io n , th e f o u r g ro u p s o f ca re e r women were a l l found to be b r ig h te r , more a s s e r t iv e , more adventurous, and le s s c o n se rv a tiv e . As fo r th e q u a l i t i e s which th e c a re e r women share in c o n tra s t to women in g e n e r a l , . . . e s s e n t i a l p e r s o n a l i t y e le m e n ts f o r women's a t ta in m e n t as a p sy c h o lo g is t, s c i e n t i s t , a r t i s t , w r ite r , o r p o l i t i c ia n appear to re q u ire behav io r th a t shows good ment a l c a p a c i ty , and in o p p o s i t io n to t r a d i t i o n a l s e x - r o l e e x p e c t a t i o n s , su ch t r a i t s a s a s s e r t i v e n e s s and low r e a c t iv i t y to th r e a t , to g e th e r w ith an i n c l in a t io n to e x p e riment w ith problem s, (pp. 70-71)

O th er p e r s o n a l i ty t r a i t r e s e a r c h found fem ale MBA s tu d e n ts to

d i f f e r from fem ale MA c a n d id a tes in e lem en tary ed u c atio n on s e v e ra l

d im ensions.

Female m anagers-to -be saw them selves as more s e l f - a s s u re d , more c r e a t i v e , and h ig h e r in i n i t i a t i v e th a n d id th e o th e r s . T here was no e v id e n c e o f f e a r o f i d e n t i t y o r o f


25

s e x - r o l e I n a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s , w h ich had been s u g g e s te d in e a r l i e r l i t e r a t u r e d e a l in g w ith women e n t e r in g n o n - t r a d i t l o n a l c a re e rs " (F o s te r & K ollnko, 1979, p. 627).

K aslow and S ch w a rtz (1978) c o n d u c ted a q u e s t io n n a i r e su rv e y o f 46

W hite fem ale c o lle g e g ra d u a tes to examine t h e i r p ercep tio n s on th e

im pact of t h e i r p e rso n a l a t t r a c t iv e n e s s . The s u b je c ts were found to

co n s id e r t h e i r a t t r a c t iv e n e s s as i n f lu e n t i a l in t h e i r being n o tic e d

and in i n t e r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s and in o p en in g a c c e s s to jo b

o p p o r t u n i t i e s . Among th e re s p o n d e n ts w ere 13 P h .D .'s , 3 H .D .'s, 1

J.D ., 15 w ith MA d e g r e e s , and 14 w ith b a c h e lo r 's d e g re e s from a

v a r i e t y o f f i e l d s . The d is a d v a n ta g e s o f a t t r a c t i v e n e s s w e re : I t

d is t r a c te d a t te n t io n from th e i r c a p a b i l i t i e s ; m ale co llea g u es tend to

be p r o t e c t iv e o r to t r e a t them l i k e " d a te s " ; and fe m a le c o l le a g u e s

may t r y to sabo tage them w ith innuendo and g o ssip (Kaslow & Schw artz,

1978, pp. 314-315). W hether a t t r a c t iv e n e s s has th e same e f f e c t s fo r

B lack women i s unknown.

S u cce ss f o r women i s c o m p lic a te d by th e u n c e r t a in ty o f m ale

c o l le a g u e s a s to how to r e l a t e to women. A c co rd in g to H alcom b

(1979):

The very p resence o f a woman in the game changes the game, ch a lle n g in g m ale p la y e rs to t r y new s t r a t e g ie s to p re serv e th e pow er t h e y 'r e u sed to . A woman w i l l r a r e l y r e c e iv e p ra is e from m ale gam e-p layers who a re confused by h e r ro le a s a team m em ber. When a group o f fe m a le e n g in e e r s r e ce ived low perform ance r a tin g s from th e i r male su p e rv iso rs , in v e s t ig a t io n re v e a le d th a t th e su p e rv iso rs were too shy to pay them on th e b ack th e way th e y d id th e young men.W hat's m ore , th e y w ere a l s o to o r e s e r v e d to o f f e r th e c r i t i c i s m the women needed to do th e i r jobs w e ll. (pp. 46- 47)

O th e r f a c t o r s to be c o n s id e r e d in d ev e lo p m e n t o f s u c c e s s f u l

women as r e p o r te d by H alcom b (1979) a r e l o n e l i n e s s o r i s o l a t i o n a t


c e r ta in s ta g e s o f t h e i r c a re e rs and th e s e x - ro le c o n d itio n in g a g a in s t

f i g u r i n g w ith num bers. In a s i m i l a r k in d o f i n q u i r y , Adams (1979)

examined "the em otional component o f p r o f e s s i o n a l a c h ie v e m e n t [ t o ]

see how and w hether em otional response tr ig g e r e d a change in p ro fe s

s io n a l developm ent” (p. 11). She found no c o r r e la t io n betw een p o s i

tio n in th e fa m ily s t r u c tu r e and success .

Fewer than 5 p e rcen t of the women were th e e ld e s t c h ild re n i n t h e i r f a m i l i e s , and an even s m a l l e r p e r c e n t c o u n te d th e i r f a th e r s as s ig n if ic a n t d e te rm in a n ts in t h e i r cho ice o f c a r e e r s o r t h e i r d e d i c a t io n to t h e i r w ork. The one c le a r common denom inator among th e se women was t h a t every one o f them f e l t a s t r o n g s e n se o f au tonom y a t an e a r l y ag e . T h at s u g g e s te d th e i s s u e w h ich was c e n t r a l i n t h e i r l i v e s , c o n t in u e s to be s i g n i f i c a n t , and h as been th e m ost im p o r ta n t d e te r m in a n t o f t h e i r p r o f e s s i o n a l a s w e l l a s perso n a l developm ent: independence. (Adams, 1979, p. 11)

In h er r e s u l t s , Adams (1979) grouped th e phases of development

o f su c c e s s fu l women in to (a) th e "D ecision S ta g e ,” th e p o in t a t which

a jo b becom es a c a r e e r w h ich may c o in c id e w ith ch a n g es i n m a r i t a l

s t a t u s , w i th b e g in n in g a new dec ad e in l i f e , w i th a p ro m o tio n o r

o p p o r tu n i ty t h a t ex p a n d s th e wom an's p e r s p e c t iv e and opens up new

g o a ls t h a t she can se e a r e p o t e n t i a l l y r e a l i z a b l e ; (b) a p e r io d o f

su s ta in e d c a re e r in v es tm en t, o f te n a t th e expense o f o th e r dim ensions

in th e woman's l i f e ; (c) th e p e rio d of re assessm en t, t y p ic a l ly occur

r in g b e tw e en th e mid 30s and e a r l y 4 0 s , when women who had n o t

m arried fre q u e n tly d id so and o th e rs took r a d ic a l s te p s to re d es ig n

t h e i r c a r e e r s ; and (d ) th e i n t e g r a t i o n s ta g e " in w h ich th e c e n t r a l

i s s u e re m a in s in d e p e n d e n c e w h ile th e fo c u s o f e n e rg y i s one e s t a b

l i s h in g a balance betw een r e s p o n s ib i l i t i e s and rew ards" (Adams, 1979,

p. 17).


27

T y p ica lly , su c c e s s fu l women use t h i s p e rio d to c o n so lid a te t h e i r p r o f e s s i o n a l g a in s and b u i ld on them i n to a r e a s o f p e r s o n a l im p o r ta n c e and c o n c e rn ; th e y o f t e n w iden t h e i r involvem ent in th e v o lu n ta ry s e c to r , s e le c t younger women to a d v is e and m e n to r , se e k s e a t s on c o r p o r a t e b o a rd s , expand t h e i r k n o w led g e , in c r e a s e t h e i r p a r t i c i p a t i o n in are a s of th e i r o rg a n iz a tio n s in which they have no t h e re to fo re in te re s te d th em selv es , and form new fr ie n d s h ip s w ith t h e i r women p ee rs . (Adams, 1979, p. 17)

In d isc u ss in g th e p e r s o n a l i ty t r a i t s of su c c e s s fu l women, Adams

(1979) found th a t :

S u c c e s s fu l women in t h i s r e s p e c t a r e m ore l i k e men th a n th e y a r e l i k e women. . . . They e x h i b i t an i n c r e a s e d s e n s e o f s e l f and co n fid en ce , they a re more p ro d u c tiv e and a s s e r t i v e , and th e y p la c e i n c r e a s in g v a lu e on in d e p e n d e n c e .They d i f f e r from men in th a t they do not g a in t h i s independence and c o n t r o l a t th e c o s t o f t e n d e r n e s s and s e l f - ex p ress iv en ess ; d e s p i te th e f a c t th a t t h e i r m arriages may have ended in d iv o r c e , th e y do n o t lo s e c o n ta c t w i th t h a t com ponent o f t h e i r p e r s o n a l i t i e s n o r do th e y w a i t u n t i l they a re fo r ty to d isco v er th e em otive p a r t of them selves t h a t d id n o t f i t w i th th e p o s tu r e o f th e men th e y w ere supposed to be in t h e i r f o r t i e s , (p. 12)

On the t r a i t s n ec essary to le a d , Adams (1979) d is tin g u is h e d lea d in g

from m anaging and fo u n d t h a t l e a d e r s need to be f l e x i b l e , c o o l ,

u n f la p p a b le , and p re p a re d to v i o l a t e th o s e r u l e s i f n e c e s s a r y

(P- 2 2 ).

Women in th e Adams (1979) s tu d y w ere a m b i t io u s , b u t n o t y e t

a c c e p tin g o f t h e i r c o m p e t i t i v e i n s t i n c t s ; th e y d id n o t l i k e th e

concept o f "m anipulation" to d e sc rib e t h e i r behav io r. A tt i tu d e s on

power, l ik e am b itio n , d i f f e r e d along g e n e ra tio n a l l in e s — o ld er women

tended to th in k of a m b itio n and power as means to " in flu en ce p u b lic

a t t i t u d e s " o r " to make a c o n t r ib u t io n " ; y o u n g er women w ere m ore

l i k e ly to be am bitious fo r them selves and to in f lu e n c e i n s t i t u t i o n s .

The younger woman was more l i k e ly to th in k she could "have i t a l l ”—


b u t n o t s im u l ta n e o u s ly . The " su p e rm o th e r" com plex was common in

women who com bined m a r r ia g e , c h i ld r e n , and c a r e e r s (Adams, 1979,

p . 101).

F a s t t r a c k s t r i v e r s , p r i n c i p l e d s t r i v e r s , c o r p o r a te women,

e n tre p re n e u rs , th e p u b lic success , and th e m entored success were th e

seven d i f f e r e n t success models id e n t i f ie d in th e Adams (1979) study .

The f a s t - t r a c k women were g e n e ra lly m arried , earned more than th e i r

husbands, had n eg a tiv e women ro le models— an exam ple of what they d id

no t want to become, were es tra n g ed from t h e i r m o thers, and worked in

s e t t in g s where th e ro le -m o d e ls and m entors were m ale.

The p r i n c i p l e d s t r i v e r s w ere l i k e l y to hav e begun work i n th e

v o lu n ta ry s e c to r , government, o r p o l i t i c a l o f f ic e . These women came

from fa m il ie s w ith t r a d i t i o n s of v o lu n ta ry se rv ic e . They were s tro n g

p e r s o n a l i t i e s from d i s s i m i l a r so c io e c o n o m ic s t r a t a . They demon

s t r a t e d a high degree of s e l f - d is c ip l in e , se lf-k n o w led g e , and s e l f

esteem ; a l l enjoyed c lo se r e la t io u s h ip s w ith t h e i r m others and main

ta in e d t i e s w ith t h e i r f a m il ie s . T heir spouses were su p p o rtiv e o f

th e p o l i t i c a l m o tiv a tio n s of t h e i r w ives. Women in th e p rin c ip le d

s t r i v e r s group experienced the l e a s t amount o f c o n f l i c t betw een th e i r

p e r s o n a l and p r o f e s s i o n a l r o l e s ; m ost c i t e d E le a n o r R o o s e v e lt and

t h e i r own m others as ro le models.

The c o rp o ra te women tended to s e p a ra te t h e i r p e rso n a l and p ro

f e s s io n a l l i v e s , e s ta b l is h e d th e i r p r i o r i t i e s a t an e a r ly age, took

an i n t e r e s t in a c t i v i t i e s o u ts id e th e i r com panies, and w ere l i k e ly to

s e r v e on b o a rd s and c o m m iss io n s . They d id n o t e x p e c t to r e a c h th e

top le v e ls of t h e i r o rg a n iz a tio n s , bu t were in s e n io r s t a f f p o s itio n s


e a rn in g b e tw e en $50,000 and $75 ,000 a n n u a lly * They v iew e d t h e i r

pow er as in f lu e n c e r a th e r th a n c o n t r o l , and th e r e s p e c t o f t h e i r

p ee rs was im p o rtan t to them.

C o rp o ra te women p la c e d th e m ost em p h a sis on m a n a g e r ia l t e c h

n iq u es , and they took p ain s to p o in t ou t th a t developing and managing

a s t a f f w e ll i s an im p o rtan t in g re d ie n t of t h e i r success. They were

ac ce p tin g of the o b l ig a t io n to h e lp o th e r women succeed, and most of

them were m entors to younger women whom they viewed as w orthy. Cor

p o ra te women were more l i k e ly than o th e r s u c c e s s fu l women to m ain ta in

o ld f r i e n d s h ip s , a s w e l l a s m a r r ia g e s , e x t r a c a r e e r p u r s u i t s , and

a c t iv e s o c ia l l iv e s .

The e n t r e p r e n e u r c i t e d h e r m o th er r a th e r th a n h e r f a th e r as a

s t r o n g in f lu e n c e on h e r c a r e e r c h o ic e . She was l i k e l y to have ex

panded a c r a f t o r b u s in ess th a t began as a l e i s u r e tim e p u rs u i t in to

a l a rg e r o p e ra tio n . These e n tre p re n e u r ia l women were in te n s e ly s e l f

m otiva ted and s e l f - d is c ip l in e d , and they h ig h ly p riz e d t h e i r indepen

d en c e ; th e y a p p e a re d e n e rg iz e d by th e s t r e s s o f c r e a t in g and m ain

ta in in g t h e i r own b u sin ess and p ro f e s s io n a l l iv e s . They tended to be

f le x ib le , unconcerned w ith m ixing b u sin ess and r e la t io n s h ip s . Com

pared to o th e r su c c e s s fu l women, en tre p re n e u rs were th e most s e l f -

co n f id e n t and most c a re f u l ly packaged. There were few ro le models

f o r them b u t many m e n to rs . W ith r e g a rd to m a r r ia g e , Adams (1979)

s a id : “E n tre p re n e u rs seem to have unhappy r e c o r d s i n th e m a r r ia g e

d e p a r tm e n t . I t may be t h a t a v e ry s t r o n g need f o r in d ep e n d en ce

c o n f l ic ts w ith the c o o p e ra tio n nec essa ry in m arriage or a com m itted

l i v in g r e la t io n s h ip " (p. 62).


30

The in h e r i to r model was c h a ra c te r iz e d as having in h e r i te d fo r

tu n es which were b u i l t by t h e i r an c e s to rs o r l e f t to them by deceased

h u sb a n d s . T hese women in c r e a s e d t h e i r f o r tu n e s and d e m o n s tra te d

q u a l i t i e s which would have taken them to th e top on t h e i r own.

The p u b l ic s u c c e s s women, a s d e s c r ib e d by Adams (19 7 9 ), w ere

"known only to t h e i r in d u s try p e e rs , or to th e e x e c u tiv e sea rch f irm s

th a t seek q u a l i f ie d , capab le women w ith good t r a c k re c o rd s , who m ight

be t r a n s f e ra b le to the companies of t h e i r c l i e n t s " (p . 78).

On th e m en to re d s u c c e s s , Adams (1979) fo u n d t h a t s t u d ie s r e

p o rte d few o p p o r tu n it ie s fo r th e guidance of a m entor were a v a i la b le

to women; "how ever, some younger women a r e b e g in n in g to se e k a s

m e n to rs th o s e v e ry women who a r e now in pow er s p o ts in t h e i r com

p a n ie s" (p. 89).

The f a c t o r s t h a t c o n t r ib u t e to th e g ro w th and d ev e lo p m e n t o f

su c c e s s fu l women were summarized by Adams (1979):

E v id en tly , su c c e s s fu l women respond d i f f e r e n t ly to c u l tu r a l and s o c i a l c o n d i t i o n in g and s e x - r o l e p r e s s u r e s th a n do o th e r women; and autonomy, s e l f - d e te r m in a t io n , and a s tro n g d e s i re fo r independence a re th e q u a l i t i e s re q u ire d to sust a in th a t d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n over a p ro fe s s io n a l l i f e t im e . I t i s c l e a r t h a t s u c c e s s f u l women h av e r e s i s t e d th e f o r c e s th a t a re assumed to e x p la in th e r e la t iv e ly poor perform ance of women in b u s in ess : th e d if fe re n c e s in s o c ia l iz a t io n o fm ales and fe m a les , th e im pulse tow ard p a s s iv i ty , th e d e s ire to s e p a ra te r a th e r than in te g ra te p erso n a l and p ro fe s s io n a l sp h eres , th e q u e s tio n a b le responses of p o te n t i a l mates to t h e i r I n n a te f e m in in i ty , th e i s o l a t i o n , and th e g e n e r a l lac k o f s o c ie ta l support fo r t h e i r e f f o r t s . There a re not enough common p a t t e r n s in th e c h ild h o o d e x p e r ie n c e s o f th e s e women to s t a t e w i th any c e r t a i n t y w h ere o r how th e n e c e s s a r y q u a l i t i e s o f autonom y and d e t e r m in a t io n w ere f o r g e d , n o r i s th e r e any c o n s i s t e n t s i m i l a r i t y o f e d u c at io n a l o r p ro fe s s io n a l background o r so c io e c o n o m ic c l a s s .. . . What m o t iv a te s s u c c e s s f u l women? The d e s i r e fo r independence; the im p e ra tiv e f o r i n t e g r a t i o n o f p e r s o n a l and p r o f e s s io n a l l i v e s a t some e m o tio n a l l e v e l i f n o t in


a c tu a l p ra c t ic e ; th e goal o f making a c o n tr ib u tio n , having an Im p a c t, b e in g c o u n te d In o n e 's s o c i e t y ; th e d e s i r e f o r t h e i r f a i r share o f money, power, In f lu e n c e , p re s tig e , and r e s p e c t . And t h e i r m o t iv a t io n s change a s th e y n e g o t i a t e e a ch c r i t i c a l p o in t In t h e i r p r o f e s s i o n a l d e v e lo p m e n t.(pp . 207-208)

In th e H ennig and J a r d im (1976) s tu d y , o th e r women w ere th e

norm—not men. A m ajor q u e s tio n was why and how were th ese 25 p a r

t i c u l a r women a b le to ac h iev e h ig h ly re sp o n s ib le ex e cu tiv e p o s i tio n s

a t a tim e when n e i th e r l e g a l nor s o c ia l p re s su re s were th e re to he lp

them ? What was i t a b o u t them a s p e o p le — w h at was i t a b o u t t h e i r

e x p e rien c es , b eh a v io r, and th e environm ents in which they liv e d and

worked— th a t allow ed them to succeed in w hat, much more than now, was

defin e d as a "man's world"?

I n th e s p r in g o f 1973, H ennig and J a r d im (1976) began a s e r i e s

of in -d e p th in te rv ie w s w ith women managers. They hoped th a t th ese

o ld e r and f a r more experienced women, many of whom were s u c c e s s fu l in

men's te rm s, would p rov ide a c le a r und ers ta n d in g of what th e under

ly in g problem s w ere, what could be done— because they had done i t — to

overcome d i f f i c u l t i e s . The use o f p r iv a te r e a l i t i e s to fin d meaning

th a t would lea d to a more g e n e ra l unders tan d in g o f the broad is s u e of

c a re e r development fo r women was a m ajor o b je c tiv e (Hennig & Jard im ,

1976, p. 98).

The re se a rc h e rs s ta te d th a t women need to overcome such l i a b i l i

t i e s a s need c o n f l i c ts , low s e l f - e s t e e m , a n x ie ty o v e r u n c e r t a i n t y ,

re lu c ta n c e to tak e r i s k , la c k of in fo rm a tio n on how to p lan a c a re e r

o r how o r g a n iz a t io n s o p e r a t e , fo r m a l ly and i n f o r m a l ly on a te a m -

e f f o r t m odel draw n from c o m p e t i t iv e s p o r t s . They em p h a siz e


com petence and ta s k achievem ent as a b a s is fo r e s ta b l i s h in g r e la t io n

sh ip s w ith men a t work as a means o f ach iev in g su cc ess . B ir th o rd e r

and r e la t io n s h ip s w ith f a th e r s were s tro n g f a c to r s in th e e n ric h ed

b ac k g ro u n d t h a t e n a b le d th e s e women to su c c e e d in m a le -d o m in a te d

p ro fe s s io n s .

The s t u d ie s o f p e r s o n a l i t y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and t r a i t s o f su c

c e s s fu l women a re one s id e o f a "n a tu re vs. n u rtu re " view of le a d e r

sh ip . S tu d ie s o f fa m ily and m a r i ta l in f lu e n c e s ex p lo re th e "n urtu re"

d im e n s io n . R ap o p o rt and R ap o p o rt (1971) s tu d ie d a p o p u la t io n o f

m arried women g ra d u a tes o f B r i t is h u n iv e r s i t i e s in 1960 and a sub

sam p le o f 220 o f t h e i r h u sb an d s . They exam ined th e e a r l y d e t e r m i

n a n ts o f (a ) b i r t h o r d e r p o s i t i o n , (b ) m o th e r 's o c c u p a t io n , (c )

f a t h e r 's o c c u p a t io n , and (d ) re s p o n d e n t 's im p re s s io n o f w arm th o r

te n s io n in her fa m ily r e la t io n s h ip s as " in d ic a to rs of p o s s ib le e a r ly

p sy ch o so c ia l environm ents which m ight in f lu e n c e th e r e s p o n d e n t one

way o r a n o th e r , and no t a s d e te rm in a n ts o f behav io r in and o f them

s e lv e s " (R ap o p o rt & R a p o p o rt, 1971, p. 19).

B ir th o rd e r as a d e te rm in a n t of a m arried woman's o cc u p a tio n a l

p a t t e r n in a d u lth o o d was n o t found to be a s i g n i f i c a n t v a r i a b l e in

th e R ap o p o rt and R ap o p o rt (1971) s tu d y . In t h e i r re v ie w o f o th e r

s tu d ie s , however, they found th a t :

T h ere i s c o n s id e r a b le a r e a o f ag re e m e n t in th e r e s e a r c h f i n d in g s t h a t f i r s t - b o r n c h i ld r e n a r e "good" c h i l d r e n , h a r d -w o r k in g , e a g e r to p l e a s e , ap p e a lin g and achievem ent o rie n te d . Most o f th e em phasis has been on th e conform a- t iv e and perform ance e lem ents in th e f i r s t - c h i l d syndrome, s u g g e s t in g th e te n d e n c y f o r such c h i ld r e n to o p t f o r th e more co n v en tio n a l p a t te r n s of behaviour. The more v en tu re some o r in n o v a t iv e a s p e c ts o f f i r s t - b o r n c h i l d r e n 's p e r so n al o r ie n ta tio n s have re ceiv e d le s s a t te n t io n . . . . Only


c h ild re n , as a s p e c ia l ca se o f f i r s t - b o r n c h ild re n m ight be expected to f e e l "unique" In a s p e c ia l sen se , and th e re fo re perhaps more l i k e ly to be independent-m inded. . . .

The o th e r b i r t h o r d e r c a t e g o r i e s do n o t show any o u ts ta n d in g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i n r e l a t i o n to w o r k /c a re e r p a t t e r n s , th o u g h , " e l d e s t d a u g h te r w i th yo u n g er s i s t e r s on ly ," l ik e "only c h i ld ,” shows a d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n from th e o th e r s u n d er c e r t a i n s p e c i f i c c o n d i t i o n s . (R ap o p o rt & Rapoport, 1971, pp. 19-20)

On m other's o ccu p atio n , Rapoport and Rapoport (1971) found sup

p o r t f o r th e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n a m o th e r 's p o s i t i v e a t t i t u d e

tow ards working o u ts id e o f th e home and th e chances o f t h e i r m arried

daugh te rs being "continuous w orkers" (p. 21).

F a th e r 's occupation was used as an in d ic a to r of s o c ia l c la s s and

r e f l e c t e d a te n d e n c y f o r " c o n tin u o u s work" m ore among th e w o rk in g

c la s s e s than in th e upper m iddle c la s s e s .

On th e e f f e c t s o f f a m i ly r e l a t i o n s h i p s , R ap o p o rt and R ap o p o rt

(1971) found: "A g re a te r tendency fo r m arried women w ith c h ild re n to

be 'con tin u o u s ' w orkers i f they had - 'te n s e ' r e la t io n s h ip s w ith t h e i r

m o th e rs and 'w arm ' r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i th t h e i r f a th e r s th a n any o th e r

com bination of s p e c if ic r e la t io n s h ip s w ith p a re n ts o f same and oppo

s i t e sex" (p . 22); and th e f i n d in g s s u p p o r te d an a s s o c i a t i o n o f a

husband's commitment to th e id e a of women's c a re e rs w ith continuous

work p a tte r n s .

A c co rd in g to R a p o p o rt and R ap o p o rt (1 9 7 1 ) , th e o ry on w hat i n

f lu e n c e s a d u l t b e h a v io r h as n o t y e t re a c h e d a p o in t o f a c c u r a t e

e x p la n a t io n . T h e ir " s u p e r f i c i a l exam ination" of the d a ta supported

th a t l a t e r in f lu e n c e s a re more e f f e c t iv e in channeling behavior than

e a r l i e r o n es . They p o s i te d " th a t a s o p h i s t i c a t e d a n a ly s i s o f th e


ways in w h ich e a r l y and l a t e s o c i a l i z a t i o n e x p e r ie n c e s com bine to

i n f lu e n c e a d u l t b e h a v io u r depends on a dynam ic t h e o r y — one th a t

a r t i c u la t e s p sy ch o lo g ica l and s o c io lo g ic a l concep ts b e t t e r than any

now in e x is te n c e " (p . 27).

R esearch s p e c if ic to th e su b je c t of th e e f f e c t o f m arriag e , o r

th e c a r e e r v e r s u s f a m i ly d ilem m a fa c e d by women, was c o n d u c te d by

Orden and Bradburn (1969) and B ailyn (1970).

Orden and Bradburn's (1969) s tudy of how a woman's la b o r m arket

p a r t i c i p a t i o n a f f e c t s b o th h e r m a r r ia g e h a p p in e s s and t h a t o f h e r

husband was conducted w ith a sample of 1,783 m arr ied resp o n d en ts— 781

h u sb an d s and 957 w iv e s . The fo c u s o f th e s tu d y was on th e 1,651 o f

those who re p o rte d the husband as the c h ie f wage ea rn e r . The group

d id no t c o n s is t of coup les; but the re se a rc h e rs b e liev e d th a t s in ce

they w ere 'b o th s e le c te d on a p ro b a b il i ty b a s is th e response d i s t r ib u

t io n was th e same as i t would have been i f they were coup les. T heir

f i n d in g s w ere t h a t (a ) b o th p a r tn e r s in a m a r r ia g e w ere l e s s happy

when th e w ife was d e n ie d a c h o ic e and was in t h e l a b o r m a rk e t o n ly

because she needed th e money ra th e r than p a r t i c ip a t in g in th e la b o r

m a rk e t by c h o ic e , (b) The s t r a i n in a m a r r ia g e o f a w o rk in g woman

stem s from d i f f e r e n t sou rces fo r men and fo r women. When th e w ife i s

in th e la b o r m ark e t o n ly o u t o f n e c e s s i t y , th e h usband p e r c e iv e s a

s ig n if ic a n t in c re a se in th e ten s io n s he e x p e rien c es in th e r e la t io n

sh ip ; th e w ife p e rce iv e s a s ig n if ic a n t re d u c tio n in th e p o s i t iv e s id e

of th e m arriage in th e s o c i a b i l i t y she enjoys w ith h e r husband, (c)

L ow er-c lass men were h ig h er in p e rce iv in g m a r i ta l te n s io n s and lo w er-

c la s s women were low er in s o c i a b i l i t y i f th e woman was in th e la b o r


m arket ou t o f n e c e s s ity . Among th e more educated , both husbands and

w iv es w ere h ig h e r in t e n s io n s and lo w e r in s o c i a b i l i t y , (d) Among

women who were f r e e to choose betw een the la b o r m arket and th e home,

th e re was no ev idence th a t th e la b o r m arket cho ice c re a te d a s t r a in

i n th e m a r r ia g e f o r th e w ife o r f o r th e hu sb an d ; b o th a t t a i n e d a

h ig h er balance in p e rce iv e d le v e ls of te n s io n s and s a t i s f a c t io n s than

they d id i f the w ife chooses th e home m arket (Orden & Bradburn, 1969,

pp. 39 8 -4 0 0 ).

In an exam ination o f c a re e r o r ie n ta tio n and m a r i ta l happ iness,

B ailyn (1970) in v e s t ig a te d d a ta from 200 B r i t is h u n iv e r s i ty g raduate

women and th e i r husbands. M arriage p a t te r n s w ere d efined as "conven

t i o n a l " w i th th e husband co n c e rn e d w i th h i s w ork and th e w ife w i th

th e house and fa m ily ; th e "coord ina te" w ith a t ru e in te g ra tio n of the

rea lm s of fa m ily and work fo r both husband and w ife — in no way a mere

r e v e r s a l o f t r a d i t i o n a l f a m i ly r o l e s . The r e s u l t s o f th e s tu d y

In d ic a te d le s s m a r i ta l happ iness in c o n v e n tio n a l couples w ith more

c h ild re n and more s a t i s f a c t io n o f th e husband w ith h is work. There

was a n eg a tiv e a s s o c ia t io n of m a r i ta l happ iness w ith income. There

was a l a rg e r percen tag e o f happy m arriag es when income was low than

when i t was h ig h . T h is was p a r t i c u l a r l y t r u e when th e h u sb a n d 's

am b itio n was low (B ailyn , 1970, pp. 104-105). W ith re g ard to co o rd i

n a te m arriag es , th e re s e a r c h e r r e p o r te d I n c r e a s e d h a p p in e s s o f co

o rd in a te m arriages as th e husband's work s a t i s f a c t io n in c re ase d , and

th e p ro p o r tio n of happy co o rd in a te m arriag es was p a r t ic u la r ly g re a t

when h igh income was combined w ith h igh a m b itio n o f the husband. The

p ro p o r tio n of happy m arriag es in t h i s p a t te r n was g re a te r when th e


w ife was n o t a lo n e r e s p o n s ib l e f o r th e c a re o f th e h o u se and th e

c h i ld re n and, perhaps no t u n re la te d , when income was h ig h .

The r e s u l t s o f th e B a i ly n (1S70) s tu d y a l s o showed c o n d i t io n s

a s s o c ia te d w ith m a r i ta l happ iness of th e c o o rd in a te p a t te r n s im i la r

to th o se of th e co n v e n tio n a l one: in both ca se s , m a r i ta l happiness

was g r e a t e r i f th e l i f e s t y l e o f th e fa m i ly was d i f f e r e n t from th e

one in w h ich th e h usband grew up . . • c o o r d in a te m a r r ia g e s w ere

h ap p ie r i f th e husband's m other did no t work w h ile he was grow ing up

th a n i f sh e d id .

T h a t th e w i f e 's m o th e r p la y s no su ch d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g r o l e was

b e lie v e d to be a f i r s t in d ic a t io n of th e r e la t iv e im portance of the

husband 's o r ie n ta tio n as compared to th a t o f h is w ife in d e te rm in in g

th e p e rso n a l s a t i s f a c t io n a s so c ia te d w ith a p a r t i c u la r fa m ily p a t te r n

(B a i ly n , 1970, pp. 104 -1 0 5 ).

I n a d d i t i o n to th e im p a c t o f p e r s o n a l i t y t r a i t s and f a m ily

environm ents on th e grow th and development o f women who re ach success

i n w ork , r e s e a r c h e r s hav e in v e s t i g a t e d th e Im p a c t o f s o c i a l and

o rg a n iz a t io n a l s t r u c tu r e s , su p e r io r , p ee r, and su b o rd in a te a t t i t u d e s

tow ards women who work and a s p ire to lea d .

In a c l a s s i c s tudy o f o rg a n iz a tio n a l and in d iv id u a l in te r a c t io n ,

K anter (1977) found su c c e s s fu l women to be "so m etia es very d i f f e r e n t

from each o th e r and som etim es no t very d i f f e r e n t from men, as lea d

e r s . In d iv id u a l d if fe re n c e s were more s t r ik in g th an sex d if fe re n c e s "

(p . 302).

In rev iew ing exam ples of those few su c c e s s fu l women managers in

m ixed-sex o rg a n iz a tio n s to dete rm ine w hat was c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a b o u t


t h e i r s ty le s , K anter (1977) found th a t th o se w ith system power and an

i n t e r e s t in em pow ering s u b o r d in a te s w e re th e m ost s u c c e s s f u l and

e f f e c t iv e .

In th e c a re e rs of o th e r women who have become su c c e s s fu l lea d

e r s , th e y w ere o b se rv e d to have p o l i t i c a l c o n n e c t io n s i n th e w id e r

system and th e a b i l i t y to make su b o rd in a te s f e e l pow erfu l in t h e i r

own r ig h t .

In summary, K anter (1977) s a id :

The e f fe c tiv e n e s s o f women le a d e rs , th en , l i k e th a t of men, i s a r e s p o n s e to o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r p o w er, to a f a v o r a b le p o s i t i o n in th e pow er s t r u c t u r e . B oth men and women can e x e rc ise t h e i r a u th o r i ty more p ro d u c tiv e ly and w ith b e t t e r r e s p o n s e when th e y have pow er b e h in d i t . T h is , to o , i s a s ta n d a r d o r g a n iz a t i o n a l cy c le ; power b reeds e f fe c tiv e n e s s a t g e t t in g r e s u l t s , w hich enhances power. But psycho log ic a l "sex d if fe re n c e s" seem to p lay a l im ite d r o le , i f any, once wcmen a r e g iv e n a ch a n ce and a c c e s s to p pow er.(pp . 302-303)

In a study of the r e la t io n s h ip betw een le a d e r behavior and sex -

ro le id e n t i f i c a t i o n , In d e r l ie d and Pow ell (1979) surveyed a sample in

which some su b je c ts had management ex perience and some had none. A ll

were ad m in is te re d th e Leader B ehavior D e sc rip tio n Q u e stio n n a ire , Form

X II, to a s se s s i n i t i a t i n g and c o n s id e ra tio n le a d e r behav io r. The Bern

Sex-Role Inven to ry (BSRI) was a d m in is te re d to a s s e s s s e x - ro le id en

t i t y .

R e su lts showed a s tro n g p re fe re n c e fo r m asculine team m anagers,

and th e re was a p o s i t iv e r e la t io n s h ip betw een m a sc u lin ity and s t r u c

tu re sco res in p re fe r re d le a d e rs . There was l i t t l e support p re se n t

fo r th e e x is te n c e o f a r e la t io n s h ip betw een fe m in in ity and co n s id e ra

t io n ( In d e r l ie d & P ow ell, 1979, pp. 616-622).


38

The re se a rc h e rs a ls o suggested :

Women In p o s i t i o n s o f a u t h o r i t y a r e o f t e n p u t u n d e r th e enorm ous s t r a i n o f b e in g u se d a s m odels f o r a l l women.Women m anagers a r e l e s s a b le to make m is ta k e s , and t h e i r b e h a v io r te n d s to be c l o s e l y o b se rv e d by o th e r s . For ex a m p le , i f a fe m a le m anager engaged in l e a d e r b e h a v io r w h ich was n o t p e r c e iv e d as e f f e c t i v e f o r e i t h e r m a les o r fe m a les , she m ight be c a s tig a te d more than h e r male count e r p a r t . . . . I t may n o t be n e c e s s a r y f o r women to engage i n s t e r e o ty p e d m a s c u l in e s e x - r o l e b e h a v io r o r u se h ig h s t r u c t u r e le a d e r b e h a v io r in o rd e r to be p e r c e iv e d a s s u c c e s s f u l l e a d e r s . . . [b u t] women s t i l l need to g e t t h e i r f e e t i n th e d o o r and in o rd e r to do so , m ust " lo o k l i k e " e f f e c t i v e m a n a g e rs , w h ich may mean fo l lo w in g a s te re o ty p e . ( In d e r l ie d & P ow ell, 1979, p. 623)

In a study of th e im pact of le a d e r sex ro le s and fo llo w e r a t t i

tu d e s to w a rd women on o b j e c t i v e m ea su res o f g ro u p p e rfo rm a n c e and

group member p e rc e p tio n s , R ice , Bender, and V i t te r s (1980) conducted

a la b o ra to ry experim ent in v o lv in g 288 f i r s t y ea r West P o in t ca d e ts

a s s ig n e d to 72 fo u r - p e r s o n g ro u p s . They a l s o exam ined se x b ia s in

a t t r i b u t i o n s and c o n s t r u c t v a l i d i t y in th e A t t i tu d e Toward Women

S c a le (AWS). F a c to r s su c h a s f o l l o w e r a t t i t u d e s to w ard women and

ta sk s t r u c tu r e were found to i n t e r a c t w ith le a d e r sex to dete rm ine

th e s t re n g th and d ir e c t io n o f b ia s in a t t r i b u t io n s .

There was a s tro n g n e g a tiv e b ia s in a t t r i b u t io n s about th ec a u s e s o f p e r fo rm a n c e i n f e m a le - le d g ro u p s among th o s e f o l l o w e r s h o ld in g v e r y t r a d i t i o n a l a t t i t u d e s to w ard th e r o l e o f women. H ow ever, re s p o n d e n ts w i th l i b e r a l v iew s tow ard women's ro le s o f te n showed a s tro n g sex b ia s fa v o ring fem ale le a d e rs w ith re g ard to th ese a t t r i b u t io n a l judgments .

When male fo llo w e rs w ith very t r a d i t i o n a l view s toward th e ro le of women encoun tered a fem ale in a n o n tra d i t io n a l ro le (as le a d e r of a m ixed-sex group), they responded w ith expected neg a tiv ism . Male fo llo w e rs endorsing more l i b e r a l view s tow ard women's ro le s o f te n showed a s tro n g sex b ia s fa v o rin g fem ale le a d e rs w ith reg ard to th ese a t t r i b u t io n a l judgm ents. (R ice e t a l . , pp. 73-74)


In a s tu d y o f 80 m ale and 80 fe m a le I n t r o d u c to r y p sy ch o lo g y

s tu d e n ts from C a lifo rn ia S ta te U n iv e rs ity , Vaughn and W itt ig (1980)

found th a t bo th sexes re g ard com petent, a c h iev in g c a re e r women p o s i

t iv e ly . They suggested th a t :

P r a c t i t io n e r s in th e f ie ld s of c a re e r and v o c a tio n a l couns e l in g , i n d u s tr i a l and o r g a n iz a t i o n a l p s y c h o lo g i s t s , and c l i n i c a l p s y c h o lo g is t s may f in d i t u s e f u l to know w hat e v a lu a t io n s s u c c e s s f u l women a r e e l i c i t i n g from o th e r s .Such in f o r m a t io n c a n , in t u r n , be u se d to h e lp women su c ceed in d i f f i c u l t job s i tu a t io n s , h e lp em ployers unders tand what in te rp e rs o n a l p ro c esses a re tak in g p la c e when compet e n t women a r e e v a lu a te d , and h e lp th e c o -w o rk e rs and em p lo y ee s o f such women Im prove t h e i r i n t e r a c t i o n s .(p . 406)

The s u b je c t o f t r a i n i n g and d e v e lo p in g women to le a d was ad

d re ssed by Burrows (1978) and Radln (1980). Burrows (1978) c o l le c te d

q u e s t io n n a i r e d a ta from 1868 Am erican Management A sso c ia tio n (AMA)

members to de te rm ine m anageria l a t t i t u d e s tow ard th e developm ental

n ee d s o f women. The r e s u l t s o f a sam p le o f s e n io r m anagers (58%),

m id d le m an ag ers (28%), p r o f e s s i o n a l / t e c h n ic a l (17%), and s e l f -

employed o r p ro p r ie to r s (1%) in d ic a te d a "pow erfu l concern w ith the

i s s u e " (p . 9 ). At th e t im e o f th e s u rv e y , th e c o n c e p t o f c o n t in u in g

management development was a r e la t iv e ly new phenomenon in American

b u s in e s s . More th a n one q u a r te r o f th e r e s p o n d e n ts i n d i c a t e d t h a t

th e re was no o rganized program fo r management development in t h e i r

com panies. The rem ain ing th re e q u a r te rs in d ic a te d a wide v a r ie ty o f

types o f program s. The m a jo ri ty of program s w ere designed to iden

t i f y and develop c u r re n t employees w h ile 20% u t i l i z e d re c ru itm e n t o f

t ra in e d s p e c ia l i s t s because of s p e c ia l job re q u irem en ts . T w enty-five

p e rcen t of those w ith developm ent program s in d ic a te d th a t in d iv id u a l


departm ents and d iv is io n s determ ined th e i r own needs. There was much

in fo rm a l t r a in in g th a t goes on even in companies w ith o u t s t ru c tu re d

p lan s . "The fu tu re of women in management w i l l be determ ined la rg e ly

by how th e y a r e I n c lu d e d in b o th fo rm a l and in f o r m a l d ev e lo p m e n t

programs" (Burrows, 1978, p. 9).

Burrows (1978) a ls o re p o rte d th a t 12% of th e respondents in d i

ca ted th a t women w ere n o t in c lu d ed in t h e i r fo rm al m anageria l d ev e l

opment program s. T h ir te e n p e rcen t were Involved in developm ent of

women m anagers, 9% o f w hich In d ic a te d th a t women were s p e c if i c a l l y

r e c ru i te d fo r fo rm al m an a g eria l developm ent, and 4% in d ic a te d th a t

women were in c lu d ed on a quota b a s is as re p re s e n ta t iv e of a m in o rity .

Another problem o f g e t t in g women in to management was managers'

im p re s s io n s t h a t th e r e i s a l i m i t e d a v a i l a b i l i t y o f women in th e

o rg a n iz a tio n who a re q u a l i f i e d to become m anagers. Tw enty-nine p e r

cen t o f th e t o t a l sam ple p erce iv e d no lac k of women in t h e i r o rg a n i

z a tio n who were q u a l i f i e d to become m anagers; bu t a m a jo ri ty o f 58%

of th e responden ts though t th e number of women q u a l i f ie d fo r develop

ment was l im ite d . The t o t a l s re p re se n t a male p o in t of view ; f in d

ings o f a s e p a ra te "women only" a n a ly s is showed th a t women were more

o p t im is t ic about the a v a i la b i l i t y of q u a l i f i e d women (pp. 10-11).

Respondents' e x p la n a tio n s of th e l im ite d number of women q u a l i

f i e d to be m anagers in c lu d e d s o c i a l s t e r e o ty p e s o f th e " t r i t e b u t

c l a s s i c a l r a t i o n a l v s. em otional d i s t in c t io n betw een men and women.

. . . One man s a id 'women a r e p e o p le - o r i e n t e d , men a r e i d e a -

o r i e n t e d '; . . . th e s e s t e r e o t y p i c a l v ie w s w ere in th e m in o r i ty ,

however" (Burrows, 1978, p. 16).


N in e-te n th s o f the responden ts in th e Burrows (1978) study were

men. In a com parison of a l l re sp o n d en t's view s o f what women need to

develop to women re sp o n d en ts ' v iew s, Burrows re p o rte d th e fo llo w in g :

Needs m ost f r e q u e n t ly c i t e d by a l l r e s p o n d e n ts w ere (a ) s e l f -

c o n f id e n c e , (b ) e d u c a t io n , (c ) e x p e r ie n c e and o p p o r t u n i t i e s , (d )

i n t e r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s and s u p e r v is o r y s k i l l s , (e ) g r e a t e r

c a r e e r co m m itm en t, ( f ) l e s s e m o tio n a l is m , (g ) g e n e r a l m anagem ent

s k i l l s , (h) te c h n ic a l knowledge, (1) f in a n c ia l t r a in in g . Needs most

f r e q u e n t ly c i t e d by women re s p o n d e n ts w ere (a ) g e n e r a l m anagem ent

s k i l l s , (b) se lf- c o n fid e n c e and a t t i t u d e , (c) ex p e rien c e and opportu

n i t i e s , (d ) f i n a n c i a l t r a i n i n g , (e ) t e c h n ic a l k n o w led g e , ( f ) ed u c a

t i o n , (g) g r e a t e r c a r e e r com m itm en t, and (h ) l e s s e m o tio n a lis m

(p . 18).

In a d d i t i o n to p o in t in g o u t th e d i f f e r e n c e s b e tw e en m ale and

fem ale p e rcep tio n s of what women need to become e f f e c t iv e m anagers,

Burrows (1978) addressed th e a t t i t u d e s o f co-w orkers tow ard women:

I t i s s t i l l nec essa ry fo r many o f u s , men and women a l ik e , to change our a t t i t u d e s about th e m an a g eria l c a p a b i l i t i e s o f women. The s i t u a t i o n w o n 't im p ro v e much i f we g iv e women th e o p p o r tu n i ty f o r m a n a g e ria l ex p e rien c e and then s i t back and w a tch to s e e how soon o r how s p e c t a c u l a r ly th e y f a l l . . . . I t i s f a r e a s i e r f o r a woman to m a in ta in p o s i t i v e , c o n f id e n t c o n c e p ts ab o u t h e r s e l f i f h e r c o l le a g u e s r e in f o r c e th o s e a t t i t u d e s . I f th e y d o n 't— i f a woman m anager's p ee rs have c o n f lic t in g o r n e g a tiv e n o tio n s about h e r being a t once fem ale and manager— she w i l l have to be su p erco n fid en t j u s t to hold h e r own. (p. 22)

In a m ore c a r e e r s p e c i f i c s tu d y o f women who a s p i r e to to p

dec ision -m ak ing p o s itio n s in s t a t e and lo c a l p u b lic ag e n c ies , Radin

(1980) c o n d u c te d e x p lo r a to r y re s e a r c h to d e f in e problem Issu e s and

s u i ta b le t r a in in g and development o p p o r tu n it ie s . She a ls o a ttem p ted


to a d d r e s s th e la c k o f a g re e m e n t on th e d im e n s io n o f th e p ro b lem s

encountered by women.

In sam pling , Radln (1980) s e le c te d a group o f p o te n t ia l respon

den ts th a t were g e o g ra p h ic a lly and r a c i a l l y mixed. In a sam ple o f 55

women, 20 w e re i n e n t r y l e v e l p o s i t i o n s , 19 w ere i n m id d le l e v e l

p o s i tio n s , and 16 were In upper l e v e l p o s itio n s . Almost tw o - th ird s

o f th e women had b een in t h e i r c u r r e n t jo b s f o r a y e a r and had

incom es u n d e r $20 ,0 0 0 . The s tu d y 's c o n c lu s io n s d id n o t p ro v id e a

" c le a r s e t of answ ers to a c le a r s e t o f q u es tio n s about th e se is su e s"

(p . 59 ). R a d in 's (1980) r e s u l t s w ere :

1. T h ere i s no c l e a r m odel o f a s u c c e s s f u l c a r e e r p a t t e r n in

the p u b lic s e c to r . Few In d iv id u a ls in m iddle management p o s i tio n s in

s t a t e and lo c a l ag e n c ies r i s e to th e top , and re se a rc h e rs a re unable

to d e sc rib e th a t narrow ing p rocess .

2. A t e n t a t i v e o u t l i n e f o r s u c c e s s in to p p o s i t i o n s in p u b l ic

o rg a n iz a tio n s in c lu d e s in te rp e r s o n a l , o r g a n iz a t io n a l , and t e c h n ic a l

a b i l i t i e s s k i l l s . O ther s k i l l s Invo lve p o l i t i c a l know-how and use of

o u ts id e c o n t a c t s ; a s p i r a t i o n s to move to th e to p m akes th e u se o f

p o l i t i c a l s k i l l s in c re a s in g ly more im p o rtan t.

3. The women in th e R ad in (1980) s tu d y te n d e d to o v e r r a t e

ed ucation and hard work w h ile u n d eres tim a tin g p o l i t i c a l aw areness.

4. M iddle le v e l women were ambiguous about p e rso n a l am bition .

They p e r c e iv e d th e m s e lv e s to be m ore d i s c r im in a t e d a g a i n s t th a n

o th e rs , y e t few knew what to do about i t .

5. Few women in th e s tudy saw a re la t io n s h ip between t r a in in g /

development programs and t h e i r perce iv ed problem s.


6. There a re no sy s te m a tic m u lti-p ro g ram e v a lu a tio n s o f t r a i n

ing program s th a t address th e c a re e r needs of women, d e sc rib in g t h e i r

c o n te n t and fo r m a t , and a s s e s s in g t h e i r c o m p a ra t iv e e f f e c t iv e n e s s

(R a d in , 1980, pp. 5 9 -6 0 ).

F ac to rs in the advancement of women in management was th e sub

j e c t o f r e s e a r c h co n d u c te d by H a rla n and W eiss (1981) w ith a b a se

sam ple of 96 m anagers, 50% male and 50% fem ale , and a d d i t io n a l d a ta

g a th e red from th e s u p e rv iso rs to whom th e managers re p o rte d . The 96

m anagers w ere chosen from a l a r g e r g ro u p o f v o lu n te e r s from two

d i f f e r e n t companies. The re se a rc h e rs no ted th a t p rev ious s tu d ie s had

focused on two b as ic e x p la n a tio n s fo r women's l im ite d advancement in

management: R esearch was e i t h e r p sy ch o lo g ica l, fo cu sin g on th e ways

in which fem ale managers d i f f e r from m ale managers p sy c h o lo g ic a lly or

in p e rso n a l background; o r a s o c io lo g ic a l a n a ly s is on t h e .o rg a n iz a

t i o n a l environm ent which women e n te r (p. 4).

As a more com prehensive a l te r n a t iv e , they proposed th e H arlan -

W eiss I n te g r a t iv e model w hich merged th e two approaches and focused

on th e i n t e r a c t i o n o f th e i n d iv id u a l and th e o r g a n iz a t io n . Among

t h e i r fin d in g s were:

1. Sex b ia s d id n o t d e c re a s e w i th g r e a t e r num bers o f women

m anagers; in c re a s in g th e p ro p o r tio n of women managers w i l l no t e l im i

n a te o r reduce b ia s .

2. Women who a re a b le to s u c c e s s fu l ly e n te r management fa ce a

d i f f e r e n t s e t o f dilemmas and b a r r i e r s when th ey a ttem p t to move up

than they faced moving in to management, i .e . , dilem m as b lock ing th e i r

advancem en t l a t e r i n t h e i r c a r e e r s a r e d i f f e r e n t from e a r l i e r


d i f f i c u l t i e s e n c o u n te re d .

3. O rg an iza tio n s need to in v e s t in program s and e f f o r t s aimed

a t t o t a l human re so u rce developm ent. T o ta l e r a d ic a tio n o f sex b ia s

i s no t p o ss ib le . However, th e im pact o f i t can be reduced.

4. Managers must be h eld ac co u n tab le fo r m eeting a f f i rm a t iv e

a c t io n go als and o b je c tiv e s .

F ac to rs in th e Growth and Development o f S u cce ss fu l Black Leaders

Bass (c i te d in S to d g i l l , 1974) th e o riz e d th a t th e legacy of the

m a s te r /s la v e r e la t io n s h ip i s a f a c to r to be overcome in the emergence

o f B lack le a d e rsh ip . He c i te d a survey which found 359 Black execu

t i v e s i n m a n u fa c tu r in g , r e a l e s t a t e , i n s u r a n c e , o r f in a n c e i n th e

same fu n c t io n s t h a t p ro v id e c a r e e r s u c c e s s f o r W h ite s— m a rk e t in g ,

m a n u fa c tu r in g , and f in a n c e . He n o te d t h a t h ig h e r e d u c a t io n and

p e r s o n a l c o n ta c t w ere im p o r ta n t to t h e i r b e in g r e c r u i t e d . B ass

f u r th e r s ta te d th a t : "E xperim enta l re se a rc h la g s behind. M oreover,

th e l i t t l e o f i t a v a i l a b l e p r i o r to th e m id -1 9 6 0 's has l i t t l e r e l e

vance to unders tan d in g b lac k and w h ite a t t i t u d e s and behav io r in th e

1980s" (p . 508).

Bass (c i te d in S to d g i l l , 1974) went on to say th a t what i s known

about Black le a d e rsh ip i s deriv ed from a r ic h s to re of b io g ra p h ic a l

l i t e r a t u r e on B lack p o l i t i c a l , community, e d u c a tio n a l, and r e lig io u s

le a d e rs . He summarized th e go als o f B lack le a d e rsh ip as rang ing from

c o n d u c tin g I n s u r r e c t i o n s o f c a p t iv e A fric a n s a g a in s t s la v e ry , e .g .,

N at T u rn e r; to th e g o a l o f w o rk in g w ith th e sy s te m , e .g ., re fo rm


l e a d e r s F r e d e r ic k D o u g la ss , M a r tin L u th e r K ing , J r . , and B ooker T.

W a sh in g to n ; to m o d ify in g th e sy s te m , e .g . , W. E. B. D uBois; o r to

d e s t r o y in g i t , e .g ., M alcolm X. He f u r t h e r s t a t e d t h a t e n t r y in to

le a d e rsh ip p o s itio n s in b u sin ess and in d u s try , except fo r a few Black

s e r v i c e - o r i e n t e d i n d u s t r i e s such a s i n s u r a n c e and u n d e r ta k in g , i s

m a in ly a co n se q u en ce o f th e e q u a l o p p o r tu n i t ie s l e g i s l a t i o n of the

1960s.

The e n try o f B lacks in to m i l i t a r y le a d e rsh ip was s t im u la te d by

P re s id e n t Truman's o rd e rs to i n te g r a te the armed fo rc e s in the l a t e

1940s. There were co n tin u in g in c re a se s in th e p ro p o r tio n of B lacks

in th e a l l -v o lu n te e r army o f which B lacks were p ro je c te d to make up

42% in the e a r ly 1980s. D esp ite t h e i r h igh p ro p o r tio n s in some types

of o rg a n iz a tio n s such as lab o r un ions, B lacks con tinued to be under

re p re se n te d in p o s itio n s of le a d e rsh ip (Bass, 1981, p. 509).

O ther fa c to r s in th e development of B lack le a d e rsh ip l i s t e d by

B ass ( c i t e d in S t o g d l l l , 1974) w ere (a ) e d u c a t io n a l g ap , (b ) s o c io

economic s ta tu s , (c) fa m ily k in sh ip bonds, (d) work o r ie n ta tio n , (e)

re l ig io u s o r ie n ta tio n , ( f ) achievem ent o r ie n ta t io n , (g) p o v erty , and

(h) B lack accep tance o f members of t h e i r own e th n ic groups fo r group

and e x te rn a l le a d e rsh ip p o s itio n s (pp. 510-511).

In a m ajo r w ork, Thompson (1963) s u rv e y e d o th e r s t u d ie s and

found agreem ent th a t "a very sm a ll, w e ll-o rg a n iz e d group of 'men of

power' makes a lm ost a l l m ajor d e c is io n s re g ard in g th e l i f e and w el

f a re of th e i r in d iv id u a l com m unities, and maybe even of th e nation"

(p. 1). However, Thompson's re se a rc h i s an e la b o ra t io n on th e th e s is

th a t "none of th e le a d e rs in th e Negro community may o p e ra te in th e


same e c h e lo n s o f pow er a s th e to p l e a d e r s In th e t o t a l com m unity"

(p . 1 ) .

Thompson (1963) d iv id ed B lack le a d e rsh ip in to two ty p es: i n t r a -

r a c i a l and i n t e r r a c i a l . I n t r a r a c i a l l e a d e r s a r e s u c c e s s f u l B la ck

businessm en who a re l i t e r a l l y th ru s te d in to p o s i tio n s of le a d e rsh ip .

In th ese p o s i tio n s , some businessm en were a b le to accom plish a good

d ea l tow ard r a c i a l u p l i f t by gu id ing th e i r o rg a n iz a tio n s in p rov id ing

sc h o la r sh ip s , c u l tu r a l e x h ib i ts , and em inent speakers and l e c tu r e r s .

B la ck b u s in e s sm e n in th e i n t r a r a c i a l ca teg o ry a re p o te n t ia l ly

th e most e f f e c t iv e i n t e r r a c i a l le a d e rs because they tend to be more

a c c e p ta b le to W hite men o f pow er th a n a r e some o f th e m ore a c t i v e

i n t e r r a c i a l le a d e r s .

B lack businessm en w ere u n d errep resen te d among i n t e r r a c i a l lea d

e r s d u r in g th e t im e o f Thom pson's (1963) s tu d y ; b u t th o s e few who

w ere so engaged have made s i g n i f i c a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n s in th e a r e a o f

n e g o t i a t i o n s in r a c e r e l a t i o n s . T h e ir s o c i a l s t a t u s and econom ic

s e c u r i ty power seem to b rin g them th e re sp e c t o f W hite meu o f power

which i s no t a t t a in a b le by th o se of l e s s e r s o c ia l s ta tu re .

Leaders in t h i s ca teg o ry a re in v ite d to s i t w ith predom inan tly

White i n t e r r a c i a l com m ittees, where th e Black community i s an im por

t a n t f a c t o r in th e s u c c e s s o f p r o j e c t s , such a s U n ited Fund d r i v e s ,

w e lfa re boards, and c i t i z e n s com m ittees.

Thom pson's (1963) s tu d y was c e n te re d a ro u n d th e b a s ic assum p

tio n s th a t :

A l l s u c c e s s f u l Negro le a d e r s m ust i d e n t i f y , d i r e c t l y o r i n d i r e c t ly w ith th e Negroes' c o n tin u o u s s t r u g g l e f o r f u l l o r equal c i t i z e n s h ip . They must be a c t iv e ly engaged in th e


47

prom otion o f some is s u e designed to advance th e s ta tu s of N egroes in some a r e a o f l i f e . (p . 1)

One q u e s t io n r a i s e d in Thom pson's (1963) s tu d y was i f New

O r le a n s h as no B la ck s in th e pow er s t r u c t u r e th e n how do th e y g e t

t h in g s done? He d i s c u s s e d th e r e s e a r c h s i t e and d e f i n i t i o n s a s

fo llo w s :

There i s one p e rv asiv e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c , n e v e r th e le s s , th a t dom inates a l l so u th ern com m unities: they a re more or le s sr i g i d l y o rg a n iz e d a lo n g b i r a c i a l l i n e s . . . . F o r a n a l y t i c a l p u rp o s e s , New O rle a n s i s r e g a rd e d h e r e a s a " ty p ic a l " s o u th e rn c i t y . T h a t i s , e v e ry p ro b lem in r a c e r e l a t i o n s anywhere in th e South e x is ts to some degree in New O rleans.

In t h i s s tudy , we re g ard as le a d e rs th o se in d iv id u a ls who by t h e i r e f f o r t s a r e a b le to i n i t i a t e , s t im u l a t e , c o o r d in a te and d i r e c t th e a c t i v i t i e s o f o th e r s in th e s o lu tio n o f common problem s o r the achievem ent o f s p e c if ic s o c ia l g o a ls . The sample of le a d e rs s e le c te d i s composed of th o se who have m an ife ste d the a b i l i t y to g e t th in g s done o r to a c h ie v e g o a ls g e n e r a l l y r e g a rd e d a s v a lu a b le and b e n e f ic ia l to th e Negro community. Inc luded a ls o a re some w hose e f f o r t s a r e d i r e c t e d to p r e v e n t in g N egroes from a t t a i n i n g th e s e g o a ls . M ost s t u d ie s o f l e a d e r s h ip have tended to emphasize the s ta tu s of th e le a d e r ; t h i s s tudy i s p r im a r ily concerned w ith th e ro le of the le a d e r , (pp. 2-4)

Thompson (1963) found t h a t Negro le a d e r s had d e v is e d s e v e r a l

e f f e c t iv e s t r a t e g ie s and techn iques fo r in te r a c t in g w ith W hite men o f

pow er. The i n t e r r a c i a l g roup o f l e a d e r s i s o f p r im a ry i n t e r e s t in

th e Thompson (1963) s tudy . Thompson a ls o made a d i s t i n c t io n betw een

le a d e rs and c e l e b r i t i e s :

The le a d e r i s one who f o r some p e r io d o f t im e i d e n t i f i e s o v e r tly w ith the Negroes' e f f o r t s to ach ieve s ta te d s o c ia l g o a ls . On th e o th e r hand , th e c e l e b r i t y , a s u sed h e r e , i s one who fo r some reason o th e r than th e above has d ec id ed ly h igh s ta tu s in th e Negro community, (p. 6)

Thompson c h a r a c t e r i z e d th e le a d e r s h ip c l a s s in h i s s tu d y as a

lo o se ly organ ized s o c ia l group of in d iv id u a ls o f v a rio u s ages, s o c ia l


backgrounds, r e l ig io u s a f f i l i a t i o n s , ed u c a tio n a l a tta in m e n ts , occupa

t i o n s , in co m es , and s t y l e s o f l i f e in c o n t r a s t to s o c i a l c l a s s e s

which a re composed o f f a m il ie s in the w ider so c ie ty . These in d iv id

u a l s a r e , have bee n , o r a r e e x p e c te d to p a r t i c i p a t e a c t i v e l y i n a

movement, o rg a n iz a tio n , o r group w ith th e main purpose of im proving

the g en e ra l s ta tu s o f B lacks o r to ach ieve some more o r le s s s p e c if ic

s o c ia l goal im p o rtan t to B lack p ro g ress tow ard f i r s t c la s s c i t i z e n

sh ip . Id e o lo g ic a lly , B lack le a d e rs adhere to th e p r in c ip le s o f the

e s s e n tia l d ig n ity o f a l l men, and the p rim ary ro le of government " to

e s t a b l i s h and d e fe n d th e r i g h t o f e v e ry i n d iv id u a l to e n jo y e q u a l

c i t i z e n s h i p r e g a r d l e s s o f r a c e , c r e e d , c o lo r o r s o c i a l s t a t u s ”

(Thom pson, 1963, p. 25).

Thompson's (1963) co n te n t a n a ly s is of s c i e n t i f i c s tu d ie s , o rga

n iz a tio n a l r e p o r ts , c o n s t i tu tio n s and bylaw s of agencies and a s so c ia

t io n s , and th e B lack p re s s le d to th e d e te rm in a tio n th a t th e re a re a t

l e a s t th re e m ajor i s s u e s o f concern expressed in Black com m unities.

These a re : c i t i z e n s h ip , ea rn in g a l iv in g , and ed ucation (p. 5).

On the is s u e o f women in le a d e rsh ip , Thompson (1963) found th a t

th e v a s t m a jo rity of B lack le a d e rs in New O rleans were men. The few

Black women in New O rleans who could be c l a s s i f i e d as "top" community

le a d e r s w ere e l e c t e d o f f i c i a l s in a s p e c i a l - i n t e r e s t o r g a n iz a t io n

such as the P are n t T eachers A sso c ia tio n , a te a c h e rs ' a s s o c ia tio n , o r

th e Negro Women V oters ' League; most fem ale le a d e rsh ip was channeled

through g u ild s o r a u x i l i a r i e s th a t served m ain ly as ad ju n c ts to more

pow erfu l o rg a n iz a tio n s dom inated by men.


R arely were women In New O rleans found to I n i t i a t e , s t im u la te ,

c o o rd in a te , o r d i r e c t the a c t i v i t i e s of th e m asses in th e s o lu tio n of

m ajor s o c ia l problem s a f fe c t in g them and none had become a symbol of

th e B lack s tru g g le fo r e q u a lity .

In a summary o f h is fin d in g s of a t t i t u d e s tow ard women in lea d

e r sh ip p o s itio n s as fo llo w s: When Thompson (1963) asked women lea d

e r s why so few women were involved in le a d e rs h ip r o le s , m ost re la te d

u n su cc ess fu l a tte m p ts on th e i r p a r ts to r e c r u i t o th e r women to lea d

e r s h ip ro le s in o th e r community o r r a c i a l p r o je c ts . The reasons th a t

o th e r women had o ffe re d in re fu s in g to ac ce p t le a d e rsh ip p o s itio n s

w ere sum m arized in th e fo l lo w in g s ta te m e n ts made by women in th e

s tudy :

1. Women w ith am b itio n to lead who hold jo b s o u ts id e th e home

f e e l th a t they do no t have the tim e or energy to work on w ider s o c ia l

i s s u e s o r problem s.

2. Most women a re u n a lte ra b ly re s ig n e d to men ta k in g the lea d

e r s h ip r o le s and f e e l th a t t h e i r community r e s p o n s ib i l i t i e s a re f u l

f i l l e d when they encourage th e i r husbands to c o n tr ib u te to w orthw hile

c a u se s .

3. A s u r p r i s i n g l y l a r g e num ber o f women f e e l t h a t com m unity

le a d e rsh ip i s a man's job and a re convinced th a t no " s e l f - re s p e c t in g "

man would fo llo w a woman lea d er.

4. Most women do no t want to t ra d e t h e i r s o c ia l a c t i v i t i e s to

p a r t ic ip a te in a movement.

5. A la rg e number o f women f e e l in f e r io r and la c k confidence in

t h e i r a b i l i t y to c o n tr ib u te to human b e tte rm e n t.


50

6. Some women who a r e c a p a b le o f l e a d e r s h ip do n o t I d e n t i f y

w ith th e masses (Thompson, 1963, pp. 25-26).

The h is to r y of B lack fem ale le a d e rsh ip I s a reco rd of th e c h a l

lenges fo r r a c i a l p ro g ress which have been met by B lack women. Be

c a u se o f h e r c e n t r a l s t a t u s a s a w ife and m o th e r , l e a d e r s h ip f o r

B la ck women h as a r i s e n from a need to s e c u re and d e fen d r i g h t s f o r

h e r f a m ily as w e l l a s h e r s e l f . "When and w h e re I e n t e r , i n th e

q u i e t , u n d is p u te d d i g n i ty o f my womanhood, w i th o u t v io le n c e and

w ith o u t su in g o r s p e c i a l p a tro n a g e , th e n and t h e r e th e w ho le . . .

ra ce e n te rs w ith me" (Cooper, c i te d In G lddings, 1984, p. 13).

F ac to rs in th e grow th and development o f s u c c e s s fu l B lack women

l e a d e r s ca n n o t be s e p a r a te d from th e h i s to r i c a l ex p erien ces of the

Afro-A m erican in the U nited S ta te s . According to Glddings (1984):

D uring th e f i r s t y e a r s o f th e A f r ic a n p re s e n c e in N o rth A m erica , B la ck s had a h ig h e r s t a t u s th a n o th e r s e r v a n t s , because th e c irc u m sta n ces of t h e i r s e iz u re pu t them under th e p r o t e c t io n o f I n t e r n a t i o n a l la w . . . . B ut a l l o f t h a t w ould change as th e need f o r m ore p r o f i t a b l e l a b o r i n creased . Some would have to be e x p lo ite d more than o th e rs , and t h a t m eant c r e a t i n g c a t e g o r i e s o f c l a s s and c o lo r .. . . As th e c o lo n ie s w ere p o p u la te d by i n c r e a s in g num bers o f A f r ic a n s , who a t once r e p r e s e n te d th e m eans o f w e a l th and th e " d a rk ” sen su o u s s id e o f th e E n g l is h s o u l , . . . E n g lish m e n had to "re m in d th e m s e lv e s c o n s t a n t ly w hat i t meant to be c iv i l i z e d , C h r is tia n , r a t i o n a l , s e x u a lly cont r o l l e d and w h ite . . . ." This need would have a tremendous im pact on th e h i s to r y of bo th women and B lacks in America.(pp . 3 4 -35)

By th e e a r ly e ig h te e n th ce n tu ry an in c re d ib le s o c ia l , l e g a l and r a c i a l s t r u c t u r e was p u t in p la c e . Women w ere f i r m ly s t r a t i f i e d in th e r o l e s t h a t P la to e n v is io n e d . B la c k s w ere c h a t t e l , w h i te men c o u ld im p re g n a te a B la ck woman w ith Im p u n ity , and she a lo n e c o u ld g iv e b i r t h to a s la v e . B la ck s c o n s t i t u t e d a p e rm a n en t l a b o r fo r c e and m etap h o r t h a t w ere p e r p e tu a te d th ro u g h th e B lack woman's womb. And a l l o f t h i s was done w i th in th e c o n te x t o f th e c h u r c h , t h e o p e r a t i n g la w s o f c a p i t a l i s m , an d th e


51p s y c h o lo g ic a l n e e d s o f w h ite m a le s . S u b se q u e n t h i s to r y would be a v a r ia t io n on the same theme, (p . 39)

W ith th e e n d in g o f s l a v e r y , th e em ergence o f B la ck women a s

le a d e rs was prom pted by th e need to r e p a ir th e psych ic and p h y s ic a l

damage wrought by s la v e ry . According to G iddings (1984):

For B lack women e s p e c ia l ly , th e post bellum p erio d was one f o r c r i t i c a l d e c i s io n s c o n c e rn in g t h e i r c h i l d r e n , t h e i r men, t h e i r ro le in th e f e m in is t and r a c i a l s tru g g le s th a t un fo lded so d ra m a tic a lly in th e se y ea rs . Those d e c is io n s— and th e c o n v ic tio n s behind them— o fte n re v ea le d a profound u n d ers ta n d in g of th e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e en t h e i r p e r s o n a l and p o l i t i c a l s t r iv in g s , (p. 58)

A f te r th e end o f R e c o n s t r u c t io n , B la ck women w ere p re p a re d to c r e a t e o r g a n iz a t io n s and i n s t i t u t i o n s t h a t r e f le c te d t h e i r fe m in is t concerns. In 1880, Mary Ann Shadd Cary led th e way, o rg a n iz in g the Colored Womens P ro g re ssiv e A s s o c ia t io n . One o f th e a s s o c i a t i o n 's g o a ls was to " a s s e r t " e q u a l r i g h t s f o r women, in c lu d in g t h a t o f s u f f r a g e . (p . 75)

In sp ire d by Ida B. W e lls 's a n ti- ly n c h in g campaign, th re e B lack

women, V i c t o r i a E a r le M a tth e w s , Susan M cKinney, and J o s e p h in e S t.

P ie r re R u ffin , announced p lan s to form Black women's c lu b s in t h e i r

r e s p e c t i v e c i t i e s o f New York C ity , B ro o k ly n , and B o sto n i n 1892.

G id d in g s (1984) s a id :

In a d d i t io n to th e p r a c t i c a l th in g s th a t needed to be done to a s s u r e p r o g r e s s , B la ck women had to c o n f r o n t and r e d e f in e m o ra li ty and a s se s s i t s re la t io n s h ip to " tru e womanhood." F o r th e p r e v a i l in g v iew s o f th e s o c i e t y had n o t o n ly debased t h e i r im age, bu t had a lso excluded them from th e m a in s tre a m o f th e la b o r f o r c e and c o n t in u e d to make them v u ln e ra b le to sexua l e x p lo i ta t io n . A ll o f th e se had th e consequence o f b lu n tin g th e i r p ro g ress by psycho log ic a l ly and m a te r ia l ly , (p. 85)

The le a d e rsh ip of B lack women moved beyond b a s ic s u rv iv a l needs

to encompass g re a te r is s u e s when the N a tiona l A sso c ia tio n o f Colored

Women (NACW) was formed to u n ite the many c lubs in e x is te n c e in 1896.


52

Giddings (1984) i d e n t i f ie d t h i s union as a "w atershed" in th e h is to r y

o f B lack fem ale leadersh ip*

They w ere n o t p a r t i c i p a t i n g in a women's a u x i l i a r y o f a lik e-m in d ed men's group, as had happened w ith th e s o c ia l - u p l i f t and a b o l i t i o n i s t a s s o c i a t i o n s o f th e p a s t . "Our women's m ovement i s a w om an's m ovem ent i n t h a t i t i s l e d and d i r e c t e d by women," announced J o s e p h in e S t. P i e r r e R u ffin a t the Boston n a t io n a l convention . Nor would they be fo r c e d to be a m in o r i ty in W hite wom en's g ro u p s . "We a re no t a l ie n a t in g o r w ithdraw ing ," R u ffin continued . "We a r e o n ly com ing to th e f r o n t . " (p . 95)

The a c h ie v e m e n t o f s u c c e s s f u l l e a d e r s h ip f o r B la ck women in

America has alw ays c a r r ie d th e a d d i t io n a l ch a lle n g e of coping w ith

th e r a c e and g e n d e r f a c t o r s . The d ilem m a i s a d d re s s e d by H a rt

(1977):

B lack women, v ic tim s of double d is c r im in a t io n because of t h e i r ra c e and se x , a r e o f t e n ask e d to make a c h o ic e w ith r e g a rd to t h e i r p r i o r i t i e s : "Are you b la c k f i r s t , o rfe m a le f i r s t ? " The p l a i n f a c t i s t h a t th e y a r e b o th and have no way to s e p a r a t e th e tw o . (p . 10)

I r o n ic a l ly , s u c c e s s fu l B lack women whose ex p erien ces p rovide a

w e a l th o f ex a m p le s o f p e r s o n a l s t r e n g t h and tr iu m p h in th e f a c e of

d o u b le d i s c r i m i n a t i o n a r e th e l e a s t s t u d ie d seg m en t in A m erican

s o c ie ty . In a review of th e l i t e r a t u r e , S c o tt (1982) found th a t the

c o n tr ib u tio n s of Black women a re unrecognized; p u b lic le a d e rsh ip by

B la ck women i s n o t a c c o rd e d th e same a t t e n t i o n t h a t i3 g iv e n to

v ia b le Black male le a d e rs ; and s tu d ie s o f Black in s t i t u t i o n s i l l u s

t r a t e th e ex c lu sio n of B lack women from p o s i tio n s of le a d e rsh ip .

L e a d e rsh ip s t u d ie s w h ich in c lu d e women o r B la ck s a s su b j e c t s a r e s c a n t . E x tre m e ly s p a r s e a r e s t u d ie s d e v o te d s p e c i f i c a l l y to l e a d e r s h ip among B la ck women. In f a c t , B le n d e r (1978) a rg u e s t h a t th e d a ta a r e so s c a rc e and th e re sea rch b ia se s so s tro n g th a t our c u r re n t knowledge base


i s p ro b a b ly I n a p p l i c a b l e f o r s tu d y in g n o n - e l i t e l e a d e r s . ( S c o t t , 1982, p. 4)

In a paper p re sen ted a t a W ellesley C enter fo r Research on Women

Sem inar, S co tt (1982) proposed th a t more em phasis should be p lac ed on

developing th e le a d e rsh ip p o te n t ia l among Black women; and th a t much

can be lea rn ed from th e su c c e ss o f e x t r a c u r r i c u l a r c o l le g e e x p e r i

ences in f o s te r in g le a d e rsh ip in B lack women.

T here i s much w ork to be done to c r e a t e an en v iro n m e n t i n c o l

le g e f o r th e g ro w th o f l e a d e r s h ip p o t e n t i a l among B la ck s tu d e n t s .

A c co rd in g to L o u is (1 9 8 6 ), m ore th a n th r e e - f o u r t h s o f th e m i l l i o n

B lack American c o lle g e s tu d e n ts a re on predom inan tly W hite campuses

where th e re a re few B lack fa c u l ty and a d m in is tr a to rs . The d e c lin in g

r a te of B lack s tu d e n t e n ro llm en t and a g e n e ra lly co n se rv a tiv e mood in

A m erica make many c o l l e g e s and u n i v e r s i t i e s fo r b id d in g p la c e s f o r

B la c k s tu d e n ts .

N a tio n a lly , B lack en ro llm en t a t fo u r y ea r c o lle g e s stood a t 7.7 p e rcen t in 1984, th e most re c e n t y ea r f o r which numbers a r e a v a i l a b l e . T h is r e p r e s e n ts a d ro p from 1976, when Black en ro llm en t reached an a l l - t im e high o f 8.5 p e rcen t.

Such f i g u r e s a r e o f t e n accom pan ied by a s e n se among B lack s tu d e n ts t h a t th e y have been c u t o f f from th e m ain s t re a m o f cam pus l i f e . . . [w h ich ] can ra n g e from c o p in g w ith th e f r u s t r a t i o n o f b e in g t r e a t e d u n f a i r l y by a p ro f e s s o r to th e c u t t i n g p a in o f n o t b e in g in v i te d when th e r e s t o f th e k id s on th e f l o o r d e c id e to go i n to tow n f o r d in n e r . . . .

On th e f a c u l t y s i d e , B lack p r o f e s s o r s make up l e s s than one p e rcen t o f a l l u n iv e r s i ty - le v e l in s t r u c to r s a c ro ss th e c o u n try . As a r e s u l t , B la ck s tu d e n t s o f te n f in d

them selves in c o n f ro n ta tio n w ith i n s t r u c t o r s who a r e i n s e n s i t iv e o r even h o s t i l e to t h e i r needs, (p. 68)


Being on a p redom inantly W hite campus can a ls o have th e p o s i tiv e

e f f e c t o f re in fo rc in g e th n ic id e n t i t y w h ile p ro v id in g o p p o rtu n it ie s

fo r i n t e r r a c i a l unders tan d in g as d esc rib ed by Southgate (1986):

[A r a c i s t in c id e n t] fo rced me to le a rn s t i l l more about my p e o p le and my h i s t o r y and to d e v e lo p a p r id e t h a t I m ig h t n o t o th e rw is e have h e ld o n to a s f e r o c io u s ly . B eing i n an overwhelming w hite environm ent fo rced me to fu n c tio n in the w h i te w o r ld w i th o u t l o s in g m y s e lf . . . . The e n v iro n m e n t a l s o fo r c e d me to lo o k a t w h i te and B lack women as p e o p le f i r s t , good and bad a l i k e . T h is may seem l i k e a b a s ic i n s ig h t , b u t b e c a u se o f s t e r e o ty p e s on b o th s i d e s , i t can be s u rp r is in g ly d i f f i c u l t to pu t in to p ra c t ic e , (p. 152)

In a d d it io n to h i s to r i c a l In f lu e n c e s , se g re g a tio n , sexism , and a

d e c lin e of n u rtu rin g in th e e d u c a tio n a l environm ent, Black women who

w ould a s p i r e to le a d a r e so m etim e s fa c e d w ith th e p s y c h o lo g ic a l

o r i e n t a t i o n o f f e a r o f s u c c e s s . P u ry e a r and M ednick (1974) and

F lem ing (1978) have conducted re se a rc h on th i s su b je c t .

P u ry e a r and M ednick (1974) d e f in e d f e a r o f su c c e s s as " th e

e x p e c ta n c y o r a n t i c i p a t i o n o f n e g a t iv e co n se q u e n c e s as a r e s u l t o f

success in co m p e titiv e achievem ent s i tu a t io n s ” (p. 263).

On th e i r fin d in g s o f a study of 252 se n io r and sophomore women

from fo u r p re d o m in a n tly B la ck c o l l e g e s , Puryear and Mednick (1974)

re p o rte d th a t achievem ent in i n t e l l e c t u a l l y c o m p e titiv e s i tu a t io n s i s

more l i k e ly to be a s s o c ia te d w ith th e a n t ic ip a tio n o f n eg a tiv e con

sequences fo r Black c o lle g e women who a re m i l i t a n t than fo r th o se who

a r e n o t (p . 266).

I n a c o m p a ra tiv e s tu d y o f 108 B la ck and 79 W hite c o l l e g e s t u

d e n t s , M ed n ick an d P u r y e a r (1 9 7 6 ) fo u n d B la c k women to be

" s ig n if ic a n t ly low er in l e v e l of f e a r of success imagery than w hite

women . . . and i n t e r p r e t t h i s a s i n d i c a t i o n t h a t i n t e l l e c t u a l


55

m a s te r y and p r o f e s s i o n a l a c h ie v e m e n t i s l e s s t h r e a t e n i n g to b la c k

women th a n to w h i te women" (p . 266). The r e s e a r c h e r s found a s i g

n i f i c a n t l y ’.uw er l e v e l o f f e a r o f s u c c e s s in W hite women t e s t e d i n

1971 as compared w ith th o se te s te d in 1968.

The h y p o th esis th a t f e a r of success should be an in s ig n i f ic a n t

m o tiv a tio n a l d e te rm in a n t among Black c o lle g e women was te s te d in a

s tu d y by F le m in g (1978) o f 55 B lack u n d e r g ra d u a te s from R a d c l i f f e .

None o f th e p r i o r i n v e s t i g a t i o n s i n t h i s a r e a had in c lu d e d B la ck

women. The n eed to a c h ie v e (nAch) was th e m a jo r d e te r m in a n t o f

ac h ie v e m e n t- re la te d behav io rs w hile f e a r of success f a c i l i t a t e d p e r

form ance. The behav io r o f women o f w o rk in g -c lass o r ig in ach ievem en t-

s t r i v in g in n o n tra d i t io n a l d ire c t io n s was most s t ro n g ly in flu e n c e d by

f e a r o f s u c c e s s . M id d le - c la s s B la ck women w ere m ore a c h ie v e m e n t-

o r ie n te d than th e i r W hite c o u n te rp a r ts , bu t r e s u l t s fo r w o rk in g -c lass

women suggested an In te r n a l iz e d c o n f l ic t over achievem ent and fem i

n in e id e n t i t y as a p o ss ib le m o tiv a tio n among some B lack women.

The m ost s t r i k i n g a s p e c t o f th e b ac kground e x p e r ie n c e s re p o rte d by w o rk in g -c lass women h igh in nAch was th e s tro n g e m p h a sis by b o th p a r e n ts on f e m in in i ty , , w i th w h ich th e re m a in in g c o r r e l a t e s ( i . e . , o t h e r - d i r e c t e d n e s s , deco rum , l a c k o f em p h a sis on e d u c a t io n and a c h ie v e m e n t) w e re co n s i s te n t . In view of t h i s e a r ly s o c ia l iz a t io n , th e ac h iev ement m otive in th ese women would be expected to f in d g r a t i f i c a t io n p r im a r ily in t r a d i t i o n a l ly fem in ine a r e a s , . . .or a t l e a s t in a re a s th a t do not compromise th e go al o f fem in i n i t y . The p a r e n t a l t e a c h in g s a s s o c ia t e d w i th f e a r o f success in t h i s group a lso suggested a s tro n g ly sex -ty p ed s o c ia l iz a t io n : m a tern al t r a in in g in o th e r-d ire c te d n e s s anddecorum compounded by th e p resence of ? f a th e r who d id no t encourage s o c ia l a s s e r t iv e n e s s , (p. 712)

F le m in g (1978) found t h a t m id d le - c l a s s B la ck women seem ed to

c o n s t i t u t e an e x c e p t io n a l p o p u la t io n o f women in te rm s o f b e in g


m o tiv a tio n a lly s im i la r to w h ite m ales bu t th a t t h e i r math SAT sco res

and math perform ance in c o m p e titio n w ith m ales were n e g a tiv e ly r e

l a t e d to t h e i r need to a c h ie v e . F e a r o f s u c c e s s a l s o i n h i b i t e d

b u s i n e s s - r e l a t e d c a r e e r i n t e r e s t in th e s e women. F o r women of

w o rk in g -c lass o r ig in , Flem ing re p o rte d th e p resence of m ales d id no t

a r o u s e f e a r o f s u c c e s s i n w o r k in g - c la s s B la ck women, b u t d i r e c t

su c c e s s fu l c o m p e titio n w ith m ales d id arouse fe a r of su ccess . The

n eed to a c h ie v e was n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y a ro u s e d in c o m p e ti t io n w ith

m ales e i th e r b efo re o r a f t e r perform ance feedback.

S o c i a l i z a t i o n m essag e s co m m unica ted to th e s u b je c t s by t h e i r

p a re n ts in d ic a te d th a t m id d le -c la s s Black women w ith a s tro n g need to

ach ieve were tau g h t s o c ia l a s s e r t iv e n e s s by th e i r fa th e r s and s ta n

dards o f ex c e llen ce by t h e i r m others; women o f w o rk in g -c lass o r ig in

w ere tau g h t fe m in in ity by both p a re n ts , and decorum and o th e r d i r e c t -

edness by t h e i r f a th e r s . P a re n ta l m essages in h igh fe a r of success

women suggested th a t " th ese women a re p re d isp o se d to tak e t h e i r cues

from e x t e r n a l s o u rc e s r a th e r th a n t h e i r i n t r i n s i c i n c l i n a t i o n s ”

(F le m in g , 1978, p. 707). M id d le - c la s s women w i th h ig h f e a r o f su c

c e s s w ere more l i k e l y to r e p o r t t h e i r f a t h e r s ' em p h a sis on o t h e r -

d ire c te d n e ss , decorum, and the value, of hard work and le s s l i k e ly to

r e p o r t th a t t h e i r m others tau g h t in n e r-d ire c te d n e s s . Fear o f success

i n w o r k in g - c la s s women was p o s i t i v e l y a s s o c ia te d w ith having been

tau g h t o th e r-d ire c te d n e s s and decorum by th e i r m others and n e g a tiv e ly

r e la te d to p a te rn a l em phasis on s o c ia l a s s e r t iv e n e s s .

E p s te in (1973) hypo thesized th a t Black women who have achieved

th e p ro fe s s io n a l success o f h igh p re s tig e and h ig h income have formed


a p o s i t iv e m a tr ix o f th e sex s ta tu s of fem ale and th e ra ce s ta tu s of

B la ck f o r a m e a n in g fu l c a r e e r . E p s te in found t h r e e m a jo r p a t t e r n s

r e s u l t i n g from the in te r a c t io n o f Black and fem ale s ta tu s e s in i n t e r

v ie w s w i th a sam p le o f 31 women who a c h ie v e d s u c c e s s in th e m a le -

dom inated p ro fe ss io n s o f law , m edicine , d e n t i s t r y , u n iv e r s i ty tea ch

in g , jo u rn a lism , and p u b lic r e la t io n s .

1. Focus on one o f th e n e g a tiv e ly valued s ta tu s e s canceled th e

n e g a tiv e e f f e c t o f th e o th e r . For exam ple, in a W hite p ro fe s s io n a l

m ilie u , a B lack woman is..v lew ed as lac k in g th e "womanly" o cc u p a tio n a l

d e f ic ie n c ie s o f W hite women— fo r exam ple, seek ing a husband— and the

B lack woman's sex s ta tu s i s g iven a h ig h er e v a lu a tio n . B lack men and

women p e r c e iv e a s e n se o f t h r e a t in W hite m ales to th e th o u g h t o f

having Black male co llea g u es ; and th a t sense o f t h r e a t was perceived

to be le s s w ith B lack fem ale c o llea g u es , th e re b y reducing th e e f f e c t

of r a c i a l b ia s .

On th e o th e r hand, b lac k women are found in p ro fe s s io n s and o ccupations known to be d i f f i c u l t fo r w h ite women to penet r a t e . Because th e se women a re b lack they a re perhaps not p erce iv e d as women; they may be regarded a s more "se rio u s" p ro f e s s io n a ls th an w h ite women: they may no t be viewed ass e x u a l o b j e c t s n o r be se e n a s o u t to g e t a h u sb an d . The s te re o ty p e s a t ta c h e d to the s o -c a l le d fem in ine mind, emot i o n s , o r p h y s io lo g y may n o t seem e a s i l y t r a n s f e r a b l e to b lac k women, fo r whom th e re seem to be few er s te re o ty p e s in th e co n te x t of th e p ro f e s s io n a lly tra in e d , (p. 915)

2. I f one h as s t a t u s in ea ch o f two o r m ore a t t r i b u t e s , a new

s ta tu s i s c re a te d , e .g ., "Black woman law yer," th a t i s too unique to

have developed i t s own s te re o ty p e s .

3. B eing o u t s id e th e n o rm al o p p o r tu n i ty s t r u c t u r e a l lo w s an

a l t e r n a t e l i f e - s t y l e f o r many B lack women f o r c e d to e n t e r th e


58

o c c u p a t io n a l w o r ld b e c a u se o f econom ic need . The u n u su a l c h o ic e

re s u lte d In " b a r r ie r s w hich In su la te d the women from d iv e rs io n s from

o c c u p a t io n a l s u c c e s s and from g h e t to c u l t u r e , th u s s t r e n g th e n in g

am b itio n and m o tiv a tio n " (E p s te in , 1973, p. 197).

E p s te in (1973) c o n c lu d e d t h a t th e u n iq u e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f

th ese s u c c e s s fu l B lack women enable them to fin d a path through th e

narrow ac ce ss p o in ts a v a i la b le to them. She sa id :

The ch a n ce to becom e p r o f e s s i o n a l s d e v e lo p e d o u t o f a s t r u c tu r e which narrow ed th e i r ch o ices , made them v i s ib l e and u n iq u e . F o r th e s e few , th e e f f e c t s o f l i v in g in a world o th e rw ise b e se t w ith l im i t s fed t h e i r d e te rm in a tio n and made them f e e l th e only road to s u rv iv a l la y in occupat io n a l success . For those w ith o u t th e s p e c ia l support of fa m ily and p erso n a l netw orks of th ese women, and w ithou t t h e i r e x tra o rd in a ry a b i l i t y to d riv e ahead, th e l im i t s of th e o ccu p a tio n a l s t r u c tu r e could only be d e fe a tin g , even to those w ith a b i l i t y . The s e lf -m a in ta in in g mechanisms of the p r e s e n t s t r a t i f i c a t i o n sy s te m w i th in th e p r o f e s s io n s c le a r ly o p e ra te to keep th e p a r t ic ip a t io n of c e r ta in p e rsons low in s p i te o f t h e i r p o ss ib le i n t e l l e c t u a l c o n tr ib u t i o n s . (p . 913)

In a s tudy th a t exam ines fa m ily in f lu e n c e s on th e achievem ent of

Black women, A llen (1979) analyzed o c c u p a tio n a l s ta tu s r e la te d to th e

achievem ent o r ie n ta tio n s o f a group of B lack fem ales j u s t e n te r in g

th e a d u l t w orld. A llen no ted th a t :

B lack women a re a m in o rity h idden w ith in two more conspicuous m in o r i ty g ro u p s . As a r e s u l t , s c h o la r s te n d to o v e r lo o k them ; t h e i r e x p e r ie n c e s , n e e d s , and r e a l i t i e s a r e assumed to be id e n t i c a l w ith th o se of b lack s and women in g e n e r a l . . . . D e s p ite th e e s t a b l i s h e d t r a d i t i o n o f b la c k fem ale la b o r- fo rc e p a r t ic ip a t io n , b lack women w orkers re p re s e n t a r e la t iv e ly n eg le c ted re se a rc h to p ic . Many quest io n s rem ain concern ing th e a t t i t u d e s , m o tiv a tio n s , ro le s , and s t a t u s e s o f b la c k women in th e l a b o r f o r c e . I f an sw ered, they could t e l l us about b lac k women and about our s o c i e t y 's o c c u p a t io n a l a t t a in m e n t m ac h in e ry in g e n e r a l .(pp . 670-671)


59

A lle n 's (1979) s tu d y u t i l i z e d U.S. B ureau o f th e C ensus and

D epartm ent of Labor s t a t i s t i c s ; the d a ta used to m easure achievem ent

o r i e n t a t i o n w ere draw n from a l o n g i tu d i n a l s tu d y of 21 ,000 h ig h

schoo l s e n io rs e n ro lle d In U.S. p u b lic and p r iv a te secondary schoo ls

I n th e c l a s s o f 1972. The Im p o rta n c e o f th e A lle n s tu d y i s u n d e r

s to o d w i th in th e c o n te x t o f s o c i e t a l v ie w s o f B la c k women. He ex

p la in e d :

P re v a il in g view s of b lack women's f a m i l i a l ro le s co n d itio n th e way(s) In which th e i r o cc u p a tio n a l ro le s a re p erce iv ed and e v a lu a te d by r e s e a r c h e r s . F o r th e m ost p a r t th e m arr i a g e and fa m i ly l i t e r a t u r e h as been u n f l a t t e r i n g in i t s t r e a tm e n t o f b la c k women. "B lack m a tr ia r c h y " t h e o r i s t s h av e i m p l i c i t l y , and a t t im e s e x p l i c i t l y , a t t r i b u t e d r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r s o c i a l p ro b lem s in b lac k com m unities to b lac k women and t h e i r pu rported s o c ia l , econom ic, and psyc h o lo g ic a l dominance over b lack men. Such n e g a tiv e eva luat i o n s o f b la c k w om en's f a m i l i a l r o l e s i n e v i t a b l y d i s t o r t p e rc e p tio n s of t h e i r work ro le s . For in s ta n c e , w h ile c a re f u l a n a ly s is o f s t a t i s t i c s su g g ests o th e rw ise , th e id e a o f b lack fem ale o ccu p a tio n a l advantage i s s t i l l r a th e r widesp read . P r io r re se a rc h on b lack women in th e la b o r fo rc e , however, shows them to be s e r io u s ly d isadvan taged r e la t iv e to w h ite women and men who work. I t su g g es ts : Some b lackwomen have b e n e f i t e d p r o f e s s i o n a l l y from t h e i r d o u b le - n e g a tiv e s ta tu s ; o th e rs experience d isp ro p o r tio n a te d i f f i c u l ty w ith in c re a s in g socioeconom ic s ta tu s in f in d in g s im il a r l y lo c a te d b lack male m ates; b lack women have s te a d i ly r e lo c a te d from household se rv ic e jobs to o th e r occupations o v e r t im e ; and b la c k women a r e s y s t e m a t i c a l l y c h a n n e le d i n t o low s t a t u s , low m o b i l i ty o p p o r tu n i ty , f i r s t jo b s . (A llen , 1979, pp. 671-672)

A lle n (1979) found t h a t B la ck fe m a le e d u c a t io n a l e x p e c ta t io n s

did no t d i f f e r s u b s ta n t ia l ly from m ales; t h e i r e d u c a tio n a l expecta

t i o n s w e re much h ig h e r th a n th o s e o f W hite f e m a le s ; B la ck women's

o cc u p a tio n a l a s p ira t io n s were s ig n if ic a n t ly d i f f e r e n t from th o se of

W hite women, Black men, and W hite men. Over a t h i r d of B lack fem ales

a sp ire d to c l e r i c a l jobs compared w ith a q u a r te r o f W hite women and


le s s Chan a te n th o f men. "Twice th e p ro p o r tio n of w h ite , compared

w ith B lack fem ales a s p ire d to s e rv ic e , s a le s , and f u l l - t im e homemaker

ro le s . A s u b s ta n t ia l ly l a r g e r percen tage o f women than men a s p ire to

p ro fe s s io n a l occupations" (A llen , 1979, 672). B lack fem ale le v e ls of

academic s e lf - c o n c e p t a re com parable w ith those re p o rte d by th e o th e r

s e x - r a c e g ro u p s . A l l e n 's c o n c lu s io n was t h a t th e p ro b a b le o cc u p a

t i o n a l s t a t u s a t t a in m e n t s o f B lack women ab o u t to e n t e r th e l a b o r

fo rc e does no t r e f l e c t t h e i r o r ie n ta tio n s tow ard achievem ent and th a t

achievem ent o r ie n ta t io n In B lack women develops by a d i f f e r e n t means

than In W hites and B lack m ales. A llen remarked th a t :

The d y n am ics u n d e r ly in g th e d ev e lo p m e n t o f a c h ie v e m e n t o r ie n ta tio n among b lac k fem ales seem to d i f f e r from those f o r th e o th e r s e x - r a c e g ro u p s . The pow er o f f a m ily b ack ground, p e rso n a l a t t i t u d e , and s c h o o l-s e tt in g v a r ia b le s In p re d ic tin g achievem ent o r ie n ta t io n s v a r ie s a c r o s s g ro u p s , su g g estin g th a t th e p ro cesses u n d erly ing th e fo rm a tio n of th ese a ls o vary ac ro s s se x -ra c e l in e s , (p. 673)

A lle n (1979) recom m ends more th o ro u g h s tu d y o f b o th s t a g e s o f

th e s t a t u s a t t a in m e n t p r o c e s s , I . e . , (a ) th e d ev e lo p m e n t o f s k i l l s

and a t t i t u d e s and (b) ac ce ss to s o c ie ta l v e h ic le s such as e d u c a tio n

and employment netw orks. He suggested th a t an overem phasis on th e

p e r s o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and f a m i ly b ac k g ro u n d s o f B la ck women

Ignores s o c ia l norm s, p ra c t ic e s , and procedures which s y s te m a t ic a lly

I n h ib i t th e achievem ent p ro cess of B lack women.

In s tu d ie s s p e c if ic to jobs In th e p u b lic and p o l i t i c a l , educa

t io n a l and "m asculine" p ro fe s s io n s , re se a rc h e rs Burlew (1977); Sm ith,

M azzare lla , and P le le (1981); and C a rro ll and S tr im lin g (1983) have

focused re s p e c t iv e ly on th a t e x tra o rd in a ry m in o rity o f B lack women

who have achieved success in s p i te of odds a g a in s t them, in an e f f o r t


to t r y to i s o la t e those fa c to r s which c o n tr ib u te d to t h e i r success*

The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f B la ck women who have a c h ie v e d p u b l ic

o f f i c e s as com pared to women o v e r a l l a r e d e s c r ib e d by C a r r o l l and

S tr im l in g (1983) a s : (a ) B la ck women a r e m ore l i k e l y to have come

from p ro fe s s io n a l, te c h n ic a l , m an a g eria l, and a d m in is tr a t iv e occupa

t io n s . (b) Black women a re s l ig h t l y more l i k e ly th an women o v e r a l l

to be law yers and p u b lic a d m in is tr a to r s , (c) Black women who serv e

on m u n ic ip a l and co u n ty g o v e rn in g b o ard s and in s t a t e l e g i s la tu r e s

a re a group of h ig h ly q u a l i f ie d , p o l i t i c a l l y experienced , and s e l f -

c o n f id e n t women who a re e x c e p tio n a l, (d) The support of in d iv id u a ls

and o r g a n iz a t io n s , B la ck women's g ro u p s , c i v i l r i g h t s g ro u p s , and

c h u rc h -re la te d groups, and th e need to re p re se n t m in o rity and c i v i l

r i g h t s i s s u e s in th e p u b l ic p o l i c y a r e n a a r e s t r o n g e r f a c t o r s w i th

Black women than w ith any com parable group o v e r a l l , (e) Key in d iv id

u a ls in Black women o f f ic e h o ld e r s ' c a re e rs a re more s ig n if ic a n t than

f o r women o v e r a l l o r men to whose p o l i t i c a l a c tiv is m was in s p ire d by

p a r t ic u la r in d iv id u a ls ; b lac k women more o f te n named women as t h e i r

r o le models.

I n th e e d u c a t io n a l f i e l d , S m ith e t a l . (1981) i d e n t i f i e d p e r

s i s t e n t d i s c r i m i n a t i o n a s th e c a u s e o f th e d e c l in e o f B la ck s i n

l e a d e r s h ip p o s i t i o n s . In a d d i t i o n , th e a u th o r s p o in te d o u t t h a t

l i t t l e i s b e in g done to a n a ly z e th e p ro b lem in s e a rc h o f s o l u t i o n s .

They were unable to f in d even th e most b a s ic d a ta or in fo rm a tio n on

B lacks in ed u c a tio n a l a d m in is t r a t io n in s p i t e o f d e c l in in g e n r o l l

ments and p u b lic lo s s of confidence in th e schoo ls which ex acerb ate

th e problem s of B lacks and women. T heir in q u iry r e s u lte d in f in d in g


62

few jo b s f o r B lack a d m i n i s t r a t o r s s u p e r v is in g W hite t e a c h e r s o r

s tu d e n ts and women being denied le a d e rsh ip r e s p o n s ib i l i t i e s because

they m ight c o n f l ic t w ith women b earing and ra is in g c h ild re n (pp. 52-

5 6 ).

The a u th o rs d e s c r ib e d th e h i s t o r i c a l f a c t o r s w h ich le d to th e

s t a t e o f d e c lin e In th e number o f Black a d m in is tr a to rs as fo llo w s:

In a so c ie ty in w hich rac ism i s an I n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d v a lu e , a p r l n c i p a l s h i p o f a b la c k s c h o o l o r s u p e r in te n d e n c y o f a b lack system could n o t seem very d e s i ra b le to most w h ites .T his f a c t , too , would help b lacks become a d m in is tr a to rs , i f on ly by d e f a u l t . The m o tiv a tio n may not have been commenda b le , b u t th e r e s u l t was t h a t , i n d u a l s c h o o l s y s te m s , t h e r e w ere c o u n t l e s s o p p o r tu n i t i e s fo r b lac k a d m in is tr a t o r s . (p . 49)

A fte r th e Supreme C ourt outlaw ed "se p a ra te but equal" system s,

th e d u a l s c h o o l sy s te m s w e re g r a d u a l ly d i s m a n t le d , d r a m a t ic a l l y

a l t e r in g th e s ta tu s o f B lack a d m in is tr a to rs . People who were q u a l i

f ie d by t r a in in g and ex p e rien c e to a d m in is te r the new u n if ie d schoo l

s y s te m s w ere p re v e n te d f ro m 'd o in g so b e c a u se o f t h e i r r a c e , and by

1977 only 3% o f h igh schoo l p r in c ip a ls were B lack.

S m ith e t a l . (1981) found th e r e s u l t s o f s e g r e g a t io n in th e

urban s e t t in g as w e ll.

The b e l i e f t h a t b la c k s a r e c a p a b le o f s u p e r v is in g o n ly b lack d i s t r i c t s rem ains as s tro n g as ever. C harles Moody examined tw enty-one m ajor school system s w ith b lac k superin te n d e n ts , seven teen re g u la r and fo u r a c tin g . In each o f th ese system s, th e m a jo ri ty of the s tu d e n ts were b lac k , and every permanent su p e r in te n d e n t worked in a community where more th a n h a l f o f th e r e s id e n t s w ere b la c k . In a d d i t i o n , most o f the d i s t r i c t s had b lack m a jo r i t ie s on th e i r school b o a rd s .

C harles Tow nsel's experience as a b lac k a d m in is tr a to r c o n f ir m s t h i s p r a c t i c e . He p u t i t : "B la ck s a r e o f t e nc a l le d upon to serv e in d i f f i c u l t a d m in is tr a t iv e p o s itio n s lo c a te d in school d i s t r i c t s w i th f i n a n c i a l d i f f i c u l t i e s ,


where personnel an d /o r s tu d e n ts a re in r e v o l t , where d i s c i p l in e i s n o n e x is te n t, where academ ic achievem ent le v e ls a re low, and where the community i s d iv ided ." (p . 51)

The m o t iv a t io n a l and a t t i t u d i n a l f a c t o r s t h a t a r e l i k e l y to

in f lu e n c e c a re e r choice and e d u c a t io n a l a t t a in m e n t among B lack f e

m ales was th e s u b je c t o f a p a p e r by B urlew (1 9 7 7 ), who s a id t h a t

fem ales rem ain u n d errep resen te d in p ro fe s s io n s which have t r a d i t i o n

a l l y been m ale-dom inated and th a t in h ig h er ed u c atio n in p a r t ic u la r

th e num ber o f B lack fe m a le s i s d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e l y low . She n o te d

th a t B lack women who a tte n d c o lle g e s and u n iv e r s i t i e s s t i l l tend to

c h o o se t r a d i t i o n a l l y " fe m in in e " f i e l d s . She c i t e d th e fo l lo w in g

s t a t i s t i c s :

B lack women s t i l l re p re se n te d only 8% of a l l B lack law yers and 10% of a l l B lack p h y s ic ian s .

T h ere i s a s te a d y d e c l in e i n th e p e r c e n ta g e o f women in a l l s c i e n t i f i c f i e ld s moving from b a c h e lo r 's to m as te r 's to d o c to r 's degree le v e l . For exam ple, women re p re se n t 21% of a l l chem ists a t th e b a c h e lo r 's degree le v e l , 17% a t th e m a s te r 's degree le v e l and o n ly 6% a t th e Ph.D. le v e l .

The percen tage o f Black women tw e n ty -f iv e to t h i r t y - fo u r y ea rs o ld who had com pleted c o lle g e in 1971 was only 6.2% w hile 21.1% of w h ite m ales and 13.4% of w h ite fem ales in th e same age ca teg o ry had com pleted c o lle g e , (p. 88)

F ac to rs b e liev e d to c o n tr ib u te to th e d i f f i c u l t y of e d u c a tio n a l

and p ro fe s s io n a l a t ta in m e n t of B lack women were enum erated by Burlew

(1977) a s (a ) f i n a n c i a l , (b) f e a r o f p o t e n t i a l c o n se q u en ce s o f " to o

much" e d u c a t io n o r a c a r e e r i n a t r a d i t i o n a l l y " m a s c u lin e ” occu p a

t io n , (c) f e a r o f rem ain ing unm arried because o f a c o lle g e ed u c atio n

o r having m a r i ta l tro u b le i f she i s more educated than her husband,

(d) p ercep tio n s of ra ce b a r r i e r s , (e) v iew ing th e m as te r 's degree as

te rm in a l, and. (f ) h igh unemployment r a te fo r 16 or 17 year o ld B lack


64

fem ales p re c lu d in g the o p p o rtu n ity to le a rn about u n fa m ilia r p ro fe s

s io n s o r o b se rv e B la ck women a t w ork. B urlew found s t r o n g a s p i r a

t i o n s f o r a p r o f e s s io n , p a r e n t a l s u p p o r t f o r c a r e e r a m b i t io n s , and

p o s i t iv e s e x - ro le exam ples of w orking m others to be th e fa c to r s which

c o n tr ib u te to success in B lack women.

The l i v e s o f B la c k s in W hite c o r p o r a t io n s and th e s u r v i v a l

tech n iq u es of su c c e s s fu l B lack m anagers w ere i n v e s t i g a t e d by D av is

and Watson (1982) and Dickens and Dickens (1982) in t h e i r re s p e c tiv e

s tu d ie s . R e fe rrin g to Black people as Am erica's m etaphor, Davis and

Watson (1982) sa id t h a t what B lack people have experienced in Ameri

can co rp o ra tio n s i s sym bolic of what many o th e rs experience and c a l l

fo r "the n ecessary m u tu a lly r e s p e c tfu l , m u l tic u ltu r a l fo rm u la tio n of

th e n a t i o n a l l i f e " (p . 1). On th e b a s i s o f 3 y e a r s o f i n t e r v i e w s o f

B lack men and women managers in W hite c o rp o ra tio n s , they found b ar

r i e r s to th e e x p lo r a t io n o f th e s u b je c t o f r a c e . M ost o f th e man

a g e rs p re fe r re d to speak anonymously—testim o n y to the r i s k invo lved

in ad d ress in g is s u e s o f ra c e in America today. The fo llo w in g i s an

example of what happened to one manager who spoke out:

Jam es Edw ards [ i s ] a H arv ard M.B.A. who jo in e d a l a r g e consum er p r o d u c ts company and w orked h i s way to m id d le management. In an a r t i c l e in a n a tio n a l b u sin ess magazine he spoke o u t on th e l o n e l i n e s s and f r u s t r a t i o n o f b e in g a b lac k manager in a m ostly w h ite co rp o ra tio n .

The n e g a t iv e r e a c t i o n s from s u p e r io r s d ro v e him to in so m n ia . H is c a r e e r was u n d erm in e d . "They sa y I am u n g ra te fu l fo r what the company has done fo r me,” he w rote .They seem ed n o t to u n d e r s ta n d t h a t he was t r y i n g to b re a k th ro u g h th e d e a fe n in g s i l e n c e c o n c e rn in g th e so m etim e s phenomenal estrangem en t of co rp o ra te b lacks from th e p a s t and t r a d i t i o n o f ra ce and c u l tu re , to break through a k ind of m uting I s o la t io n from o th e rs whose v o ices m ight h e lp th e b lack manager understand and fin d a more com fo rtab le p lac e


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In th e consuming l i f e of th e c o rp o ra tio n . (Davis & Watson,1982, p. 5)

Eleven env ironm enta l f a c to r s faced by B lacks In W hite co rpora

t io n s a re l i s t e d as fo llo w s:

1. The p a r a n o ia o f W h ite s ; f o r ex am p le one m anager r e p o r te d

t h a t :

"W h ites a r e so consum ed by th e g u i l t o v e r w hat h as been done to th e b la c k s i n t h i s c o u n try t h a t th e y th in k t h a t e v e ry tim e a group o f b la c k s g e t t o g e th e r to t a l k ab o u t problem s, the b lacks a re r e a l ly p lo t t in g re v en g e,” sa id one b lac k manager we In te rv iew e d . " I t makes them nervous fo r th e t h r e e o f us to be i n h e re ( h i s o f f i c e ) w i th th e d o o r c losed ." He im p lie d , "P re tty soon one o f them i s going to look in to see what w e're ta lk in g about." (D avis & Watson,1982, p. 5)

2. R e ta l ia to ry behav io r o f W hites which causes B lacks to rem ain

"on guard" a t a l l tim es as d esc rib ed by a B lack woman manager:

" I t r y to a v o id sa y in g a n y th in g p e r s o n a l . W henever I'm aro u n d them I can t e l l th e y a r e k e e p in g m e n ta l n o te s . . . .An innocent rem ark, th a t i s in te n t io n a l ly o r u n in te n tio n a l l y m isunderstood could cause someone to say , 'You're no t a good f i t , ' 'Y o u 're n o t a good c o r p o r a te c i t i z e n , ' 'Y ou 're n o t a team p l a y e r . ' Even w h i te m an a g ers d re a d t h a t some such nebulous comment w i l l r e ta rd t h e i r p ro g ress ." (Davis & W atson , 1982, p. 6)

3. Being c a s t in th e ro le of token Black.

4. Being viewed as "u n q u a lified " fo r a job th a t was th e i r s only

because of a f f i rm a t iv e a c t io n causing th e r e a c t io n summarized by th e

a u th o rs :

M ost a d m it te d th e y w ere g la d to be in c o r p o r a t e l i f e and they acknowledged th a t they were th e re because c i v i l r ig h ts groups and the f e d e ra l government p re ssu red t h e i r companies in to g iv in g b lacks a chance, bu t a l l f e l t f u l l y q u a l i f ie d , o f te n o v e rq u a lif ie d . (Davis & Watson, 1982, p. 40)

5. In n e r t e n s io n c a u se d by th e c o n f l i c t b e tw e en th e need to

m a in ta in a Black id e n t i ty and the p re s su re to a s s im i la te .


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The p a t te r n s of t h e i r ad justm en t were s im i la r in many ways to th o s e o f c o u n t l e s s g e n e r a t io n s o f European im m igran ts a d j u s t i n g to A m erica . B ut th e v i s i b l e r a c i a l d i f f e r e n c e and hundreds of y ea rs of sy s te m a tic a t te m p ts to dehumanize b la c k p e o p le made a d ju s tm e n t m ore d i f f i c u l t f o r them i n many ways. And many of them seemed to be say ing th a t th e re was some p e r s i s t e n t b la c k n e s s o f t h e i r s p i r i t s t h a t k e p t them from w anting to a s s im ila te .

Among many b lack s th e re was a g re a t d e a l o f anom ie, a c o n d i t i o n r e s u l t i n g from th e breakdow n o f t r a d i t i o n a l v a lu e s and norm s o f an i n d iv id u a l who c a n n o t o r d o es n o t want to a s s im i la te th e v alu es o f a new, more complex and o f t e n i n h o s p i t a b le e n v iro n m e n t. Anomie o f te n r e s u l t s in f e e l i n g s o f i s o l a t i o n and th e l o s s o f in t im a c y found i n t r a d i t i o n a l c u l tu re s .

S ev era l in te rv ie w e e s ad m itted th a t they may have had a to u c h o f so m e th in g l i k e t h a t , b u t one o f them s tu b b o r n ly re fu se d to have i t c a l le d by th a t name, as i f to escape th e name w ere a l s o to e s c a p e th e d i s e a s e . (D av is & W atson ,1982, pp. 4 0 -41)

6 . F e e l in g s o f g u i l t b e c a u se th e y w ere m aking so much money

w h ile many o f th e Blacks they grew up w ith and members of t h e i r own

f a m i l i e s w ere s t i l l s t r u g g l i n g to s u r v iv e . In one ex am p le th e

au th o rs re p o rte d the op in io n o f a young Black man:

O th e rs f e l t g u i l t y o v e r a l lo w in g th e m s e lv e s to be r e g i m en ted , t h e i r b e h a v io r and sp e e c h to be s t a n d a r d i z e d . A young manager we in te rv iew ed r e c a l le d becoming in c re a s in g ly annoyed a t a b la c k h o u se p a r ty w ith a n o th e r young m an 's c o n v e r s a t io n . " I h a t e th o s e p e o p le ,1' he r e c a l l s s a y in g ." I b e t th a t guy o ver th e re ta lk in g i s a goddam IBMer. A ll o f th o s e b a s t a r d s t a l k a l i k e ." He l e f t th e p a r ty d e s p i t e th e f a c t t h a t he h im s e l f was an IBM er— o r , m ore l i k e l y b e c a u se o f t h a t f a c t . (p . 41)

7. P a ra n o ia b e c a u se th e y a r e r e s e n te d f o r h a v in g a h ig h p o s i

t io n o r because o f th e fe e l in g on th e p a r t o f W hites th a t B lacks only

g e t jobs because they a re Black cause Black managers to be c a u tio u s

about ad d ress in g in su b o rd in a tio n from th o se who re p o r t to them. One

Black manager sa id :


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You've even go t to w atch out fo r your s e c re ta ry . She m ight n o t g iv e you th e p ro p e r r e s p e c t o r l o y a l t y . She m ig h t do l i t t l e th in g s because she d o esn 't l ik e tak in g o rd e rs from you. But you m ust be c a r e f u l how you move on any form o f i n s u b o r d in a t io n . You m ig h t n o t be a b le to a t t a c k i t d i r e c t ly . Your s e c re ta ry m ight be e s p e c ia l ly f r ie n d ly w ith som eone two l e v e l s above you , o r sh e m ig h t be in t h e i r p r o t e c t io n , e s p e c i a l l y i f s h e 's been a ro u n d th e company lo n g e r th a n you. You h av e to b id e y o u r t im e u n t i l y o u 're s u re she d o e s n 't have a sp o n s o r . Then you move in on h e r ;b u t make s u re you h av e d o c u m e n ta tio n . (D av is & W atson,1982, p. 42)

8. The dilemma of n o t knowing what was c o rp o ra te behav io r and

what was r a c i s t c o rp o ra te b ehav io r posed th e problem of c o n s tan t need

fo r a n a ly s is . One manager expressed i t t h i s way:

"You have to look a t how w hite people t r e a t each o th e r ," he s a id ; " th e n y o u 'l l f e e l b e t t e r a b o u t th e d i s r e s p e c t and in su b o rd in a tio n shown tow ard you. W hite s e c r e ta r ie s h a te w h i te b o s s e s so m e tim e s , to o ; b u t w h i te p e o p le know th ey d o n 't have to l i k e ea ch o th e r to g e t th e jo b done. What w h ite people do i s rem ain ou tw ard ly c o r d ia l w h ile su b tly c u t t i n g ea ch o th e r to r ib b o n s , i f n e c e s s a r y . We have to le a rn to work th i s way." (pp. 40-42)

9. The d o u b le b in d o f b e in g e x p e c te d to do a b e t t e r jo b , b u t

being considered a t h r e a t and fa c in g underm ining behavior when they

do perform w e ll i s common (Davis & W atson, 1982, p. 51).

10. Tension betw een B lack men and women managers i s a source of

d isco m fo rt fo r both.

11. C om petition w ith W hite women managers i s aggravated by th e

p e r c e p t io n t h a t W hite women hav e an a d v a n ta g e and do n o t have to

contend w ith the a d d i t io n a l burden o f ra ce .

The numbers show, as b lacks contend, th a t w h ite women a re moving up much f a s te r than o th e r members of th e p ro te c te d c l a s s e s . For one th in g , th e r e a r e more o f them . For a n o th e r , w h i te women have n e v e r been t o t a l l y o u t o f th e m a in s tre a m , even tho u g h th e y have n o t been in th e w a te r e i t h e r . We can view th e m a jo rity of w h ite women p r io r to 1970 a s p e o p le on r a f t s b e in g p u l le d a lo n g by th e s tre a m


by f a t h e r s and b r o th e r s and h u sb an d s . (D av is & W atson , 1982, p . 145)

F o r B la ck fe m a le m a n a g e rs , D av is and W atson (1982) r e p o r te d

problem s In and ou t o f c o rp o ra te l i f e :

A f r e q u e n t p a t t e r n f o r th e b la c k fe m a le m a n a g e r 's l i f e seems to be as fo llo w s: An e a r ly m arriag e to a man she hass in c e d iv o rc e d , who e i t h e r d id n o t ad v an ce as f a r a s she d id o r who ad vanced b u t a t te m p te d to r e t a r d h e r ad v a n c e m en t. She h as a c h i l d who i s , a t p r e s e n t , a b o u t e ig h t y e a r s o ld and i n a p r i v a t e s c h o o l. She d a te s som eone who i s n o t co m m itte d to h e r and sh e h a s some p ro b lem s a b o u t g iv in g h e r s e l f up to a noncom m itted re la t io n s h ip , w h ile a t th e sam e t im e sh e h as th e d e s i r e to be I n a co m m itte d r e la t io n s h ip .

The c o n se n su s among women we in te r v ie w e d was t h a t a b la c k man c a n n o t d e a l w i th a woman who m akes m ore money th a n he d o e s , and t h i s i s why i t i s so d i f f i c u l t f o r a s u c c e s s fu l b lac k woman to g e t a man. (pp. 140-141)

Our co n c lu sio n [ i s ] th a t th e b lack woman i s th e most u n s u p p o r te d o f th e f o u r g ro u p s in o u r c o r p o r a te d ram a .More th a n any o f th e o th e r s she m ust depend on h e r s e l f .(p . 150)

B esides double d is c r im in a t io n th e re i s an a d d i t io n a l problem o f th e

im pact o f achievem ent on th e p erso n al l iv e s of Black women (D avis &

Watson, 1982).

A s u c c e s s m odel f o r B la ck m anagers in to p l e v e l p o s i t i o n s was

developed by Dickens and Dickens (1982) a f t e r docum enting knowledge

gained through y ea rs o f c o n su lt in g , co u n se lin g , and p e rso n a l e x p e ri

e n c e s . They o b se rv e d i n t e r a c t i o n s b e tw e en B la c k s and W h ite s and

in te rv iew ed B lacks who were su c c e s s fu l in moving up in W hite i n s t i t u

t i o n s . The p u rp o se o f th e m odel was to o f f e r s p e c i f i c t o o l s f o r

B la ck s to g e t ah ead in a p re d o m in a n tly W hite w o rk in g e n v iro n m e n t.

The success model was based upon fo u r phases of le a rn in g e x h ib ite d by

Black managers as they passed through c a re e r developm ent: (a) e n try


phase, (b) a d ju s tin g phase , (c) planned grow th phase, and (d) success

phase. The a u th o rs s a id t h a t a l l su c c e s s fu l B lacks in W hite i n s t i t u

t i o n s p a s s th ro u g h ea c h o f th e s e p h a se s ; some p h a se s o v e r la p , and

s u c c e s s can o n ly be re a c h e d by th e c o m p le t io n o f a l l fo u r o f th e

phases. There may be tem porary re g re s s io n s back to a form er s ta g e ,

bu t once a Black manager has com pleted th e success phase of le a rn in g ,

he o r sh e i s d i s t i n c t l y m ore s k i l l e d th a n th o s e B la ck s who do n o t

s u c c e s s fu lly pass through a l l phases. In th e success phase, "Black

m anagers com bine a l l th e y hav e le a r n e d and f e l t and u n d e rs to o d a s

they s tru g g le d to reach th i s phase" (Dickens & D ickens, 1982, p. 32).

B la ck s (a ) come to t h e c o r p o r a t io n s w i th a p o s i t i v e b u t n a iv e

a t t i t u d e . They e n c o u n te r p e r s o n a l a s w e l l a s c o r p o r a te ra c is m and

becom e a n g ry , h o s t i l e , and c u l t u r a l l y p a r a n o id ; th e y th e n (b ) make

th e d e c i s io n to a d j u s t , and (c ) p la n t h e i r g ro w th r a th e r th a n to

a l lo w a n g e r and re s e n tm e n t to s t i f l e i t . In th e p lan n e d g ro w th

phase , B lack managers Look fo r ways to tu rn n e g a tiv e experiences in to

p o s i t i v e o n e s , and w ork h a rd w h i le r e t a i n in g a p o s i t i v e a t t i t u d e .

"Once done, n e g a t iv e a t t i t u d e s c e a se to be a b a r r i e r to l e a r n in g ,

th e re fo re s u c c e s s fu l B lack m anagers w i l l r e ta in a p o s i t iv e a t t i t u d e

even in th e m id s t o f r a c i s t b e h a v io rs " (D ic k en s & D ick e n s , 1982,

p . 33). The s k i l l s o f B la c k m an ag ers in th e s u c c e s s p h ase w ere d e

s c r ib e d as fo llo w s:

In the Success Phase, b lac k managers combine a l l they have lea rn ed and f e l t and understood as they s tru g g le d to reach t h i s p h ase . . . . B la ck m anagers a r e s u c c e s s f u l when th e yhave le a rn e d th e a p p r o p r i a t e s k i l l s t h a t a p p ly to t h e i r unique p o s itio n in th e w h ite c o rp o ra tio n .


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B la ck m anagers who have become s u c c e s s f u l have a c c e p te d p r o t e c t iv e h e s i t a t i o n as a way o f l i f e In th e co rp o ra tio n . They a re very c a re f u l about Id e n ti f y in g and u sin g re so u rc e s , rem ain ing ca u tio u s In t h e i r In te r a c tio n s w ith w h i te s . (C o m p lete o p en n e ss i s a lu x u ry a f f o r d e d to w h ites by w h ites .) P rep lann ing becom r: a n ec essa ry p a r t o f th e p r o t e c t iv e h e s i t a t i o n p ro c e s s . C a r e f u l th o u g h t i s taken befo re a move i s made.

B lack managers in th e Success Phase a re aw are of th e i r b la c k n e s s a t a l l t im e s and how t h i s im p a c ts th e w h ite c o rp o ra tio n . B lacks must keep in mind th a t i f they want to be su c c e s s fu l , they must c o n s ta n tly remember who they a re and how they a re seen . Black managers must unders tand how th a t b lackness im pacts th e people they work w ith and how i t im p a c ts r e l a t i o n s h i p s w ith o th e r s in th e c o r p o r a t io n . (D ic k en s & D ick e n s, 1982, p. 33)

A u n iq u e a b i l i t y to tu r n ra c is m aro u n d and make i t w ork to t h e i r

advantage i s one of the s k i l l s o f th e su c c e s s fu l B lack manager. They

accom plish t h i s by moving through the fo llo w in g f iv e s ta g e s of aw are-

1. Not a l lo w in g th e m s e lv e s to be t r a p p e d i n to d y s f u n c t io n a l

b e h a v io r . S u c c e s s fu l B la ck m anagers know W h ite s w i l l a l lo w o th e r

W hites bu t n o t Blacks to be d y sfu n c tio n a l.

2. D eveloping a sm oother in te rp e rs o n a l s ty le fo r th e a b i l i t y to

in f lu e n c e o th e rs more so than White m anagers. B lack managers have to

u se i n f l u e n t i a l b e h a v io r and c h a r i s m a t i c pow er r a t h e r th a n r e a l

p o s i tio n power in o rd e r to g e t W hites to work fo r them.

3. Black managers le a rn they must co n fro n t W hites in a way th a t

l e a v e s W h ites t h e i r d i g n i ty ; o th e r w is e , r a c is m w i l l d o m in a te th e

W h ite p e r s o n 's b e h a v io r c a u s in g him o r h e r t o becom e i l l o g i c a l

th ereb y p rev en tin g th e reach ing of c lo su re on any is su e .

4. B la ck m anagers who re a c h th e S u cce ss P hase have fo rg e d a

tr a c k re co rd , produced o u ts ta n d in g r e s u l t s , and gained re sp e c t from


o th e r s . They have le a r n e d t h a t t h i s m eans o n ly th e o p p o r tu n i ty to

work to keep th e re co rd , th e o p p o rtu n ity to prove competence to the

company aga in and again . This I s a f a i l u r e on th e p a r t of the system

which a llo w s W hite managers to move through th e o rg a n iz a tio n on th e

b a s is of t h e i r pe rce iv e d p o te n t ia l .

5. B la ck m anagers n ee d to u se s t r a t e g y m ore th a n t h e i r W hite

pee rs do, p a r t ic u la r ly fo r th e management of c o n f l i c t and th e manage

ment of ra c ism , because e x te rn a l fo rc e s work to reduce the im pact of

B la ck s on th e sy s te m . B la c k m an ag ers m ust d e v e lo p a p re p la n n e d

s t r a t e g y to g e t t h e i r in p u t h e a rd to im p a c t th e sy s te m in s p i t e o f

r a c i s t r e s is ta n c e . E very th ing becomes im p o rta n t—d re ss , s ty le , and

tim in g .

The a t t i t u d e s , e m o tio n s , s k i l l s , and b e h a v io rs f o r s u c c e s s f u l

Black managers w ere sum marized by Dickens and Dickens (1982, pp. ISO-

181) as fo llo w s:

A tt i tu d e s :

1. A c c e p t in g th e a d d i t i o n a l b u rd e n s o f a s u p e r v i s o r y

manager o r f i r s t prom otion.

2. R e a liz in g making m ista k es o r f a i l i n g i s no t an o p tio n .

3. Using p ro te c t iv e h e s i ta t io n as a s tra te g y .

4. B eing aw are o f o n e 's own b la c k n e s s and i t s im p a c t on an

o rg a n iz a tio n and v a rio u s s i tu a t io n s .

5. C ontinuing aw areness of how s u b t le p re ju d ic e o p e ra te s .

6. Being more s e n s i t iv e to the work environm ent.

7. Seeking few er s tro k e s ; being r e s u l t s o r ie n te d .


Emotions:

8 . S ub lim ating .

9 . F eelin g high co n fid e n ce .

B eh av io rs :

10. Using com m unications netw orks e f f e c t iv e ly (fo rm al and in

form al) .

11. Continuing to r e f in e and smooth p e rso n a l s ty le .

12. C onfronting w h ites in a way th a t lea v es them th e i r d ig n ity .

13. C ontinuing to s e t and meet g o a ls .

14. P roducing h ig h -q u a li ty r e s u l t s .

15. D isp lay ing a success a f f e c t .

Job S k il l s :

16. Using h ig h er in te rp e r s o n a l and b e h a v io ra l s k i l l s .

17. Using s k i l l s to r e s i s t power.

18. C ontinuing to develop m u l t ic u l tu r a l management s k i l l s .

Known D iffe re n ces in th e Growth and Development of S u ccessfu l Hen and Women Leaders by Race

Comparative s tu d ie s and th e o r ie s which in v e s t ig a te d if fe re n c e s

betw een B lack and White le a d e rs a re p re sen ted here in c h ro n o lo g ic a l

o rd e r. Some s tu d ie s only compare men and women of th e same ra ce .

Osipow (1973) re v ie w e d s e v e r a l s t u d ie s and found th e d a ta to

suggest th e fo llo w in g d if fe re n c e s :

1. Black m ales, W hite m ales, and W hite fem ales were in flu en c ed

in t h e i r jo b c h o ic e by a p e r so n who a c t u a l l y h e ld th e jo b . M o th ers

were th e most s ig n if ic a n t c a re e r in f lu e n c e fo r B lack fem ales.


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2. B lack s tu d e n ts were h ig h er than W hite s tu d e n ts In a l t r u i s t i c

v a lu e s and th e In flu e n ce of school and sc ien c e on t h e i r p lan s .

3. M id d le -c la ss boys more o fte n chose p ro f e s s io n a l c a re e rs and

le s s o f te n government jobs than I n n e r -c ity boys; m id d le -c la s s g i r l s

more o f te n chose b u sin ess o r tea ch in g and were l e s s o f te n u n c e r ta in

about jobs than in n e r - c i ty g i r l s .

4. F em ales w ere m ore c o n c ern e d w ith s t a t u s and p r e s t i g e th a n

m a le s . T h is was i n c o n s i s t e n t w i th a n o th e r o b s e r v a t io n t h a t boys

ranked s a la r y and p re s tig e h igh w h ile g i r l s ranked p e rso n a l co n ta c t

and s o c ia l s e rv ic e as im p o rtan t job v a lu e s.

5. Women were in flu en c ed by s o c ia l f a c to r s and what men th in k

more so than by s o c ia l f a c to r s and what women th in k .

As an overview , Osipow (1973) found more im portance in co n s id e r

in g p o v e r ty , d i s c r i m i n a t i o n , and t h e i r c o n se q u e n c e s f o r m in o r i ty

g ro u p s r a t h e r th a n t h e i r m in o r i ty g roup s t a t u s . In c o n c lu s io n ,

Osipow sa id :

The i n f o r m a t i o n d e a l i n g w i t h m in o r i ty g ro u p c a r e e r development i s bo th confusing and in c o n s is te n t . P r im a r ily , t h i s a p p e a rs to s tem from a la c k o f c o n s i s t e n c y in th e d e f in i t io n of m in o rity group membership and an absence of any c l e a r c o n c e p tu a l b a s i s f o r m ost o f th e r e s e a r c h .(p . 246).

In g e n e r a l , th e s tu d ie s have co n fo u n d ed r a c e , s o c i a l c l a s s , e t h n i c i t y , e d u c a t io n a l l e v e l s and econom ic v a r i a b l e s . T h is c o n fo u n d in g o f v a r ia b l e s c o n t r i b u t e s to th e c o n fu se d and c o n f l i c t i n g p i c t u r e t h a t h as d e v e lo p e d conce rn in g th e s ta tu s and needs of d isadvan taged and m in o rity gro u p m em bers w i th r e s p e c t to t h e i r c a r e e r d e v e lo p m e n t.(p . 270)

A n u m e r ic a l d i f f e r e n c e b e tw e en B lack men and women in w hich

Black women c o n s t i tu te a l a rg e r p ro p o rtio n of a l l women than Black


men do o f a l l males In m ost Im p o rta n t p ro fe s s io n a l groups was found

by E p s te in (1973). In com paring B lack and W hite women, E p s te in found

t h a t B lack women p r o f e s s i o n a l s seem ed to have a h ig h e r r e g a rd f o r

each o th e r than W hite women p ro fe s s io n a ls had fo r each o th e r .

J e f f e r s (1973) ex a m in e d th e e f f e c t o f c o lo r p r e ju d ic e among

Blacks and concluded th a t th e p ro fe s s io n a l b lac k , B lack woman i s th e

most v ic t im iz e d p sy c h o lo g ic a lly by Black m id d le -c la s s p re ju d ic e .

The job a s p ira t io n s o f a m a jo r i ty o f 70 B lack and 70 W hite male

underg radua tes re g a rd le ss o f ra c e w ere d ire c te d tow ards o ccupations

t r a d i t i o n a l ly c lo sed to B lacks in a study by L i t t i g (1975). Working

c la s s s ta tu s was a s s o c ia te d w ith c lo sed a s p i ra t io n s , s tro n g ac h iev e

ment m o tiv a tio n , and s tro n g power m o tiv a tio n . M id d le -c la ss s ta tu s

was a s s o c ia te d w ith open a s p i r a t io n s , bu t th e re was no a s s o c ia t io n o f

s t r o n g a c h ie v e m e n t m o t iv a t io n and c lo s e d a s p i r a t i o n s o r pow er in

o b se rv a tio n s among m id d le -c la s s s u b je c ts . S trong a f f i l i a t i o n m otiva

t io n was r e la te d to c lo se d a s p i ra t io n s among m id d le -c la s s su b je c ts

( L i t t i g , 1975, pp. 6-13). L i t t i g a ls o found th a t m iddle c la s s B lacks

w ith s t r o n g a f f i l i a t i o n m o t iv a t io n seek p o s i t iv e a f f e c t iv e rew ards

from th e W hite m a jo rity .

"The study of women has an in h e re n t a n a ly t ic a l problem in th a t

th e a p p ro p ria te com parison groups—b lac k and w h ite women— fu n c tio n in

a la b o r m a rk e t t h a t i s . . . [ o f te n ] e x c lu s io n a r y o f b o th g ro u p s"

( L i t t ig , 1975, p. 13). In a com parative s tudy between Black American

Women and W hite E ng lish women, L i t t i g (1975) concluded th a t an occu

p a tio n was a much more im p o rtan t g o al fo r Black women c o lle g e s tu

d e n ts th a n i t was f o r W hite women c o l le g e s tu d e n t s . T h i r ty - o n e


75

p e r c e n t o f th e U h i te women s u b j e c t s d id n o t s t a t e a c l a s s i f i a b l e

o c c u p a t io n a l g o a l; b u t o n ly 7.5X o f th e B la c k women s u b j e c t s w ere

u n a b le to s t a t e g o a ls f o r t h e i r o c c u p a t io n a l a s p i r a t i o n s ( L i t t i g ,

1975, p. 14)

Among women, in c lu d in g b la c k and w h i te A m eric an s and Englishwomen from th re e s o c ia l c la s s le v e ls , th e re a re no s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e tw e en any o f th e m o t iv a t io n v a r ia b le s and a s p i ra t io n s to t r a d i t i o n a l ly open and c lo sed o c c u p a t io n s . . . . Two s t u d ie s r e v e a l a r e l a t i o n s h i p between achievem ent m o tiv a tio n and a s p i r a t io n to t r a d i t i o n a l l y c lo sed occupations among b lac k American men. ( L i t t i g ,1975, p . 16).

[Two] co nc lusions [can be drawn] about th e n a tu re of th e re la t io n s h ip betw een p e r s o n a l i ty and o cc u p a tio n a l a s p ir a t i o n s . The f i r s t . . . i s t h a t men and women a r e d i f f e r e n t v i s - a - v i s o c c u p a t io n s . The se c o n d , . . . i s t h a t d i f f e r e n t m o tiv e s o p e r a te to ac h iev e s im i l a r ends w ith in d i f f e r e n t s o c i a l c l a s s l e v e l s . W ith in th e w o rk in g c l a s s achievem ent m o tiv a tio n was p r in c ip a l ly r e la te d to a s p i ra t io n s ; w ith in th e m iddle c la s s i t i s a f f i l i a t i o n m o tiv a tio n w h ich i s e f f e c t i v e i n I n f lu e n c in g th e s e a s p i r a t i o n s . ( L i t t i g , 1975, p. 16)

On th e su b je c t of a b se n t f a th e r s , Hunt and Hunt (1975) re p o rte d

th a t th e g re a te s t c o s ts o f f a th e r lo s s were experienced by W hite boys

and B lack g i r l s , w h ile some p o s s ib le , i f l im i te d , g a in s may be expe

rien c ed by Black boys and W hite g i r l s . W hile th e m agnitude of th e se

e f f e c t s i s s m a ll, they i l lu m in e some o f th e p ro c esses which s u s ta in

p a t t e r n s o f s o c i a l i n e q u a l i t y . In so d o in g , th e y u n d e r s c o re th e

l im i ta t io n s o f p a s t p o l ic ie s which have p ro b ab ly focused too h e a v ily

on n o rm a l iz in g B la ck f a m i ly l i f e and s t r e s s th e im p o r ta n c e o f

ad d ress in g th e s u b t le b a r r ie r s to fem ale s ta tu s -a t ta ln m e n t c re a te d by

b o th n o rm al and d is o r g a n iz e d f a m i ly l i f e in f o r m u la t in g p o l i c i e s

aimed a t women (p. 101).


I a a s tu d y o f th e s e l f - c o n c e p t s o f B lack and W hite m an a g ers ,

Watson and Barone (1976) re p o rte d no s ig n if ic a n t d if fe re n c e s In s e l f -

concep ts , s e lf - a c c e p ta n c e , o r on Id e a l view o f s e l f betw een th e two

groups. The r e s u l t s showed a p rim ary valu e o r ie n ta tio n o f bo th B lack

and White managers was p ra g m a tic , a secondary v a lu e o r ie n ta tio n was

m o ra l i s t i c , w h ile few managers from e i th e r group e x h ib ite d an e f f e c t

o r ie n ta tio n (W atson & Barone, 1976, p. 46).

In a t t i t u d e s tow ard work, Hennig and Jard im (1976) re p o rte d th e

fo llo w in g d if fe re n c e s betw een males and fem ales:

1. Women d e f in e a jo b as a means o f e a rn in g a l i v i n g , a m eans

of s u rv iv a l , ro u tin e , te d io u s ; men see i t as a ta s k to be com pleted,

a s e t o f r e s p o n s ib i l i t i e s to be met (p. 33).

2. Men r e l a t e d jo b s to t h e i r c o n c e p t o f c a r e e r a d v a n ce m e n t,

upward p ro g ress io n ; women see a c a re e r as an in te n s e ly p e rso n a l go al

w h ich th e i n d i v id u a l a lo n e can ju d g e w h e th e r sh e h as a c h ie v e d

(p . 3 3 ).

3. From a v e ry e a r l y age men e x p e c t to work and s u p p o r t a t

l e a s t th e m s e lv e s . Only a f r a c t i o n a l m in o r i ty o f W hite women came

fa ce to fa ce w ith t h i s i s s u e as l i t t l e g i r l s (pp. 34-35).

4. Men f in d i t d i f f i c u l t to s e p a ra te p e rso n a l go als from c a re e r

g o a ls . Women a c t iv e ly s t r i v e fo r s e p a ra tio n (p. 36).

5. A b r i g h t young man i s a "com er" and even th e l e s s b r i g h t

have to p ro v e by t h e i r p e r fo rm a n c e t h a t th e y do n o t b e lo n g . In

e f f e c t they have to prove fa i lu r e . Women have to prove th a t they do

b e lo n g . Women have to p ro v e s u c c e s s , and on a c o n tin u o u s b a s i s

(p . 3 7 ).


6. The ex perience o f l i t t l e g i r l s has no p a r a l l e l to th e expe

r ie n c e o f sm all boys le a rn in g a team fu n c tio n (pp. 41-45).

7. Hen s e e r i s k as l o s s o r g a in , w in n in g o r l o s in g ; women se e

r i s k as e n t i r e ly n eg a tiv e (p. 47).

The e f f e c t o f m a te r n a l a t t i t u d e s on a c h ie v e m e n t in g i r l s and

b oys show ed t h a t " m o d e ra te , b u t n o t h ig h m a te r n a l w arm th and even

s l i g h t h o s t i l i t y w ere r e l a t e d to s tro n g achievem ent o r ie n ta t io n in

g i r l s ; w h ile h igh m ate rn a l nu rtu ra n ce and a f f e c t io n w ere a s s o c ia te d

w ith s tro n g achievem ent o r ie n ta tio n in boys” (M anley, 1977, p. 229).

A re v ie w o f e m p i r i c a l s t u d ie s s u g g e s ts t h a t B lack and W hite

women a r e u n d e r r e p r e s e n te d in h ig h p r e s t i g e o c c u p a t io n s (M urray &

M ednick , 1977). The e f f e c t o f u n d e r r e p r e s e n ta t i o n i s a com plex o f

ex p e rien c es unique to being a "token" in o rg a n iz a tio n s . The e f f e c t s

o f token s t a tu s —a p o s i tio n l e a s t l i k e ly to be h eld by W hite m ales—

i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by f e a r o f r e t a l i a t i o n , e x p o su re to th e e x c lu d in g

e f f e c t s o f "in-g roup" b eh av io r, and being su b je c te d to lo y a l ty t e s t s

even though the token occup ies a p e r ip h e ra l s ta tu s in r e la t io n to th e

dom inant group (K anter, 1977, pp. 221-227). In c o n tra s t to th e token

s t a tu s , a m anager's p e rce ived s ta tu s in sam e-race o r sam e-sex s i tu a

t io n s i s m arkedly d i f f e r e n t . S u b o rd in a te s , when a sk e d to e v a lu a t e

m an a g ers , g iv e d i f f e r e n t re s p o n s e s in th e a b se n c e o f c r o s s - r a c e o r

c ro s s -s e x c o n d itio n s . When Black male and White fem ale managers were

each compared w ith W hite m ales, th e r e s u l t s showed s ig n if ic a n t d i f

fe re n c e s on le a d e rsh ip p e rcep tio n s . "No d if fe re n c e s r e la te d to man

a g e rs w ere found when s u b o r d in a te r e p o r t s o f B la ck m ale and W hite

fe m a le m an a g ers w ere com pared" (E. F. Adams, 1978, p. 286). T here


M in o r i ty m an ag ers w e re p e rc e iv e d as e x h ib i t in g more cons id e ra t io n than m a jo r i ty managers. . • . B lack su b o rd in a te s have ex trem ely h igh (fav o ra b le ) means under b lack managers and g e n e ra lly low er ( le s s fav o rab le ) means w ith w hite manag ers . Black su b o rd in a te s w ith b lack managers re p o rt the h ig h e s t mean o f c o n s id e ra tio n (M ■ 43.3) and th e fe w est job p ro b lem s (M = 3 .7 ) o f th e fo u r su b g ro u p s w ith any u n i t m anager. . . . R e la te d to su b g ro u p d i f f e r e n c e s i s th e I n t e r a c t i o n , w i th w h i te s u b o r d in a te s r e p o r t i n g more jo b problem s in u n i t management w ith b lack managers than w h ite fem ale m anagers, and b lac k su b o rd in a te s re p o rtin g more job problem s w ith w h ite fem ale managers than w ith b lack mana g e rs . (E. F. Adams, 1978, p. 286)

Comparative s tu d ie s o f le a d e r behavior and e f fe c tiv e n e s s m ight

be b iased by s o c ie ta l co n d itio n in g to d e f in e good le a d e rsh ip in male

term s. When behav io r th a t i s t r a d i t i o n a l ly "female*' i s d isp la y ed by

women le a d e rs , they a re more l i k e ly to be n e g a tiv e ly ev a lu a ted than

th e i r male c o u n te rp a r ts who d isp la y th e same behavior and a re p e r

ce ived as good le a d e rs . S ince most re se a rc h on le a d e r behavior has

used male su b je c ts , In d e r l ie d and P o w e ll (1979) q u e s t io n e d w h e th e r

males can re p re s e n t a u n iv e rs a l model of th e "b est manager o r le a d e r

to o th e r i n d iv id u a l s " (p . 623).

S ex -ro le s te re o ty p e s held by su b o rd in a te s dem onstra ted th e d i f

f e r e n t i a l e v a lu a tio n s ta n d a rd s which a re a p p lie d to m ale and fem ale

managers in a s tudy by M e sse n g ill and DiMarco (1979) who found th a t

"men" and "managers" a re s t i l l perce ived to be more synonomous than

"men" and "women,” o r "women” and "m an ag ers ." M ales and fe m a le s

p e r c e iv e th e r o l e o f m anager in much th e same way, b u t show some

d i f f e r e n c e s i n th e way th e y p e r c e iv e th e a t t r i b u t e s o f women. The

view th a t fem ales have o f them selves accounts fo r th e d if fe re n c e s in

perceived s im i l a r i ty betw een women and managers.


Male and fem ale s u b je c ts showed some d egree o f agreem ent th a t

women a re lac k in g in th e dom inan t-aggressive c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f suc

c e s s fu l managers. M ales appeared to pe rce iv e women as lac k in g th e

ego s t r e n g t h to w i th s ta n d th e h ig h d e g re e o f dem ands and p r e s s u r e s

t y p ic a l ly found in many m anageria l p o s itio n s . "The one a re a in which

women [w ere] perce ived to p ossess a g re a te r degree o f c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

( . . . o n ly by fe m a le s u b je c t s ) seemed to be p e r ip h e r a l to th e

q u a l i t i e s of a su c c e s s fu l manager— so c ia l-h u m a n ita r ia n ” (M e sse n g ill &

DiMarco, 1979, pp. 568-569).

The n e g a t iv e im p a c t o f s t e r e o ty p e s on th e s e l f - e v a l u a t i o n s o f

male and fem ale managers was dem onstra ted in th e r e la t iv e u n w illin g

n e s s o f fe m a le m an ag ers to ta k e c r e d i t f o r t h e i r s u c c e s s f u l jo b

perform ance (Deaux, 1979). Males saw th e i r a b i l i t i e s , i n te l l ig e n c e ,

and perform ance s ig n if i c a n t ly b e t te r th an d id fe m a les ; th e men viewed

t h e i r jo b s a s more d i f f i c u l t th a n d id women, and r e p o r t e d b e t t e r

re la t io n s h ip s w ith t h e i r su p erv iso rs than women. Men b e liev e d they

were shown r e la t iv e ly m ore-approval fo r t h e i r work than d id women.

M ales and fem ales judged them selves s im i l a r ly on th e a t t r i b u t e s

of e f f o r t , f r ie n d l in e s s , i n i t i a t i v e , m oodiness, o r p h y s ic a l a t t r a c

t i v e n e s s . M ale and fe m a le f i r s t - l e v e l m an ag ers showed some s im i

l a r i t y on m ea su res o f jo b s a t i s f a c t i o n , p ro v id in g s u p p o r t f o r th e

a rg u m e n t t h a t m a les and fe m a le s i n e q u iv a le n t p o s i t i o n s a r e more

s im i la r than d i f f e r e n t . S u p erv iso r 's ra t in g s o f the managers showed

v e ry l i t t l e d i f f e r e n c e b e tw e en m ales and fe m a le s , m in im iz in g th e

im p o r ta n c e o f d i s c r i m i n a t i o n a s a f a c t o r in t h e s e s e t t i n g s . S u p er

v is o r s ra te d male and fem ale managers e q u a lly on a b i l i t y to accep t


80

p r a i s e o r c r i t i c i s m and p e r c e p t io n o f c r i t i c i s m re c e iv e d . M en's

p e r c e p t io n s o f t h e i r jo b s a s m ore d i f f i c u l t w e re c o r r o b o r a te d by

su p e rv iso r r a t i n g s .

S im ila r ly , th e su p e rv iso rs re p o rte d b e t t e r r e la t io n s w ith t h e i r m a le , a s com pared to t h e i r fe m a le m an a g ers . These d if fe re n c e s , i f they a re g e n e ra l, su g g est t h a t women may be h a n d ic a p p e d in an o r g a n iz a t io n n o t o n ly th ro u g h o v e r t t r e a tm e n t d i s c r i m i n a t i o n b u t a l s o in more s u b t le , i n t e r p e rso n a l ways. (Deaux, 1979, pp. 575-579)

O ther d if fe re n c e s in approach to c a re e r g o a ls and job perform

ance between men and women were l i s t e d by Halcomb (1979):

1. Men n o t o n ly make c a r e e r p la n s e a r l y b u t a l s o g e n e ra lly d ec ide j u s t how much money th e y 're going to make in f i v e y e a r s , t e n y e a r s and tw e n ty y e a r s . O f te n , to o , th e y p i c t u r e w here t h e y ' l l be a t f i f t y o r a t s i x t y - f i v e , th e s o r t o f o f f i c e t h e y ' l l o ccupy , th e h o u se t h e y ' l l l i v e in , th e people who w i l l surround them. A lthough p lans may have to be ch a n g ed , t h e i r f i n a n c i a l g o a ls a r e r e a l and w o rk ab le ones w h ich a r e e f f e c t i v e i n g e t t i n g them m obil i z e d . Men— and no t on ly businessm en b u t re se a rc h e rs and p r o f e s s o r s and w r i t e r s — know when th e y 'r e on s c h e d u le .(p . 24)

2. Men seem a b le to c a p i ta l iz e w ith o u t g u i l t on t h e i r youth, good looks, good fam ily o r w hatever advantages they h av e . . . . But f o r many women a c o n f l i c t r e m a in s : th e y want to make th e game f a i r e r than i t i s , and th a t a t t i t u d e can d im in ish t h e i r chances of w inning, (p. 131)

A re v ie w o f e m p i r i c a l s t u d ie s w h ich com pared men and women

le a d e rs re s u lte d in th e fo llo w in g fo u r co n c lu sio n s :

1. T h ere i s no d i f f e r e n c e i n m ale and fe m a le mana g e r s ' p e r c e p t io n s o f th e d i f fe re n c e betw een t h e i r a c tu a l and id e a l behavior.

2. The b e h a v io r and s k i l l s o f th e l e a d e r s w ere n o t r e l a t e d to th e se x o f t h e i r s u b o r d in a t e s . No d i f f e r e n c e s w ere found b e tw e en th e p e r fo rm a n c e o f m ale and fe m a le le a d e rs on both t h e i r human r e l a t i o n s and a d m i n i s t r a t i v e t e c h n ic a l s k i l l s . Women r e l e a s e more te n s io n , a r e more op in io n ated and ask fo r more su g g estio n s th an men.


81

3. The s ty le th eo ry re se a rc h a tte m p ts to dem onstra te e i t h e r s i m i l a r i t i e s a n d /o r d i f f e r e n c e s b e tw e en m ale and fe m a le l e a d e r s . The d e g re e o f co m m o n ality was s t r o n g ly p ro n o u n c ed i n t h i s a r e a . Only t h r e e o u t o f 13 s tu d ie s i n d ic a te a s ig n if ic a n t d if fe re n c e between male and fem ale l e a d e r s h ip s ty le s .

4. A m a jo r them e u n d e r ly in g much o f th e l i t e r a t u r e concern ing d is c r im in a t io n a g a in s t women in m anagem ent i s t h a t fem ales a re in e f f e c t iv e le a d e rs . . . . Even though th e t r a d i t i o n a l s e x - s te re o ty p in g i s p e rv as iv e , th e w idely h eld b e l i e f th a t women make in f e r io r le a d e rs seems to g ive way in a c tu a l work s i tu a t io n s . (Brown, 1979, pp. 605-607)

A s tu d y o f th e r e la t io n s h ip betw een group perform ance and sub

o rd in a te e v a lu a tio n of le a d e rs showed s im i la r re a c tio n s to m ale and

fem ale le a d e rs h ip (Pow ell & B u tte r f ie ld , 1980): Female le a d e rs were

n o t s te re o ty p e d — they w ere h ig h ly ra te d when group perform ance was

h ig h and dow ngraded when p e rfo rm a n c e was low , l e a d in g P o w e ll and

B u t t e r f i e l d to c o n c lu d e t h a t s u p p o r t was p ro v id e d f o r a t t r i b u t i o n

th e o r ie s o f le a d e rsh ip .

The advancement o f men and women in management was th e s u b je c t

o f a 3 -y e ar study conducted by H arlan and W eiss (1981). T h eir f in d

in g s , based upon e x te n siv e in te rv ie w and t e s t d a ta , showed:

1. Hen and women managers ho ld ing s im ila r p o s i tio n s resem bled

e a c h o th e r p s y c h o lo g ic a l ly , and e x p e r ie n c e d s i m i l a r d ilem m as and

b a r r ie r s as they p ro g ressed through management.

2. Sex b i a s , p r e s e n t in b o th s u b t le and o v e r t fo rm s , d id n o t

d im in ish w ith la rg e r numbers o f women in management.

3. M a n a g e r ia l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and ex p e rien c es were p e rce ived

and e v a lu a ted d i f f e r e n t ly fo r men and women.

4. D i f f e r e n c e s in w om en's and m en's c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and e x p e r ie n c e s su ch as f r e q u e n c y o f in fo rm a l m e e tin g s , need f o r a f f i l i a t i o n h a v in g o ld e r s u p e r v is o r s , o p e r a te d to


women's advantage, b u t more o f te n th e pe rce iv e d d if fe re n c e s In c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s worked to th e d e tr im e n t of women's advancem ent. (H arlan & W eiss, 1981, pp. 1 -1 1 )

A s tudy to dete rm in e w hether m in o r i t ie s and women needed s p e c ia l

t r a in in g to become e f f e c t iv e managers in c o rp o ra tio n s , to examine th e

e f f e c t of employment p o l ic ie s and p ra c t ic e s on m anageria l u t i l i z a

t io n , and to examine m anagers' p e rc e p tio n s o f th e atm osphere in which

th e y work r e s u l t e d in th e o b s e r v a t io n s t h a t th e s t a t u s and p e rc e p

tio n s o f Black and White people in c o rp o ra tio n s a re in flu en c ed by the

f a c t th a t many m in o r i t ie s and women were s o c ia l iz e d d i f f e r e n t ly , o r

have d i f f e r e n t c u l tu r a l backgrounds, va lue system s, and e x p e c ta tio n s

than W hite m ales who dom inate the c o rp o ra tio n s . The coming to g e th e r

of th ese d iv e rse people in th e c o rp o ra te s e t t i n g has c re a te d te n s io n

f o r everyone (Fernandez, 1981).

W hite men who dom inated 95% of th e corporate-m anagem ent ranks

w h ile re p re se n tin g only 37% of th e p o p u la tio n found them selves com

p e tin g w ith 63% of th e p o p u la tio n fo r th e f i r s t tim e. Many o f th ese

w h i te m ales b e l ie v e d th e y w ere t r e a t e d u n f a i r l y and t h a t r e v e r s e

d is c r im in a tio n was a common occurrence . C onverse ly , la rg e numbers of

m in o r i tie s and women b e liev e d W hite men to be th e p re fe r re d ra c e /s e x

g roup by f a r . The pheonm enon o f th e s e d i s p a r a t e p e r c e p t io n s was

a t t r i b u t e d to the d if fe re n c e s between people who have been accustom ed

to having alm o st a l l of th e power in th e c o rp o ra te h ie ra rc h y and the

p e o p le who hav e had a lm o s t none; any l o s s from e x c l u s i v i t y was

viewed as g re a t , w h ile sm all g a in s from e x c lu sio n were no t viewed as

being enough.


C o n flic tin g p e rc e p tio n s were found between m in o r i t ie s and White

women, betw een th e v a r io u s m in o rity groups, and betw een th e d i f f e r e n t

sexes of th e same m in o rity group* There were accu sa tio n s among th ese

groups as to who was g e t t in g a l l th e o p p o r tu n it ie s and who was being

t r e a te d most f a i r l y .

Of a l l g ro u p s i n th e F ern a n d ez (1981)) s tu d y , B la ck women w ere

th e most c r i t i c a l about th e s ta tu s and tre a tm e n t of women in co rpora

t i o n s b e c a u se th e y s u f f e r s e x i s t d i s c r i m i n a t i o n a s women and th e y

fa ce r a c i a l d is c r im in a t io n th a t B lack men face .

In comparing th e a s p i ra t io n s of th e su b je c ts , Fernandez (1981)

found th a t re g a rd le ss of ra ce women expressed low er ex p e c ta tio n s and

low er a s p ira t io n s than do men and h ig h er a s p ira t io n s appeared to be

re la te d to success . B lack and w h ite women a t h ig h er le v e ls of man

agement were more l i k e ly than were those a t low er le v e ls to a s p ire to

reach to le v e ls above.

W hite c o lleg e -ed u c a ted men aged 30 and under had low er a s p ira

t i o n s th a n w h ite men o v e r 30. F e rn a n d ez (1981) s p e c u la te d t h a t th e

low er a s p ira t io n s o f th e under 30 group

m ight r e f l e c t th e d e te r io r a t io n o f the s o l id advantage of ju s t being a w h ite man in th e p re se n t EEO/AAP atm osphere. H ow ever, th e v e ry h ig h a s p i r a t i o n s o f w h i te c o l l e g e - e d u c a te d men o v e r 30 may r e f l e c t th e v iew t h a t th e y cons c io u s ly o r s u b c o n s c io u s ly know t h a t th e w h i te man s t i l l h as th e m ajo r pow er to p ro m o te . They a r e n o t l i k e l y to e a s i l y a l lo w t h e i r ra n k s to be f i l l e d w i th , n o r t h e i r d ream s th r e a t e n e d by , m i n o r i t i e s and women. (F e rn a n d e z ,1981, p. I l l )

C o llege-educated W hite women, re g a rd le ss of age , had h ig h er a s p ira

t io n s than Black and o th e r m in o rity women. Fernandez (1981) hypothe

s iz e d th a t m in o rity women sca le d down th e i r a s p ira t io n s because of


84

th e double stigm a they face; and because th e fe m in is t movement has

no t had as g re a t an Im pact on m in o rity women.

Fernandez (1981) found th a t

many w hite men have jo in ed m in o rity and fem ale managers in c r i t i c i z in g th e su b je c tiv e , u n fa ir p rom otion p o l ic ie s and p r a c t i c e s t h a t f i r m s have u sed s in c e t h e i r in c o rp o ra tio n . M anagers, r e g a r d l e s s o f r a c e and s e x , a r e p e r c e iv in g th e u n f a i r n e s s o f many p ro m o tio n s . . .and a r e . . . w i l l i n g to express t h e i r d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n , (p. 113)

The l iv e s o f B lacks in c o rp o ra tio n s was th e su b je c t o f an a n a ly

s i s to a sse ss what was faced by Blacks s t r iv in g fo r success in p re

d om inantly W hite c o rp o ra tio n s (Davis & Watson, 1982). A c le a r advan

ta g e f o r W hite women was r e f l e c t e d in th e D av is and W atson (1982)

f in d in g s :

1. By 1978 t h e r e w ere te n t im e s as many w h i te women a s b la c k men on th e b o a rd s o f m a jo r co m p a n ie s . . . . The numbers o f b lac k m ale ex ecu tiv es have rem ained p re t ty much th e same o v e r th e l a s t f i v e y e a r s . A few b la c k fe m a le s have been ad d ed , b u t w h ite women have made quantum le a p s i n t o th e sy s te m and th e y a r e in many m ore d i v e r s i f i e d fu n c tio n s . (Davis & Watson, 1982, p. 145)

2* The w h ite woman's p o s i t i o n was n e v e r a s bad as t h a t o f th e b la c k man o r woman in A m eric a . In te n y e a r s t h e r e w i l l be no c o m p a riso n b e tw e en h e r s t a t u s and th e s t a t u s o f o th e r m em bers o f th e p r o t e c t e d c l a s s e s . The w h i te woman h as t h i s ea sy i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w ith th e w h ite man. . . . W hite women a r e n o t d i s c o v e r in g th e n a tu r e o f c o rp o ra te l i f e fo r th e f i r s t tim e. Many o f them have been around th i s kind of environm ent a l l t h e i r l iv e s . At l e a s t th e ones who a r e now h ig h ly s u c c e s s f u l i n c o r p o r a t io n s .They know th e s u b t le nuances of th e system . They know how to i n t e r a c t w i th th e sy s tem . They have m ore r e s p e c t f o r th e system because they know i t i s t h e i r system . They can use i t more e f f e c t iv e ly because they t r u s t i t and i t t r u s t s them . They can o r g a n iz e and p r o t e s t w i th o u t r a i s i n g th e f e a r th a t they a re try in g to overthrow any th ing . In a d d it io n , w h ite women a re capab le of more e f f e c t iv e subord inat i o n b e c a u se many o f them grew up w i th g e n u in e awe f o r p o w e rfu l w h i te f a th e r f i g u r e s , and w ith envy f o r t h e i r b ro th e r s , who were c lo s e r to t h e i r fa th e r s than they were a llow ed to be. (Davis & Watson, 1982, pp. 145-148)


3. For a b la c k woman, s o c i a l i z i n g w i th w h ite men i s done w ith g r e a t c a r e to av o id even th e a p p e a ra n c e o f an y th in g s e x u a l. Many [ in f o r m a l b u s in e s s ] i n v i t a t i o n s a r e tu rn e d down t h a t w ould o th e r w is e be a c c e p te d . (D av is & Watson, 1982, p. 176)

The ro u te s by which women e n te r e le c t iv e p u b lic o f f ic e and th e

ways th ese ro u te s a re s im i l a r to o r d i f f e r e n t from th o se of men was

th e s u b je c t o f a n a t io n w id e c o m p a riso n c o n d u c te d by C a r r o l l and

S tr im lin g (1983) who concluded th a t the ro u te s which women o f f ic e

h o ld e rs take in to o f f ic e d i f f e r from those of men and th a t th e d i f

fe ren c e i s g re a te s t w ith B lack women. B lack women o ff ic e h o ld e r s were

found to be s u p e r io r i n e d u c a t io n , l i k e l y to r e c e iv e s u p p o r t from

church and community groups ra th e r than p o l i t i c a l p a r t ie s , ch a llen g ed

by double d is c r im in a t io n , l e s s l i k e ly to be m arried , but more l i k e ly

to have su p p o rtiv e spouses when they a re m arried , and le s s l i k e ly to

have c h i ld r e n . B la c k women o f f ic e h o ld e r s w ere v e ry a c c o m p lish e d

women. "From t h e i r e d u c a t io n a l c r e d e n t i a l s to th e o r g a n iz a t io n a l

support they re c e iv e —« l f in d b lack women 'o u tdo ing ' women o v e r a l l ,

who a re them selves 'o u td o in g ' men' (p. 203).

Women o f f ic e h o l d e r s o v e r a l l w ere m ore l i k e l y th a n t h e i r m ale

c o u n te rp a r ts to have some c o lle g e education ; and b lack women o f f ic e

h o ld e r s w ere even m ore l i k e l y th a n e i t h e r women o v e r a l l o r men to

have a tten d e d c o lle g e and to hold advanced degrees.

These d if fe re n c e s in ed u c a tio n a l a t ta in m e n t m ight i l l u s t r a t e the

e f f e c t s o f d o u b le d i s c r i m i n a t i o n . B eing b o th b la c k and fe m a le may

re q u ire even s tro n g e r e d u c a tio n a l and o c c u p a tio n a l c re d e n t ia ls than

any o th e r group e n te rin g a t r a d i t i o n a l ly m ale-dom inated f i e ld such as

p o l i t i c s .


Another a re a o f d if fe re n c e b e tw e en B lack fe m a le o f f ic e h o l d e r s

and m ale o ff ic e h o ld e r s i s in fa m ily s i tu a t io n s . Female o f f ic e h o ld e r s

a s a g ro u p w ere m ore l i k e l y th a n t h e i r m ale c o u n te r p a r t s to have

grown c h ild re n and were e i t h e r m arried to spouses who were su p p o rtiv e

o f t h e i r p a r tn e r s ' o f f ic e h o ld in g a c t iv i t i e s o r were unm arried . Black

women o ff ic e h o ld e r s more o f te n than women o ff ic e h o ld e r s g e n e ra lly had

such fa m ily s i tu a t io n s .

In com paring B lack and White women, C a rro ll and S tr lm lin g (1983)

s a id : "To th e e x t e n t t h a t b o th ra c is m and se x ism s t i l l p u t B lack

women a t a d isadvan tage in so c ie ty and in p o l i t i c s s p e c if i c a l l y , our

f in d in g s r e f l e c t th e ways in which Black e le c te d women have overcome

th o s e b a r r i e r s " (p . 203). In co m p arin g women o f f ic e h o l d e r s to men

C a rr o ll and S tr lm lin g concluded th a t " the ro u te s which women o f f ic e -

h o l ld e rs o v e r a l l tak e in to o f f ic e d i f f e r from th o se of men, b u ild on

t h e i r c o l l e c t i v e s t r e n g t h a s women, and r e f l e c t th e w ays th e y have

surm ounted th e b a r r ie r s they face as women" (p. 203).

Summary

A re v ie w o f th e l i t e r a t u r e on th e s u b je c t o f r a c e and se x com

p a r iso n s in le a d e rsh ip th eo ry re s u lte d in in c o n c lu s iv e and e x p lo ra

to ry id ea s on what c o n tr ib u te s to le a d e rsh ip in women in th e a re a s of

p e r s o n a l i ty and fa m ily background, bu t a much c le a r e r , e m p ir ic a l ly -

based p ic tu re emerged on th e o rg a n iz a tio n a l and s o c i e t a l co n d itio n s

women face when they a s p ire to success. The l i t e r a t u r e a lso sup p o rts

d i f f e r e n c e s b e tw e en B la ck and W hite women in a c c e s s , o p p o r tu n i ty ,

s t a tu s , and support in t h e i r e f f o r t s to succeed.


B ased on e m p i r i c a l s t u d i e s , t h e o r e t i c a l p a p e rs , and th e s e l f -

r e p o r t s o f p ro m in e n t B la c k and W hite s u c c e s s f u l women, i t a p p e a rs

th a t the fo llo w in g d if fe re n c e s may e x is t :

1. There a re d if fe re n c e s betw een the B lack and W hite ra ces in

th e p a t te r n s o f grow th and development o f su c c e s s fu l women.

2. There a re d if fe re n c e s betw een the B lack and W hite ra c e s on

the v a r ia b le s th a t a f f e c t c a re e r development o f su c c e s s fu l women.

3. There a re d i f fe re n c e s between th e B lack and W hite ra ces in

the im pact of ra ce id e n t i t y and gender I d e n ti ty in the ex p erien ces o f

s u c c e s s fu l women.

4. There a re d i f fe re n c e s between th e B lack and White ra ces in

view s of work and le a d e rs h ip o f su c c e s s fu l women.

The p u rp o se o f t h i s s tu d y was to e x p lo re th e e x i s t e n c e o f th e

above c o n d i t io n s and to d e s c r ib e th e ra n g e o f d i f f e r e n c e s t h a t a r e

found.


CHAPTER III

DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

The p u rp o se o f t h i s s tu d y was to I d e n t i f y v a r i a b l e s t h a t have

co n tr ib u te d to th e grow th and development of su c c e s s fu l women, and to

e x p lo re w h e th e r th o s e v a r i a b l e s w ere th e sam e f o r B la ck and W hite

women.

P o p u la tio n and Sample

The p o p u la t io n c o n s i s t e d o f c o l l e g e - e d u c a te d o r p r o f e s s i o n a l

B la c k and W hite women who w ere known to be s u c c e s s f u l in t h e i r

c a re e rs acco rd ing to th e s e le c t io n c r i t e r i a which guided t h e i r in c lu

s io n i n t o e i t h e r o r b o th o f Who's Who in A m eric a (4 3 rd e d ., 1984-

1985) and Who's Who Among B la c k A m eric an s ( 4 th e d ., 1985). T hese

c r i t e r i a a re c i te d in Appendix F.

For th e purposes of t h i s s tudy , success was d e fin e d as m eeting

th r e e o r m ore o f th e f o l lo w in g f i v e c r i t e r i a : (a ) in co m e— th e

ac h ie v e m e n t o f s a l a r y o f $20 ,000 o r more p e r y e a r ; (b ) r a n k — th e

ac h ie v e m e n t o f a p o s i t i o n as c h i e f e x e c u t iv e o f f i c e r o f p o l ic y and

p erso n n el d e c is io n s w ith in th e framework e s ta b l is h e d by a board of

d i r e c t o r s , s t o c k h o ld e r s , o r c o n s t i t u e n t s ; (c ) r e s p o n s i b i l i t y — th e

achievem ent of a u th o r i ty to c o n tro l and e s ta b l i s h budget p r i o r i t i e s

fo r ex p e n d itu res , to su p erv ise la rg e numbers of peop le , to engage in

work which has c r i t i c a l b ea rin g on the fu tu re of the i n s t i t u t i o n ;


(d ) a member o f an em p lo y in g I n s t i t u t i o n o f u p p e r o r I n t e r m e d ia t e

l e v e l q u a l i t y ; and (e ) r e p u ta t i o n — th e a c h ie v e m e n t o f n a t io n w id e

m ed ia a t t e n t i o n f i v e o r more t im e s p e r y e a r , th e a c h ie v e m e n t o f

n a t io n a l or in te r n a t io n a l aw ards o r th e same k in d of re c o g n it io n on

th e s t a t e le v e l.

The sample was drawn from th e d a ta bases of M arquis Who's Who in

A m eric a (4 3 rd e d ., 1984-1985) a c c e s s e d by th e W e ste rn M ich ig an

U n iv e rs ity re fe re n c e departm ent o n - lin e s e r v ic e s , and Who's Who Among

B la c k A m ericans ( 4 th e d ., 1985)— p u rc h a se d from th e p u b l i s h e r

d i r e c t l y . Each was re q u e s te d to p ro v id e th e t o t a l num ber o f women

l i s t e d in th e f i e ld s o f b u s in e ss , e d u c a tio n , p o l i t i c s and government,

and human s e r v ic e s , o r to s e le c t those w ith th e t i t l e manager, admin

i s t r a t o r , e x e c u tiv e , o r p re s id e n t. A t o t a l of 3,208 names were drawn

from th e d a ta base o f Who's Who in B lack Am erica (4 th ed., 1985) and

approx im ate ly 2,800 names were drawn from th e d a ta base o f Who's Who

in America (43rd ed ., 1984-1985). A random sam ple of 750 names was

drawn from each l i s t u s in g a ta b le of random numbers.

Design

A tw o -stag e re se a rc h design was used. In th e f i r s t s ta g e , fo u r

su c c e s s fu l women were in te rv iew ed to id e n t i f y w hich v a r ia b le s they

p e r c e iv e d to have been im p o r ta n t in t h e i r g ro w th and p r o f e s s io n a l

d e v e lo p m e n t. The i n t e r v i e w e e s , s e l e c t e d on th e b a s i s o f a c c e s s i

b i l i t y , were fo u r women recognized as le a d e rs in b u s in ess , ed u c a tio n ,

and p o l i t i c s . These women had w idely d i f f e r e n t backgrounds as pos

s i b l e w i th in th e e s t a b l i s h e d p r o f e s s i o n a l f i e l d s w i th th e l a r g e s t


c o n c e n tra tio n on top le v e l women. L e tte r s were se n t to s ix women who

had appeared in n a tio n a l media in 1982. L e t te r s re q u e s tin g an i n t e r

v iew w e re s e n t and fo l lo w e d by a te le p h o n e c a l l . R e q u e s ts w e re

g ra n te d in a l l bu t one in s ta n c e ; in te rv ie w s were scheduled w ith fo u r

o f th e r e m a in in g f i v e . The f i f t h was u n a b le to c l e a r h e r s c h e d u le

d u r in g th e t im e th e i n v e s t i g a t o r c o u ld t r a v e l to New Y ork. A l l

in te rv ie w s were reco rded on audio tap e and la s te d approx im ate ly one

hour. T ra n s c r ip ts of aud io taped in te rv ie w s a re provided in Appendix

A. The ta p e o f Dr. R uth Love d id n o t re c o rd p r o p e r ly , so no ta p e i s

a v a i la b le . The q u e s tio n posed to th ese women was: As you th in k back

o v er y o u r c a r e e r and y o u r l i f e , w hat do you s e e as th e g r e a t e s t

p o s i t iv e and n e g a tiv e c o n tr ib u to rs to your success? Two B lack women

and two W hite women o f to p - le v e l achievem ent and nationw ide s tan d in g

were in te rv iew ed .

In th e seco n d s ta g e o f th e p r o j e c t q u e s t i o n n a i r e s w e re m a ile d

w ith re tu r n envelope and a cover l e t t e r in d ic a tin g th e purpose o f the

survey and a s su r in g c o n f id e n t ia l i ty . The q u e s tio n n a ire was developed

w i th f a c t o r s found to be r e le v a n t to th e a c h ie v e m e n t o f s u c c e s s i n

women in th e rev iew of th e l i t e r a t u r e —draw ing h e a v ily upon th e l i f e

p h a se s d e s c r ib e d by H ennig and J a rd lm (1976) and th e ta p e d i n t e r

v ie w s . The su rv e y in s t r u m e n t was p i l o t t e s t e d w ith s i x p ro m in e n t

women in th e K alam azoo a r e a — a c i t y m anager, tw o fo rm e r m ay o rs , a

d i r e c to r of re c ru itm e n t fo r the C ollege o f Human M edicine a t a m ajor

u n iv e r s i ty , th e p r in c ip a l of an elem en tary schoo l, and th e owner o f a

b u s in ess w ith annual s a le s exceeding $6 m ill io n . In F ebruary , 1986,

q u e s tio n n a ire s were m ailed to 1,500 women. An a r b i t r a r y d e c is io n was


made to s e le c t 750 women each from Who's Who In A m erica (4 3 rd ed .,

1984-1985) and Who's Who In B la ck A m eric a ( 4 th e d ., 1985). T h is

num ber was g r e a t e r th a n n e c e s s a r y f o r th e .05 d e c i s io n l e v e l . Two

weeks a f t e r th e q u e s tio n n a ire s were m ailed , a rem inder p o stca rd was

s e n t to th o s e who had n o t re sp o n d e d . Of th e 750 B la ck women, 298

re tu r n e d a t a re s p o n s e r a t e o f 39.7%. Of th e 750 W hite women, 278

re tu rn e d th e survey fo r a response r a te of 37%. Out of 1,500 surveys

s e n t , th e t o t a l r e s p o n s e r a t e was 38.4%, w i th 19.9% r e tu r n from th e

B lack women responden ts and 18.6% re tu r n from th e W hite women respon

den ts .

D ata C o lle c tio n

As they were re tu rn e d , q u e s tio n n a ire s w ere numbered and re co rd s

o f any ex p la n a tio n s fo r non re tu rn s were k ep t. Responses were coded

and t r a n s f e r r e d to o p t i c a l sc a n s h e e ts f o r co m p u te r e n t r y . A mag

n e t i c ta p e o f a l l coded d a ta was c r e a t e d f o r s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s .

Every f i f t h q u e s tio n n a ire was exchanged and rechecked fo r th e f i r s t

50 q u e s t io n n a i r e s . A f te r t h a t , one i n e v e ry 25 q u e s t io n n a i r e s was

checked fo r accuracy . A d d itio n a l checks were made a f t e r the i n i t i a l

d a ta a n a ly s is . A copy o f the code book and th e q u e s tio n n a ire a re in

Appendices C and D.

D ata A na lysis

A c o n te n t a n a ly s is o f the taped in te rv ie w s was conducted by fo u r

independent l i s t e n e r s , a l l u n iv e rs i ty p ro fe s s o rs o r a s s o c ia te p ro fe s

s o r s who l i s t e n e d to ea ch ta p e and l i s t e d v a r i a b l e s w h ich may have


c o n t r ib u t e d to th e s u c c e s s o f th e women in te r v ie w e d . T h e ir l i s t s

w ere com bined and in c o r p o r a t e d i n to th e q u e s t i o n n a i r e . An SPSS

program was u sed to t a b u l a t e q u e s t io n n a i r e r e s p o n s e s . D a ta w ere

analyzed by means of c h i-sq u a re a n a ly s is and £ t e s t s to de te rm ine the

a re a s o f comm onality and d if fe re n c e in th e grow th and development of

B lack and W hite women.


CHAPTER IV

THE DATA AMD FINDINGS OF THE STUDY

The p u rp o se o f t h i s s tu d y was to i d e n t i f y v a r i a b l e s t h a t have

c o n tr ib u te d to th e grow th and development o f su c c e s s fu l women and to

e x p lo r e w h e th e r th o s e v a r i a b l e s w ere th e sam e f o r B la ck and W hite

women. The q u e s t io n a d d r e s s e d in t h i s s tu d y w as: What a r e th e

v a r ia b le s which c o n tr ib u te to th e development o f su c c e s s fu l women and

a re those v a r ia b le s th e same fo r Black and W hite women le a d e rs?

In t h i s c h a p te r , th e d a ta and f i n d in g s a r e p r e s e n te d in 11

s e c t i o n s : (a ) d e m o g ra p h ic s , (b) s u c c e s s c r i t e r i a , (c ) f a m i ly and

c h ild h o o d , (d) a d o le s c e n c e , (e ) c o l le g e y e a r s , ( f ) m a r r ia g e , (g)

f i r s t c a r e e r d e c a d e , (h) c a r e e r m a tu r i t y , ( i ) p e r c e p t io n s o f g e n d e r

i m p a c t , ( j ) p e r c e p t io n s o f r a c e Im p a c t, and (k ) v ie w s on w ork and

le a d e rs h ip .

E m p irica l s tu d ie s , th e o r e t ic a l p apers , and th e s e l f - r e p o r ts of

p rom inen t, s u c c e s s fu l women formed the ra t io n a le fo r ex p lo rin g th e

fo llo w in g re se a rc h q u e s tio n s :

1. Are th e re d if fe re n c e s between th e B lack and W hite ra ces in

th e p a t te r n s of grow th and development of s u c c e s s fu l women?

2. Are th e re d if fe re n c e s between th e B lack and W hite ra c e s on

v a r ia b le s th a t a f f e c t c a re e r development of su c c e s s fu l women?

3. Are th e re d if fe re n c e s between the B lack and W hite ra c e s in

th e im p a c t o f r a c e and g en d e r i d e n t i t y in th e e x p e r ie n c e s o f

93


su c c e ss fu l women?

4. Are th e re d i f fe re n c e s betw een th e B lack and W hite ra ces in

view s o f work and le a d e rsh ip o f su c c e s s fu l women?

Data A nalysis

In February 1986, q u e s tio n n a ire s w ere m ailed to 1,500 women— 750

ea ch from Who's Who in A m eric a (4 3 rd e d ., 1984-1985) and Who's Who

Among B lack Americans (4 th ed., 1985). Two weeks a f t e r th e q u e s tio n

n a ire s were m ailed , a rem inder p o s tca rd was se n t to those who had not

re sp o n d e d . The t o t a l re s p o n s e r a t e was 38.4% w ith a 19.9% r e tu r n

from B lack women responden ts and 18.6% from W hite women responden ts .

Of th e 750 B lack women, 298 re tu rn e d th e survey a t a response r a te of

39.7%; and of 750 W hite women, 278 re tu rn e d th e survey fo r a response

r a t e o f 37%.

A b ia s check of nonrespondent women showed d is t r i b u t io n s s im i la r

to th e sample in age, m a r i ta l s t a tu s , and p ro fe ss io n . In age, th e re

were s l ig h t ly more re sponden ts in th e 36-45, 46-55, and 56-65 c a te

g o rie s ; bu t th e re were more nonrespondents in th e 65+ ca teg o ry (Table

1 ). T here seem ed to be a s l i g h t b i a s to w a rd you n g er ag e s in th e

sam ple. The sample was s l ig h t l y b iased tow ards m arried and d ivo rced

Black women and d ivo rced W hite women (Table 2). A com parison of th e

percen tag es of ed u cato rs and law yers in d ic a te p o ss ib le o v errep resen

ta t io n of ed u cato rs and u n d e r re p re se n ta tio n of law yers in t h i s sam ple

(T a b le 3).

From a t o t a l o f 393 v a r i a b l e s t e s t e d , 283 w are found to be

r e l a t e d to th e d ev e lo p m e n t o f l e a d e r s h ip in women, s i g n i f i c a n t l y


95

Table 1

Age

or25under 26-35 36-45 46-55 56-65 65+

noresponse

Respondents

% Black 0 .4 3.5 20.3 21.1 6.1 1.4 -

Z White 0 .2 1 .0 12.2 17.7 10.6 5 .5 -

T o ta l 0 .6 4 .5 32.5 38.8 16.7 6 .9 -

N onrespondents

% Black 0 .0 3 .0 14.0 15.0 2 .0 5 .0 11.0

% White 0 .0 0 .0 10.0 13.0 12.0 11.0 4 .0

T o ta l 0 .0 3 .0 24.0 28.0 14.0 16.0 15.0

d i f f e r e n t fo r Black and W hite women, o r both. There were 258 v a r i

ab le s th a t re la te d to le a d e rs h ip developm ent, 156 v a r ia b le s th a t were

s ig n if ic a n t ly d i f f e r e n t fo r B lack and W hite women, and 111 v a r ia b le s

th a t were a l ik e fo r women of bo th ra c e s . The most s ig n if ic a n t d i f

f e r e n c e s b e tw e en B la ck and W hite women o c c u rre d in d e m o g ra p h ic s ,

success c r i t e r i a , c o lle g e , m arriag e , and im pact o f race . There were

s l ig h t l y more d if fe re n c e s than s i m i l a r i t i e s in fa m ily and childhood

e x p e r ie n c e s , im p a c t o f g e n d e r , and v iew s o f w ork and l e a d e r s h ip i n

th e l iv e s of women in t h i s sam ple. There were d i s t i n c t s i m i l a r i t i e s

betw een Black and W hite women in th e s tudy d u rin g ado lescence, f i r s t


96

Table 2

M a r ita l S ta tu s

S in g le

L ivingw ith

M arried someone S eparated Widowed Divorced

Respondents

% B lack 7.6 24.9 0 .6 2 .6 3 .4 13.7

% White 8.8 24.3 2.0 0 .4 3 .0 8 .6

T o ta l 16.5 49.2 2 .6 3 .0 6.4 22.3

Nonrespondents

% B lack 25.0 18.0 0 .0 0 .0 0 .0 0 .0

% White 13.0 26 .0 0 .0 0 .0 7 .0 3 .0

T o ta l 38.0 44 .0 0 .0 0 .0 7.0 3 .0

c a re e r decade, and c a re e r m a tu rity .

D a ta on th e 501 u s a b le r e s p o n s e s w ere s u b m it te d to c h i - s q u a r e

c r o s s ta b u la t io n s of each v a r ia b le by ra ce . What fo llo w s I s a s e c tio n

by s e c tio n summary of th e d if fe re n c e s and s i m i l a r i t i e s betw een suc

c e s s f u l B lack and W hite women. B ecause o f th e e x te n s iv e num ber o f

c h i - s q u a r e and _t t a b l e s needed to r e p o r t th e a c t u a l num bers and

frequency d i s t r ib u t io n s o f each v a r ia b le , they have not been Included

In t h i s document. In s te a d , summary ta b le s of f in d in g s and v alu es fo r


97

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th e t e s t s t a t i s t i c s have heen developed fo r the 11 se c tio n s o f ques

t io n s . A com plete l i s t o f th e 392 v a r ia b le s t e s te d i s in Appendix H.

R esearch Q uestions

Q uestion 1

The f i r s t q u e s tio n , a re th e re d if fe re n c e s between th e B lack and

W hite ra ces in th e p a t te r n s o f grow th and development of su c c e s s fu l

Black and W hite women, was addressed by the f in d in g s in th e se c tio n s

on d e m o g ra p h ic s , f a m i ly and c h i ld h o o d , a d o le sc e n c e , c o l l e g e , and

m arriage se c tio n s o f t h i s survey .

Q uestion 2

The second q u e s tio n , a re th e re d if fe re n c e s betw een the B lack and

W hite ra c e s on th e f a c to r s th a t a f f e c t c a re e r development of su cc ess

f u l women, was a d d r e s s e d by th e f i n d in g s in th e su rv e y s e c t io n s on

the f i r s t c a re e r decade and c a re e r m a tu rity .

Q uestion 3

The th i r d q u e s tio n , a re th e re d if fe re n c e s between the B lack and

W hite ra c e s in th e im pact o f ra ce i d e n t i ty and gender id e n t i ty in th e

ex p erien ces o f s u c c e s s fu l women was addressed by the fin d in g s in th e

p e r c e p t io n s o f g e n d e r im p a c t and th e p e r c e p t io n s o f r a c e im p a c t

s e c tio n s o f th e survey.


Question 4

The fo u r th q u e s tio n , a re th e re d if fe re n c e s betw een th e B lack and

W hite ra ces in view s of work and le a d e rsh ip of s u c c e s s fu l women, was

addressed by fin d in g s in of the view s on work and le a d e rsh ip s e c tio n

of th e survey.

Demographics

The demographics s e c tio n in c lu d es fin d in g s on q u e stio n s on b i r t h

o r d e r , f a m i ly group c o n s t e l l a t i o n , fa m ily economic c l a s s i f i c a t i o n ,

re sp o n d en ts ' ed u c atio n , m a r i ta l s t a tu s , age, and p ro fe ss io n .

T h ere w ere d i f f e r e n c e s b e tw e en B la ck and W hite women in t h i s

sam p le i n a g e , l e v e l o f e d u c a t io n , m a r i t a l s t a t u s , and o c c u p a t io n

(Table 4). S ig n if ic a n t t e s t s t a t i s t i c s (j> <. .05) were used to d e te r

m ine w h e th e r t h e r e was a d i f f e r e n c e b e tw e en B la ck and W hite women

l e a d e r s .

Whenever th e re was an unequal d i s t r i b u t io n o f th e p ro p o r tio n s of

re sponden ts in respouse c a te g o r ie s , th e v a r i a b l e was i d e n t i f i e d a s

appearing to be r e la te d to le a d e rsh ip developm ent o f women. The ru le

used to d iv id e w hether th e d i s t r i b u t io n was d is p ro p o r tlo n a l was i f

th e re was a d iscrep an cy of 20% or more betw een th e expected p ropor

t io n ( i f th e d i s t r i b u t io n was equal ac ro ss c a te g o r ie s ) and the a c tu a l

p ro p o r tio n fo r one or more c a te g o r ie s . Of th e e ig h t v a r ia b le s in v es

t ig a te d in t h i s s e c tio n , s ix v a r ia b le s r e la te d to le a d e rsh ip develop

ment in women, one v a r ia b le showed s i m i l a r i ty between Black and White

women, and f iv e v a r ia b le s were s ig n if ic a n t ly d i f f e r e n t between Black


Dem

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and W hite women.

W hite women in t h i s sam ple were o ld e r than B lack women who were

more co n c en tra te d a t every c a teg o ry from 55 y ea rs and younger; th e re

were s l ig h t l y more g ra d u a te deg rees among B lack women, and th e re were

more m a r i ta l s e p a ra tio n s and d iv o rce s among B lack women. Almost h a lf

o f a l l re s p o n d e n ts w e re m a r r ie d , b u t n e a r ly e q u a l num bers o f B la ck

and W hite women were s in g le o r widowed. Of a l l the responden ts who

were se p a ra te d o r d iv o rce d , th e re were n e a rly 2 tim es th e p e rcen tage

o f B lack women as W hite women. These fin d in g s were co rro b o ra te d by

r e s u l t s o f th e 1980 U.S. C ensus w h ich r e p o r te d th e B lack p o p u la t io n

to be younger and w ith a g r e a te r p ro p o r tio n o f d iv o rce than th e W hite

p o p u la tio n . C a rr o ll and S tr lm lin g (1983) found Black women o f f ic e

h o ld e rs to be younger th an W hite women o ff ic e h o ld e r s and more edu

ca ted than e le c te d o f f ic e h o ld e r s o v e r a l l . The f in d in g s of t h i s s tudy

i n d i c a t e s i m i l a r c o n f ig u r a t io n s i n e d u c a t io n , human s e r v i c e s , and

b u sin ess as w e ll .

T w ice th e p e r c e n ta g e o f W hite women in t h i s s tu d y ended t h e i r

ed u c a tio n a t h igh school; more W hite women ended t h e i r fo rm al educa

t i o n a t th e b a c h e lo r 's d e g re e l e v e l , and m ore B la ck women e a rn e d

g rad u ate d eg rees. No woman in t h i s sample ended her ed u c atio n a t th e

e lem en tary school l e v e l .

The preponderance o f f i r s t borns in t h i s sam ple as compared to

any o th e r b i r t h o rd e r p o s i t io n sup p o rts th e Hennig and Jard im (1976)

f in d in g t h a t f i r s t b o rn s a r e p re d o m in a n t among s u c c e s s f u l women.

There were 182 (36.3%) f i r s t born women in t h i s sam ple, 31 who were 7

o r more y ea rs younger than th e c h ild b efo re them, 33 in an ex perience


s im i la r to f i r s t borns, and 59 only c h ild re n . These f in d in g s r e fu te

th e th eo ry o f Smith e t a l . (1981), who hypo thesized th a t f i r s t borns

w ere l e s s l i k e l y to be good le a d e r s . T h ere w ere 159 (31.7%) m id d le

c h ild re n and 101 (20.2%) in a younger p o s i tio n . The o p tio n of check

in g more th a n one re s p o n s e co u ld i n d i c a t e t h a t many o f th e re s p o n

d en ts in m iddle and youngest p o s itio n s had e x p e rien c es l ik e those of

f i r s t b o rn s .

The m a jo r i t y o f women in th e sam p le w e re r a i s e d i n a t r a d i

t i o n a l , tw o - p a r e n t , n u c le a r f a m ily . W hite women (32.8%) s l i g h t l y

outnumbered B lack women (29.5%) in t h i s fa m ily c o n s te l la t io n . More

B la ck women w ere r a i s e d in t r a d i t i o n a l e x te n d e d f a m i l i e s w i th two

p a re n ts , c h ild re n , g ra n d p are n ts, o r o th e r r e la t iv e s . N early tw ice as

many Black women were r a is e d in v a r ia t io n s on th e n u c le a r fa m ily as

th e re were Black women in t r a d i t i o n a l n u c le a r f a m i l ie s . This fin d in g

c o r r o b o r a te s th e f i n d in g s o f B ass ( c i t e d i n S to g d i l l , 1974) and

F ern a n d ez (19 8 1 ). By c o n t r a s t , l e s s th a n h a l f th e num ber o f W hite

women were ra is e d in v a r ia t io n s o f th e t r a d i t i o n a l n u c le a r fa m ily as

w ere ra is e d in th e t r a d i t i o n a l n u c le a r fa m ily .

More su c c e s s fu l women had m iddle income childhood fa m ily back

grounds (57%) than upper o r low er income backgrounds where th e re were

s tro n g d if fe re n c e s in d is t r ib u t io n s of Black and W hite women. There

were more W hite women in upper income c a te g o r ie s and more B lack women

in low er income c a te g o r ie s .


Success C r i t e r i a

103

Included in t h i s s e c tio n were f in d in g s on q u es tio n s on income,

job rank , budget a u th o r i ty , c o n tro l of e x p e n d itu res , su p e rv is io n o f

p e r s o n n e l , num ber o f p e o p le s u p e r v is e d , im p o r ta n c e o f jo b to th e

fu tu re of employing o rg a n iz a tio n , o rg a n iz a tio n rank , m edia a t te n t io n

r e c e iv e d by re s p o n d e n ts , a w a rd s , and ty p e o f aw ard s re c e iv e d by

responden ts. These d a ta (Table 5) g iv e an a f f i rm a t iv e answ er to th e

r e s e a r c h q u e s t io n as to w h e th e r t h e r e a r e d i f f e r e n c e s b e tw e en th e

Black and White ra ces on th e v a r ia b le s th a t a f f e c t c a re e r development

of su c c e ss fu l women.

Success c r i t e r i a w ere e s ta b l is h e d by G inzberg and Herma (1964).

The f i v e c r i t e r i a in c lu d e in co m e, jo b ra n k , r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , an em

p lo y in g i n s t i t u t i o n o f u p p er o r i n t e r m e d ia te l e v e l q u a l i t y , and

re p u ta tio n . For th e purpose o f t h i s s tudy , job rank i s the ach ieve

ment o f a p o s itio n as c h ie f ex e cu tiv e o f f ic e r o f p o lic y and personnel

d e c is io n s w ith in th e fram ework e s ta b l is h e d by a board of d i r e c to r s ,

s to ck h o ld ers , o r c o n s t i tu e n ts . R e s p o n s ib il i ty i s a u th o r i ty to con

t r o l and e s ta b l i s h budget p r i o r i t i e s f o r e x p e n d i tu r e , to s u p e r v is e

la rg e numbers of people , to engage in work w hich has c r i t i c a l bea ring

on th e fu tu re of th e i n s t i t u t i o n . R ep u ta tio n i s d e fin e d as reco g n i

t io n of nationw ide m edia f iv e o r more tim es per y ea r, th e achievem ent

of n a tio n a l o r in te r n a t io n a l aw ards, or th e same kind of re c o g n it io n

on th e s t a t e le v e l.

In o rder to be c l a s s i f i e d as su c c e s s fu l in t h i s s tudy , women had

to be su c c e ss fu l in e i t h e r income o r re c o g n it io n , and two o r more of


How

Fact

ors

Aff

ect

Succ

essf

ul

Blac

k an

d W

hite

Wom

en

104


by or

gani

zati

on

rank

X

(X2{

6»49

4]

=» 64

.10;

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ears

to

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late

d

105


th e o th e r success c r i t e r i a of rank , r e s p o n s ib i l i ty , and o rg a n iz a tio n

rank. Almost equal numbers o f B lack and W hite women c o n s t i tu te d th e

87.42 responden ts in t h i s study who met th e c r i t e r i a fo r su ccess . Of

th e 573 re tu r n e d q u e s t i o n n a i r e s , a t o t a l o f 501 re s p o n d e n ts — 265

B lack women, 236 W hite women— met the c r i t e r i a and were in c lu d ed in

th e re p o rte d an a ly se s . S ig n if ic a n t t e s t s t a t i s t i c s (j> < * .05) were

used to dete rm in e w hether th e re was a d if f e re n c e betw een Black and

W hite women le a d e rs .


re spondents in response c a t e g o r i e s , th e v a r i a b l e was i d e n t i f i e d a s

appearing to be r e la te d to le a d e rsh ip developm ent of women. The ru le

used to d iv id e w hether th e d i s t r i b u t io n was d is p ro p o r tio n a l was i f

th e re was a d iscrepancy o f 202 o r more betw een th e expected propor

tio n ( i f the d i s t r i b u t io n was equa l a c ro ss c a te g o r ie s ) and th e a c tu a l

p ro p o r tio n * f o r one o r m ore c a t e g o r i e s . T h ere w ere 11 v a r ia b l e s

t e s te d in t h i s s e c tio n on success c r i t e r i a , a l l o f which r e la te d to

le a d e rsh ip development in women and a l l o f which were s ig n if i c a n t ly

d i f f e r e n t fo r B lack and W hite women.

There were very n o tic e a b le d if fe re n c e s betw een Black and W hite

women responden ts in income le v e ls , job rank , su p erv iso ry re sp o n s i

b i l i t i e s , and number of people su p erv ise d . W hite women had h ig h er

incom es, h ig h er job ra n k in g s, and la r g e r s t a f f s to su p erv ise . B lack

women were c o n c en tra te d a t the lo w est end o f the Income s c a le , a t the

m id d le m anagem ent l e v e l , and among th o s e s u p e r v is in g th e f e w e s t

number of p e rsonnel.


The s t a t u s a t t a i n e d by th e women in t h i s s tu d y was s i m i l a r to

th e s t a t u s o f women in R a n te r 's (1977) a n a ly s is * The m a jo r i t y o f

responden ts were in th e to p a d m in is tr a to r or manager ca tegory where

W hite women ou tn u m b ered B la c k women a lm o s t 1.5 t im e s . The second

l a r g e s t c l u s t e r o f r e s p o n d e n ts was i n th e m id d le m anager p o s i t i o n

w here t h e r e w ere more th a n 4 t im e s as many B la c k women a s W hite

women. There were more W hite women p re s id e n ts , CEOs, board chairm en,

and top le v e l ap p o in tee s .

Equal p ercen tages o f B lack and W hite women were among th e ma

j o r i t y of re sponden ts who had a u th o r i ty to e s ta b l i s h budget p r i o r i

t i e s and r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r s u p e r v is in g l i n e and s t a f f p e r s o n n e l ;

alm ost equa l p e rcen ta g es of both groups c o n tro l le d ex p e n d itu res fo r

t h e i r o rg a n iz a tio n s . B lack women re p o rte d su p erv iso ry r e s p o n s ib i l i

t i e s fo r sm a lle r s t a f f s th an d id W hite women, and th e re were tw ice as

many W hite women s u p e r v is o r s in th e c a te g o ry o f 51 o r m ore p e o p le

su p erv ise d .

I n th e incom e c a t e g o r i e s o f $51 ,000 to $80 ,000 and $81 ,000 to

$100,000 y e a r ly , t h e r e was m ore th a n tw ic e th e p e r c e n ta g e o f W hite

women a s B la ck women. T h ere w ere n o t i c e a b le d i f f e r e n c e s b e tw e en

B lack and W hite women in th e rank of t h e i r employing o rg a n iz a tio n s ,

amount of media a t t e n t io n th ey re c e iv e d , and th e number and k inds of

aw ards they re ceiv ed . F ind ings on re p u ta tio n v a r ia b le s — m edia a t te n

t i o n and aw ard s r e c e iv e d — show more B la ck women th a n many i n t e r

n a t io n a l aw ards re p o rte d by W hite women.

S ig n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s i n o c c u p a t io n a l c h o ic e s b e tw e en th e

ra ces were r e f le c te d in th e f i e ld s o f ed u c atio n and bu s in ess . T h ir ty


tim es more Black women re p o rte d employment a t c o lle g e s and u n iv e rs i

t i e s ; and more W hite women p laced them selves in " n a tio n a lly known"

o rg a n iz a tio n s , Fo rtune 500 c o m p a n ie s , and F o r tu n e 1,000 co m p a n ie s .

Almost equal p ercen tag es o f B lack and W hite women re p o rte d t h e i r work

to be c r i t i c a l to th e fu tu re of t h e i r o rg a n iz a tio n s .

Fam ily s iz e and economic s ta tu s were s ig n if i c a n t ly d i f f e r e n t fo r

Black and White women. B lack women were ra is e d in la rg e r f a m il ie s

w i th m ore s i s t e r s (£ (2 5 8 ) - 3 .15 , £ < .002) and b r o th e r s (£ (2 5 8 ) -

2.95 , £ < .004) (T a b le s 6 and 7 ); w i th a mean o f 1.9 b r o th e r s and

s i s t e r s r e p o r te d f o r B la ck women and a mean o f 1.5 b r o th e r s and

s i s t e r s fo r W hite women. Twice as many Black women as W hite women

were ra is e d in fa m il ie s where both p a re n ts worked; and over tw ice the

p e r c e n ta g e o f W hite f a m i l i e s a s B lack w ere r e p o r t e d to have had

dom estic h e lp du ring th e responden ts ' ch ildhoods.

Family and Childhood

The fa m ily and ch ildhood se c tio n in c lu d ed q u e s tio n s on respon

d en ts fe e l in g loved by p a re n ts , fa m ily rew ards fo r ch ildhood ac h iev e

m e n ts , i n t e l l i g e n c e , re s p o n d e n t 's w ork in and o u t s id e th e home as

c h i ld r e n , p a r e n t 's o c c u p a t io n and e d u c a t io n , r e s p o n d e n t 's f e e l i n g s

to w a rd s p a r e n t s , w h e th e r r e s p o n d e n ts experienced c lo sen e ss o r con

f l i c t w ith e i t h e r o r bo th p a re n ts , w hether responden ts b e liev e d they

were s p e c ia l to s ig n if ic a n t o th e rs in a d d it io n to p a re n ts . Respon

d en ts re p o rte d t h e i r p e rc e p tio n s of t h e i r p erso n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s as

c h ild re n , th e k inds o f fa m ily rew ards and encouragem ents o ffe re d fo r

c h ild h o o d a c h ie v e m e n ts , m essag es t h a t th e re s p o n d e n ts r e c e iv e d


109

T able 6

Number o f S is te r s

Group £ X t

Black 152 1.9868 3.15*

White 108 1.5278

* t(258) - 3 .1 5 , £ < .002 .

Table 7

Number o f B ro thers

Group n X it

B lack 152 1.9013 2.95*

White 108 1.5093

*£(258) - 2 .9 5 , £ < .004 .

re g a rd in g t h e i r I n t e l l i g e n c e and le a d e rs h ip p o te n t ia l a t d i f f e r e n t

ages du ring th e i r ch ildhoods.

There a re r e s u l t s of q u es tio n s on anger, d ep ress io n , envy of the

a p p a re n t freed o m o f m a le s , s c h o o l e x p e r ie n c e s , and r e a c t i o n s to

p e r c e iv e d i n j u s t i c e s o r o r g a n iz a t i o n a l p r a c t ic e s . F indings In the

f a m i ly and c h ild h o o d s e c t io n a f f i r m a t i v e l y an sw ere d th e r e s e a r c h

q u e s tio n , a re th e re d i f fe re n c e s betw een B lack and W hite ra ces in the

p a t t e r n s o f g ro w th and d ev e lo p m e n t o f s u c c e s s f u l women (T a b le 3)?

S ig n if ic a n t t e s t s t a t i s t i c s (£ < .05) were used to dete rm in e w hether

th e re was a d if fe re n c e betw een Black and W hite women le a d e rs .


Fam

ily

and

Chi

ldho

od;

How

Fact

ors

Aff

ect

Succ

essf

ul

Blac

k an

d W

hite

Wom

en

110


by fa

mily

re

war

ds:

Tabl

e 8—

Con

tinue

d

111


X (x

2[1,

500]

= 5.

29;

£ <

.02)

App

ears

to

be re

late

d

112


Race

by

conf

lict

w

ith

fath

er:

care

er

mat

urity

(X

2[l,5

01]

= 0.

91;

j> <

.34

) X

App

ears

to

be re

late

d

113


Race

by

sele

ct

acti

vit

ies

X (X

211>

477]

=

4.02

;

App

ears

to

be re

late

d

114


(x2

[7,4

64]

- 5.

77;

£ <

.67)

X>

App

ears

to

be re

late

d

115


Reproduced

with perm

ission of the

copyright ow

ner. Further

reproduction prohibited

without

permission.

Table 8—Continued

D iffere n ce between B lack and White women le a d e rs?

Appears to be r e la te d to le a d e rsh ip develop

ment o f women?

Yes No Yes No

Race by c h a r a c t e r i s t i c :h igh ac h iev er (X2 [1 ,501] = 0 .8 2 ; £ < .37 ) X X

Race by c h a r a c te r i s t i c :model c h ild X (x2 [1 ,501] - 4 .5 5 ; £ < .03) X

aA m a jo r i t y (76.5%) o f r e s p o n d e n ts r e p o r te d th e m s e lv e s to be in th e "above a v e ra g e ” c a te g o ry on th e b a s is o f fo rm al In te l l ig e n c e t e s t s , w ith more Black women th a t W hite women in th a t ca teg o ry . The ra c e d if fe re n c e s occurred on th e b a s is o f percen tag es too sm all to be s ig n if ic a n t in th e "below average ," " a v e ra g e ," and "g e n iu s" c a t e g o r i e s . (x * [3 ,310] = 10.25; j> ^ .0 2 )

116

Whenever th e re was an unequal d i s t r i b u t io n o f the p ro p o rtio n s o f

re s p o n d e n ts In r e s p o n s e c a t e g o r i e s , th e v a r ia b le was i d e n t i f ie d as

appearing to be r e la te d to le a d e rsh ip developm ent of women. The r u le


th e re was a d iscrepancy of 20% or more betw een th e expected propor

t io n ( i f th e d i s t r ib u t io n was equal a c ro ss c a te g o r ie s ) and th e a c tu a l

p r o p o r t io n f o r one o r more c a t e g o r i e s . T here w ere 112 v a r i a b l e s

i n v e s t i g a t e d in t h i s s e c t i o n , 45 o f w hich r e l a t e d to le a d e r s h ip

development in women, 22 were th e same fo r women o f bo th ra c e s , and

26 were s ig n if ic a n t ly d i f f e r e n t fo r B lack and W hite women.

S im i la r i t i e s

A n a ly s is o f r e s p o n d e n ts ' p e rc e p tio n s of t h e i r fa m ily r e la t io n

sh ip s showed th a t the women in t h i s sam ple b e liev e d they were loved

by t h e i r p a r e n ts (94.6%) as c h i ld r e n ; 79.4% o f th e sam p le b e l ie v e d

they were s p e c ia l to t h e i r m others, 78.8% b e lie v e d they were s p e c ia l

to t h e i r fa th e r s . In a d d it io n to t h e i r p a re n ts , re sponden ts b e liev e d

th e m s e lv e s to be s p e c i a l to g ra n d m o th e r (53.6%) and g r a n d f a th e r s

(37.8% ). I f th e y w ere B la c k , m ore women r e p o r t e d b e in g s p e c ia l to

t h e i r m others (44%), grandm others (31.4%), au n ts (34.4%), and u n cles

(30.8%) th a n t h e i r W hite c o u n te r p a r t s . B la ck and W hite women w ere

a l i k e in th e s m a l l p e r c e n ta g e r e p o r t i n g t h a t th e y w ere s p e c L a l to

o th e r people (23.6%) b es id es fa m ily members. There were no d i f f e r

e n c e s b etw e en th e r a c e s in th e 38.1% who th o u g h t th e y w e re t h e i r

f a t h e r 's f a v o r i t e c h i l d , o r t h e i r m o th e r 's f a v o r i t e c h i l d (25.9%)

th ro u g h o u t c h ild h o o d ; and th e r e w ere no r a c i a l d i f f e r e n c e s in th e


7 2 .IX o f th e sam p le who b e l ie v e d t h e i r p a r e n t s w ere c o n f id e n t In

t h e i r c h i ld re a r in g methods when th e responden ts were c h ild re n .

D iffe re n ces

P a re n ts ' ed u c a tio n and Income r e s u l t s showed a m a jo rity of th e

49.2% re s p o n d e n ts w i th tw o w o rk in g p a r e n ts d u r in g t h e i r c h ild h o o d

w ere B la ck women (32.8%) w hose f a th e r s w ere m ore o f t e n a l a b o r e r

(18.0) w ith an e lem en tary school ed u c atio n (18.4%), o r a p ro fe s s io n a l

(12.4%), w ith a h igh schoo l ed u catio n (16.9%); and whose m other was a

hom em aker o r h o u s e w ife (18.9% ), p r o f e s s io n a l (10.7% ), a d o m e s tic

w o rk er (10.3% ), o r em ployed In a fe m a le -d o m in a ted se rv ic e In d u s try

(9.6%). Levels of ed u c a tio n achieved by th e resp o n d en ts ' m others was

th e same; 40% of th e m others com pleted h igh sch o o l, 28.8% were co l

leg e g ra d u a tes , 20.8% te rm in a te d t h e i r e d u c a t io n a t th e e le m e n ta ry

l e v e l . W hite f a th e r s w ere a s l i g h t m a jo r i t y (14.1%) o f th e 26.5%

p r o f e s s i o n a l w o rk e rs i n th e s tu d y , and th e y made up 13.6% o f th e

t o t a l o f f a th e r s (23.8%) w ith a c o lle g e ed u catio n .

F ind ings on ch ildhood a c t iv i t i e s and fa m ily rew ards showed th a t

61.2% of th e women in t h i s sam ple s e le c te d t h e i r own a c t iv i t i e s ; and

m ore B la ck women (22.6%) th a n W hite women (16.1%) w ere among th e

38.8% w hose p a r e n t s s e l e c t e d t h e i r a c t i v i t i e s d u r in g c h ild h o o d .

Childhood achievem ent was most o fte n rew arded w ith fa m ily p ra is e fo r

75.4% of the re sponden ts . There were d i f fe re n c e s between the ra ces

in th e 48.1% who re ce iv e d a t te n t io n and c e le b ra tio n fo r achievem ent,

th e 21.2% who were g ra n te d p r iv i le g e s fo r achievem ent, and th e 15.0%

who w ere re w ard ed w ith money f o r c h ild h o o d a c h ie v e m e n t— s l i g h t l y


l a rg e r p ercen tag es o f B lack women were d i s tr ib u te d In each o f th o se

c a t e g o r i e s . More W h ite women (29.7%) w ere among th e 53.5% w hose

fa m il ie s viewed th e i r ch ildhood achievem ents as a " m a tte r-o f-c o u rse "

e x p e c ta tio n .

C o n flic t w ith p a re n ts du ring childhood occurred fo r only about

10% of th e sam ple, In c re a se d d u rin g ado lescence and low ered to n ea r

10% aga in du ring c o lle g e , m arriag e , f i r s t c a re e r decade, and c a re e r

m a tu ri ty w ith th e ex c ep tio n o f a n o tic e a b le In c re a se In women r e p o r t

in g c o n f l i c t w i th t h e i r f a th e r s d u r in g c a r e e r m a tu r i t y (47.7% ).

There were no d if fe re n c e s betw een the ra ces In th e p a t te r n s of con

f l i c t w ith p a re n ts . The su p p o rtiv e , n u rtu rin g asp e c t of th e fa m ily

backgrounds of women In t h i s sam ple was heigh tened by th e absence o f

I n d i f f e r e n c e , c o ld - s h o u ld e r in g , envy, o r h o s t i l i t y in r e a c t i o n to

ch ildhood achievem ent fo r 97% to 99.6% of a l l women, w ith no d i f f e r

ences betw een th e ra c e s .

A 68.7% m a jo ri ty of th e sam ple re p o rte d having household d u tie s

th roughout t h e i r ch ildhoods of w hich B lack women were 41.1%. There

w ere no d i f f e r e n c e s b e tw e e n th e r a c e s In th e 16.6% who r e p o r te d

h a v in g jo b s o u t s id e t h e i r homes a t a l l ag e s o f c h i ld h o o d ; 40.7% o f

women o f both ra c e s re p o rte d jobs o u ts id e th e home between th e ages

of 14 and 17. The p e rcen ta g e In c rea sed to 56.3% working o u ts id e th e

home between th e ages o f 18 and 21.

F ind ings on re sp o n d en ts ' p ercep tio n s of t h e i r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s as

c h ild re n and th e i r memories o f what t h e i r f a m il ie s thought of them as

c h i ld r e n show d i f f e r e n c e s b e tw e en B la ck and W hite women. M ost

(76.5%) women r e p o r t e d th e m s e lv e s "above a v e ra g e " as m ea su red by


form al I n te l l ig e n c e t e s t a —Black women 40.3%, W hite women 36.1%—w ith

more W hite women re p o r tin g them selves in th e 10.3% "genius" ca teg o ry

and more Black women re p o r tin g them selves in th e 3.2% "below average"

c a te g o ry . O nly 61.9% o f th e sam p le i n d i c a t e d r e s u l t s o f fo rm a l

i n t e l l i g e n c e t e s t s ; b u t 80.8% o f re s p o n d e n ts rem em bered b e in g de

s c r ib e d as " s m a r t , i n t e l l i g e n t , o r b r ig h t " th ro u g h o u t t h e i r c h i l d

hoods, and 49.9% r e c a l le d fa m ily anecdotes about e a r ly s ig n s o f th e

women's l e a d e r s h ip a b i l i t i e s th ro u g h o u t ch ildhood . These f in d in g s

su p p o r t th e f in d in g s o f B a c h to ld (1976). Race d i f f e r e n c e s w ere

d e p ic te d in h ig h er p ercen tag es of Black women in both of the l a t t e r

c a te g o r ie s .

The need f o r in d e p e n d e n c e r e c u r r e d a s a m o t iv a to r in Adam s's

(1979) s tu d y o f women a t th e to p . In s e l e c t i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s to

d e s c r ib e th e m s e lv e s as c h i ld r e n th e la r g e s t p e rcen ta g es of respon

d en ts in t h i s study were d i s t r ib u te d in th e c a te g o r ie s of independent

(71.9% ), c o m p e t i t iv e (55.9% ), t a l k a t i v e o r co m m u n ic a tiv e (54.9% ),

m odel c h i l d (45.7% ), and f e i s t y o r a r g u m e n ta t iv e (25.3% ), w i th s i g

n i f i c a n t ly more B lack women than W hite women in each ca teg o ry . The

r a c e s w ere a l i k e i n c l a s s i f y i n g th e m s e lv e s h ig h a c h ie v e r s (72.3% ),

shy (35.1% ), and a t h l e t i c (27.1% ). R e sp o n d en ts w ere n o t a n g ry

(84.6%), nor m otiva ted to i n i t i a t i v e o r achievem ent by anger (94.0%),

nor dep ressed (94.0%) du ring childhood.

In d e s c r ib in g t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p s w ith th e w o rld o u t s id e th e

f a m i ly d u r in g c h ild h o o d , 80% o f re s p o n d e n ts s a id th e y d id n o t envy

boys, 70% enjoyed p o p u la ri ty and achievem ent, 24.9% sa id t h e i r popu

l a r i t y su ffe re d because o f th e i r a b i l i t i e s , 62.1% e x c e lle d w ith books


and s t u d i e s , 10.3% e x c e l l e d w ith s c h o o l l e a d e r s h ip a c t i v i t i e s , and

95.2% sa id they d id no t t r y to change o rg a n iz a tio n s o r I n s t i t u t i o n s

in childhood— th e re were no d if fe re n c e s between Black and White women

w ith th ese responses. There w ere s ig n if ic a n t d if fe re n c e s between the

ra ces w ith a g re a te r p ercen ta g e o f Black women In each of th e c a te

g o r ie s of a t t i t u d e s tow ards school— 69.5% sa id schoo l was en jo y a b le ,

20.8% found s c h o o l c h a l le n g in g , 5.4% s a id s c h o o l was s t r e s s f u l , and

4.3% s a id sc h o o l was b o r in g . T h ere w ere d i f f e r e n c e s b e tw e en th e

ra c e s in the 64.3% of re sponden ts who sa id they d id not accep t orga

n i z a t i o n s and i n s t i t u t i o n s a s th e y w ere d u r in g t h e i r c h i ld h o o d s ; a

m a jo r i t y o f 38.9% w ere B la c k , b u t t h e r e w ere no d i f f e r e n c e s in th e

79.8% who d id no t co n fro n t p erce iv e d in ju s t ic e s du ring ch ildhood, nor

in th e 89.8% who sa id they d id no t g a in re s p e c t fo r c o n fro n ta tio n of

i n ju s t i c e s du ring ch ildhood.

Adolescence

The s e c tio n on ado lescence in c lu d es r e s u l t s of q u es tio n s on work

o u ts id e th e home, anger, r o le m odels, c o n f ro n ta tio n a l b eh av io r, a t t i

tudes tow ards women, and c o n f l ic t w ith p a re n ts . The p erio d of ado

lesce n ce has been c h a ra c te r iz e d by Hennlg and Jard im (1976) as being

dom inated by th e emergence of sexua l i d e n t i ty and th e a ttem p t to cope

w ith the problem s to which i t g iv es r i s e . F u rth e r , the co n firm atio n

and s u p p o r t o f f a m i l i e s becom es l e s s and l e s s u s e f u l ; and th e r e

begins a determ ined s tru g g le not to be submerged by the r e s t r ic t e d ,

c o n f in in g woman's r o l e w h ich i s th e b a s i s o f th e a d o le s c e n t g i r l ' s

h o s t i l i t y and r e s e n tm e n t to w a rd s t h e i r m o th e rs . The a d o le s c e n t


b e g in s to v iew h e r m o th e r a s h a v in g g iv e n up th e s t r u g g le and as

a t te m p t in g to f o r c e t h e i r d a u g h te r s to do th e sam e. In c o n t r a s t ,

re la t io n s h ip s w ith f a th e r s rem ain the same.

There were 14 v a r ia b le s t e s te d in the s e c tio n on ado lescence; 10

were found to be r e la te d to le a d e rsh ip development. Black and W hite

women were a l ik e on 7 v a r ia b le s ; th e re were s ig n if ic a n t d i f fe re n c e s

on 3 o f th e v a r i a b l e s on a d o le sc e n c e (T a b le 9 ). S ig n i f i c a n t t e s t

s t a t i s t i c s (j> <. .05) w e re u sed to d e te rm in e w h e th e r t h e r e was a

d if fe re n c e betw een B lack and W hite women le a d e rs .

Whenever th e re was an unequal d i s t r i b u t io n of th e p ro p o rtio n s of

re spondents in response c a t e g o r i e s , th e v a r ia b l e was i d e n t i f i e d a s

a ppearing to be r e la te d to le a d e rsh ip development of women. The r u le

used to d iv id e w hether th e d i s t r i b u t io n was d ls p ro p o r tio n a l was i f

th e re was a d isc re p an c y o f 20% or more between th e expected propor

t io n ( i f th e d i s t r i b u t io n was equal a c ro ss c a te g o r ie s ) and th e a c tu a l

p ro p o r tio n fo r one o r more c a te g o r ie s .


The f in d in g s on ado lescence in th i s s e c tio n show th a t a s l ig h t

m a jo r i t y o f women in t h i s sam p le a p p e a r to hav e e sc a p e d th e tu r b u

lence of ado lescence d esc rib ed by Hennig and Jard im (1976); but 45.5%

re p o rte d c o n f l ic t w ith t h e i r m others a t t h i s p e rio d of t h e i r l iv e s .

In c o n tra s t , 27% re p o rte d c o n f l ic t w ith t h e i r f a th e r s du ring ad o le s

ce n c e . T here was a t r e n d to w a rd s a n g e r p la y in g a r o l e in th e l i v e s

o f some o f th e r e s p o n d e n ts (40.7% ), and th e r e was an em ergence o f

c o n f r o n ta t i o n o f p e r c e iv e d i n j u s t i c e s i n th e l i v e s o f 39.9% o f th e


123


*A la

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.

women; 21.4% b e l ie v e d th e y g a in e d th e r e s p e c t o f o th e r s f o r t h e i r

w i l l in g n e s s to c o n f ro n t I s s u e s d u r in g a d o le s c e n c e , and 22 t r i e d to

change o rg a n iz a tio n s and I n s t i t u t i o n s d u ring th a t tim e.

D iffe re n ces

S ig n if ic a n t d if fe re n c e s betw een Black and W hite women were found

in th e 39.3% re p o r tin g th a t they envied th e freedom m ales seemed to

have du ring ado lescence , in th e 35.6% who em ulated fem ale r o le models

d u ring ado lescence, and in the 19.4% who re p o rte d anger tu rned in to

i n i t i a t i v e and achievem ent d u ring ado lescence— th e re were more Black

women than White women in a l l th re e c a te g o r ie s .

In a l l o th e r c a t e g o r i e s , B la c k and W hite women w ere a l i k e and

a l l v a r ia b le s in the s e c tio n on adolescence appeared re la te d to the

development of le a d e rsh ip in women. A m a jo ri ty re p o rte d no d i s l ik e

f o r th e company o f t r a d i t i o n a l women, c o n t r a r y to th e f in d in g s o f

H ennig and J a r d im (19 7 6 ); 92.8% r e p o r te d an a b se n c e o f l i v in g r o l e

m odels b e tw e en th e ag e s o f 14 and 17, and 40.7% o f a l l r e s p o n d e n ts

had jobs o u ts id e th e home a t t h a t age p erio d .

C ollege Years

F ind ings on q u e s tio n s about a tten d a n ce a t c o lle g e and g raduate

s c h o o l , t im in g and p a r e n t a l s u p p o r t o f c a r e e r c h o ic e , c o u r s e s o f

study , job du ring c o lle g e , fa m ily anecdotes about le a d e rsh ip a b i l i t y ,

r o le m odels, anger, c o n f ro n ta tio n , a t t i t u d e s about t r a d i t i o n a l women,

a t t i t u d e s a b o u t m ale f re e d o m , I n j u s t i c e , e f f o r t s to make ch a n g e ,

f r ie n d s , s o r o r i t i e s , and ex p e rien c es w ith im p o ssib le s i tu a t io n s were


included in t h i s se c tio n . Of the 24 v a r ia b le s on co lle g e experience

t e s t e d , 19 r e l a t e d to th e d ev e lo p m e n t o f l e a d e r s h ip in women, 6

showed s i m i l a r i t i e s betw een Black and White women, and 15 v a r ia b le s

were s ig n if ic a n t ly d i f f e r e n t betw een th e ra ces (Table 10). S ig n i f i

c a n t t e s t s t a t i s t i c s (£ .£ .0 5 ) w ere u sed to d e te rm in e w h e th e r t h e r e

was a d if fe re n c e betw een B lack and W hite women le a d e rs .

Whenever th e re was an unequal d i s t r i b u t io n o f th e p ro p o r tio n s o f

re s p o n d e n ts in r e s p o n s e c a t e g o r i e s , th e v a r ia b le was id e n t i f ie d as

appearing to be r e la te d to le a d e rsh ip development o f women. The ru le


th e re was a d iscrep an cy of 20% of more between the expected propor

t io n ( i f th e d i s t r i b u t io n was equa l a c ro ss c a te g o r ie s ) and th e a c tu a l

p ro p o rtio n fo r one o r more c a te g o r ie s . F ind ings of th e c o lle g e sec

t i o n p ro v id e an a f f i r m a t i v e an sw er to th e r e s e a r c h q u e s t io n , a r e

th e re d if fe re n c e s betw een th e B lack and W hite ra c e s in the p a t te r n s

o f grow th and developm ent o f su c c e s s fu l women?


B lack and W hite women were a l ik e in a t te n d in g co lle g e (95.8%),

h a v in g a jo b b e tw e en th e a g e s o f 18 and 21 (56.3% ), h a v in g p a r e n ts

who w ere s u p p o r t iv e o f t h e i r c a r e e r c h o ic e (86.8% ), and h a v in g h i s

to r i c a l o r c e le b r i ty r o le models (41.7%) d u ring th e i r c o lle g e y ea rs .

R e l a t i v e ly few e x p e r ie n c e d a n g e r (24.4%) o r r e p o r te d d i s l i k i n g th e

company of t r a d i t i o n a l women in c o lle g e (22.0%).


Col

lege

Y

ears

: How

Fa

ctor

s A

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t Su

cces

sful

Bl

ack

and

Whi

te W

omen

126


His

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App

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127


App

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128


129

D iffe re n c e s

S ig n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s w ere found In th e mean age a t w h ich

B lack and White women In t h i s sample s ta r te d c o lle g e . W hite women

s t a r t e d c o lle g e a t a mean age of more than 1 y ea r younger than B lack

women (Table 11). More Black women (36.9%) th an W hite women (23.8%)

decided upon a c a re e r b efo re e n te r in g c o lle g e ; and 42.7% o f th e B lack

women in t h i s sam ple pursued an education beyond th e bac h e lo r degree

le v e l , compared to 32.9% o f W hite women who earned a g ra d u a te degree.

F ive tim es more Black women m ajored in ed ucation a t bo th th e under

g ra d u a te (11.4%) and g ra d u a te (22.2%) degree le v e ls than W hite women;

and a lm o st tw ice as many Black women as White women m ajored in b u s i

n ess . More W hite women were co n c en tra te d in th e f i e l d of f in e a r t s

a t th e u n d e r g ra d u a te l e v e l and l i b e r a l a r t s a t th e g ra d u a te d e g re e

le v e l .

T able 11

Age S ta r te d C ollege

Group a S £

Black 197 18.8731 2.79*

White 163 17.5276

*£(358) - 2 .7 9 , £ < .006 .

More W hite women re s p o n d e n ts (12.4%) th a n B la ck women (8.6%)

r e p o r t e d envy o f th e freed o m t h a t m ales seem ed to have d u r in g

c o l l e g e , b u t W hite women (17.2%) w ere m ore a c c e p t in g o f th e


o rg a n iz a tio n a l and i n s t i t u t i o n a l s t a t u s quo a t c o l l e g e com pared to

B la ck women (12.6%) i n t h i s s a m p le . B la ck women w ere 40.3% o f th e

70.3% m a jo rity of re spondents who were not a c ce p tin g o f o rg a n iz a tio n s

and in s t i t u t i o n s in c o lle g e . More B lack women (20.6%) were among the

32.5% who e m u la te d fe m a le r o l e m o d els . Among th e 52.1% who con

f r o n te d p e r c e iv e d i n j u s t i c e s , 29.9% w e re B la c k women; o f th e 37.9%

women who b e l ie v e d t h a t th e y g a in e d r e s p e c t f o r c o n f r o n t in g , 24.0%

w ere B la ck ; and in th e 51.7% m a jo r i t y o f r e s p o n d e n ts who t r i e d to

make changes in o rg a n iz a tio n s and in s t i t u t i o n s a t c o lle g e , 31.7% were

B lack women. Twice as many Black women (17.4%) as W hite women (8.4%)

re p o rte d i n i t i a t i v e and achievem ent w hich was m otiva ted by anger; and

more B lack women re p o rte d th e ex perience of being d e l ib e r a te ly " se t

up" to f a i l d u ring co lleg e .

There was a g re a te r p ercen tage of B lack women than W hite women

in th e 26.8% who re p o rted th a t they were c lo se to both men and women,

b u t B la ck women w ere 25.0% o f th e t o t a l o f 41.7% who p r e f e r r e d th e

company of men in c o lle g e . Twice th e number o f Black women (22.8%)

a s W hite women (11.0%) r e p o r t e d p le d g in g a s o r o r i t y in c o l l e g e .

W hite women ou tn u m b ered B lack women in th e c a t e g o r i e s o f f e e l i n g

c lo s e r to "only men” or "only women" w h ile in c o lle g e .

M arriage

The s e c t io n m a r r ia g e in c lu d e s r e s u l t s o f q u e s t io n s on th e age

r e s p o n d e n ts began to t h in k o f m a r r ia g e , th e p re s e n c e o f a n g e r , de

p re s s io n and c o n fro n ta tio n in m arriag e , envy o f m ales in m arriag e ,

accep tance o r a tte m p ts to change th e i n s t i t u t i o n o f m arriag e , delay


of p erso n al g o als fo r c a re e r , ex p e rien c es w ith Im p o ssib le s i tu a t io n s

and a n x ie ty - p ro d u c in g r o l e s In m a r r ia g e , husband's Income and sup

p o rtiv e n e ss of re sp o n d en t's c a re e rs , view of p erso n a l l i f e in r e la

t io n sh ip to m arriag e , having o th e r means o f su p p o rt, and th e k ind o f

adv ice responden ts gave on th e s u b je c t of m arriag e (Table 12).

The im p a c t o f m a r r ia g e on th e d ev e lo p m e n t o f women le a d e r s o f

bo th ra c e s was th e same on 7 of th e 23 v a r ia b le s t e s te d , and d i f f e r

e n t on 10 o f th e v a r i a b l e s . S ix te e n o f th e v a r i a b l e s w ere found to

be r e la te d to th e developm ent of le a d e rs h ip . S ig n if ic a n t t e s t s ta

t i s t i c s (£ < .05) were used to d ete rm in e w hether th e re was a d i f f e r

ence between Black and W hite women le a d e rs .

Whenever th e re was an unequal d i s t r i b u t io n of th e p ro p o r tio n s of

re spondents in response c a t e g o r i e s , th e v a r i a b l e was i d e n t i f i e d a s

appearing to be re la te d to le a d e rs h ip developm ent of women. The ru le

used to d iv id e w hether th e d i s t r i b u t io n was d isp ro p o r tio n a l was i f

th e re was a d iscrep an cy o f 20% o r more betw een th e expected propor

t io n ( i f the d i s t r i b u t io n was equa l a c ro ss c a te g o r ie s ) and th e a c tu a l


The f i n d in g s in th e s e c t i o n on m a r r ia g e p ro v id e a f f i r m a t i v e

answ ers to the re se a rc h q u e s tio n , a re th e re d i f fe re n c e s betw een the

Black and White ra c e s on th e v a r ia b le s th a t a f f e c t c a re e r development

o f su c c e s s fu l women?

D iffe re n ces

S i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s b e tw e en th e r a c e s in c lu d e d th e age a t

w h ich B lack and W hite women began to th in k o f m a r r ia g e , a n g e r as a


Mar

riag

e:

How

Fact

ors

Aff

ect

Succ

essf

ul

Blac

k an

d W

hite

Wom

en

132


X (x

2[1,

501]

= 6.

06;

£ <

.01)

Tabl

e 12

—C

ontin

ued

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission

m o tiv a to r in m arriage , c o n f ro n ta tio n in m arriag e , accep tance of the

i n s t i t u t i o n o f m arriage o r a t te m p ts to change i t , delay o f p erso n al

g o a ls f o r c a r e e r , h u sb a n d 's incom e, and th e k in d o f a d v ic e re s p o n

d en ts gave on having c h ild re n . The la r g e s t d i s t r ib u t io n s of respon

d en ts began to th in k of m arriage d u ring c o lle g e (49.6%), ado lescence

(26.9% ), and f i r s t c a r e e r d ec ad e (12.3% ). M ore W hite women th a n

B la ck women began to t h in k o f m a r r ia g e d u r in g a d o le sc e n c e (14.4% ),

f i r s t c a r e e r decade (6.5% ), and c h ild h o o d (2.8% ). More B la ck women

than White women began to th in k of m arriag e d u rin g c o lle g e (31.0%).

Of th e 25.5% responden ts re p o rtin g i n i t i a t i v e and achievem ent m oti

vated by anger d u ring m arriag e , th e re were more Black women (15.8%).

T h ere w ere more B la ck women (47.3%) among th e 85.4% who d id a c c e p t

th e i n s t i t u t i o n a s m a r r ia g e as i t w as; and th e r e w ere m ore B lack

women among th e 32.1% who t r i e d to change th e I n s t i t u t i o n o f m ar

r ia g e . B lack women were in the m a jo ri ty o f th o se who delayed t h e i r

p erso n a l go als fo r c a re e r du ring ad o le sc en c e , c o lle g e , m arriag e , and

c a r e e r m a tu r i ty . W h ite women w ere i n th e m a jo r i t y o f th o s e who

d e la y e d t h e i r p e r s o n a l g o a ls f o r c a r e e r d u r in g th e f i r s t c a r e e r

d ec ad e and in th e 45.0% o f a l l r e s p o n d e n ts who s a id th e y n e v e r de

layed th e i r p erso n al g o als fo r t h e i r c a re e rs .

Women who e a rn e d l e s s money th a n t h e i r h u sb an d s w ere a 57.9%

m a jo ri ty in th i s sam ple—Black women 36.0%, W hite women 22.0%. W hite

women were 21.7% of th e 41.0% of responden ts who earned more income

than th e i r husbands; bu t tw ice as many B lack women (16.0%) as White

women (8.4%) w ere among th e 24.4% o f th e sam p le w hose h u sb a n d 's

incom e was a s o u rc e o f t e n s io n in t h e i r m a r r ia g e s . The a d v ic e on


having c h ild re n 35.8% of responden ts gave to young women a s p ir in g to

le a d e rsh ip was to "Get your c a re e r going then have c h ild re n and tak e

a few y e a r s o f f ." T h ere w ere more B lack women (48.7%) th a n W h ite

women (37.1%) o ff e r in g th a t advice.


The s i m i l a r i t i e s betw een B lack and W hite women in t h i s sam ple

were in th e a re a s o f e x p e rien c in g anger in m arriag e—41.5% s a id yes;

envy o f m ales i n m a r r ia g e — 85.0% s a id no; and b e in g p la c e d in im

p o ss ib le s i tu a t io n s d u rin g m arriag e— 96.2% sa id no. The ra c e s were

a l ik e in t h e i r fe e l in g th a t motherhood (23.1%) was the most a n x ie ty -

p ro d u c in g r o l e i n m a r r ia g e , fo llo w e d by m a r r ia g e (21.4% ), c a r e e r

(20.0% ), none (21.0% ), and a l l r o l e s a n x ie ty - p ro d u c in g (14.0% ). As

in th e C a rro ll and S tr lm i l in g (1983) s tu d y , the women were s im i la r in

r e p o r t i n g h u sb a n d 's a t t i t u d e s w ere s u p p o r tiv e tow ards t h e i r w ives '

c a r e e r p u r s u i t s (61.9% ). They v iew ed t h e i r p e r s o n a l l i v e s a s se p a

r a t e from t h e i r c a r e e r s (64.4% ); and 64.7% w ere w ith o u t any o th e r

means of support bu t t h e i r work. On adv ice to young women re g ard in g

m a rr ia g e and f a m i ly , 75.6% s a id , "W ait f o r m a r r ia g e i f you w ant a

c a r e e r " ; and 93.4% d id n o t a g r e e w ith th e a d v ic e "D on't l e a v e a baby

a t home."

The a d v ic e g iv e n by th e women in t h i s s tu d y r e in f o r c e s th e

fin d in g s of Fernandez (1981) re g ard in g the e f f e c t of m a r i ta l s ta tu s

on women's advancement a s p ira t io n s .

Many m arried women a re s t i l l ex p e rien c in g se r io u s c o n f lic ts be tw e en t h e i r p r o f e s s i o n a l and f a m ily r o l e s . . . . The p r o p o s i t i o n t h a t c o r p o r a t io n s lo o k l e s s f a v o ra b ly upon


136

m arried women I s supported by d a ta from th i s study . W hite women a t low er le v e ls of management a re more l i k e ly to be m a r r ie d th a n a r e th o s e a t u p p er l e v e l s . . . . In a n o th e r s tu d y . . . two t h i r d s w ere m a rr ie d o r had b een m a r r ie d In th e p a s t . One th i r d of those who had m arried were widowed, d iv o rc e d , o r s e p a r a te d . The p r o p o r t io n o f d iv o rc e e s was h ig h e s t among the most h ig h ly paid women, (p. 109)

At th e v e ry l e a s t , f in d in g s o f t h i s s tu d y d e p ic t a c o m b in a tio n o f

m a r r ia g e , m o th erh o o d , and c a r e e r a s a so u rc e o f s t r e s s and c o n c e rn

fo r s u c c e s s fu l women.

F i r s t C areer Decade

The f i r s t c a re e r decade s e c tio n In c lu d es r e s u l t s of q u e s tio n s on

means o f g e t t i n g f i r s t jo b , l e v e l o f f i r s t jo b , y e a r s b e f o re f i r s t

p ro m o tio n , t i t l e ch a n g e , s a l a r y in c r e a s e , a t t i t u d e o f f i r s t b c s s ,

r e p o r t i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p s and a t t i t u d e s o f c o - w o rk e rs , num ber o f

ch a n g es to o th e r co m p a n ie s f o r c a r e e r ad v a n ce m e n t, a s u p e r io r 's

r e c o g n i t io n , lu c k , o r a c t i v e p u r s u i t a s f a c t o r s in c a r e e r a d v a n ce

ment, th e p resence of s e l f - d o u b t, anger, d ep ress io n , o r c o n f ro n ta tio n

d u r in g th e f i r s t c a r e e r d e c a d e , envy o f m a le s , a c c e p ta n c e o f th e

s t a t u s quo o f th e em p lo y in g o r g a n iz a t io n , a s p i r a t i o n s to th e to p

p o s i t i o n in th e o r g a n iz a t io n , th e r o l e and ty p e o f m e n to rs , p e e r ,

su b o rd in a te re la t io n s h ip s , and s o c ia l a c t iv i t y in th e f i r s t decade;

and re sp o n d en t's v iew s on form al and in fo rm a l o rg a n iz a t io n a l s t ru c

tu re s fo r c a re e r advantages. A to t a l of 28 v a r ia b le s were i n v e s t i

ga ted .

T w enty-six v a r ia b le s appear to be r e la te d to th e development

o f le a d e rsh ip in women d u rin g th e f i r s t c a re e r decade; 15 v a r ia b le s

w ere s i m i l a r f o r B la ck and W hite women, and 13 v a r i a b l e s w ere


s ig n if ic a n t ly d i f f e r e n t fo r each r a c e (T a b le 13). S ig n i f i c a n t t e s t

s t a t i s t i c s (£ <, .05) w e re u sed to d e te rm in e w h e th e r t h e r e was a

d i f fe re n c e between B lack and W hite women le a d e rs .


re sponden ts in response c a t e g o r i e s , th e v a r i a b l e was i d e n t i f i e d as

a ppearing to be re la te d to le a d e rsh ip developm ent of women. The r u le


th e re was a d iscrepancy o f 20% or more betw een th e expected p ropor

t io n ( i f the d i s t r ib u t io n was equal a c ro ss c a te g o r ie s ) and th e a c tu a l

p r o p o r t io n f o r one o r m ore c a t e g o r i e s . The f i n d in g s in th e f i r s t

c a re e r decade prov ide a f f i rm a t iv e answ ers to th e re se a rc h q u es tio n ,

a re th e re d if fe re n c e s betw een th e B lack and W hite ra c e s on the v a r i

a b le s th a t a f f e c t th e c a re e r development o f s u c c e s s fu l women?

S im i l a r i t i e s

S ix ty -se v en and one te n th p e rcen t o f re sp o n d en ts g o t t h e i r f i r s t

jo b s by m eans o f t h e i r own i n i t i a t i v e and 12.4% g o t them w ith th e

h e lp o f a p la c e m e n t s e r v ic e ) ; 84.6% w ere a t e n t r y l e v e l in t h e i r

f i r s t jo b . A m a jo r i t y (56.1%) b e l ie v e d t h e i r f i r s t b o ss was su p

p o r tiv e in a t t i t u d e tow ards them, and 24.4% of responden ts s a id t h e i r

f i r s t boss was t h e i r m entor; 89.4% found th e a t t i t u d e s of co-w orkers

to be m u tu a l ly s u p p o r t iv e d u r in g t h e i r f i r s t c a r e e r d e c a d e . B la ck

and W hite women w ere a l i k e in e x p e r ie n c in g a p e r io d o f s e l f - d o u b t

(51.9% ), a n g e r (31.9% ), a c c e p ta n c e of o rg a n iz a tio n s and i n s t i t u t i o n s

as they were (22.0% yes, 78.0% no), re c o g n it io n by a s u p e r io r being a

ca re e r advancement c a ta ly s t (87.6%), and th e b e l i e f th a t lu ck (74.9%)


Tabl

e 13

138


Pass

ive

job

adva

ncem

ent

(X2

[1,5

01]

= 1.

22;

j> £

.27)

X

Tabl

e 13

—C

ontin

ued

139


(x2[

1,50

1]

= 2.

41;

£ <

.12)

X

Tabl

e 13

—C

ontin

ued

140


r a th e r than th e i r own a c t iv e se lf-p ro m o tio n (42*1%) was the cause of

t h e i r c a re e r advancement. Most re spondents (43.12) made one company

change In p u r s u i t o f a c a r e e r ; 33.4% changed com pan ies t h r e e t im e s

f o r upward advancement. In th e a rea of In te rp e rso n a l re la t io n s h ip s ,

65.0% o f th e women r e p o r t e d a s o c i a l l i f e t h a t was n o t jo b r e l a t e d

du ring th e i r f i r s t c a re e r decade; 31.3% had job re la te d s o c ia l l iv e s ,

and o n ly 2.9% r e p o r t e d no s o c i a l l i f e d u r in g th e f i r s t d ecad e o f

t h e i r c a re e rs . A m a jo ri ty o f th e women (68.3%) enjoyed more com fort

a b le r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i th t h e i r p e e r s th a n w ith t h e i r b o s s e s (31.7%)

and viewed th e In fo rm al o rg a n iz a tio n a l s t r u c tu r e (53.7%) as th e b e s t

means of advancement In s te a d o f the form al o rg a n iz a tio n a l s t r u c tu r e

(46.3% ).

D iffe re n ces

The a re a s o f d if f e re n c e were th e number o f y ea rs b e fo re respon

d e n ts ' f i r s t p ro m o tio n s , t i t l e ch a n g e s , and s a l a r y I n c r e a s e s , th e

e x i s t e n c e o f c l e a r r e p o r t i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p s , a n g e r a s a m o t iv a to r ,

c o n fro n ta tio n , envy o f m ales, and a tte m p tin g to change o rg a n iz a tio n s .

There were d if fe re n c e s In re sp o n d en ts ' a t t i t u d e s tow ards reach ing th e

top le v e ls o f t h e i r o rg a n iz a tio n s , In th e a t t i t u d e s of su b o rd in a te s

to th e re sponden ts , and who th e responden ts had as m entors.

An a n a ly s t s o f d a ta on c a r e e r ad vancem en t In th e f i r s t c a r e e r

decade shows th a t more W hite women (15.0%) were among th e 25.3% who

r e c e iv e d t h e i r f i r s t p ro m o tio n In l e s s th a n a y e a r on th e jo b ; m ore

B la ck women (30.1%) w ere among th e 56.7% who re c e iv e d t h e i r f i r s t

p rom otion betw een 1 and 3 y ea rs on the job . The number o f job t i t l e


changes was th e same fo r Black and White women In the c a te g o r ie s of 3

o r few er y e a rs ; th e re were more B lack women In th e ca teg o ry o f women

who w a ite d 4 y e a r s o r m ore b e f o re t h e i r f i r s t t i t l e ch a n g e. M ost

re s p o n d e n ts (54.7%) r e c e iv e d t h e i r f i r s t s a l a r y I n c r e a s e b e tw e en 1

and 3 y e a r s on th e jo b — B la ck women w ere In th e m a jo r i t y (32.6%) In

th a t ca teg o ry . Of the 41.6% who re ce iv e d t h e i r f i r s t s a la r y in c re a s e

in l e s s than 1 yea r on th e job , 23.0% were White women. B lack women

were 41.7% of th e 75.2% responden ts who had c le a r re p o r tin g r e la t io n

s h ip s i n t h e i r em p lo y in g o r g a n iz a t io n s ; W h ite women w ere i n th e

m a jo r i t y among th e 24.8% who d id n o t e x p e r ie n c e c l e a r r e p o r t i n g

re la t io n s h ip s on th e job.

In t h e i r e f f o r t s to cope w ith th e i r fe e l in g s r e la te d to th e work

environm ent, more Black women (23.0%) than W hite women (16.4%) were

among th e 39.3% re s p o n d e n ts r e p o r t i n g i n i t i a t i v e and a c h ie v e m e n t

m otiva ted by anger in the f i r s t c a re e r decade; 62.7% of a l l women in

th e sam ple con fro n ted in ju s t i c e s and 66.5% t r i e d to change o rg a n iz a

t io n s and in s t i t u t i o n s d u rin g th e f i r s t 10 y ea rs o f work—B lack women

were in th e m a jo ri ty in both c a te g o r ie s . More W hite women th an Black

women re p o rte d th a t they envied th e freedom m ales seemed to have and,

c o n v e rse ly , more B lack women than W hite women were among th e 80.6%

who d id n o t envy m ales d u ring th e f i r s t c a re e r decade. Of the women

in t h i s sam ple, 34.9% re p o rte d v is u a l iz in g them selves as p re s id e n t o r

head of t h e i r o rg a n iz a tio n s d u ring t h e i r f i r s t 10 yea rs o f work; the

m a jo ri ty who saw them selves as head o f t h e i r o rg a n iz a tio n s w ere W hite

women and th e m a jo rity o f those who d id no t see them selves a t th e top

of t h e i r o rg a n iz a tio n s were B lack women.


C o o p e ra tiv e m ale s u b o r d in a te s w ere a p a r t o f th e work l i f e o f

76.4% o f n e a rly equa l p e rcen ta g es of Black and W hite women, b u t more

B lack women faced c o ld ly p ro f e s s io n a l , i n d i f f e r e n t , o r u n d e rm in in g

m ale s u b o r d in a t e s . O ver 61% o f re s p o n d e n ts b e l ie v e d t h e i r co

o p e ra tiv e su b o rd in a te s were m otiva ted by p ro fe s s io n a lism —Black women

w ere 34.5% o f t h a t c a te g o r y ; W hite women w e re a 19.8% m a jo r i t y o f

those who b e liev e d th e i r su b o rd in a te s were m o tiv a ted by lo y a l ty to

them.

' D a ta on whom th e re s p o n d e n ts had a s m e n to rs show ed an e q u a l

d i s t r i b u t i o n o f th e r a c e s in th e 35.2% who had no m en to r d u r in g th e

f i r s t c a re e r decade. Of those who had m entors, th e re were tw ice the

pe rcen tage o f W hite women as B lack women who had e i t h e r White males

o r W hite fem ales as m entors. B lack women were 100% of th o se re p o r t

ing B lack m ales o r B lack fem ales as m entors d u rin g t h e i r f i r s t c a re e r

d ecade.

C areer M atu rity

T h is s e c t i o n In c lu d e s f i n d in g s on w h e th e r r e s p o n d e n ts had

reached c a re e r m a tu rity w ith s a la r y and prom otion dese rved , d e c is io n

c r o s s r o a d s b e tw e en c o n t in u e d c a r e e r s t r i v i n g v e r s u s m a r r ia g e and

c h i l d r e n ; th e r o l e o f a n g e r , d e p r e s s io n , c o n f r o n t a t i o n , envy o f

m a le s , and a c t io n s to w a rd s th e s t a t u s quo o f o r g a n iz a t io n s d u r in g

c a r e e r m a tu r i t y ; r e s p o n d e n ts ’ p e r c e p t io n s o f t h e i r c a r e e r s t y l e a s

c h a ra c te r iz e d by: d i re c tn e s s , f a c tu a ln e s s , b u sin ess and ta s k o rie n

t a t i o n , em otional d is ta n c e , m in im izing ra c e , fe m in in ity , choice of

w ardrobe, ag g ress iv en ess , a s s e r t iv e n e s s , v i s i b i l i t y , p e rsu as iv en ess ,


com bativeness, n u rtu rin g , and f r ie n d l in e s s * T here a r e f i n d in g s on

re s p o n d e n ts ' d e s c r i p t i o n s o f th e m s e lv e s as h appy , s a t i s f i e d , r e

warded, guarded, o r f r e e r to tak e r i s k s d u ring c a re e r m a tu rity ; and

th e re a re fin d in g s on ex p e rien c es w ith perform ance a p p r a is a l , c r i t i

cism , reassessm en t of s ty le , and le n g th o f tim e b e fo re being com fort

a b le d e le g a tin g ta sk s (Table 14).

There were 38 v a r ia b le s in v e s t ig a te d , 28 appear to be r e la te d to

th e development of le a d e rs h ip in women, and th e re were 15 v a r ia b le s

each among th e s i m i l a r i t i e s and d if fe re n c e s betw een B lack and W hite

women in the se c tio n on c a re e r m a tu rity . S ig n if ic a n t t e s t s t a t i s t i c s

( £ <. .05) w ere u sed to d e te rm in e w h e th e r t h e r e was a d i f f e r e n c e

between Black and W hite women le a d e rs .

Whenever th e re was an unequal d i s t r i b u t io n o f th e p ro p o rtio n s of

re sponden ts in response c a t e g o r i e s , th e v a r i a b l e was i d e n t i f i e d a s

appearing to be r e la te d to le a d e rsh ip developm ent o f women. The ru le


th e re was a d iscrep an cy o f 20% or more between th e expected p ropor

t io n ( i f the d i s t r i b u t io n was equal ac ro ss c a te g o r ie s ) and th e a c tu a l

p r o p o r t io n f o r one o r m ore c a t e g o r i e s . The f i n d in g s on c a r e e r

m a tu ri ty provided a f f i r m a t iv e answ ers to th e q u e s tio n , a re th e re d i f

f e r e n c e s b etw e en th e B la c k and W hite r a c e s on th e v a r ia b l e s t h a t

a f f e c t c a re e r development o f s u c c e s s fu l women?

H ennig and J a r d im (1976) c h a r a c t e r i z e d c a r e e r m a tu r i t y a s th e

end o f th e f i r s t 10 c a re e r y ea rs in which women who were su c c e s s fu l

had e s t a b l i s h e d an i d e n t i t y b ase d upon t h e i r r e s o lu t i o n s o f th e

c o n f l ic ts between th e i r s e lf - c o n c e p ts and s o c ie ta l d e f in i t io n s of the


Car

eer

Mat

urit

y:

How

Fact

ors

Aff

ect

Succ

essf

ul

Blac

k an

d W

hite

Wom

en

145


Gai

ned

resp

ect

conf

ront

in

g:

care

er

mat

urity

(X

2[l

,50

1]

= 0

.71

; j>

<. .4

0)

X

App

ears

to

be re

late

d

146


sty

le—

asse

rtiv

e X

(x2

[l,5

01]

■ 11

.46;

£

.01)

sty

le—

visi

ble

(X2t

l,501

] =

1.13

; £<

.1

9)

X

sty

le—

pers

uasi

ve

X (x

2[l

,501

] =

8.35

; j>

£ .0

1)

Tabl

e 14

—C

ontin

ued

147


(X2[

l,5

0ir

-

3.77

; £

< .0

6)

X

Reproduced

with perm

ission of the

copyright ow

ner. Further


without

permission.

T able 14—Continued

D ifferen ce between Black and WhiteAppears to be re la te d to le a d e rsh ip develop

women lea d ers? ment o f women?

Yes No Yes No

Reassessm ent—c r i t i c i s m (x2 [ l ,5 0 1 ] = 3 .3 7 ; £ <̂ .07) X X

P ersu asio n o f su b o rd in a te s (X2 [3 .464] = 6 .02; £ <. .11) X X

aOnly 10% o f a l l women surveyed re p o rte d envy o f the freedom th a t m ales seemed to have d u ring c a re e r m a tu rity ; th e re were more w h ite women who re p o rte d envy o f m ales du ring th i s p e rio d (x2[l,5 0 1 ] - 7.78; £ < -01).

^A lthough th e p e r c e n ta g e o f "yes" a n sw e rs was to o s m a l l (15.4%) to be r e l a t e d to th e d ev e lo p m e n t o f le a d e rsh ip o f women, th e re was a s tro n g a s s o c ia t io n o f ra c e w ith the need to m inim ize ra ce as p a r t o f a c a re e r s ty le . More B lack women re p o rted such a need ( x 2[l,5 0 1 ] = 22.87; £ .00).

148

149

ro le s of women. The avoidance o f a sex r o le d e f in i t i o n caused th ese

women to w ithdraw from re la t io n s h ip s w ith most o f th e men and women

they knew. They had formed th i s p a t te r n of r e la t in g to keep i n t a c t

t h e i r own concepts of them selves:

T h e ir m ost im p o r ta n t s o u rc e s o f c o n f i r m a t io n w ere f i r s t t h e i r f a th e r s and th en t h e i r b osses. The s p e c ia l b le s s in g s o f th ese a l l - im p o r ta n t men helped them defend a g a in s t conf l i c t , l e t them see them selves as women and confirm ed t h e i r own b e l ie f th a t th e a c q u is i t io n o f com petence was an essent i a l p a r t o f l i f e . They d id n o t c o n s c io u s ly deny t h e i r sexua l i d e n t i ty — they sim ply re fu se d to engage i t . At the age o f tw e n ty - f iv e , a l l o f them . . . had ta k e n t h e i r f e m in in i ty and s to r e d i t away f o r f u t u r e c o n s id e r a t i o n .T heir o b je c tiv e s w ere a c h ie v e m e n t, s u c c e s s , r e c o g n i t io n .They ach ieved , they succeeded and they were recogn ized . I t was a cy c le which e n d le ss ly re -co n firm ed th e r ig h tn e s s of th e cho ices they had made. (p. 165)

When th ese women had moved to h ig h er le v e ls of m iddle management, a

number of fa c to r s which had p re v io u s ly h eld c o n s ta n t began to change.

T h e ir f a th e r s grew o ld e r , becam e l e s s a l e r t , and i n a num ber o f

c a s e s , s e n i l i t y o r d e a th o c c u r re d . T h e ir r e l a t i o n s h i p s w ith t h e i r

b o s s e s changed and th e y had e x p e r ie n c e d an I n c r e a s e in autonom y on

th e Job . F or th e f i r s t t im e in t h e i r a d u l t l i v e s th e s e s u c c e s s f u l

women began to c r i t i c a l l y analyze t h e i r f e m in in ity , t h e i r l iv e s a t

work, and w ith th e w orld o u ts id e of work.


B lack and W hite women in t h i s s tudy w ere a l ik e w ith 33.3% fa c in g

a d e c is io n c ro ssro ad s to co n tin u e s t r iv in g upward in t h e i r c a re e rs o r

to d e v o te t h e i r e n e r g ie s to m a r r ia g e and c h i l d r e n ; 74.7% s a id th e y

chose both m arriage and con tinued c a re e r s t r i v in g , 18.8% chose t h e i r

c a r e e r s , and 2.9% ch o se to p u rsu e t h e i r p e r s o n a l l i v e s . Anger was


experienced by 26.52 and d ep ress io n caused by unexpressed anger was

e x p e r ie n c e d by 15.42 o f th e women in t h i s sam p le d u r in g c a r e e r

m a tu r i t y . A m a jo r i t y o f 61.92 o f th e women su rv e y e d r e p o r t e d t h a t

th e y c o n f ro n te d p e r c e iv e d i n j u s t i c e s d u rin g c a re e r m a tu ri ty ; 57.52

believ e d they gained th e r e s p e c t of o th e rs fo r t h e i r w i l l in g n e s s to

c o n fro n t, and 88.02 re fu se d to accep t th e s ta tu s quo of o rg a n iz a tio n s

and I n s t i t u t i o n s a t th a t tim e o f th e i r ca re e r .

B la c k and W hite women in t h i s sam p le w ere a l i k e i n d e s c r ib in g

them selves w ith e ig h t c a re e r s ty le c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and in r e je c t in g

f i v e o th e r s t y l e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . The c o n c e p t o f c a r e e r s t y l e in

t h i s s tu d y was a d a p te d from th e c o n c e p t o f " s ty le " o r " b e h a v io r a l

s t y le " u sed in te r c h a n g e a b ly by H ennlg and J a r d im (1976) to e x p la in

one o f th e p a t te r n s of d i f fe re n c e in a t t i t u d e s about c a re e r betw een

men and women. In t h e i r d e f in i t io n , c a re e r s ty le r e f e r s to :

How one speaks and th e language one u ses , how one d re s s e s , w hether one appears qu ick and c le v e r , o r slow and r e f l e c t i v e , w h e th e r one i s a h e lp e r , o r in d e e d a f o l l o w e r — and m ost im p o r ta n t , w hen, and in f r o n t o f whom and o v e r w hat k in d s o f I s s u e s , (p . 50)

The re s p o n d e n ts i n t h i s sam p le d e s c r ib e d th e m s e lv e s a s d i r e c t

(7 5 .1 2 ) , b u s in e s s and t a s k o r i e n t e d (7 3 .7 2 ), d re s s e d c o n s e r v a t iv e ly

w ith f e m in in e to u c h e s (5 5 .3 2 ) , v i s i b l e (5 9 .7 2 ) , f r i e n d l y (8 1 .2 2 ) ,

n u r tu r in g (45.32), happy (85.02), and rew arded (81.82). They avoided

d e sc rib in g them selves w ith th e c h a r a c te r i s t i c s “e m o tio n a lly d is ta n t"

(9 2 .2 2 ) , " co m b ativ e" (9 0 .8 2 ) , o r " a g g r e s s iv e " (8 0 .6 2 ) . The women in

t h i s sam p le r e j e c t e d th e w a rd ro b e e x tre m e s o f " fe m in in e d r e s s " by

81.02, and th e c o n se rv a tiv e , m asculine s ty le recommended by M alloy

(1976) by 88.42.


O ther a reas o f s im i l a r i ty betw een B lack and W hite women who had

reached c a re e r m a tu rity Inc luded 56.1% of responden ts who had expe

rien c ed a n eg a tiv e perform ance a p p r a i s a l d e s c r ib in g them as e i t h e r

too outspoken, too low p r o f i l e , too com bative , too com prom ising, no t

a team p la y e r , to o a g g r e s s iv e , o r u n a b le to h a n d le th e jo b r e q u i r e

m en ts . One to 5 y e a r s was th e l e n g th o f t im e b e f o re 59.7% o f th e

responden ts w ere co m fo rtab le d e le g a tin g ta sk s and tu rn in g down new

re s p o n s ib i l i t i e s , 6 to 10 y ea rs fo r 14.2%; and 18.5% sa id they never

became com fortab le w ith d e le g a tin g ta sk s and tu rn in g down new respon

s i b i l i t i e s .

A p erio d o f re assessm en t was a fe a tu re of c a re e r m a tu rity d i s

covered by Hennig and Jard im (1976). F o r ty - s ix p e rcen t of th e women

in t h i s sam ple re p o rte d th i s p erio d o f s e l f - a p p r a i s a l re s u lte d in a

l e s s t e c h n ic a l ap p ro a c h to t h e i r w ork; and 69.3% r e p o r te d becom ing

l e s s d o m in a tin g and more l i k e l y to u se p e r s u a s io n w ith t h e i r sub

o rd in a te s .

D iffe re n ces

The d i s t r i b u t i o n o f 90.4% o f th e women i n t h i s sam p le who had

reached 10 or more y ea rs of ex p erien ce w ith t h e i r c a re e rs was equal

betw een th e ra c e s ; th e a re a of s ig n if ic a n t d i f fe re n c e betw een Black

and W hite s u c c e s s f u l women o c c u r re d w i th m ore B lack women in th e

sm all percen tage who had no t reached c a re e r m a tu rity a t the tim e of

t h i s su rv e y . T here w ere more W hite women (34.9%) th a n B lack women

(29.5%) among the 65.5% who b eliev e d they had reached c a re e r m a tu rity

w i th th e s a l a r y and p ro m o tio n th e y d e s e rv e d . T here was tw ic e th e


p e r c e n ta g e o f B la ck women a s W hite women among th e 35.5% who s a id

they had not achieved th e s a la r y and prom otion they deserved . Of th e

35.3% re s p o n d e n ts who r e p o r t e d a n g e r a s a m o t iv a to r f o r I n i t i a t i v e

and a c h ie v e m e n t d u r in g c a r e e r m a tu r i t y , 21.1% w ere B la ck women.

T here w ere m ore B la ck women among th e 89.6% who s a id th e y d id n o t

envy m ales; more W hite women were among th o se who d id envy th e f r e e

dom males seemed to have d u rin g c a re e r m a tu rity . A s l ig h t ly h ig h er

p ercen tage of W hite women (31.5%) were among th e 62.3% re p o r tin g th a t

th e y t r i e d to change o r g a n iz a t io n s and I n s t i t u t i o n s d u r in g c a r e e r

m a tu rity ; more B lack women (22.2%) were among th e 37.7% who d id no t

t ry to make change a t th a t tim e .

There were s ig n if ic a n t d if fe re n c e s betw een the ra ces on se v e ra l

c a re e r s ty le c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . Of a l l women surveyed, 71.7% d esc rib ed

th e m s e lv e s as s a t i s f i e d a t c a r e e r m a tu r i t y , b u t 37.1% w ere W hite

women and Black women w ere 18.4% of th e 28.3% who were no t s a t i s f i e d

a t th a t tim e. A m a jo ri ty o f 66.9% of th e women d esc rib ed them selves

a s ”a s 8 e r t i v e H and " p e r s u a s iv e " ; more B la ck women (38.9%) c a l le d

them selves a s s e r t iv e and more W hite women (34.5%) c a l le d them selves

p e rsu as iv e . More W hite women (30.7%) than Black women (24.8%) were

among th e 55.5% who d e sc rib e d them selves as " fa c tu a l ." B lack women

(29.5%) w ere th e m a jo r i t y i n th e 45.1% who d e s c r ib e d th e m s e lv e s as

guarded and W hite women were 31.5% of th e 54.9% m a jo rity who did not

th in k o f them selves as guarded. A lthough 75.6% of th e women surveyed

who d esc rib ed them selves as " f re e r to take r i s k s ” in c a re e r m a tu rity

were d is tr ib u te d e q u a lly betw een the ra c e s , a g re a te r percen tage of

B la ck women (15.2%) w ere among th e 24.4% who w ere n o t f r e e r to ta k e


risks.

B lack and W hite women responded d i f f e r e n t ly to n eg a tiv e a p p ra is

a l s o f t h e i r job perform ance and in t h e i r re assessm en t o f job c r i t i

cism . Of th e 46.3% of th e sample who "added an o th e r p e rsp e c tiv e " to

n e g a tiv e assessm en ts o f t h e i r perform ance, 28.3% were Black women and

17.9% w e re W hite women. More W hite women (11.7%) th a n B la ck women

(7.1%) "conformed” in response to n e g a t iv e a s s e s s m e n ts o f t h e i r jo b

perform ance. More B lack women were among those who p ro te s te d , go t

more t r a i n i n g , o r so u g h t an e v a lu a t io n fro m 'so m eo n e e l s e . E ig h ty -

th re e p e rcen t of th e women surveyed sa id they experienced a p e rio d of

re assessm en t o f t h e i r l iv e s and c a re e rs and le a rn e d to view c r i t i c i s m

as a p o s i t iv e to o l fo r s e l f - e v a lu a tio n and Improvement. More Black

women (46.1%) th a n W h ite women (36.9%) a r r i v e d a t a new v iew o f

c r i t i c i s m .

P erc ep tio n s o f Gender Impact

Q u e s tio n s i n t h i s s e c t i o n in c lu d e d : ag e re s p o n d e n ts becam e

aw are o f t h e i r gender, and th a t th e re were d if fe re n c e s in gender; age

o f a w a re n e ss o f g e n d e r r o l e r e s t r i c t i o n s ; p a r t i c i p a t i o n in team

s p o r t s ; en g a g in g in m o th e r and d a u g h te r a c t i v i t i e s ; e n g a g in g in

a c t i v i t i e s which were c l a s s i f i e d as f a th e r and son p u rs u i ts ; f a th e r s '

v ie w s on r e s p o n d e n ts ' f e m in in i ty ; s o c ie ta l messages about m arriage

and c a re e rs ; anger as a m o tiv a to r; d ep ress io n and c o n fro n ta tio n ; envy

o f male freedom; l iv in g , h i s to r i c a l , o r c e le b r i ty ro le m odels; emula

t i o n o f m a les o r o th e r fe m a le s ; p re f e r e n c e f o r th e company o f men;

d i s l i k e fo r th e company of t r a d i t i o n a l women; w ill in g n e s s to t r y to


change o rg a n iz a tio n s ; e x p e rie n c in g se x d i s c r i m i n a t i o n , sex b i a s in

job c r i t i c i s m , sex u a l harassm en t; needing to m inim ize fe m in in ity on

th e jo b ; b e in g th e o n ly woman on th e jo b ; p e r c e p t io n s o f c a r e e r

advancem en t p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r women in re s p o n d e n ts ’ f i e l d s ; b e in g

ignored by men in d isc u ss io n s ; con tinuous need to dem onstra te le a d e r

s h ip in o rd e r to m a in ta in p o s i t i o n com pared to m en 's need to do th e

same; w ill in g n e ss to h i re women; and membership in women's advocacy

g ro u p s.

The women in th i s sample have achieved th e i r g o a ls in s p i te of a

work environm ent which a d v e rse ly a f f e c t s many women. The f in d in g s in

t h i s s e c tio n provided a f f i rm a t iv e answ ers to th e re se a rc h q u es tio n ,

a re th e re d if fe re n c e s between th e B lack and W hite ra c e s on th e Im pact

o f ra ce and gender in th e ex p e rien c es o f su c c e s s fu l women? S ix ty - s ix

v a r ia b le s were in v e s t ig a te d , 47 v a r ia b le s appear to be r e la te d to the

d ev e lo p m e n t o f l e a d e r s h ip in women, 21 v a r i a b l e s w ere s i m i l a r f o r

bo th ra c e s , and 29 v a r ia b le s w ere s ig n if ic a n t ly d i f f e r e n t fo r B lack

and W hite women (T a b le 15 ). S ig n i f i c a n t t e s t s t a t i s t i c s (£ < .< 0 5 )

were used to dete rm ine w hether th e re was a d if fe re n c e betw een B lack

and W hite women le a d e rs .


re spondents in response c a t e g o r i e s , th e v a r i a b l e was i d e n t i f i e d as

appearing to be re la te d to le a d e rsh ip development o f women. The ru le


th e re was a d iscrep an cy o f 20% or more betw een th e expected p ropor

t io n ( i f th e d i s t r ib u t io n was equal ac ro ss c a te g o r ie s ) and th e a c tu a l

p ro p o rtio n fo r one o r more c a te g o r ie s .


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161


The respondents were a l ik e In th e age a t w hich they lea rn ed of

gender d if fe re n c e s —63.7% lea rn ed d u ring ch ildhood and 23.2% lea rn ed

d u ring ado lescence. F o rty -one and s ix te n th s p e rc e n t re p o rte d sh a r

ing t r a d i t i o n a l ly f a th e r and son p u rs u i ts w ith t h e i r f a th e r s , 78.3%

r e p o r t e d h av in g l i v in g r o l e m odels a t a l l a g e s th ro u g h o u t t h e i r

ch ildhoods; 85.4% re p o rte d having c e le b r i ty m odels between th e ages

o f 6 and 9; o v e r 80% r e p o r te d t h a t th e y d id n o t e m u la te m ale r o l e

m odels d u r in g c h ild h o o d , c o l l e g e , o r m a r r ia g e ; and 24.8% r e p o r te d

h a v in g fe m a le r o l e m odels d u r in g c a r e e r m a tu r i t y . S lx ty - tw o and

seven te n th s pe rcen t of t h i s sample re p o rte d envying th e freedom th a t

m ales seemed to have; 37.3% sa id they never envied m ales. More than

26% o f th e respondents of both ra ces re p p rte d p re fe r r in g the company

o f men s p e c if ic a l ly betw een th e ages of 14 and 17, and In th e g en e ra l

c a te g o ry o f a l l a g e s ; b u t o v e r 92% s a id th e y d id n o t p r e f e r th e

com pany o f men b etw e en th e ag e s o f 6 and 9 , o r b e tw e en 10 and 13.

F o r ty - n in e p e r c e n t o f women o f b o th r a c e s s a id th e y n e v e r d i s l i k e d

th e company o f women who p r e f e r r e d th e t r a d i t i o n a l " w ife , m o th e r ,

homemaker" ro le s . N in e ty -e ig h t and s ix te n th s p e rc e n t of responden ts

of bo th ra c e s sa id they would be w il l in g to h i r e o th e r women.

C o n flic t o r s t re s s -p ro d u c in g s i tu a t io n a tte n d a n t to being fem ale

a r e d e p ic te d w hich show 39.3% of th e sam p le n e v e r e x p e r ie n c in g de

p re s s io n , bu t 60.7% re p o r tin g dep ressio n because of unexpressed anger

a t some p o in t in t h e i r l iv e s ; 85% experienced sex d is c r im in a tio n a t

some p o in t in t h e i r l i v e s ; 63.9% e x p e r ie n c e d sex d i s c r i m i n a t i o n


d u r in g t h e i r f i r s t c a r e e r d ec ad e , 32.1% d u r in g c a r e e r m a tu r i t y and

27.7% experienced sex d is c r im in a t io n In c o lle g e . T w enty-six and one

t e n th p e r c e n t w ere v i c t im s o f s e x u a l h a ra s s m e n t a t some p o in t In

t h e i r l iv e s ; 87.0% re p o rte d th a t they never m inim ized ex p ress io n of

t h e i r f e m in in ity as p a r t o f t h e i r c a re e r s ty le . S ix ty -s ix and seven

te n th s p e rc e n t of a l l women in th e sam ple re p o rte d being ignored by

men in c o n v e r s a t io n s ; and 85.6% b e l ie v e d th e y need to d e m o n s tra te

le a d e rsh ip c o n tin u a lly in o rd e r to m ain ta in t h e i r p o s i tio n s .

D iffe re n ces

There w ere d i f fe re n c e s between Black and W hite women in age o f

aw areness o f d i f f e r in g gender ro le e x p e c ta tio n s , th e age o f le a rn in g

of gender ro le r e s t r i c t i o n s , p a r t i c ip a t io n in team s p o r ts , m other and

daugh te r p u rs u i ts , f a th e r 's view s on fe m in in ity , s o c ie ta l m essages,

anger and c o n f ro n ta tio n , r o le m odels, p re fe ren ce fo r th e company of

men when th e re s p o n d e n ts w ere b e tw e en th e ag e s o f 18 and 21, a t t i

tudes tow ards t r a d i t i o n a l women, e f f o r t s to change o rg a n iz a tio n s , sex

d is c r im in a tio n , job c r i t i c i s m , and p e rc e p tio n s o f th e need fo r men to

c o n tin u a lly dem onstra te le a d e rsh ip as do women.

More White women were among th e sm all percen tag e o f re sponden ts

who sa id they never became aw are of d i f f e r e n t gender ro le expecta

t i o n s ; and more B la ck women w ere among th o s e who becam e aw are o f

d i f f e r i n g e x p e c t a t i o n s b e tw e en th e ag e s o f 2 and 5 y e a r s o ld . Be

tw een th e ag e s o f 6 and 9, 17.2% o f B lack women and 9.1% o f W hite

women in t h i s sam p le becam e aw are o f d i f f e r e n t e x p e c t a t i o n s f o r

fem ales; between th e ages of 10 and 13—Black women 14.8% and White


women 10.3%— and b e tw e e n th e ag e s o f 14 and 17 m ore W hite women

(10.9%) th a n B la ck women (9.3%) r e p o r te d l e a r n in g o f d i f f e r e n t r o l e

e x p e c ta tio n s fo r m ales and fem ales.

Awareness of th e r e s t r ic t io n s p laced on th e fem ale ro le occurred

in ado lescence fo r th e m a jo ri ty (32.1%) of resp o n d en ts—Black women

18.5% and W hite women 13.6%— and d u r in g c h i ld h o o d f o r 29.8% o f r e

s p o n d e n ts — w ith more B la ck women (19.1%) th a n W hite women (10.7% ).

D uring th e f i r s t c a re e r decade, c a re e r m a tu r i ty , and in th e ca teg o ry

o f th o s e who n e v e r becam e aw are o f g e n d e r r o l e r e s t r i c t i o n s t h e r e

w ere more W hite women than B lack women.

More Black women (32.3%) than W hite women (21.7%) were among th e

54.0% of respondents who p a r t ic ip a te d in team s p o r ts a s c h ild re n ; and

B lack women were 45.5% of the 80.2% m a jo ri ty who shared t r a d i t i o n a l

m other and daughter a c t i v i t i e s w ith t h e i r m others du ring childhood.

M ost (90.5%) o f th e women i n t h i s sam p le r e c a l l e d g e t t i n g s o c i e t a l

messages to p rep are them selves fo r a c a re e r— e s p e c ia l ly B lack women

who w e re 51.9% o f th e m a jo r i t y . W hite women, a t 6.3%, w ere in th e

m a jo ri ty of th e sm all p ercen ta g e who go t th e m essage th a t they should

make them selves a t t r a c t i v e to g e t a husband.

The d a ta show th e in flu e n c e o f r o le models on the women in th i s

sam ple: 65.1% had l iv in g ro le m odels, 91.8% had h i s to r i c a l o r ce le b

r i t y r o le models between the ages of 10 and 13, 95.0% had h i s to r i c a l

o r c e l e b r i t y r o l e m odels b e tw e en th e ag e s o f 14 and 17, 44.1% had

h i s t o r i c a l o r c e l e b r i t y r o l e m odels b e tw e en th e ag e s o f 18 and 21.

In a l l fo u r c a te g o r ie s Black women were th e m a jo ri ty a t 39.9%, 58.9%,

61.1%, and 29.1%, re s p e c tiv e ly . Black women were in the m a jo ri ty of


th e 21.0% re p o rtin g having fem ale r o le models In ch ildhood, the 32.6%

w ith fem ale ro le models In c o lle g e , th e 20.4% w ith fem ale r o le models

du ring m arriage , and th e 26.1% who p a tte rn e d them selves a f t e r fem ale

r o l e m odels d u r in g th e f i r s t d ecad e o f t h e i r c a r e e r s . B la ck women

were 32.0% of th e 53.6% responden ts who sa id they never em ulated m ale

r o l e m o d e ls ; W hite women w ere 16.4% o f th e 26.9% who e m u la te d m ale

ro le models d u ring th e i r f i r s t c a re e r decade, and 15.0% of the 26.1%

who sa id th ey never em ulated fem ale r o le models.

B la ck women w ere 25.0% and W h ite women w e re 16.8% o f th e 41.7%

who p re fe r re d the company of men when the responden ts w ere between

th e a g e s o f 18 and 21 y e a r s . T here w e re no d i f f e r e n c e s b e tw e en th e

ra c e s In th e 29.3% d u r in g th e r e s p o n d e n ts ' f i r s t c a r e e r d e c a d e , and

In th e 20.4% during m arriag e who d is l ik e d the company o f t r a d i t i o n a l

women. F o rty -n in e p e rc e n t o f the women surveyed never d is l ik e d the

company o f t r a d i t i o n a l women, b u t o f th e 51.0% who d id 30.0% w ere

Black women and 21.0% w ere W hite women.

Anger was e x p e r ie n c e d by 45.3% o f th e B la ck re s p o n d e n ts and

34.7% of th e W hite responden ts a t some tim e in t h e i r l iv e s ; of those

who never experienced an angry p e rio d 12.4% were W hite women and 7.6%

were Black women. I n i t i a t i v e and achievem ent was m otiva ted by anger

f o r 44.1% o f B lack women and 33.5% o f W hite women a t some p o in t In

t h e i r l i v e s ; 8.8% B la ck women and 13.6% W hite women s a id a n g e r was

never a m o tiv a to r fo r I n i t i a t i v e and achievem ent fo r them.

S ig n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s b e tw e en th e ra c e s were ev id en t in the

o p in io n s and b e h a v io r o f th e women In re s p o n s e to c h a l le n g e s p re

sen ted to them as fe m a les . P erceiv ed in ju s t i c e s were co nfron ted by


92.4% o f th e women s u rv e y e d — 50.1% B lack and 42.4% W h ite— a t some

p o in t In t h e i r l i v e s ; o f th e 91.8% who b e l ie v e d th e y g a in e d th e

r e s p e c t of o th e rs fo r t h e i r w ill in g n e ss to c o n fro n t, th e re were more

B lack women (50.5%) than W hite women (41.3%). At some p o in t In t h e i r

l iv e s 85.6% of a l l re sponden ts—47.7% B lack and 37.9% W hite— e x p e ri

enced sex d is c r im in a tio n ; more Black women th an W hite women e x p e ri

enced sex d i s c r i m i n a t i o n In a d o le sc e n c e and In m a r r ia g e . B lack

women, by 23.0% were never q u i te c e r ta in w hether c r i t i c i s m o f them on

th e job was In flu e n ce d by gender s te re o ty p e s h e ld by th e c r i t i c ; and

o f th e 36.9% of a l l re sponden ts who suspec ted sex b ia s In job c r i t i

c ism , o n ly 14.0% w ere W h ite women. S e v e n ty - f iv e and two t e n th s

p e rcen t of a l l re sponden ts b e l i e ^ d th a t men, as w e ll as women, have

to d e m o n s tra te l e a d e r s h ip c o n t in u a l ly in o r d e r to m a in ta in t h e i r

p o s i tio n s w ith in t h e i r employing o rg a n iz a tio n s—W hite women 40.1% and

B la ck women 35.1%; m ore B la ck women (17.8%) th a n W h ite women (7.0%)

w ere among th e 24.8% who d id no t b e lie v e th e demands to c o n tin u a lly

prove le a d e rsh ip were as g re a t fo r men as they w ere fo r women.

C a re e r advancem en t f o r women a t th e r e s p o n d e n ts ' l e v e l s was

p erceiv e d to be an e x c ep tio n by 30.1% of th e B lack women and 31.5% of

th e W hite women; 22.8% B lack respondents and 15.6% b e liev e d i t to be

th e norm fo r women to be a t th e i r le v e l o f employment. Of th e 40.1%

who were never the only women employed a t any le v e l o f t h e i r o rg a n i

z a t io n s , 27.3% w ere B la ck ; 12.8% w ere W h ite . M ore W hite women r e

p o rted being the only woman employed a t every le v e l and a t the execu

t i v e l e v e l ; m ore B la ck women r e p o r te d b e in g th e o n ly woman a t th e

e n try and su p erv iso ry le v e ls ; equal numbers o f B lack and W hite women


166

were th e only women a t m iddle and upper management l e v e ls of employ

ment.

P e rc e p tio n of Race Impact

T h is s e c t io n on th e r e s p o n d e n ts ' p e r c e p t io n s o f th e Im p a c t o f

r a c e on t h e i r l i v e s In c lu d e d f in d in g s on q u e s t io n s a b o u t: r a c i a l

environm ent du ring ch ildhood; age o f a w a re n e ss o f r a c i a l i d e n t i t y ;

aw areness of r a c i a l r e s t r i c t i o n s ; ex p e rien c in g r a c i a l d is c r im in a tio n

d u r in g s e v e r a l stagers o f l i f e ; b e in g d e l i b e r a t e l y p la c e d in im p o s

s ib le s i tu a t io n s to cause re sp o n d en ts ' f a i lu r e ; being th e B lack woman

em ployed ; r a c e b ia s in jo b c r i t i c i s m ; b e in g ig n o re d by W h ites in

d i s c u s s io n s ; p e r c e p t io n s o f c a r e e r ad v an cem en t f o r B lack women;

a n t a g o n i s t i c envy from c o - w o rk e rs ; b e in g s u p p o r te d by c o -w o rk e rs ;

c a re e r c r i s i s of being f i r e d o r denied prom otion; membership in c i v i l

r ig h ts o rg a n iz a tio n s (Table 16).

A t o t a l o f 26 v a r ia b le s were in v e s tig a te d on th e p e rcep tio n s of

th e im p a c t o f r a c e on th e re s p o n d e n ts ' l i v e s . E ig h te e n v a r ia b l e s

a p p e a r to be r e l a t e d to th e d ev e lo p m e n t o f l e a d e r s h ip i n women, 1

v a r ia b l e showed a s i m i l a r i t y b e tw e en B la ck and W hite women— 84.8%

have n o t had th e e x p e r ie n c e o f a c a r e e r c r i s i s o f b e in g f i r e d o r

denied prom otion—and th e re were s ig n if ic a n t d if fe re n c e s between th e

ra ces on 20 of th e v a r ia b le s . S ig n if ic a n t t e s t s t a t i s t i c s (j> < .05)

were used to dete rm ine w hether th e re was a d if fe re n c e betw een Black

and W hite women le a d e rs . Whenever th e re was an unequal d i s t r ib u t io n

of the p ro p o rtio n s o f re sponden ts in response c a te g o r ie s , th e v a r i

a b le was i d e n t i f i e d a s a p p e a r in g to be r e l a t e d to le a d e r s h ip


Perc

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development o f women. The r u le used to d iv id e w hether the d i s t r ib u

t i o n was d l s p r o p o r t i o n a l was I f th e r e was a d i s c re p a n c y o f 20% o r

more between the expected p ro p o r tio n ( I f the d i s t r i b u t io n was equal

a c r o s s c a t e g o r i e s ) and th e a c t u a l p r o p o r t io n f o r one o r m ore c a t e

g o r ie s .

D iffe re n ces

In a l l o th e r a re a s— age of aw areness o f r a c i a l Id e n t i ty , c h ild

hood r a c i a l environm ent, aw areness o f r a c i a l r e s t r ic t io n s , encoun ters

w i th r a c e d i s c r i m i n a t i o n , b e in g d e l i b e r a t e l y p la c e d in Im p o s s ib le

s i tu a t io n s to cause the re sponden ts to f a i l , trium ph over im p o ssib le

s i t u a t i o n s , b e in g th e o n ly B la ck woman em p lo y ed , envy from co

w o rk e rs , r e s u l t s o f c a r e e r c r i s i s , and a c t iv e m em bersh ip i n B lack

a d vancem en t o r g a n iz a t io n s — th e r e w ere v e ry pronounced s ig n if ic a n t

d if fe re n c e s which a f f i r m a t iv e ly answ ered th e re se a rc h q u es tio n , a re

th e re d if fe re n c e s betw een th e B lack and W hite ra c e s in th e im pact of

ra ce on the grow th and developm ent of s u c c e s s fu l women?

S ig n if ic a n t d i f fe re n c e s betw een B lack and W hite women gave e v i

dence th a t ra ce was a prom inent v a r ia b le in th e l iv e s of the women in

t h i s sa m p le . Over 91% o f th e women grew up in s e g r e g a te d e n v iro n

m ents; 4.5% grew up in an in te g ra te d environm ent and 4.3% grew up in

a m u l t i r a c i a l e n v iro n m e n t. W hite women w ere 42.3% o f th e 50.4%

m a jo r i t y who grew up in a p re d o m in a n tly W h ite e n v iro n m e n t; B lack

women were 40.4% of th o se who grew up in a predom inan tly B lack en v i

ronment. More Black women (3.6%) grew up in an in te g ra te d en v iron

ment and the same p ercen ta g e grew up in a m u l t i r a c ia l environm ent.


B la ck women becam e aw are o f t h e i r r a c i a l I d e n t i t y a t e a r l i e r

a g e s th a n W hite women. A m a jo r i t y o f 32.8% o f a l l women su rv e y e d

became aw are o f t h e i r r a c i a l i d e n t i t i e s between the ages of 6 and 9

yea rs o ld ; 21.4% were B lack women and 11.4% were W hite women. W hite

women w e re i n th e m a jo r i t y o f th o s e who le a r n e d o f t h e i r r a c i a l

i d e n t i t i e s betw een the ages of 14 and 17 and o ld e r .

M ost r e s p o n d e n ts l e a r n e d o f s o c i e t a l r e s t r i c t i o n s r e l a t e d to

r a c e d u r in g c h ild h o o d w here B lack women w ere 28.8% o f th e 40.3%

m a jo rity . Equal p ercen tag es of women o f both ra c e s became aw are o f

r e s t r i c t i o n s in th e 33.0% who became aw are d u rin g ado lescence . White

women w ere 9.6% o f th e 13.4% who l e a r n e d o f r a c e r e s t r i c t i o n s i n

co lle g e ; in th e c a te g o r ie s o f f i r s t c a re e r decade, c a re e r m a tu ri ty ,

and among those who sa id they never became aw are of ra ce r e s t r ic t io n s

th e m a jo ri ty were W hite women.

The c o n f l ic ts a s s o c ia te d w ith r a c i a l i d e n t i ty in American s o c ia l

system s w ere d ra m a tic a lly d i f f e r e n t fo r Black and W hite women in t h i s

sam ple. Of th e 43.9% who sa id they never encountered ra ce d is c r im i

n a t i o n , 41.9% w ere W h ite women and o n ly 2% w e re B la ck women; and

B la ck women w ere 50.9% o f th e 56.1% who i n d i c a t e d t h a t th e y en

coun te red ra ce d is c r im in a t io n a t some p o in t d u rin g t h e i r l iv e s . The

18.4% responden ts who re p o rte d ra ce d is c r im in a tio n du ring childhood

were a l l B lack women; a l l bu t 1.0% of the 29.5% who experienced ra c e

d is c r im in a t io n in c o lle g e were B lack women; in c o lle g e B lack women

were 10.4% of th e 10.8% who experienced ra ce d is c r im in a tio n ; 33.1% of

th e 34.5% re p o r tin g ra ce d is c r im in a tio n in t h e i r f i r s t c a re e r decade

w ere B la ck women; and B la ck women w ere 19.6% o f th e 20.2% who


experienced ra ce d is c r im in a tio n du ring c a re e r m a tu rity . Race d i f f e r

ences re s u lte d in the 45.92 responden ts who re p o rte d the ex p erien ce

o f b e in g d e l i b e r a t e l y p la c e d in im p o s s ib le s i t u a t i o n s t h a t w ere

d e s ig n e d to c a u se them to f a i l a t some p o in t i n t h e i r l i v e s — B la ck

women 29.9% and White women 16.0%. During th e f i r s t c a re e r decade,

B la ck women w ere 16.8% and W hite women w ere 6.4% o f th e 23.2% who

e x p e r ie n c e d b e in g s e t up f o r f a i l u r e ; and more B la ck women e x p e r i

enced b e in g p la c e d in im p o s s ib le s i tu a t io n s d u rin g ado lescence and

c o lla g e . Almost 40% of those surveyed sa id they trium phed over th e

d e l i b e r a t e s e t up w h ich was d e s ig n e d to c a u se them to f a i l ; 27.5%

were B lack women and 12% were W hite women who trium phed over "impos

s ib le s i tu a t io n s .” More W hite women (35.1%) were among th e 60.5% who

did not trium ph over th e s i tu a t io n designed to cause th e i r f a i l u r e .

T w en ty -one and fo u r t e n th s p e r c e n t o f a l l B la c k women re s p o n

den ts never were th e only B lack woman to be employed a t any le v e l in

t h e i r employing o rg a n iz a tio n s . F ourteen and two te n th s p e rcen t were

th e o n ly B lack women em ployed a t e n t r y l e v e l ; 12.9% w ere th e o n ly

B lack women to be employed a t m iddle management le v e l; 9.3% were th e

o n ly B la ck women a t th e s u p e r v is o r y l e v e l ; and 4.7% w ere th e o n ly

Black women to be employed a t th e ex e cu tiv e le v e l in t h e i r employing

o rg a n iz a tio n s .

Of th e 28.3% r e s p o n d e n ts who s a id th e y w ere n e v e r c e r t a i n

w h e th e r jo b c r i t i c i s m d i r e c t e d to them was m o tiv a te d by r a c i a l

s te re o ty p e s h eld by th e c r i t i c , 26.9% w ere B lack women. B lack women

w ere 33.1% o f th e 35.9% o f a l l re s p o n d e n ts who e x p e r ie n c e d b e in g

ignored by W hites in a d isc u ss io n on th e job . A pproxim ately 15% of


a l l women surveyed had experienced th e c a re e r c r is e s of e i th e r being

f i r e d o r d e n ie d p ro m o tio n f o r b e in g " In c o m p e te n t" o r "n o t a team

p la y e r ." More W hite women had b een f i r e d a s " In c o m p e te n t ," m ore

Black women were f i r e d o r denied prom otion as "Incom petent” or "not a

team p lay er." The r e s u l t o f th ese c r is e s helped the c a re e rs of 57.7%

o f r e s p o n d e n ts — 34.6% B la ck and 23.1% W h ite— made no d i f f e r e n c e to

23.1% o f r e s p o n d e n ts — 16.7% B la ck and 6.4% W h ite — and h u r t th e

c a re e rs o f 19.2% of responden ts— 14.1% W hite and 5.1% Black.

In r e la t io n s h ip s w ith co -w orkers, th e re were s ig n if ic a n t d i f f e r

e n c es b e tw e en th e r a c e s r e s u l t i n g from whom th e re s p o n d e n ts fa c e d

a n t a g o n i s t i c envy o r from whom th e r e s p o n d e n ts re c e iv e d h e lp and

s u p p o r t . The l a r g e s t p e r c e n ta g e o f re s p o n d e n ts (24.6%) r e p o r te d

a n ta g o n is t ic envy d ire c te d a t them from a l l b u t Black women—White

women 14.4% and B la ck women 10.2%. More B la c k women (16.9%) w ere

among th e 21.5% who re p o rte d an tagonism from Black and White men and

women. More W hite women re p o rte d antagonism from o th e r W hite men and

women than d id Black women; and more Black women re p o rte d antagonism

from Black men and women than d id W hite women. T w enty-six and fo u r

te n th s p e rcen t of a l l re sponden ts in app ro x im a te ly equal p ercen ta g es ,

s a id t h a t men and women o f b o th r a c e s came fo rw a rd to h e lp them

during th e i r c a re e rs ; more W hite women (17.8%) were among the 26.0%

who s a id W hite men w ere th e m ost l i k e l y to come fo rw a rd to a s s i s t

them; W hite women (8.5%) were th e m a jo ri ty o f th e 11.6% who sa id th a t

a l l bu t Black women came forw ard to a s s i s t them, and they were 1- the

m a jo rity of th o se who re ce iv e d a s s is ta n c e from White women. B lack

women w ere in th e m a jo r i t y o f re s p o n d e n ts who r e p o r te d a s s i s t a n c e


from B lack men and women.

C areer advancement fo r B lack women a t th e re sp o n d en ts ' l e v e l was

p e r c e iv e d to be an e x c e p t io n by 69.3% o f a l l women su rv e y e d — 38.9%

Black and 30.3% W hite; and advancement fo r B lack women was con sid ered

th e norm fo r 30.7% of a l l re sponden ts. Of th e 59.5% responden ts who

r e p o r te d a c t iv e m em bersh ip In c i v i l r i g h t s and B la ck ad v an cem en t

o r g a n iz a t io n s , 46.1% w e re B la ck and 13.4% w ere W h ite ; o f th o s e who

w ere no t members o f such o rg a n iz a tio n s , W hite women were 33.7% of th e

40.5% who s a id no.

Views on Work and L eadership

This s e c tio n in c lu d ed th e r e s u l t s of q u e s tio n s on: age respon

d en ts began to expect to work, age responden ts decided upon a c a re e r ,

choice of o ccu p atio n , commitment to reach th e top , reasons fo r a s p i r

in g to le a d e rsh ip , view s on work, s e l f - ra n k in g o f re sp o n d en ts ' s k i l l s

in a p p ly in g c a p a b i l i t i e s a t w ork; f a m i l i a r i t y and u s e f u ln e s s o f

s e v e r a l ty p e s o f m anagem ent t h e o r i e s , re sp o n d en ts ' advice to young

women a s p ir in g to le a d e rs h ip , a tten d a n ce a t le a d e rsh ip sem inars and

co n fe re n ce s, p e rc e p tio n s on key to su c c e s s fu l le a d e rsh ip , cho ice of

p r o f e s s i o n a l and p e r io d i c a l l i t e r a t u r e , and m em bersh ip i n p r o f e s

s io n a l o rg a n iz a tio n s .

F o r t y - t h r e e v a r i a b l e s on v ie w s o f work and le a d e r s h ip w ere

in v e s tig a te d ; 33 v a r ia b le s appear to be re la te d to th e developm ent of

le a d e rsh ip in women. There were 17 v a r ia b le s in th i s s e c tio n which

showed B lack and W hite women to be a l ik e , and th e re were s ig n if ic a n t

d i f fe re n c e s betw een the ra c e s on 19 of the v a r ia b le s . The f in d in g s


of t h i s s e c tio n a f f i rm a t iv e ly answ ered th e q u es tio n , a re th e re d i f

f e r e n c e s b e tw e en B la ck and W hite women in th e v ie w s o f work and

le a d e rsh ip of su c c e s s fu l women (Table 17)? S ig n if ic a n t t e s t s t a t i s

t i c s <£ .005) were used to dete rm ine w hether th e re was a d if fe re n c e

betw een Black and W hite women le a d e rs .


re sponden ts in response c a t e g o r i e s , th e v a r i a b l e was i d e n t i f i e d as

appearing to be r e la te d to le a d e rsh ip development o f women. The ru le


th e re was a d iscrep an cy o f 20% or more betw een th e expected p ropor

t io n ( i f th e d i s t r i b u t io n was equal ac ro ss c a te g o r ie s ) and th e a c tu a l



The a re a s of s i m i l a r i ty betw een B lack and W hite women were:.

1. Age responden ts began to expect to work—35.8% d u ring f i r s t

c a r e e r d e c a d e , 18.4% d u r in g c a r e e r m a tu r i t y , and 16.6% d u r in g c o l

le g e .

2. R esponse to l e a d e r s h ip t h e o r i e s — 23.6% w e re f a m i l i a r w i th

th e o r ie s on su b o rd in a te m o tiv a tio n (e .g ., th eo ry X and theo ry Y), and

47.5% w ere f a m i l i a r w i th o r g a n iz a t io n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t h e o r i e s

(e .g ., P e te rs & Waterman, 1982), 83.8% were n o t f a m i l ia r w ith a l l o f

th e t h e o r i e s , and 95.6% d e c l in e d to s u g g e s t t h e o r i e s o f t h e i r own.

3. Respondents w ere s im i la r on perceiv ed u se fu ln e ss o f le a d e r

s h ip t h e o r i e s , w i th 33.3% b e l i e v in g o rg a n iz a t io n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

th e o r ie s to be u se fu l, 81% sa id no management o r le a d e rsh ip th e o r ie s


View

s on

Work

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How

Fact

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Aff

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Atte

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179


Reco

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without

permission.

Table 17—Continued

Appears to be re la te dD iffe re n ce between Black and White to le a d e rsh ip develop

women le a d e rs? ment o f women?

Yes No Yes No

P ro fe s s io n a l o rg a n iz a tio n s (x2 [1 ,501] = 0 .0 1 ; j> .99) X X

R e s p o n d e n ts w ere ask e d to ra c k t r a i n i n g , e x p e r ie n c e , and o th e r p e o p le a c c o rd in g to w h ich b e s t d e sc rib e s the way they apply t h e i r c a p a b i l i t i e s in t h e i r work.

^ In t h i s case a "no" answ er i s s ig n if ic a n t in response to which le a d e rsh ip th e o r ie s have been u s e fu l to the responden ts ' work; 81% sa id "none."

cAdvlce 175: "Don't l e t your e n e rg ie s be f r i t t e r e d away; c h a rt your course and s t i c k to i t . N inetyp ercen t o f people w i l l t e l l you you 're going in th e wrong d ire c t io n —don 't l i s t e n to them.”

180

w ere u s e fu l, and 35.3% suggested o th e r th e o r ie s which they b eliev e d

to be u s e fu l. They a re In Appendix G.

4. S im ila r advice to young women a s p ir in g to le a d e rsh ip p o s i

t io n s was g iven by women o f bo th ra c e s . E ig h ty -e ig h t and two te n th s

p e r c e n t s a id , "D evelop a f o r c e o f c h a r a c t e r t h a t no one ca n ta k e

aw ay”; 46.1% s a id , "F o rg e t y o u r s e l f , do n o t p r a c t i c e s e l f - p i t y " ;

40.3% s a id , "D on't l e t y o u r e n e r g ie s be f r i t t e r e d aw ay, n in e ty p e r

c e n t o f p e o p le w i l l t e l l you y o u 're g o in g in th e wrong d i r e c t i o n —

d o n 't l i s t e n to them.”

5. F o r ty - f iv e and n in e te n th s p e rcen t of re sponden ts sa id s e l f -

im p ro v em en t, 26.1% s a id in f o r m a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s , and 18.3% s a id th e

fo rm al o rg a n iz a tio n a l s t r u c tu r e were th e keys to s u c c e s s fu l le a d e r

sh ip .

6. E ig h ty - th r e e and e ig h t t e n th s p e r c e n t o f r e s p o n d e n ts r e

p o rted th a t they read p ro fe s s io n a l l i t e r a t u r e fo r c a re e r in fo rm a tio n

and ad v ic e .

7 . P u b l i c a t i o n s recom m ended by r e s p o n d e n ts w e re : F o rb e s

(26.7% ), F o r tu n e (32.1% ), The W all S t r e e t J o u r n a l (59.5% ), and th e

p r o f e s s i o n a l j o u r n a l s o f w h ic h e v e r p ro fe s s io n responden ts belonged

(56.9% ).

8. E ig h ty -n in e and fo u r t e n th s p e r c e n t o f a l l r e s p o n d e n ts

re p o rte d membership in p ro f e s s io n a l o r g a n iz a t io n s r e l a t e d to t h e i r

o cc u p a tio n s•


182

D iffe re n ces

Areas o f s ig n if ic a n t d if fe re n c e betw een B lack and W hite women

w ere (a ) c h o ic e o f o c c u p a t io n , (b ) age r e s p o n d e n ts d e c id e d upon a

c a re e r , (c) age they made a commitment to reach th e top , (d) m otives

to l e a d , (e ) v iew o f w ork , ( f ) w ork m eth o d s , (g ) f a m i l i a r i t y w i th

t r a i t th e o r ie s of le a d e rsh ip , (h) p e rce ived u se fu ln e s s of su b o rd in a te

m o t iv a t io n t h e o r i e s , (1 ) a d v ic e to young women a s p i r i n g to l e a d e r

s h ip , ( j ) recommended p u b lic a tio n s , and (k) a t ten d a n ce a t le a d e rsh ip

conferences and seminars*

E d u c a tio n was th e p r o f e s s io n o f 38.9% o f re s p o n d e n ts — 26.3%

B la ck and 12.6% W h ite . B u s in e s s was th e n e x t l a r g e s t (27.5%) c a t e

g o ry w i th m ore W hite women (17.6%) th a n B la c k women (10.0% ); and

B la ck women w ere 8.45% o f th e 12.8% r e s p o n d e n ts In g o v ern m e n t and

pol’i t l c s . More W hite women (16.8%) were among th e 36.2% m a jo ri ty of

re sponden ts who decided upon t h e i r c a re e r betw een th e ages of 18 and

21. B la ck women a t 18.8% w ere In th e m a jo r i t y o f th e 29.9% who

d e c id e d w h ich c a r e e r to p u rsu e b e tw e en th e a g e s o f 14 and 17, and

B lack women were In th e m a jo rity who decided upon th e i r c a re e rs a t

every age ca tegory betw een 2 and 17 y ea rs o ld .

By th e tim e they reached ado lescence 34.1% of re sponden ts—Black

women a t 19.1% and W h ite women a t 15.1%— had made a com m itm ent to

reach fo r th e top In t h e i r c a re e rs ; o f th e 28.9% who decided to reach

f o r th e to p d u r in g c o l l e g e , 15.5% w ere B la ck women and 13.5% w ere

W hite women. Economic reasons fo r 25.8% of re sponden ts and a d e s i re

to c o n t r o l and d i r e c t o th e r s (28.0%) m o tiv a te d th e m a jo r i t y o f


r e s p o n d e n ts to a s p i r e to l e a d e r s h ip ; m ore B la c k women th a n W hite

women were in both c a te g o r ie s .

A m a jo ri ty of 60.8% of responden ts view th e i r work as a le a rn in g

o p p o r tu n i ty , 19.2% p e r c e iv e t h e i r w ork a s a m eans to e a rn a l i v in g ,

and 10.1% see t h e i r work as a chance to move up. W hite women were in

th e m a jo r i t y (32.3%) o f th o s e who v iew e d t h e i r work a s a l e a r n in g

o p p o rtu n ity ; Black women were th e m a jo r i ty —12.6% and 5.8%— of those

who viewed work as a means to ea rn a l iv in g and a chance to move up,

r e s p e c t iv e ly .

When asked to rank th e i r methods o f ap p ly ing th e i r a b i l i t i e s in

o rd e r to g e t th e job done, the responden ts ranked experience f i r s t by

55.1%—W hite women 31.5% and Black women 26.3%; t r a in in g was ranked

second by 59.5% o f r e s p o n d e n ts — W hite women 34.9% and B lack women

24.6%. E x p e r ie n c e was ra n k e d in t h i r d p la c e by n e a r ly e q u a l p e r

ce n tag es of bo th ra c e s and re ly in g on o th e r peop le was ranked second

(33.9%) in th e t h i r d p la c e by a lm o s t tw ic e a s many B la c k women

(21.6%) and W hite women (12.4%). When view ed s e p a ra te ly , Black women

ranked t r a in in g f i r s t and experience second in in v e rse o rd e r to the

rank ing by W hite women.

T h ere was a s l i g h t l y s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e re n c e between B lack and

W hite women w ith more Black women re p o r tin g f a m i l i a r i t y w ith t r a i t

t h e o r i e s o f l e a d e r s h ip (e .g . , th e m a n a g e r ia l g r id ) . S u b o rd in a te

m o tiv a tio n th e o r ie s were p e rce ived to be u se fu l by a sm all percen tag e

(14.2%) o f responden ts—w ith B lack women in th e m a jo ri ty .

The fo llo w in g advice was o ffe re d by responden ts to young women

a s p ir in g to le a d e rsh ip . Advice from th e n a t io n a l ly known women whose


in te rv ie w s formed p a r t o f th e b a s is fo r th e survey q u e s tio n n a ire was

l i s t e d a t th e end o f th e q u e s t io n n a i r e . R esp o n d en ts w ere ask e d to

ch eck th e a d v ic e w hich was m ost r e f l e c t i v e o f t h e i r own v ie w s . In

e v e ry i n s ta n c e , B la ck women w ere a s i g n i f i c a n t m a jo r i t y . "L earn

s e l f - d i s c i p l i n e " was th e a d v ic e o f 79% o f re s p o n d e n ts ; "Keep y o u r

sh ip on course"— 69.5%; "Know th a t you can do what you d on 't want to

do"— 44.5%; " I t ' s b e t t e r to t r y and f a i l th a n n o t to t r y a t a l l " —

27.7%. E ighty p e rcen t o f re sponden ts o ffe re d th e i r own adv ice.

The women in t h i s sam ple were asked to recommend p u b lic a tio n s to

young women a s p i r i n g to le a d e r s h ip . There w ere s tro n g s ig n if ic a n t

d if fe re n c e s in th e 36.7% of responden ts who recommended B lack E n te r

p r i s e m ag azin e— 35.7% w e re B la ck women; 25.7% recom m ended E ssence

m ag a z in e— a l l b u t 00.4% w e re B lack women; and 13% o f th e 19.4% who

recommended Savvy magazine were B lack women. Of th e 4.1% respondents

who re p o rte d re g u la r a tte n d a n c e a t le a d e rsh ip conferences and sem i

n a r s , 29.3% were B lack women and 14.8% were W hite women.

F indings o f d a ta comparing th e grow th and developm ent o f le a d e r

sh ip in su c c e s s fu l women p rov ides a p r o f i l e o f women in t h i s sample

who have reached success in an environm ent which p rov ides many c h a l

le n g e s from c h ild h o o d to c a r e e r m a tu r i t y . In p u r s u i t o f s u c c e s s

B lack women c le a r ly have a d d i t io n a l c h a lle n g e s , beyond the c o n s id e r

a b le c h a lle n g es faced by W hite women, which r e s u l t from th e e x is te n c e

of ra ce d if fe re n c e s .


CHAPTER V

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The purpose o f t h i s study was to Id e n ti f y v a r ia b le s th a t may be

r e la te d to th e developm ent of le a d e rsh ip In women and to compare th e

p a t t e r n s o f g ro w th and d e v e lo p m e n t o f s u c c e s s f u l B la ck and W hite

women. In F e b ru a ry 1986, a su rv e y q u e s t io n n a i r e was s e n t to 1 ,500

women who were randomly s e le c te d from Who's Who In America (43rd ed.,

1984-1985) and Who's Who Among B lack A m ericans (4 th ed., 1985). The

c o n te n t o f th e q u e s t io n n a i r e s was d e te rm in e d by a re v ie w o f th e

l i t e r a t u r e and by a r e v ie w o f th e c o n te n t o f ta p e d in t e r v i e w s o f

Congresswoman S h ir le y Chisholm , Congresswoman M ill ic e n t Fenwick, Joan

Ganz Cooney, p r e s id e n t o f .C h i ld r e n 's T e l e v is io n W orkshop, and Dr.

Ruth Love, who was then su p e r in te n d e n t of th e Chicago P ub lic Schools.

Two weeks a f t e r th e q u e s t io n n a i r e s w ere m a i le d , a re m in d e r

p o s tc a r d was s e n t to th o s e who had n o t re sp o n d e d . Of th e 750 B la ck

women, 298 r e tu r n e d th e su rv e y a t a re s p o n s e r a t e o f 39.7%. Of th e

750 White women, 278 re tu rn e d th e survey fo r a response r a te of 37%.

Out o f 1 ,500 s u rv e y s s e n t , th e t o t a l re s p o n s e r a t e was 38.4%

w ith 19.9% re tu r n from B lack women responden ts and 18.6% re tu r n from

W hite women responden ts.

A b ia s check of nonrespondent W hite women showed s im i la r d i s t r i

b u tio n s to the sam ple in age groups w ith th e ex c ep tio n of tw ice th e

num ber o f women 65 and o ld e r among n o n re s p o n d e n ts . T here w ere

185


s im i la r percen tag es of n o n re sp o n d en ts and re s p o n d e n ts i n th e 36 -45

and 56-65 c a te g o rie s and a l l o th e r c a te g o r ie s . There were few er non

responden ts in th e 46-55 age group and more nonrespondents a t age 65

and ab o v e . T here seem ed to be a s l i g h t b ia s to w a rd y o u n g er a g e s in

th e sam ple.

The re se a rc h q u e s tio n s which guided th i s s tu d y were:

1. Are t h e r e d i f f e r e n c e s b e tw e en r a c e s in th e p a t t e r n s o f

grow th and development of s u c c e s s fu l B lack and W hite women?

2. Are t h e r e d i f f e r e n c e s b e tw e en r a c e s i n th e v a r i a b l e s t h a t

a f f e c t c a re e r development o f su c c e s s fu l B lack and W hite women?

3. Are t h e r e d i f f e r e n c e s b e tw e en r a c e s in th e im p a c t o f r a c e

id e n t i t y and gender id e n t i t y in th e ex p erien ces of s u c c e s s fu l Black

and W hite women?

4. Are th e r e d i f f e r e n c e s b e tw e en ra c e s on v ie w s o f w ork and

le a d e rsh ip o f su c c e s s fu l Black* and W hite women.

Based upon th e v a r ia b le s th a t appear to be r e la te d to the s ta tu s

and development of su c c e s s fu l women, th e p r o f i l e which em erges sug

g e s ts th a t they may be w e ll-p a id , re sp e c te d women o f r e s p o n s ib i l i ty —

Black and W hite—who have worked toward p o s i tio n s of m iddle o r top

m anager, a d m in is tr a to r , p re s id e n t, o r c h ie f ex e cu tiv e o f f ic e r fo r 10

o r m ore y e a r s . T h e ir jo b s a p p e a r to be c r i t i c a l to th e f u t u r e o f

t h e i r o r g a n iz a t io n s . They a p p e a r to e s t a b l i s h b u d g e t p r i o r i t i e s ,

c o n t r o l e x p e n d i tu r e s , and s u p e r v is e l i n e and s t a f f p e r s o n n e l in

b u s in ess or e d u c a tio n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s ; and th e i r s a l a r i e s appear to be

w e ll above the median American Income. Most of them appear to have

never been f i r e d or denied prom otion fo r "incom petence” o r fo r "not


b e in g a team p la y e r ." They a p p e a r to f e e l a n eed to c o n t i n u a l l y

d e m o n s tra te l e a d e r s h ip in o rd e r to m a in ta in t h e i r p o s i tio n s . Suc

c e s s f u l women a p p e a r to be g ro u n d b re a k e rs who have o f t e n been th e

f i r s t and only women employed in t h e i r o rg a n iz a tio n s . These women

a p p e a r to be e d u c a te d , h ig h ly re c o g n iz e d by th e m ed ia , and d i s t i n

guished w ith many aw ards.

S u cce ssfu l women, i f m arried , appear to be m arried to husbands

who a re su p p o rtiv e of t h e i r c a re e rs . They appear to ea rn l e s s money

th a n t h e i r h u sb an d s . They a p p e a r to have found m otherhood m ost

s t r e s s - p r o d u c in g o f a l l o f t h e i r r o l e s i f th e y have c h i ld r e n ; and

u n lik e success s t r iv in g men, they appear to p re fe r to th in k of t h e i r

p e rso n a l l iv e s as s e p a ra te from th e i r c a re e rs . They appear to have

experienced some p erio d s o f anger du ring m arriag e ; and when they came

to a p o in t of d e c is io n betw een con tinued s t r i v in g in t h e i r c a re e rs o r

m arriage and motherhood, they appear to choose both .

Most su c c e s s fu l women in th i s study were independent, com peti

t i v e , f i r s t b o rn o r m id d le c h i ld r e n who had m id d le incom e t r a d i

t io n a l , tw o -p a ren t f a m il ie s . They appear to grow up fe e l in g s p e c ia l

and lo v e d by t h e i r p a r e n t s and o th e r r e l a t i v e s . V ery few o f them

a p p e a r to e x p e r ie n c e a n g e r o r d e p r e s s io n d u r in g t h e i r c h i ld h o o d s .

T h e ir f a th e r s w ere a p p a r e n t ly a c t i v e in b r in g in g them up— o f te n

engaging th e i r grow ing d augh te rs in what were t r a d i t i o n a l ly f a th e r

and son a c t iv i t i e s as w ere the women in th e Hennig and Jard im (1976)

s tu d y . H ow ever, th e s e women seem ed to be e q u a l ly a s in v o lv e d i n

sh a rin g t r a d i t i o n a l "m other and daughter" a c t i v i t i e s . They appear to

have had h o u seh o ld d u t i e s a s c h i ld r e n and s e l e c t e d t h e i r own


a c t iv i t i e s . Theic achievem ents appear to be rew arded w ith p ra is e by

th e i r f a m il ie s . Many re sponden ts had jobs o u ts id e o f th e home from

age 14 u n t i l th e y w ent to c o l l e g e . They w e re "above a v e ra g e " in

i n t e l l i g e n c e and rem em bered b e in g d e sc rib e d a s "sm art” and h ea rin g

fa m ily anecdotes i l l u s t r a t i n g t h e i r le a d e rsh ip a b i l i t i e s from c h i ld

hood and on through l i f e . They d esc rib ed them selves as "high ach iev

e r s , " b u t "sh y ” and " a t h l e t i c " ; th e y e n jo y e d s c h o o l and e x c e l le d

a c ad e m ica lly as w e ll as s o c ia l ly .

As a d o le sc e n ts , th e women in t h i s s tudy appear to have e x p e ri

enced anger and c o n f l ic t w ith t h e i r m others and they appeared to be

w ith o u t l iv in g ro le m odels a t th a t p e rio d in t h e i r l iv e s . The women

in t h i s s tu d y w ent to c o l l e g e and h e ld jo b s ; t h e i r p a r e n ts w ere

su p p o rtiv e of t h e i r c a re e r ch o ic es . Most had h i s to r i c a l o r c e le b r i ty

ro le models d u ring c o lle g e and few were angry a t t h a t tim e.

Through t h e i r own i n i t i a t i v e , th e women in t h i s study tended to

g e t t h e i r f i r s t jobs a t e n try le v e l , w ith su p p o rtiv e bosses and co

w o rk e rs . They had m e n to rs , and e x p e r ie n c e d a n g e r and s e l f - d o u b t

d u r in g th e f i r s t 10 y e a r s on th e jo b . They te n d e d to b e l i e v e t h a t

they advanced because o f t h e i r hard work and a s u p e r io r 's re c o g n itio n

of them. R ather than s e lf-p ro m o tio n , many re p o rte d luck as a v a r i

a b le in t h e i r success. Many viewed self- im p ro v em en t and th e in fo rm a l

s t r u c tu r e w ith in th e i r o rg a n iz a tio n s as th e b e s t means to advance.

Most women in t h i s study found no u se fu ln e s s in management and

le a d e rsh ip th e o r ie s . In s te a d they read p ro fe s s io n a l l i t e r a t u r e which

i s r e l a t e d to t h e i r f i e l d s , The W all S t r e e t J o u r n a l , F o rb e s . and

F ortune m agazines; and they tended to a d v ise young women a s p ir in g to


l e a d e r s h ip to "D evelop a fo r c e o f c h a r a c t e r th a n no one can ta k e

aw ay”; n o t to p r a c t i c e s e l f - p i t y , and "D on 't l e t y o u r e n e r g ie s be

f r i t t e r e d away. N inety p e rcen t o f people w i l l t e l l you a re going in

th e wrong d i re c t io n — d o n 't l i s t e n to them.”

Many women in t h i s s tu d y c h a l le n g e d w hat th e y p e r c e iv e d to be

u n ju s t i n o r g a n iz a t io n s and i n s t i t u t i o n s ; and many b e l ie v e d th e y

g a in e d th e r e s p e c t o f o th e r s f o r t h e i r w i l l in g n e s s to c o n f r o n t i n

j u s t i c e . Many r e p o r te d t h a t th e y s u rv iv e d se x d i s c r i m i n a t i o n and

perform ance a p p r a is a ls th a t have la b e le d them "too outspoken, too low

p r o f i l e , too com bative, to o com prom ising, too ag g re s s iv e , no t a team

p la y e r , o r unable to hand le the req u irem en ts of th e job" to a r r iv e a t

d e s c r i p t i o n s o f th e m s e lv e s a s "happy" and "re w ard e d " women. They

a p p e a r to be c o m fo r ta b le w i th t h e i r f e m in in i ty and c o n s id e r them

s e lv e s to be " d i r e c t , b u s in e s s and ta s k o r ie n te d " p e o p le who a r e

v i s i b l e in th e w o r ld o f w ork . D e s c r ip t io n s o f th e m s e lv e s a s

" f r i e n d ly " and " n u r tu r in g " m ig h t i n d i c a t e th e k in d o f t r a n s f o r m in g

le a d e rsh ip c a p a b i l i ty w hich, acco rd ing to o th e r re s e a rc h e rs , has the

power to change s o c i e t i e s (Burns, 1978; Rosener & Schw artz, 1980).

The p r o f i l e common to women o f both ra c e s in t h i s study becomes

m ost s h a rp ly d iv e rg e n t on th e s in g le v a r ia b le o f th e im pact of ra ce .

When com pared to B la ck women, W hite women i n th e s tu d y who had

achieved success tended to be o ld e r , have h ig h er ra rked jo b s , h ig h er

s a l a r i e s , s u p e r v is e d l a r g e r s t a f f s , and w orked in b u s in e s s e s o r

n a t io n a l ly -k n o w n o r g a n iz a t io n s . They ten d e d to have g a in e d more

media re c o g n it io n and more aw ards on th e n a t io n a l and in te r n a t io n a l

le v e ls . S u cce ssfu l W hite women tended to come from s m a lle r , n u c le a r


fa m i l ie s , p redom inantly W hite childhood env ironm en ts, and tended to

have m others who s tayed home w h ile t h e i r daugh te rs were grow ing up.

More W hite women in th e study p laced them selves in th e "genius"

c a teg o ry as the r e s u l t of fo rm al I n te l l ig e n c e t e s t s , s t a r te d c o lle g e

a t a y o u n g er a g e , and w ere m ore c o n c e n t r a te d i n th e f i n e a r t s .

During t h e i r c o lle g e y e a rs , many appeared to have envied th e freedom

t h a t m a les seem ed to h av e ; b u t m ore W hite women in th e s tu d y p r e

fe r re d th e company of e i t h e r "men only" or "women only” r a th e r than

"both." They tended to be more ac ce p tin g o f the s ta tu s quo of orga

n iz a tio n s and in s t i t u t i o n s a t th a t tim e.

S u cce ssfu l W hite women in th e s tudy tended to begin th in k in g of

m arriag e du ring ch ildhood, ado lescence , and f i r s t c a re e r decade more

than B lack women. More W hite women in th e study delayed t h e i r p e r

so n al g o als fo r t h e i r c a re e rs du ring th e f i r s t 10 y ea rs of work—or

th e y n e v e r d id . They te n d e d to be p ro m o ted s o o n e r and g iv e n s a l a r y

r a i s e s so o n e r th a n B la ck women, and th e y te n d e d to have u n c le a r

r e p o r t i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p s a t w ork. Many a p p e a re d to have e n v ie d th e

freedom men seemed to have; t h e i r m entors were W hite m ales and some

tim es W hite fem ales. Many could see them selves as becoming th e heads

o f t h e i r o r g a n iz a t io n s ; and many b e l ie v e d t h e i r c o o p e r a t iv e sub

o rd in a te s were m otiva ted by lo y a l ty to them.

D iffe re n ces in th e im pact of gender a re suggested by the l a t e r

age—between 14 and 17— a t which White women in th e s tudy re p o rte d

l e a r n in g o f d i f f e r e n t r o l e e x p e c ta t io n s f o r m a le s and fe m a le s and

l a t e r aw areness of the s o c ie ta l r e s t r ic t io n s p laced on fem ales than

B la ck women. D uring e i t h e r th e f i r s t c a r e e r dec ad e o r c a r e e r


m a tu r i t y was th e f i r s t t im e m ore W h ite women i n th e s tu d y becam e

a w are o f g e n d e r r o l e r e s t r i c t i o n s an d , f o r many, i t was n o t a t a l l .

From e n t r y l e v e l to th e e x e c u t iv e l e v e l , more W hite women in th e

s tu d y re p o rte d th e experience of being th e f i r s t woman employed; th e

few su c c e s s fu l W hite women who had been f i r e d o r denied prom otion fo r

" in co m p eten c e" o r "n o t a team p la y e r" s a id th e c r i s i s h u r t t h e i r

c a r e e r s . I f th e y fa c e d a n t a g o n is t i c envy from any o f t h e i r co

w orkers, many re p o rted i t was from W hite men and women and B lack men;

W hite men and women w e re m ost l i k e l y to come fo rw a rd and a s s i s t

su c c e s s fu l W hite women w ith t h e i r c a re e rs .

More White women re p o rte d d ec id in g on t h e i r c a re e rs betw een th e

a g e s o f 18 and 21, v ie w in g t h e i r w ork a s a l e a r n in g o p p o r tu n i ty

i n s te a d o f a ch a n ce to move up, and r e ly i n g upon t h e i r e x p e r ie n c e

b e fo re t h e i r t r a in in g to apply t h e i r a b i l i t i e s to g e t the job done.

When com pared to W hite women, s u c c e s s f u l B la ck women in th e

s tu d y w ere y o u n g e r , more e d u c a te d , and w ere m ore o f th o s e who w ere

s e p a r a te d o r d iv o rc e d . They e a rn e d s m a l l e r s a l a r i e s , s u p e r v is e d

s m a lle r s t a f f s , and were more c o n c en tra te d a t th e m iddle management

l e v e l th a n W hite women. They w ere in e d u c a t io n , g o v ern m e n t, and

p o l i t i c s in g re a te r p ercen ta g es than W hite women. More Black women

re ce iv e d s t a t e and lo c a l aw ards and were recogn ized few er tim es by

th e media.

S u c c e s s fu l B la ck women in th e s tu d y w ere r a i s e d in e x te n d e d

f a m i l i e s o r in v a r i a t i o n s on th e n u c le a r f a m i l i e s in g r e a t e r p e r

c e n ta g e s th a n W hite women. More B la ck women in th e s tu d y had two

p a re n ts working o u ts id e o f the home, were from low er income f a m il ie s ,


and had h o u se h o ld d u t i e s a s c h i ld r e n th a n d id W hite women. More

B lack women In t h i s s tu d y had p a re n ts who s e le c te d t h e i r a c t i v i t i e s

fo r them as c h ild re n and rew arded t h e i r ch ildhood achievem ents w ith

a t te n t io n , c e le b ra tio n s , p r iv i le g e s , and money. Although more Black

women as c h ild re n scored "below average" on fo rm al In te l l ig e n c e t e s t s

than W hite women, more B lack women re c a l le d fa m ily anecdotes about

e a r ly s ig n s o f t h e i r le a d e rs h ip a b i l i t y and were d esc rib ed as "sm art,

I n t e l l i g e n t , o r b r ig h t " by t h e i r f a m i ly m em bers. The s u c c e s s f u l

B la ck women i n t h i s s tu d y e n jo y e d s c h o o l a s c h i ld r e n ; th e y d id n o t

accep t o rg a n iz a tio n s and in s t i t u t i o n s as they were du ring ch ildhood,

bu t they d id n o t co n fro n t them.

The B lack women in t h i s study reached success in s p i te of race

d is c r im in a tio n and sex d is c r im in a t io n , and they trium phed over what

was m eant to be " im p o s s ib le " s i t u a t i o n s d e l i b e r a t e l y d e s ig n e d to

cause them to f a i l (D ickens & D ickens, 1982).

More s u c c e s s fu l B lack women in th e s tudy envied the freedom th a t

m a les seemed to have d u r in g a d o le s c e n c e , b u t e m u la te d fe m a le r o l e

m odels d u r in g a d o le s c e n c e and i n c o l l e g e . They te n d e d to be m o ti

v a te d by a n g e r to i n i t i a t i v e and a c h ie v e m e n t d u r in g a d o le sc e n c e ,

c o l l e g e , m a r r ia g e , and t h e i r f i r s t 10 y e a r s o f w ork. More B la ck

women in th e study co n fro n ted perceiv ed in ju s t i c e s du ring adolescence

and c o l l e g e . They te n d e d to make a com m itm en t to r e a c h th e to p in

t h e i r c a re e rs d u ring c o lle g e in g r e a t e r p e r c e n ta g e s th a n d id W hite

women. More s u c c e s s f u l B la ck women th a n W h ite women in th e s tu d y

were m otivated to a s p ire to le a d e rsh ip p o s i tio n s fo r economic reasons

and because of a d e s i re to c o n tro l and d i r e c t o th e rs .


The B lack women In t h i s s tudy s ta r te d c o lle g e a y ea r o ld e r than

W hite women and had decided upon a c a re e r betw een th e ages o f 14 and

17 b efo re they e n te re d c o lle g e . They went on to ea rn degrees beyond

th e b a c h e lo r 's l e v e l and m ore B la ck women m ajo re d in e d u c a t io n .

During th e c o lle g e y e a rs , s u c c e s s fu l B lack women in th e study re fu sed

to a c c e p t o r g a n iz a t io n s and i n s t i t u t i o n s as th e y w e re ; th e y con

f r o n te d p e r c e iv e d i n j u s t i c e s and b e l ie v e d t h a t th e y g a in e d th e r e

sp ec t of o th e rs fo r t h e i r w ill in g n e s s to co n fro n t. More B lack women

than W hite women in th e study re p o rte d th e ex p erien ce o f being d e l ib

e r a te ly p laced in im p o ss ib le s i tu a t io n s which w ere designed to cause

t h e i r f a i l u r e d u r in g c o l l e g e . More B la ck women in th e s tu d y p r e

f e r re d th e company o f men during c o lle g e , bu t were the m a jo rity who

w ere c lo s e to b o th men and women, and th e m a jo r i t y who p le d g e d a

s o r o r i ty du ring c o lle g e .

M arriage was more p ro b lem a tic fo r th e s u c c e s s fu l B lack women in

t h i s sam ple th an fo r su c c e s s fu l White women in th e study. They began

to th in k o f m a r r ia g e i n c o l l e g e — l a t e r th a n f o r W hite women. They

re p o rte d d ela y in g th e i r p e rso n a l goals d u rin g ado lescence , c o lle g e ,

m a r r ia g e , and c a r e e r m a tu r i t y . I f th e y w ere m a r r ie d , many B la ck

women re p o rte d in th e s tudy th a t they d id no t ac ce p t th e i n s t i t u t i o n

as i t was and t r i e d to make changes.

The most pronounced s t a t i s t i c a l d if fe re n c e s in the l iv e s of the

women in t h i s s tudy were ev id e n t in v a r ia b le s on th e Im pact of ra ce .

More B lack women in th e study became aw are of t h e i r r a c i a l i d e n t i ty

betw een th e ages o f 6 and 9 yea rs o ld —a t l e a s t 5 to 8 y ea rs younger

th a n r a c e becam e an i s s u e f o r W hite women. S o c i e t a l r e s t r i c t i o n s


based upon ra ce were a p a r t o f th e consc iousness of more B lack women

in t h i s s tudy beg inn ing in ch ildhood. W hite women in th e s tu d y were

the m a jo r i ty o f those who became aw are o f race r e s t r i c t i o n in c o lle g e

and a f t e r , a s w e l l a s th e m a jo r i t y o f th o s e who s a id th e y n e v e r

became aw are o f ra ce r e s t r ic t io n s .

Among th o se women in th e s tudy who were ab le to say th ey never

encountered ra ce d is c r im in a t io n , only 2% were Black women. Over 56%

o f a l l o f th e women in t h i s s tudy experienced ra ce d is c r im in a t io n and

50% o f t h a t m a jo r i t y w e re B la ck women. One h u n d re d p e r c e n t o f th e

women in t h i s sam p le who e n c o u n te re d r a c e d i s c r i m i n a t i o n d u r in g

c h ild h o o d w ere B la ck women; and a l l b u t 1% o r l e s s o f th e women in

t h i s s tudy who experienced ra ce d is c r im in a tio n in c o lle g e , th e f i r s t

c a re e r decade, and c a re e r m a tu ri ty were B lack women. Almost tw ice

the p ercen ta g e of B lack women as W hite women in th e s tudy experienced

being d e l ib e r a te ly p lac ed in an Im possib le s i tu a t io n w hich was de

s igned to cause them to f a i l — p r im a r ily du ring ado lescence . Some of

them re p o rte d th a t they were th e only B lack women to be employed a t

every le v e l o f t h e i r em ploying o rg a n iz a tio n s ; and many B lack women

r e p o r t e d t h a t th e y w ere n e v e r q u i t e c e r t a i n i f jo b c r i t i c i s m was

a c c u ra te or on ly r e f l e c t i v e o f the ra ce b ia s o f th e c r i t i c . Over one

th i r d o f a l l re sponden ts in th e study were Black women who had expe

rien c ed having t h e i r c o n tr ib u tio n s to a d isc u ss io n Ignored by W hites

who w ould o n ly t a l k to ea c h o th e r . More s u c c e s s f u l B la ck women i n

th e s tu d y had been f i r e d o r d e n ie d p ro m o tio n f o r " in c o m p e te n c e " o r

"not being a team p lay e r"— most of them sa id th e c r i s i s e i t h e r helped

th e i r c a re e rs o r made no d if fe re n c e .


I f su c c e s s fu l Black women in th e s tudy faced a n ta g o n is t ic envy

from co-w orkers, I t tended to come from men and women of both ra ces

o r from Black men; bu t more a s s is ta n c e tended to come from Black men

and women a s w e l l a s W hite men. The s m a l l e s t p e r c e n ta g e o f B la ck

women In th e s tu d y r e p o r t e d a s s i s t a n c e from W h ite women. C a re e r

advancement a t th e le v e ls of th e women in t h i s s tudy was considered

an e x c e p t io n f o r B lack women by two t h i r d s o f th e women in th e

sa m p le — a m a jo r i t y o f whom w ere B la c k , and ad v an cem en t f o r B la ck

women was considered th e norm by a th i r d o f a l l women. Most su cc ess

f u l B lack women in t h i s s tudy were members of B lack advancement and

c i v i l r ig h ts o rg a n iz a tio n s .

S u cce ssfu l B lack women in th e s tudy tended to view th e i r work as

a m eans to e a rn a l i v in g and a ch a n ce to move up in g r e a t e r p e r

cen tages than White women, and more B lack women in th e s tudy re l ie d

on t r a i n i n g b e f o re e x p e r ie n c e in a p p ly in g t h e i r c a p a b i l i t i e s to

g e t t i n g th e jo b done. S l i g h t l y m ore B la c k women in th e s tu d y w ere

fa m i l ia r w ith t r a i t and su b o rd in a te m o tiv a tio n th e o r ie s of le a d e r

sh ip , and they found th e su b o rd in a te m o tiv a tio n th e o r ie s to be use

f u l . Almost 100% of responden ts recom m end ing B la c k E n t e r p r i s e and

Essence magazines and th e m a jo rity who recommended Savvy as p u b lic a

t io n s fo r young women a s p ir in g to le a d e rsh ip w ere Black women. More

B lack women than White women in th e s tudy re g u la r ly a tten d e d le a d e r

sh ip conferences and sem inars.


C onclusions

196

On the b a s is of th e r e s u l t s of t h i s s tu d y , the fo llo w in g in f e r

ences a re ap p a ren tly w orthy of fu r th e r study:

1. S u ccessfu l women o f bo th ra c e s appear to sh are common char

a c t e r i s t i c s of s im i la r p e r s o n a l i t i e s , su p p o rtiv e fa m ily backgrounds

re g a rd le ss of race o r socioeconom ic s ta tu s , h igh achievem ent during

th e i r school y ea rs , some ad o le sc e n t tu rb u len c e , p o s i t iv e ro le m odels,

an aw areness o f in e q u i t ie s in o rg a n iz a tio n s and i n s t i t u t i o n s , and an

a b i l i t y to co n fro n t and to overcome n eg a tiv e s o c i e t a l fo rc e s d ire c te d

tow ards women.

2. I t a p p e a rs t h a t th e p a t t e r n s o f g ro w th and d e v e lo p m e n t,

ca re e r development, th e im pact of ra ce and gender, and the view s on

work and le a d e rsh ip a re d i f f e r e n t fo r B lack and W hite women.

In g e n e ra l, beginning w ith th e prem ise t h a t a l l of th e women in

t h i s s tu d y a r e s u c c e s s f u l , th e fa m i ly c o n s te l la t io n s of su c c e s s fu l

B la ck women a p p e a r to be o f a w id e r v a r i e t y and a s e f f e c t i v e a s th e

f a m i l i e s o f W hite women. C o lle g e , th e f i r s t 10 y e a r s o f w ork , and

c a re e r m a tu ri ty appear to be g re a te r c h a lle n g es to Black women be

c a u se o f s o c i e t a l o b s t a c l e s t h a t r e s u l t from a t t i t u d e s ab o u t r a c e .

Being Black and fem ale may g iv e Black women two v a r ia b le s in s te a d of

th e one v a r ia b le of fem aleness fo r which the com pensation of e x tra

t r a in in g , s k i l l s , and h a rd er work a re re q u ire d to reach even approx i

mate measures o f success a t ta in a b le by W hite women. O ther re sea rch

s u p p o r ts t h i s f in d in g ( C a r r o l l & S t r im l ln g , 1983; D av is & W atson ,

1982; E p s te in , 1973; H a rt, 1977).


R e g a r d le s s o f e q u a l r i g h t s f o r women, B lack women may have to

overcome c e r ta in s o c i e t a l a t t i t u d e s about race In g en e ra l and B lack

people In p a r t ic u la r .

The d a ta appear to d e p ic t economic d if fe re n c e s between B lack and

W hite women a t every s ta g e o f l i f e — from having two w orking p a re n ts

d u ring childhood to th e a p p a re n tly low er s a l a r i e s and h ig h er le v e ls

of ed u c a tio n a l a t ta in m e n t o f B lack women who have reached su cc ess—

and appear to support th e f in d in g s of Hunt and Hunt (1975) and A llen

(1979).

R e a c t io n to i n j u s t i c e and e x p r e s s io n s o f a n g e r on th e p a r t o f

young women— p a r t i c u la r ly th o se who were high ac h iev ers in schoo l—

may be p o ss ib le in d ic a to r s of p o te n t ia l fo r success and should n o t be

overlooked in th e sea rch fo r fu tu re le a d e rs .

Recommendations

The f in d in g s of t h i s s tudy suggest p o ss ib le courses o f study fo r

p a r e n t s , e d u c a to r s and c o u n s e lo r s , f u t u r e r e s e a rc h e rs , and d e p a rt

m en ts o f b u s in e s s , e d u c a t io n , and l e a d e r s h ip to p ro v id e e f f e c t i v e

a s s i s t a n c e to f e m a le s w i th le a d e r s h ip p o te n t ia l and a s p ira t io n s a t

every s tag e o f t h e i r developm ent.

P are n ts

S trong p a r e n ta l guidance in th e e a r ly e lem en tary and ch ildhood

y e a rs , th e involvem ent o f members o f th e extended fa m ily , and p o s i

t iv e messages th a t b u ild a sense of o rd e r and s e lf- e s te e m to o f f s e t

the e f f e c t s of sexism and rac ism were suggested by the l iv e s of th e


women in t h i s sam p le . P a r t i c u l a r em p h a sis on p r e p a r a t io n o f th e

ad o le sc en t fem ale w ith nec essa ry in te rp e rs o n a l s k i l l s fo r coping w ith

r a c i s t and s e x i s t a t t i t u d e s may be w o r th c o n t in u e d s tu d y . The r e

s u l t s o f t h i s s tu d y a l s o seem to s u g g e s t a c r i t i c a l r o l e f o r th e

f a th e r s o f fem ale c h ild re n in h elp ing to co u n te r th e sex s te re o ty p e

e x p e c ta tio n s th a t w i l l bombard a young woman in ado lescence . Working

m others may be v a lu a b le models and p rovide p r a c t i c a l in s t r u c t io n on

how to balance p erso n a l l i f e and ca re e r .

E duca to rs and Counselors

R ecogn ition of th e c a p a b i l i t i e s of f a m il ie s th a t vary from the

n u c le a r model to produce c h ild re n w ith le a d e rsh ip p o te n t ia l i s sug

g e s te d by th e f in d in g s o f t h i s s tu d y . I d e n t i f y in g ex te n d e d f a m ily

m em bers and r e f e r e n c e g ro u p s o f young B la ck fe m a le s in p a r t i c u l a r

m ight prov ide an expanded netw ork of p o s s i b i l i t i e s th a t enhance th e i r

su ccess . This i s c e r ta in ly w orth in v e s t ig a t io n .

C u rric u la m ight in c lu d e examples of fem ale success in a l l phases

o f l i f e and an u n d e r s ta n d in g o f se x ism , r a c i s m , and “n e o ra c ism "

(F e rn a n d e z , 1983) and how to re c o g n iz e t h e i r d y n am ics and overcom e

t h e i r e f f e c t s . C onsidering the e a r ly age a t which th e women in t h i s

s tu d y began to t h in k o f t h e i r c a r e e r s , f i r s t g ra d e a p p e a rs n o t to o

soon to b e g in to t r y o u t id e a s f o r c a r e e r s f o r g i r l s . The la r g e

p ercen tage of women in t h i s sample who had jobs o u ts id e the home from

age 14 and above m ig h t i n d i c a t e a need f o r c o n s t r u c t iv e o u t l e t s

du ring the tu rb u le n t ad o le sc en t y ea rs . Again, t h i s i s w orth fu r th e r

s tu d y .


199

F u tu re Research

The I m p l i c a t i o n s o f th e s e f i n d in g s on th e s o c i a l t r e n d s o f

d iv o rce , changing fa m ily and re fe re n c e group c o n f ig u ra tio n s , and th e

In c re a s in g number of younger women b ea rin g c h ild re n in f a th e r-a b s e n t

homes a re w orth In v e s tig a tio n to examine t h e i r consequences on the

development of women le a d e rs and th e development of B lack o r U h ite

l e a d e r s . The f in d in g s o f th e p r e s e n t s tu d y a r e l i m i t e d to l e a d e r s

who grew up in a p rev ious e ra .

Many o th e r q u e s t io n s re m a in to be i n v e s t i g a t e d In f u t u r e r e

s e a rc h to sh a rp e n u n d e r s ta n d in g o f th e e x p e r ie n c e s o f s u c c e s s f u l

B lack and W hite women, o th e r m in o r i t ie s , and men. F u tu re re se a rc h

should pursue exam ination o f s i m i l a r i t i e s and d if fe re n c e s in le a d e rs

to re d u c e th e num ber o f v a r i a b l e s ; to i s o l a t e and i d e n t i f y common

c h a r a c te r i s t i c s of a b roader base o f s u c c e s s fu l le a d e rs ; and to guide

p a re n ts , ed u c a to rs , o rg a n iz a tio n s , and co rp o ra tio n s in th e develop

m ent o f l e a d e r s h ip in women. The r o l e o f a n g e r and s e l f - e s t e e m in

m o t iv a t in g g i r l s to b e g in c h i ld b e a r in g a t an e a r l y age n ee d s to be

in v e s t ig a te d , and a com parative s tudy o f the ado lescence of su cc ess

f u l w orkers to th a t of n o n su cc essfu l w orkers should be conducted.

F uture re se a rc h should a ls o focus on com parisons of s u c c e s s fu l

women to n o n s u c c e s s fu l women f o r p u rp o se s o f i d e n t i f y i n g p o s s ib le

i n t e r v e n t i o n s f o r women who m e n ta l h e a l th and e d u c a t io n a l p r o f e s

s io n a ls have id e n t i f ie d as angry, d ep ressed , o r v ic t im iz e d ; la b e le d

by s o c i e ty as " s ic k , b ad , c r a z y , o r s tu p id " (S c h a e f , 1985, p. 6 9 ); o r

who have developed e a tin g d is o rd e r s ; become m others a t too e a r ly an


ag e ; d ro p o u t o f h ig h s c h o o l ; o r becom e r e s ig n e d to d e a d -e n d , lo w -

p a y in g jobs.

Among th e v a r ia b le s which should be pursued a re those found in

th e l i f e phase se c tio n s o f t h i s s tudy . Continued study of th e v a r i

a b le s in f a m i ly and c h ild h o o d and a d o le sc e n c e s h o u ld be done to

develop p r a c t i c a l g u id e lin e s fo r p a re n ts , e d u c a to rs , and co u n se lo rs .

The v a r ia b le s in the race and gender, f i r s t c a re e r decade, and c a re e r

m a tu r i t y s e c t io n s sh o u ld be i n v e s t i g a t e d f o r t h e i r p o t e n t i a l to

a s s i s t women who a re develop ing and p ra c t ic in g le a d e rs , and to guide

ed u c a tio n a l and employing I n s t i t u t i o n s in th e development of th e b e s t

t a l e n t s women have to o f f e r .

A ll o f the v a r ia b le s in th e summary ta b le s in C hapter IV should

be examined fo r i n t e r c o r r e la t io n s to reduce th e number of v a r ia b le s

and sh o u ld be s u b m it te d to r e g r e s s io n a n a l y s i s to d e te rm in e w hich

com binations o f v a r ia b le s may account fo r most of th e v a ria n ce be

tween ra c e s , genders, le a d e rs , and u o n lead ers .

Some o th e r p o ss ib le q u e s tio n s fo r fu tu re re se a rc h a re :

1. How do su c c e s s fu l women compare to n o n su cc essfu l women?

2. How do s u c c e s s fu l women compare to s u c c e s s fu l men?

3. How do women o f d i f f e r e n t p r o f e s s io n s com pare in te rm s o f

needs fo r p re p a ra tio n and developm ent fo r le a d e rsh ip success?

4. What a re th e guidance and t ra in in g im p lic a tio n s fo r p a ren ts

and e d u c a t io n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s i n v iew o f th e d i f f e r e n c e s b e tw e en

su c c e s s fu l Black and W hite women?

5. How do women in top income b ra c k e ts compare to m iddle income

women in term s of c a re e r s ty le ?


6. What o rg a n iz a tio n a l and i n s t i t u t i o n a l c o r re c tio n s need to

be made to b e t t e r use th e ta l e n t s o f le a d e rs of bo th genders and a l l

races?

7. What n ee d s to be done to a s s i s t W hite m ales who f e e l

th r e a t e n e d and h o s t i l e to w a rd s women and m i n o r i t i e s i n th e w ork

s e t t in g ?

8. What should be done to d i s t in g u is h th e needs o f B lack women

from th o se o f " a l l B lacks" o r from those o f " a l l women"?

9. What can be done to l e s s e n i n t r a r a c i a l and i n t r a g e n d e r

ten sio n s?

10. How can th e fo rm u la tio n o f le a d e rsh ip th eo ry become dynamic

enough to keep c u r re n t w ith a wide v a r ie ty o f su c c e s s fu l p r a c t i t i o n

e r s o f both ra c e s and genders as prim ary sources of le a d e rsh ip in f o r

m ation? T his q u e s tio n su p p o rts th e view s of o th e rs re se a rc h e rs who

have a d d r e s s e d th e need f o r expanded s o u rc e s f o r l e a d e r s h ip th e o ry

(Burns, 1978; In d e r l ie d & Pow ell, 1979; M a sse n g ill & DiMarco, 1979).

D epartm ents o f L ea d ersh ip . B u sin e ss , and E ducation

R esearch-based t r a in in g which in c lu d es th e ex p erien ces o f fem ale

p r a c t i t i o n e r s o f l e a d e r s h ip and e x i s t i n g h y p o th e s e s (D ic k en s &

Dickens, 1982; Fernandez, 1981; Schaef, 1985) in the a re a s o f coping

w ith sex ism , ra c ism , and b a lancing th e demands of p erso n al l i f e and

c a re e r a re needed fo r women and th e i r employing i n s t i t u t i o n s . The

r e c o g n i t io n and e l i m i n a t io n o f r a c is m , s e x is m , and t h e i r e f f e c t s

sh o u ld be i n c o r p o r a te d in ea ch d i s c i p l i n e . A s s i s ta n c e sh o u ld be

provided fo r W hite m ales to a d ju s t to an expanded pool of co m p e tito rs


fo r th e sake o f a h e a lth y , balanced so c ie ty .

The f in d in g s o f t h i s s tu d y a p p e a r to d e p ic t some b a se s f o r th e

developm ent of fu r th e r study of s u c c e s s fu l women. There I s enough

e v id e n c e to p u rsu e f u r th e r In q u i ry I n to th e n a tu r e and e f f e c t s o f

ra ce d if fe re n c e s on c a re e r success; bu t a t t h i s tim e , th e co n c lu sio n s

o f o th e r r e s e a r c h e r s t h a t t h e r e i s no c l e a r m odel f o r s u c c e s s In

women (K anter, 1977; Osipow, 1973, Radin, 1980; Rapoport & Rapoport,

1971) I s supported .


APPENDICES

203


Appendix A

In te rv ie w T ra n sc r ip ts

204


TAPE TRANSCRIPTION:205

SHIRLEY CHISHOLM INTERVIEW

J u ly 1 5 , 1982

O p en in g q u e s t i o n : R e p r e s e n t a t iv e C h ish o lm , i n o r d e r t ofo r m u la t e t h e i s s u e o f l e a d e r s h i p and how t o t r a i n women, we w ou ld l i k e y o u r p e r c e p t i o n s o f t h e t h i n g s t h a t h e lp e d sh a p e y o u a s t h e p e r s o n t h a t y o u r a r e t o d a y . F o r a s f a r b a ck a s y o u c a n rem em ber s t a r t i n g w i t h y o u r e a r l i e s t m em ories o f t h i n g s t h a t h e lp e d y o u t o b ecom e t h e p e r s o n t h a t y o u a r e t o d a y , w h at a r e som e o f t h e p o s i t i v e and n e g a t i v e e x p e r i e n c e s t h a t b r o u g h t o u t t h e l e a d e r s h i p i n y o u .

C h ish o lm : I w o u ld b e v e r y g la d t o g i v e y o u my c o m m e n ts ,a sf a r b a ck a s I c o u ld rem em ber— i t s v e r y s t r a n g e , th e n I w as a b o u t f o u r y e a r s o f a g e — My m o th e r and f a t h e r d e c id e d t h a t i t w as im p o r ta n t t o t a k e t h e i r t h r e e d a u g h te r s t o t h e B r i t i s h w e s t i n d i e s in o r d e r t o b e a b le t o g e t t h e k in d o f s u p e r v i s io n and m o n it o r in g a s we w e re g r o w in g up s o t h a t b o th o f them c o u ld r e t u r n t o t h e U n ite d S t a t e s and work t o g e t h e r t o g i v e t h e i r d a u g h te r s a g o o d e d u c a t io n . And t h e y f e l t a t t h a t t im e t h a t i t w o u ld b e im p o s s ib l e t o a c h i e v e t h a t g o a l u n l e s s t h e y to o k u s b a ck t o t h e i r h om elan d i n o r d e r t o b e a b le f o r u s t o g e t t h e c o r r e c t s u p e r v i s io n and m o n it o r in g w h i le b o th o f them r e t u r n e d t o t h e U n ite d S t a t e s o f A m erica and w o r k . A l s o , J o in in g u s t h e i r a t t h a t t im e , my m o th e r s o l d e r s i s t e r and h e r fo u r c h i l d r e n w e r e a l s o s e n t b a ck t o t h e I s l a n d s .

T h e re w e r e s e v e n y o u n g c h i l d r e n b e tw e e n t h e a g e s o f n in e m on th s and s e v e n y e a r s o f a g e w e n t t o B a rb a d o s in t h e B r i t i s h W est I n d i e s in o r d e r f o r t h e m a te r n a l g r a n d p a r e n ts a u n t s and u n c le s t o t a k e c a r e o f them on t h i s g r e a t b ig farm w h i le o u r r e s p e c t i v e p a r e n t s r e tu r n e d t o t h i s c o u n t r y t o do w h a t t h e y th o u g h t w as n e c e s s a r y t o p r e p a r e f o r t h e i r c h i l d r e n t o b e s u c c e s s f u l e v e n t u a l l y .

My g r a n d m o th e r , I rem em bar s o w e l l , my g ra n d m o th e r , s a y in g o u t o f a l l t h e c h i l d r e n , a l t h o u g h I w as t h e t h i r d o n e , I w as t h e t h i r d o l d e s t o n e , in te r m s o f s e v e n c h i l d r e n a t t h a t t im e , my g ra n d m o th er a lw a y s s a i d , " S h ir l e y , y o u g i v e u s t h e m o st t r o u b l e i n t h e g r o u p ." She u s e d t o w r i t e , b a ck t o h e r tw o d a u g h t e r s and t e l l them a b o u t how t h e c h i l d r e n w e re p r o g r e s s in g , b u t I w as a lw a y s t h e c e n t r a l f o c u s — why? I h a v e a lw a y s b e e n e x t r e m e ly t a l k a t i v e . I h a v e a lw a y s b e e n d a r in g , e v e n a s a c h i l d , v e r y ,v e r y d a r in g , and I a lw a y s w a n te d t o p u l l p e o p le t o g e t h e r . G ranny u s e d t o t e l l me s h e w o u ld rem em ber how a t fo u r and a h a l f y e a r s o f a g e , t h i s t i n y l i t t l e c h i l d , p u l l i n g a l l o f t h e o t h e r c h i l d r e n t o g e t h e r b e c a u s e I w a n ted t o p la y s c h o o l ; I w an te d t o d o m in a te t h e p la y p r o c e e d in g s f o r t h e d a y — w h a te v e r i t w ou ld b e , and my


206g ra n d m o th er s a i d s h e u s e d t o be am azed a t how , in s p i t e o f my p h y s i c a l s i z e , I w as r a t h e r t i n y , how my m o u th , my m outh h a s a lw a y s , b e e n v e r y com m anding , my v o i c e h a s a lw a y s seem ed t o h a v e som e k in d o f e f f e c t on p e o p le . And I w ou ld b e a b le t o g e t t h e k id s t o g e t h e r t o do w h a te v e r had t o b e d o n e . G ranny s a i d s h e rem em bers a t t h a t t im e , s h e saw l e a d e r s h i p i n me.

B a r a k a ; D id s h e u s e t h o s e w ords when s h e t a lk e d t o you ?

C h ish o lm : S he s a i d , " Y o u 'r e g o in g t o b e s o m e th in g c h i l d , y o u 'r e g o in g t o b e s o m e th in g c h i l d , when y o u grow u p ."And, a n y t im e a n y t h in g w e n t w r o n g . . .

B a r a k a : How d id y o u r e a c t when s h e s a i d t h o s e w o r d s t oyou ? D id y o u know w h a t s h e w as t a l k i n g a b o u t?

C h ish o lm : I d i d n ' t r e a l l y , a l l I knew w as s h e w as a lw a y s f e e l i n g t h a t . . . s h e w o u ld h o p e t h a t I w o u ld n o t u s e w h a te v e r s h e saw a s p o s i t i v e in me t o g o in t h e w ay o f a d e s t r u c t i v e c o u r s e . In o t h e r w o r d s ,s h e h oped I w o u ld u s e th e b u d d in g l e a d e r s h i p t h a t I w as e x e m p l i f y in g a t t h a t t im e , t h e a b i l i t y t o p e r s u a d e and o r g a n iz in g e v e n p u l l i n g l i t t l e c h i l d r e n t o g e t h e r a t t h a t t im e , f o r g o o d i n t h e s o c i e t y . And s h e a lw a y s k in d o f w o r r ie d t h a t a p e r s o n l i k e me, i f n o t d i r e c t e d and g u id e d a s I w e n t i n t o a d o le s c e n c e , and f i n a l l y i n t o a d u l t h o o d , c o u ld em erg e t o b e a r e a l f a c t o r t o b e r e c k o n e d w it h i n s o c i e t y , in o t h e r w o r d s , I c o u ld , my b r a in p o w e r , my t a l e n t s o r w h a t h a v e y o u , c o u ld j u s t a s s o o n g o o f f in a v e r y n e g a t i v e d i r e c t i o n i f I w as n o t g u id e d ; b e c a u s e I w as n o t a f r a i d o f a n y t h in g o r a n y b o d y . (B a r a k a : s o y o u had t h a t c o u r a g e ) I had t h a t c o u r a g e .

Now, I w e n t t o s c h o o l i n my e le m e n t a r y y e a r s , o f c o u r s e w h i le we w e r e t h e r e in t h e s c h o o l s y s te m o f B a rb a d o s i n t h e W est I n d i e s , a n d , in t h a t s c h o o l s y s t e m , o n e i s v e r y d i s c i p l i n e d . One f i n d s t h a t t h e t e a c h e r s in s c h o o l and t h e f a m i ly a r e in l e a g u e a g a i n s t t h e c h i l d and t h e y ' r e s a y i n g , "you know t h a t y o u 'r e s e n t t o s c h o o l t o l e a r n t o b e e d u c a te d to w a r d s y o u r f u t u r e ." I t w as im p o r ta n t t h a t you n e v e r com e home and t e l l y o u r f a m i ly t h a t t h e t e a c h e r had t o s c o l d y o u , o r t h a t y o u had t o s t a n d in a c o r n e r o r som e o t h e r m ech anism t h a t t h e y y o u u s e d a t t h a t t im e t o p u n is h c h i l d r e n . B e c a u s e t h a t w o u ld m ean, i n t h a t c u l t u r e , t h a t w o u ld mean a w h ip p in g from y o u r p a r e n t s . I n e v e r g o t s o many w h ip p in g s i n my l i f e ! B e c a u s e , I w as som ew h at— a s I s a y — f e a r l e s s , o u ts p o k e n g e t t i n g i n t o t r o u b l e ; p la y i n g t r i c k s on t h e t e a c h e r s ; o r g a n iz in g t h e k id s t o r e a l l y do i t ; and t h e y f o l lo w e d me. N obody q u e s t io n e d w h at I w as d o in g , " B u t, S h i r l e y s a i d s o ." So e v e n t h e n , e v e n th o u g h my g ra n d m o th er d i d ' n t p u t i t i n t o t h o s e w o r d s; and I d i d n ' t e v e n know i t , e v e n th e n w as t h e b e g in n in g s o f som e k in d o f a b i l i t y t o le a d


207p e o p le o r t o d i r e c t p e o p le — d o n ’ t f o r g e t I w as t h e t h i r d , a t t h a t a g e , o f t h e s e v e n c h i l d r e n . Now h a v in g s a i d a l l t h a t , I w e n t t o s c h o o l t h e r e a n d , o f c o u r s e r e tu r n e d t o t h i s c o u n t r y when I w as o n ly t e n an d a h a l f y e a r s o f a g e .So my b a s i c fo u n d a t io n w as l a i d i n t h e I s l a n d s .

I t r u l y b e l i e v e , I h a v e no s c i e n t i f i c p r o o f , an y s u b s t a n t i a t e d r e s e a r c h on w h at I'm g o in g t o s a y n o w . . .

B a r a k a : y o u r p e r c e p t i o n s .

C h is h o lm : I r e a l l y b e l i e v e , t h i s i s my p e r c e p t i o n , I r e a l l y b e l i e v e t h a t i f I d id n o t g e t t h e k in d o f u p b r in g in g , t h e k in d o f s u p e r v i s io n and t h e i n c u l c a t i o n o f c e r t a i n v a l u e s i n me s u c h a s " c h i ld y o u 'r e g o in g t o b e s o m e th in g , y o u 'r e g o in g t o b e so m e b o d y , you h a v e i t . You g o t t a u s e i t . " C o n s t a n t ly , my g r a n d m o th e r , s h e k e p t ham m ering a w ay . She k e p t t a l k i n g , b e c a u s e s h e a lw a y s u se d t o s a y , and I rem em ber t h i s t a l l woman, a lm o s t s i x f e e t , t h r e e and a h a l f i n c h e s t a l l , b e a u t i f u l woman— s t r a i g h t — a s an a rr o w ! And v e r y r i g i d and s t e r n , i n f a c t s o m e tim e s I lo o k b a c k . I so m e t im e s f e l t t h a t I h a te d h e r , b u t i t w a s n ' t h a t e , i t w as r e a l l y t h a t s h e w as s o d a rn s t r i c t w it h u s ; b u t I d i d n ' t r e a l i z e , a t t h a t t im e , ( B a r a k a : a s a c h i l d ) a s a c h i l d t h a t s h e t r i e d t o p u t c e r t a i n t h i n g s in me. I t r u l y b e l i e v e t h a t i f my g r a n d m o th er d i d n ' t g e t a h o ld o f me t h e w ay s h e d id and c o n s t a n t l y hammered t h i n g s i n t o my h ea d and t r e a t e d me i n a p o s i t i v e w ay and l e t t i n g me know e v e n a t t h a t te n d e r a g e t h a t i t seem ed a s th o u g h I w as g o in g t o b e so m e b o d y , t h a t I p r o b a b ly w o u ld n o t h a v e em erged i n t h i s c o u n t r y t h e w ay I h a v e . I t w as t h e e a r l y b u i l t - i n en c o u r a g e m e n t and t h e c o n s t a n t d ia l o g u i n g from my f a m ily p e r t a in i n g t o t h e p o t e n t i a l t h a t t h e y saw i n me.

B a r a k a : She r e a l l y sh a p e d y o u b y h e r w o r d s and by h e r i n s i s t e n c e on a c e r t a i n k in d o f l i f e . Can y o u t a l k a l i t t l e b i t m ore a b o u t t h a t l i f e , i n te r m s o f , you m e n t io n e d s u p e r v i s io n and m o n it o r in g . What d o e s t h a t mean in t h e d a i l y l i f e o f a c h i l d ? What k in d s o f t h i n g s d id you f i n d t h a t h e lp e d c o r r a l t h a t c o u r a g e an d t h a t d e s i r e t o p e r s u a d e and k e e p t h i n g s g o i n g . G iv e me a d a y in y o u r l i f e a s a c h i l d .

C h ish o lm : W e ll , f o r e x a m p le , we l i v e d n e a r t h e s e a s h o r eand o n e o f t h i n g s t h a t we c h i l d r e n e n jo y e d v e r y much i s g o in g t o t h e s e a and b a t h in g . B ut g r a n d m o th er had c e r t a i n c h o r e s t h a t som e o f u s had t o do e v e r y d a y when we cam e ho.me from s c h o o l and h e r p u n ish m e n t w as n o t b e in g a b le t o p e r m it u s t o g o and b a th e and h a v e fu n a t t h e o c e a n a f t e r t h r e e o ' c l o c k when we r e tu r n e d home from s c h o o l i f we d id t h e s e c h o r e s . ( B a r a k a : how o l d w e r e y o u when y o u d id t h e s e c h o r e s ? ) Oh, we w e r e . . . we r a n g e d , a t t h a t t im e , I rem em ber , I w as a b o u t s e v e n y e a r s o f a g e , a s y ou n g a s t h a t , I know my j o b , on som e d a y s I had t o g o and b r in g t h e s h e e p b ack from t h e p a s t u r e , b r in g t h e g o a t s b a c k , I


had g o t o t h e v e l d e — t h e l a r g e v e l d e down t h e ro a d — and f e t c h t h e w a t e r In t h e p a l l , and make s u r e I w o u ld f i l l up t h e g i a n t b a r r e l s i n t h e y a r d , s o t h a t we w ou ld h a v e en o u g h w a t e r f o r t h e n e x t d a y , b e c a u s e t h a t w as t h e way we l i v e d i n t h e I s l a n d s .

We a l s o had t o d o o u r hom ew ork, and G ranny w ou ld c h e c k th r o u g h o u r hom ew ork, s h e w ou ld j u s t , s h e w as a p a in i n t h e n e c k ! (B a ra k a ; r i g h t c l o s e t o y o u ! ) Y e s ! s h e w as on u s ! In p la y ! In s t u d y !

On S u n d ays t h e c h i l d r e n in t h e v i l l a g e u s e t o la u g h a t G randm other ' C i l e and t h e s e s e v e n c h i l d r e n , t r a i p s i n g b e h in d h e r g o in g t o t h e v i l l a g e c h u r c h , e a c h o n e o f u s h a v in g o u r own l i t t l e B ib l e i n o u r h a n d s . And I rem em ber s o w e l l t h a t I w as t h e o n ly o n e o f t h e s e v e n t h a t see m ed a l i t t l e b i t asham ed o f w a lk in g down t h e s t r e e t w i t h th e B ib l e w i t h t h e k id s m ak ing fu n o f u s . E v e r y b o d y e l s e . . . ( B a ra k a ; y o u w e r e s e n s i t i v e t o i t ) I w as s e n s i t i v e t o i t and my g r a n d m o th er and my a u n t u s e d t o a lw a y s s a y " C h ild , why do you q u e s t i o n e v e r y t h in g ! ? " You know , th e o t h e r c h i l d r e n l i s t e n — w h a t i s t h e m a t te r w i t h y o u !?

B a r a k a : D id t h e y make y o u f e e l l i k e t h e y w an te d y o u t o s t o p t h e q u e s t io n s ? Y e s! t h e y made me f e e l . . .B u t , I w o u ld n ' t , I w o u ld n ' t s t o p t h e q u e s t io n s" and t h e y 'd s l a p me o r h i t m e, b u t e v e n w h i l e t h e y w e re s l a p p i n g me, I w ou ld s t i l l b e t a l k in g ! You know , i t w as s o m e th in g in me t h a t . . . I ' v e a lw a y s b e e n f e a r l e s s , t h a t ' s . w h a t I 'm t r y in g t o s a y . I ' v e a lw a y s b e e n f e a r l e s s .

B a r a k a ; Do y o u t h in k i t w as a g i f t ?

C h ish o lm ; I t h in k i t ' s a g i f t . I r e a l l y b e l i e v e t h a t i t ' s a g i f t .

B a r a k a : T h a t i t w o u ld em erg e s o y o u n g

C h ish o lm ; Y e s , I r e a l l y b e l i e v e i t ' s a g i f t . And a f t e r t h a t , my gra n d m o th er b e g a n t o s e e , and my a u n t and u n c le , and l a t e r , my p a r e n t s , I r e tu r n e d t o t h i s c o u n t r y . . . i t ' s n o s e n s e t r y in g t o d i s c i p l i n e h e r i n te r m s o f k e e p in g h e r q u i e t . She see m s t o a lm o s t f e e l t h a t s h e h a s t o do t h i s , s o we may a s w e l l t r y t o l e a r n t o j u s t l i v e w i t h i t . B ut I b eg a n t o s e e m ore and m o r e . . .

B arak a; Can I in t e r r u p t ? Why d id t h e y w an t y o u t o s t o p t h e q u e s t i o n i n g and t a l k i n g s o much? B e f o r e t h e y cam e t o t h e d e c i s i o n t h a t t h a t w a s n ' t t h e way t o do i t , w hat l e s s o n s w o u ld t h e y g i v e t o y o u t o s a y t h a t i f y o u d i d n ' t s t o p t a l k i n g , w hat w o u ld h appen?

C h ish o lm ; I t h in k i t w as a p a r t o f t h e c u l t u r e ; c h i l d r e n w e re s u p p o se d t o b e s e e n and n o t h e a r d . You w e r e n e v e r s u p p o se d t o q u e s t io n a d u l t s when t h e y g i v e a command


209B a r a k a : What k in d s o f t h r e a t s w ou ld t h e y make t o you ?What w ou ld t h e y s a y w o u ld happ en t o k id s who w o u ld n ' t o b e y t h e i r p a r e n t s ?

C h ish o lm : W ell t h e y ' d s a y , " T h e y 'r e o r n e r y , t h e y ' r er e b e l l i o u s , g o t no r e s p e c t ! G ot no r e s p e c t f o r u s !"

B a r a k a : D id t h e y s a y w hat k in d o f l i f e th e y w o u ld h a v e a sa d u l t s i f t h e y d i d n ' t l e a r n t o con form o r d id t h e y n e v e r . . .

C h ish o lm : N o, i t w as j u s t u n d e r s to o d i n t h e c u l t u r e t h a t you d o n ' t q u e s t i o n a d u l t s ; you d o n ' t q u e s t i o n p e o p le who a r e c a r in g f o r y o u . P e o p le e v e n l o v e y o u b e c a u s e t h e y know b e t t e r . I know my g r a n d m o th er and my a u n t u se d t o s a y , in a c e r t a i n w ay, " C h ild , I . . . ( I ' m g e t t i n g i n t o t h e i r l i n g o , s o f o r g iv e me, b u t I rem em ber how t h e y u s e d t o t a l k t o me) C h i ld , w e 'v e b e e n h e r e b e f o r e y o u ! You m ust s t o p q u e s t i o n i n g u s s o m uch, and do w hat we s a y ! What i s t h e m a t te r w i t h y ou ? You a lw a y s h a v e t o b e a s k in g q u e s t i o n s ! Now, l i s t e n ! " I c o u ld h e a r them r i g h t now . I c o u ld h e a r i t .

B a r a k a : And, w ou ld y o u f e e l a n g r y o r a f r a i d , o r w ou ld i tb e fu n t o c h a l l e g e them ?

C h ish o lm : N o, I w o u l d . . . o h , I a lw a y s c h a l l e n g e th em . Iw ou ld c h a l l e n g e .

B a r a k a : And, w e r e y o u t e r r i f i e d w h i le y o u w e re d o in g i t ?

C h ish o lm : N o, I w as n e v e r t e r r i f i e d , I w as n e v e r t e r r i f i e d a t a l l b e c a u s e — w h a t h e lp e d make them e v e n a n g r ie r a t t im e s , i s t h a t e v e n th o u g h I m ig h t b e c h a l l e n g in g them and a s k in g them q u e s t i o n s , and th e n t h e y e v e n , s o m e tim e s o u t o f s h e e r e x a s p e r a t i o n , b e c a u s e I w o u ld n ' t s h u t u p , I w o u ld n 't k e e p q u i e t . T hey w o u ld s l a p me on my h a n d s; and e v e n w it h my t e a r s c o m in g , I'm s t i l l c h a l l e n g in g ! Prom t h e t im e I w as a y o u n g o n e , a s t h e y s a y , I ' v e had a d e te r m in e d s p i r i t .

B a r a k a : L e t ' s t a l k a b o u t s c h o o l a l i t t l e b i t m o re, O nce,you s a i d you l e f t a t t e n t o com e b ack t o t h i s c o u n t r y , and th e n you w e re in t h e s c h o o l s . I rem em ber from y o u r b o o k , you s a i d t h e y w e r e n ' t r e a d y f o r t h e i n t e l l i g e n c e t h a t you had and t h e y w e r e n ' t s u r e how t o p la c e y o u . D e s c r ib e t h e p e o p le you e n c o u n te r e d in t h e s c h o o l s y s te m t h e r e , and d e s c r ib e y o u r p a r e n t s ' r e a c t i o n t o t h e k in d s o f t h i n g s t h a t y o u r g r a n d m o th er w as s a y in g and w hat d id t h e y s a y t o y o u . . .

C h is h o lm : You mean a f t e r I cam e b a ck t o t h e U n ite d S t a t e s , W e ll , t h e s c h o o l s y s t e m , a f t e r I came b a c k , I fo u n d t h a t th e y fou n d i t v e r y d i f f i c u l t t o u n d e r s ta n d how I c o u ld g e t


th r o u g h my work s o f a s t . I w as a h ea d o f t h e c l a s s c o n s t a n t l y — a r i t h m e t i c l e s s o n s , a t t h a t t im e , g e o g r a p h y

l e s s o n s , and i f t h e y w ou ld g i v e u s w r i t t e n t e s t s w h ere th e q u e s t i o n s w ou ld b e on t h e p a p e r and y o u h a v e t o a n sw er i t , and t h e t e s t w as f o r t y - f i v e m in u t e s , I w o u ld be f i n i s h e d in tw e n ty o r t w e n t y - f i v e m in u t e s , b u t t h a t was a l s o t h e b e g in n in g o f a h ig h IQ w h ic h t h e y l a t e r fo u n d o u t t h a t I h a d , t h a t I w as b a s i c a l l y en d o w ed , I g u e s s y o u m ig h t s a y , o r I had c e r t a i n p o t e n t i a l , and w it h en co u ra g e m en t c o u ld p e r h a p s g o on t o g r e a t e r and b ig g e r t h i n g s . B ut a t t h a t t im e , t h e y c o u l d n ' t u n d e r s ta n d how a l i t t l e g i r l who j u s t cam e b a ck from t h e I s l a n d s — and t h e I s l a n d s t h a t a r e n o t , o f c o u r s e a s d e v e lo p e d and h a v e th e r e s o u r c e s , o r w h at h a v e y o u , a t o n e p o in t a s t h e U n ite d S t a t e s — c o u ld be s o s m a r t , s o b r i g h t , c o u ld b e a h ea d o f t h e o t h e r k id s .

A t t h e sam e t im e , I w as j u s t th e n b e g in n in g t o be p o p u la r — a j u v e n i l e d e l i n q u e n t , o r a bad c h i l d , b e c a u s e I w as a lw a y s f i n i s h e d a h ea d o f t h e o t h e r k i d s , s o I was m is c h ie v o u s . I w as th e n , I w as g r e a t a t , I c o u ld make t h e m o st b e a u t i f u l s p i t b a l l s t h a t a n y c h i l d th e n and now c o u ld m ake.

B arak a: And y o u l i k e d t o to r m e n t t h e p e o p le who w e re in a u t h o r i t y .

C h is h o lm : Y e s! I d i d n ' t w an t t o to r m e n t m e r e ly f o rto r m e n t in g — I w as b o r e d ! I w as b o r e d ; t h e r e w a s n ' t en ou gh t o k e e p my m ind a l e r t .

B a r a k a : I w an t t o e x p lo r e w h at t h e o u t s i d e w o r ld w as l i k e t o y o u . Was i t a s o u r c e o f c u r i o s i t y , w as i t a s o u r c e o f c h a l l e n g e . You t a l k e d a b o u t t h e a d u l t s p r o v id in g th e s t r u c t u r e and s u p e r v i s io n and t h e m o n it o r in g , and y o u w a n ted t o know, a lw a y s , w hy. And you t a lk e d a b o u t t h e e n e r g y t h a t i n t e l l i g e n c e g e n e r a t e d and how i f i t w a s n ' t c h a l l e n g e d you becam e b o red and made s p i t b a l l s and t h a t k in d o f t h in g ; w as t h e r e e v e r an y d i s c u s s i o n a b o u t r a c e ? Was t h e r e e v e r an y t a l k a b o u t l i g h t s k i n , d a rk s k i n , w h it e p e o p le , t h o s e k in d s o f t h in g s ? D id y o u h e a r t h o s e k in d s o f t h i n g s a s a c h i l d , and how d id you r e a c t t o t h o s e t h in g s ?

C h is h o lm : My f i r s t a w a r e n e s s o f c o l o r o r d i s c r i m i n a t i o nand e p i t h e t s , and w h at h a v e y o u , came, when I cam e b a ck t o t h i s c o u n t r y . I ' l l n e v e r f o r g e t , t h e f i r s t t im e I h ea rd t h e word " n ig g e r " when I w as a b o u t t e n and a h a l f y e a r s o f a g e , I ' l l n e v e r f o r g e t t h a t .

B a r a k a : B e fo r e t h a t w e re y o u in a p r im a r i ly B la c ken v ir o n m e n t?

C h ish o lm : I was p r im a r i ly in a B la c k e n v ir o n m e n t . AndI ' d n e v e r b e e n e x p o s e d t o t h i s k in d o f t h i n g . And, I


rem em ber when I cam e b a ck and I . . . w e l i v e d i n B r o w n s v i l l e , th e B r o w n s v i l l e s e c t i o n o f B r o o k ly n . . .a n d g o in g t o s c h o o l . A f t e r I w as i n t h e s c h o o l tw o o r t h r e e d a y s , I rem em ber h e a r in g , t h e f i r s t t im e , t h e word " n ig g e r " .

B a r a k a : Was t h i s a p r e d o m in a n t ly w h i t e s c h o o l?

C h ish o lm : I t w as i n a J e w is h s e c t i o n o f B r o w n s v i l l e , E a s tNew Y ork . I w as a r e a l a r e a w h ere t h e J ew s had s e t t l e d a t t h a t t im e , and w h er e t h e B la c k who l i v e d i n t h e a r e a w e re d e f i n i t e l y in t h e m i n o r i t y . D e f i n i t e l y co m in g i n t o t h e a r e a . And, I rem em ber t h a t when t h a t w ord " n ig g e r " w as u t t e r e d , i t w as u t t e r e d w i t h su c h h a t e and d e t e s t a t i o n . T h ere w as a g ro u p o f w h i t e k id s who w e re a r g u in g and f i g h t i n g w i t h a g r o u p o f B la c k k i d s , o f w h ich I w as o n e . And I rem em ber them s a y i n g , "That n ig g e r o v e r t h e r e ! T hat o n e !"

B a r a k a : What w as t h e f i g h t a b o u t?

C h ish o lm : I d o n ' t rem em ber, a l l I rem em ber i s t h e word" n ig g e r " t o t h i s d a y t h e w ay i t w as s a i d b y t h o s k id s , i t seem ed t o do s o m e th in g t o me. I rem em ber i t , I d o n ' t e v e n rem em ber w hat t h e f i g h t w as a b o u t , t o b e h o n e s t a b o u t i t . B ut t h a t was my f i r s t b r u sh w i t h a k in d o f d e t e s t a t i o n o f a n o th e r g ro u p o f p e o p le b y a c e r t a i n g r o u p . And, w hat h a pp en ed w a s , I b e g a n t o grow up in A m e r ic a , and b eg a n now t o b e t r a n s p la n t e d t o t h i s c u l t u r e and b e g a n t o f i n d o u t a b o u t d i f f e r e n t s o c i a l p a t t e r n s and p e o p le s ' b e h a v io r and a t t i t u d e s . I t e v e n b e g a n t o g e n e r a t e i n me e v e n m ore t h e d e s i r e t o do s o m e th in g so m e d a y .

B a r a k a : D id i t make y o u — w as t h a t d e s i r e a c h a l l e n g in g ,a n g r y , r e b e l l i o u s d e s i r e , o r w as i t a d e s i r e t o b r in g a b o u t c h a n g e t h a t w o u ld make e v e r y b o d y h a p p ie r ?

C h ish o lm : The d e s i r e w a s: "I'm g o in g t o sh ow y o u ! Eventh o u g h I am B la c k ; and som eday I w i l l b e a . . . I ' m g o in g t o show y o u !" I rem em ber t h a t s o w e l l . And t h a t h e lp e d me ev e n m ore in c o m p le t in g my e le m e n t a r y , J u n io r and S e n io r h ig h S c h o o l e d u c a t io n , t o do e v e r y t h in g w i t h i n my pow er t o e x c e l .

B a r a k a : D id p e o p le h e lp you a lo n g t h e way a s y o u t r i e d t oe x c e l?

C h ish o lm : N ot p a r t i c u l a r l y , b e c a u s e I w as su c h a . . . Ibecam e s o d i s c i p l i n e d t h a t o n c e I had made my m ind u p , t h a t t h i s w as g o in g t o b e my o b j e c t i v e and my g o a l , I'm g o in g t o show t h e w o r ld t h a t I ca n do i t and I'm s m a r t . I h a v e s o m e th in g t o o f f e r .

B a r a k a : How d id t h e t e a c h e r s r e a c t t o y o u o ?


212C h ish o lm : The t e a c h e r s a lw a y s f e l t s o r r y f o r me from t h e s t a n d p o in t t h a t t h e y r e c o g n iz e d t h a t I seem ed t o b e p u s h in g m y s e lf and t h a t I w a s n ' t g e t t i n g en ou gh t im e f o r p la y and h a v in g f u n . I ' v e a lw a y s b e e n a bookworm .

B a r a k a : T hey th o u g h t you w e re t o o much I n t o I t .

C h is h o lm : Y e s , I w as t o o s e r i o u s . I t w as s o bad t h a te v e n t h e l i t t l e f e l l o w s i n t h e com m unity and t h e s c h o o l s w ou ld h a v e p a r t i e s and w hat h a v e y o u . . .A nd, I lo v e d d a n c in g , I 'm an e x c e l l e n t d a n c e r — I t ' s a fu n n y t h i n g a b o u t t h i s d ic h o to m y i n my p e r s o n a l i t y — t h a t a l t h o u g h I'm a v e r y s e r i o u s , i n t e l l e c t u a l l y - o r i e n t e d p e r s o n , I'm a l s o a v e r y f u n - l o v in g p e r s o n , l o v e d d a n c in g and c r a c k in g j o k e s , and w hat h a v e y o u , b u t e v e n t h e n , t h e l i t t l e b o y s w o u ld n ' t a s k me t o d a n c e . Or a n y . . .n o b o d y w ou ld b o th e r w i t h me s o c i a l l y b e c a u s e t h e y w e re a lw a y s a f r a i d o f t h i s s e r i o u s -m inded c h i l d . A g i r l , a s I w as g r o w in g u p , and t h ef e l l o w s u s e d t o a lw a y s s a y , " D o n 't a s k S h i r l e y S t . H i l l f o r a d a n c e o r a n y t h in g , s h e g e t s you on t h e d a n c e f l o o r , you know, s h e ' s g o in g t o s t a r t t a l k i n g h ig h s t u f f . " And p e o p le b agan t o f e a r my i n t e l l e c t o r f e a r o f me.

B a r a k a : So y o u r p e e r s w ei'e n o t c o m f o r t a b le w i t h y o u rf o c u s on t r y in g t o b e a to p s t u d e n t .

C h ish o lm : Y e s , t h a t ' s r i g h t . I s p e n t t h e g r e a t e r p a r t o f my l i f e g r o w in g up i n l i b r a r i e s .

B a r a k a : D id a n y t e a c h e r o r c o u n s e lo r o r l i b r a r i a n e v e rs a y a n y t h in g t o y o u a a b o u t how y o u o u g h t t o u s e t h a t i n t e l l e c t and w h er e y o u o u g h t t o g o w i t h i t ?

C h ish o lm : Oh y e s , t h e y a lw a y s t o l d me t h a t , "Som eday, y o uc o u ld b e a t e a c h e r o r a n u r s e ." I ' v e h e a r d t h a t a l l my l i f e .

B a r a k a : How d id y o u r e a c t t o " t e a c h e r o r n u r se " ?

C h ish o lm : W e l l , a t t h a t t im e , t h e r e w a s n ' t a B la c k c h i l dwho had p o t e n t i a l , ' c a u s e t h i s c u l t u r e . . . (B a ra k a : you d i d n ' t q u e s t i o n i t ? ) N o, y o u d i d n ' t b e c a u s e t h a t ' s a l l you u se d t o s e e . The B la c k women, a t t h a t t im e , who hada c h ie v e d , and w h at h a v e y o u , e i t h e r w e r e t e a c h e r s o rn u r s e s . You know , t h a t w as b a ck in t h e e a r l y f o r t i e s .

B a r a k a : Was t h e r e a n y p a r t i c u l a r o n e t h a t y o u a d m ir e d ,B la c k women who had a c h ie v e d ?

C h is h o lm : H i s t o r i c a l l y , I h a v e a d m ired S o jo u r n e r T ru thand H a r r ie t Tubman. I r e a d e v e r y book I c o u ld r e a d on H a r r ie t Tubman and S o jo u r n e r T r u th . And l a t e r , Mary McCloud B e th u n e and E le a n o r R o o s e v e l t . T h o se f o u r women— E le a n o r R o o s e v e l t w as t h e o n ly o n e who w as w h i t e — b u t


213t h o s e fo u r women l e f t I n d e l i b l e I m p r e s s io n s on my m in d .

B a r a k a : D id you a c t u a l l y t h in k t o y o u r s e l f , "1 w an t t o bel i k e them ?

C h ish o lm : Oh y e s , i f t h e y c o u ld d o i t i n t h e i r t im e , Ic o u ld do i t t o o ! And I'm g o in g t o do i t ! T hey s e r v e d a s e x a m p le s and r o l e m o d e ls f o r me th e n . A t t h a t t im e , I rem em ber, I d i d n ' t h a v e a n y l i v i n g B la c k fe m a le r o l e m o d e ls t h a t I w as lo o k in g a t in te r m s o f t r y in g t o f o r m u la t e w h e th e r I w an t t o b e l i k e h e r .

B a r a k a : Of y o u r m o th e r , y o u r f a t h e r , y o u r g r a n d m o th e r , w h ich o f them do y o u f e e l c l o s e s t t o , m o st u n d e r s to o d y o u , m o st a c c e p t i n g o f y o u r k in d o f p e r s o n a l i t y ?

C h ish o lm : I t h in k my f a t h e r — t h e e a r l y y e a r s o f my l i f ei t w as my g r a n d m o th er— when I cam e b a ck t o t h i s c o u n t r y , i t w as my f a t h e r . My f a t h e r a lm o s t w o r sh ip p e d me. i t h in k y o u r e a d in t h e b o o k , t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p , how t h a t e v e n s e r v e d t o b r e a k t h e f a m i ly . B ut my f a t h e r w o r sh ip p e d me b e c a u s e h e a lw a y s f e l t t h a t I had a c h ie v e d w hat h e had in m ind f o r a l l o f u s . I w as t h e o n e who w as d i s c i p l i n e d e n o u g h . . .

B a r a k a : So h e n e v e r s a i d "That w a s n ' t w om anly ."

C h ish o lm : Oh n o! h e e n c o u r a g e d me! My f a t h e r w ou lde n c o u r a g e me m ore th a n my m o th e r . In f a c t , a s I lo o k b a c k , i n r e t r o s p e c t , I c o u ld a lm o s t s a y t h a t my f a t h e r was m ore o f a "Women's L ib b e r " , i f y o u c o u ld s a y t h a t , a t t h a t t im e , th a n my m o th e r .

B a r a k a : What k in d o f r e l a t i o n s h i p d id y o u h a v e w i t h y o u rm other?

C h ish o lm : My m o th e r c o u ld n e v e r c o p e w i t h me. To t h i sd a y , I u n s e t t l e h e r — v e r y m uch. In f a c t , o n e o f t h e r e a s o n s t h a t s h e to o k me t o t h e W est I n d i e s , s h e c o u l d n ' t c o p e , s h e c o u l d n ' t h a n d le m e.

B a r a k a : What k in d s o f t h i n g s w o u ld s h e s a y t o you?

C h ish o lm : She w o u ld n ' t s a y i t t o me, s h e ' d s a y i t t o myf a t h e r w hen my f a t h e r w o u ld com e home from w ork— b e f o r e we w en t t o t h e W est I n d i e s , "Oh, a n o th e r d a y w i t h t h i s c h i l d ! C h a r le s , I d o n ' t know w h at I 'm g o in g t o d o ." You s e e , my m o th er had t h e f i r s t t h r e e o f u s r a t h e r c l o s e . And I u s e t o — y o u know , s h e w ou ld b e t r y in g t o t a k e c a r e o f t h e tw o y o u n g e r o n e s — I w as a l l o v e r t h e h o u s e , c l im b in g on b o x e s , t a k in g down t h e m a c h in e . S h e 'd g o t h e t h e s t o r e , and s h e 'd s a y , "Watch t h e baby u n t i l I com e b a c k ." And I w ou ld s a y , "Yes Mom", n o t much b ig g e r th a n t h e b ab y m y s e l f , and i f t h e b aby w ou ld s t a r t t o c r y , I w ou ld l i f t up t h e baby


214and w a lk t h e f l o o r . S he w o u ld com e b a c k , o p en t h e d o o r , and s e e me w it h t h e b a b y and h e r f i r s t im p u ls e w as t o y e l l , b u t s h e knew I w o u ld d ro p t h e b a b y . S o , s h e w ou ld s a y " T h a t ' s n i c e , S h i r l e y . T ake c a r e o f t h e b a b y ." And a s so o n a s s h e 'd ta k e t h e b aby from m e, tu r n my l i t t l e b o tto m a c r o s s h e r k n e e . My m o th e r w as a y o u n g woman— s h e w as a b o u t tw e n ty -tw o o r t w e n t y - t h r e e , when s h e had me— and s h e t o l d my f a t h e r , "W e've g o t t o ta k e h e r . S h e 's g o t t o go t h e t h e c o u n tr y w i t h my m o th e r , w h ere s h e ca n b e on a fa r m . W here s h e ca n d o s o m e th in g w i t h t h i s f r e e s p i r i t .

B a r a k a : How d id y o u r e a c t t o t h e s p a n k in g s ?

C h ish o lm : You know , s p a n k in g s — t h e y w e re n o t h in g . Inf a c t , I g o t t o t h e p o in t i n my l i f e , a s I w as g r o w in g u p , w h er e I had t o e x p e c t s p a n k in g s . The o n ly way I knew I w a s n ' t g o in g t o g e t a s p a n k in g w as t o s h u t up; and I ' v e n e v e r b een a b le t o s h u t u p .

B a r a k a : What d id s h e w ant y o u t o do?

C h ish o lm : S he w a n te d me t o grow u p . s h e w a n te d me s t ogrow up and b e a n i c e women— g e t a g ood e d u c a t io n , g e t m a r r ie d , h a v e k id s — t h e t r a d i t i o n a l o u t lo o k .

B a r a k a : D id y o u e v e r t a l k a b o u t t h o s e t h i n g s w i t h h er?

C h ish o lm : N o, I n e v e r d id b e c a u s e my m o th e r and I h a v ea lw a y s q u a r r e l e d . S he l o v e s me and I l o v e h e r , b u t i t see m s a s th o u g h we w e r e com in g from c o m p le t e ly d i f f e r e n t d i r e c t i o n s . My f a t h e r u n d e r s to o d me b e t t e r th a n my m o th e r . He r e a l l y d i d . P e r h a p s h e d i d n ' t a lw a y s v e r b a l i z e w h at h e f e l t , and how I s h o u ld g o ; b u t my m o th e r , e v e n t o d a y — my m o th e r i s e i g h t y - f o u r now, and I'm f i f t y - s e v e n — e v e n t o d a y , s o m e tim e s I s e e Mama, s h e ' l l lo o k a t me, s h e ' l l s h a k e h e r h e a d . S h e 's s t i l l p u z z le d by me. S he c a n ' t u n d e r s ta n d why I ' v e b e e n l i k e t h i s — why I had t o l e a v e t h e w o r ld o f e d u c a t io n w h er e m y . . ." Y our f a t h e r and I w orked s o h ard t o make s u r e y o u g e t a g o o d e d u c a t io n and h e r e y o u a r e i n p o l i t i c s , g o in g o u t on t h e s t r e e t s , in p r o j e c t s , d e b a t in g p e o p le on i s s u e s ! W h a t's t h a t ! ? "

B a r a k a : d id y o u e v e r w ant h e r a p p r o v a l? I s t h a t p a r t o ft h e r e a s o n you w o u ld q u a r r e l?

C h is h o lm : N o, I h a v e a lw a y s b e e n a lm o s t s in g le - m in d e d . T h a t 's w h er e I h a v e t o a d m it I 'm a v e r y s tu b b o r n woman.

B a r a k a : S tu b b o r n n e s ca n be a good q u a l i t y f o r a l e a d e r , th o u g h .

C h ish o lm : I t h in k s o m e tim e s i t ' s g o o d . I t h in k so m e tim e si t ' s g o o d b e c a u s e , y o u s e e , t h e doom sday c r i e r s a r e o u t t h e r e , t h e y ' r e t e l l i n g you you c a n ' t do t h i s , and you


215s h o u l d n ' t do t h i s b e c a u s e y o u 'r e a woman

B a r a k a : W here d id y o u h e a r t h a t ?

C h ish o lm : I s t a r t e d h e a r in g t h o s e t h i n g s when I w e n t t oc o l l e g e , and we h a d , you know, t h e B la c k s t u d e n t s and t h e B la c k m a le s t u d e n t s t h a t w e re t h e r e , we a l l b e lo n g e d t o t h e H a r r ie t Tubman S o c i e t y w h ic h w as a B la c k g ro u p t h a t w as on t h e cam pu s. A nd, t h e t im e I w en t t o B r o o k ly n C o l l e g e , t h e r e w as o n ly a b o u t tw e n ty - tw o B la c k s on t h e cam pus, b e c a u s e y o u c o l d n ' t g e t I n t o t h a t c o l l e g e u n l e s s you had an a v e r a g e o f 85 o r b e t t t e r . I t w as b a ck In t h o s e d a y s when B la c k s w e r e s o fe w and f a r b e tw e e n In p r e c o l l e g e s y s t e m s , b e c a u s e I w e n t I n t o t h e C i t y U n i v e r s i t y w h ich w as In Hew Y o r k . And 1 rem em ber how t h e B la c k g i r l e , In t h e g r o u p s , u se d t o a r g u r , e v e n t h e n , w i t h t h e B la c k f e l l o w s , b e c a u s e we B la c k g i r l s who m anaged t o g e t I n t o c o l l e g e w e r e t h e to p f i v e p e r c e n t in o u r c o m m u n itie s and o u r s c h o o l s and we w e re n o t a b o u t t h e b u s i n e s s o f l i s t e n i n g t o som ebod y t e l l i n g u s w h at w e s h o u ld do and w hat we s h o u ld n o t d o — and we s h o u ld b e w i v e s , and we s h o u ld g e t m a r r ie d , and w hat h a v e y o u . We w e re g o in g t o b e t h e f u t u r e fe m a le l e a d e r s — i f you w i l l .

B a r a k a : I s t h a t w hen you p le d g e d t h e D e l t a S o r o r i t y ?

C h ish o lm : Y e s .

B a r a k a : What w as t h a t e x p e r i e n c e l i k e ? What w as y o u rr e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h o t h e r B la c k f e m a le s l i k e ?

C h ish o lm : My r e l a t i o n s h i p — I d o n ' t know how t o p u t i t ,e x c e p t t o s a y , I n e v e r r e a l l y c o n s c i o u s ly w e n t o u t and s a i d t o m y s e l f , I 'm g o in g t o b e a l e a d e r , and I'm g o in g t o make e v e r y b o d y r e s p e c t me a s a l e a d e r — I a lw a y s fo u n d t h a t w h e r e v e r I w o u ld m ove i n t o , w h a te v e r g r o u p , w h a te v e r c i r c l e , e v e n t u a l l y l e a d e r s h i p w as t h r u s t upon m e. T h is i s a v e r y i n t e r e s t i n g t h i n g i n my l i f e . P e o p le who d o n ' t know me w o u ld s a y , " S h ir l e y C h ish o lm , s h e ' s fo u g h t t o b e a l e a d e r ." I h a v e n ' t f o u g h t t o b e a l e a d e r . I t w as t h r u s t upon me b e c a u s e o f c e r t a i n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s I h a v e and my d e t e r m in a t io n t o p u r s u e a p a t h . A t t r i b u t e s o f l e a d e r s h i p ,I t h i n k , so m e t im e s c a u s e p e o p le t o lo o k upon you a s t h e on e t h a t t h e y s h o u ld f o l l o w , n o t t h a t "I am g o in g t o b e a l e a d e r w h e th e r y o u w an t me t o b e a l e a d e r o r n o t ." And e v e n a t c o l l e g e t h i s h a p p en ed .

B a r a k a : What d id t h e s o r o r i t y mean t o you ?

C h ish o lm : You w an t me t o b e h o n e s t? A t t h a t t im e , t h es o r o r i t y d i d n ' t mean t h a t much t o me f o r o n e r e a s o n o n ly . I ' l l n e v e r f o r g e t , a c o u p le o f g i r l s who w e re p le d g i n g , and w h at h a v e y o u , c o u l d n ' t g e t i n t o t h e s o r o r i t y — a lth o u g h t h e y w e r e v e r y , v e r y b r ig h t B la c k g i r l s — b a c a u s e


216t h e y cam e from t h e r e a l lo w s t r a t a o f s o c i e t y . T hey d i d n ' t d r e s s n i c e l y , l i t t l e c o t t o n s k i r t s , and y e t t h e y w e re tw o o f t h e b r i g h t e s t B la c k g i r l s ; and I w an te d th e n n o t e v e n t o p le d g e ; and o f c o u r s e my t h i n k i n g w as n o t a s m a tu r e a s I t I s now, and s o I d id I t , b u t I a lw a y s had a f e e l i n g a b o u t I t .

B a r a k a : Was i t t h e t im e , I ' v e h e a r d t h a t women Ins o r o r i t i e s w e re a l l l i g h t s k in n e d wom en. D id y o u e v e r g e t a n y o f t h e " I n s id e t h e r a c e " k in d o f c o l o r p r e j u d ic e ?

C h ish o lm ; Oh y e s , I m et t h a t m ore am o n g st a l o t o f my own women in t h e g ro u p p a r t i c u l a r l y on t h e c o l l e g e cam pus.

B a r a k a : What d id t h e a d u l t s i n y o u r l i f e s a y a b o u t men and s e x u a l i t y ?

C h ish o lm ; My m o th er e x p la in e d t h e u s e o f K o te x , b u t s h e w as v e r y u n c o m fo r ta b le , and I d i d n ' t p r e s s i t b e c a u s e I knew w h at t o d o . And a l s o , we w e r e g r o w in g up a t a t im ewhen t h e k id s w ou ld t a l k a b o u t t h e s e t h i n g s . You know howt h e y s a y t h e k id s l e a r n a l o t o f f t h e s t r e e t s , and so m e tim e s i t ' s bad t o l e a r n i t t h a t w ay , b u t som e o f i t 1g o t t h a t w ay, b e c a u s e my m o th e r — n o t o n ly my m o th e r , mym o t h e r 's f r i e n d s — I u s e d t o l i s t e n t o them com e i n t o my hom e, and t h e y w e re t a l k in g a b o u t a l o t o f t h i n g s , b u t t h e y w e re v e r y u n c o m fo r ta b le d i s c u s s i n g s e x u a l m a t t e r s .

B a r a k a ; T e l l me w h at y o u r i d e a o f l e a d e r s h i p i s , w hat i s l e a d e r s h ip ? D e f in e i t f o r me i n y o u r w a y . T a lk a b o u t w hat c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a l e a d e r h a s .

C h ish o lm ; My i d e a o f l e a d e r s h i p : I t h in k l e a d e r s h i p i s ac o m b in a t io n o f s e v e r a l t a l e n t s . I t ' s n o t o n ly on e p a r t i c u l a r t a l e n t . I t h in k i t i s a c o m b in a t io n o f i n t e l l e c t u a l q u a l i t i e s , p e r s u a s i v e t e c h n i q u e s , c h a r i s m a t ic i n f l u e n c e in o r d e r f o r p e o p le t o b e a b le t o g r a v i t a t e to w a r d s y o u . Com m itm ent and c o n c e r n t h a t e x e m p l i f i e s i t s e l f n o t o n ly in y o u r r h e t o r i c , b u t i n t h e way you t a l k and t h e w ay y o u r f e e l i n g s g e t a c r o s s t o p e o p le . And, i t ' s a c o m b in a t io n o f s e v e r a l q u a l i t i e s , and i n a l e a d e r , som e o f t h o s e q u a l i t i e s seem t o b e t h e r e m ore th a n o t h e r s , b u t t h e r e ' s a p i e c e o f t h e s e q u a l i t i e s in p e o p le t h a t a r e g o in g t o b e l e a d e r s .

B a r a k a ; Can you t a l k a b o u t r e l i g i o n and s p i r i t u a l i t y and l o v e and t h e in n e r m o t iv a t io n t o do t h i n g s . As a c h i l d you w e re d r iv e n and you d i d n ' t h a v e t h e w o r d s t o s a y why you q u e s t io n e d ; b u t , now a s a woman who h a s e x p e r ie n c e d q u i t e a b i t and had a c h a n c e t o lo o k b ack and a n a ly z e and p u t som e w ords t o t h o s e t h i n g s , w h at w o u ld you s a y a b o u t t h e p u r p o se o f y o u r l i f e , t h e r e a s o n why y o u 'r e h e r e ?L ove? H um anity? t h o s e k in d s o f t h i n g s w h a t d o t h o s e w ords s i g n a l t o you?


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C h ish o lm : 1 t h in k my l i f e , I r e a l l y b e l i e v e . . .I 'mh e s i t a t i n g b e c a u s e a num ber o f y e a r s a g o , I w as t a l k i n g a lo n g s p i r i t u a l l i n e s , and r e l i g i o u s l i n e s , and som ebody s a i d t o me, "Oh God, h e r e s h e i s now b eco m in g m y s t ic ," B ut I d e e p ly f e e l t h a t I am w hat I am b e c a u s e o f my r e l i g i o u s f a i t h and my c o n f i d e n c e . The c o m b in a t io n o f t h o s e tw o t h i n g s h a s made S h i r l e y C h ish o lm . T rem endous c o n f id e n c e in m y s e lf and my a b id i n g , u n s h a k e a b le f a i t h .

B a r a k a : T a lk a b o u t r e l i g i o n . What d o e s i t mean? What i sy o u r r e l a t i o n s h i p t o t h e Suprem e B e in g ?

C h ish o lm : My r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e Suprem e B e in g i s a p o s i t i v e o n e . I t i s s o g r e a t b e c a u s e i f i t w e r e n o t f o r t h i s Suprem e and O m n ip o te n t B e in g , I c o u ld n o t h a v e becom e w hat I ' v e becom e i n t h i s c o u n t r y . I r r e s p e c t i v e o f how much t a l e n t I may h a v e had and how much p u s h in g I may h a v e had b e h in d my e n d e a v o r s , b e c a u s e o u t t h e r e you h a v e t o d e a l w i t h t h e p e r e n n ia l doom sday c r i e r s , you h a v e t o d e a l w ith p e o p le who a r e j e a lo u s o f w h a t y o u 'r e t r y in g t o d o . You h a v e t o d e a l w i t h t h e m a le s who a r e s a y i n g , "Who do y o u t h in k y o u a r e ? " You h a v e t o d e a l w i t h s o much, s o w hat i s t h e a n c h o r ? What i s t h e a n sw er t h a t m akes you c o n t in u e t o g o in s p i t e o f a l l o f t h i s ? And t h e f i r s t t h in g t h a t you h a v e t o f a c e , you may a s w e l l s a y , t h e r e a r e a l l t h e s e t h i n g s aro u n d y o u , b o u n c in g on you and h i t t i n g a t y o u , y o u 'v e g o t a g o o d e d u c a t io n , why knock y o u r s e l f o u t? Go and g e t a go o d jo b f o r $ 2 0 , $ 2 5 ,0 0 0 , $ 3 0 ,0 0 0 a y e a r ? and d o n ' t w o r r y . B ut n o ! I t w as God t h a t w as t e l l i n g me, " y o u 'v e g o t i t no m a t te r w hat t h e y s a y . A re you w i l l i n g t o a c c e p t t h e c h a l le n g e ? "

B a r a k a : The God t h a t ' s w i t h in y o u .

C h ish o lm : T h a t ' s r i g h t ! And p e o p le s a y t o m e," S h i r l e yC h ish o lm y o u 'r e s u c h a s t r o n g woman, and y e t y o u 'v e g o n e th r o u g h s o m uch!" B ut how h a v e you b e e n a b le t o ? And s o m e tim e , I h a v e t o c a t c h m y s e lf ; I s h o u l d n ' t b e asham ed o f i t ,b u t i t ' s how p e o p le r e a c t t o i t , b u t I h a v e t o s a y , " I t ' s God; and s o m e tim e s p e o p le lo o k a t me s t r a n g e l y .

B a r a k a : One l a s t w o r d , w hat w ou ld y o u s a y t o you ng woment o d a y a b o u t c a r e e r , m a r r ia g e , l e a d e r s h i p , m ak ing a c o n t r ib u t i o n

C h is h o lm : I w o u ld s a y t o y ou n g women, t h a t e v e r yin d i v i d u a l h a s p o t e n t i a l t o d e v e lo p i n t o so m e th in g o r so m e b o d y .

B a r a k a : w ou ld y o u r m e ssa g e b e d i f f e r e n t f o r y o u n g women th a n f o r y ou ng men? N o, a l l t h e sa m e , p a y no a t t e n t i o n t o t h e d oom sday c r i e r s a b o u t y o u . A lw ays m ove in te r m s o f g i v i n g t h e b e s t t h a t i s w i t h i n y o u t o g i v e . S e t th e o b j e c t i v e s and t h e g o a l s f o r y o u r s e l f and p u r su e them .


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Look n e i t h e r t o t h e n o r t h , e a s t , s o u t h o r w e s t . B e c a u s e In t h i s w o r ld o f human b e i n g s , w h ere w e 'r e a l l f u l l o f f r a i l t i e s and in a d e q u a c ie s , t h e r e ' s a g r e a t d e a l o f j e a lo u s y and a g r e a t many m is u n d e r s t a n d in g s , and i f you a l l o w y o u r e n e r g i e s t o b e f r i t t e r e d aw ay and y o u r m ind t o b e c o n s t a n t l y m ov in g in t h e d i r e c t i o n o f w h at a n ybod y t h in k s a b o u t y o u , y o u 'r e n o t g o in g t o be a b le t o a c h i e v e . So c h a r t y o u r c o u r s e in l i f e , a s k God t o g i v e y o u t h e h e lp and t h e s t r e n g t h t o p u r s u e i t and you w i l l make i t .

B a r a k a : I s t h a t s a y in g in a w ay , i s t h a t s a y in g h a v e som e b e l i e f in y o u r own i n s t i n c t s a b o u t w h a t ' s r i g h t . T h at you d o n ' t h a v e t o g o b a ck and you d o n ' t h a v e t o g o b a ck and c h e c k w it h e v e r y b o d y and s a y , "Am I g o in g t h e r i g h t way?"

C h ish o lm : Y e s! T h a t ' s r i g h t ! D e f i n i t e l y ! B e c a u s e i f I d id , I w o u ld n o t b e a p o l i t i c i a n to d a y . I w o u ld n o t b ecom e a fam ous woman in t h i s c o u n t r y . I c e r t a i n l y w o u ld 'n t b e c a u s e 9035 o f t h e p e o p le t o l d me I w as g o in g in t h e w rong d i r e c t i o n . " Y o u 'r e b r i g h t , b u t y o u s h o u ld b e a t e a c h e r . D o n 't g o o u t h e r e and t r y t o l e a d . T h a t ' s n o t f o r y o u ." I m ean, I g o t s o much o f t h a t ! B u t , I d id n o t ta k e t h a t , b e c a u s e s o m e th in g I f e l t m y s e l f . God t o l d me, " Y o u 'v e g o t i t . A re y o u g o in g t o l e t them t e l l yo u w hat t o do?" And I ' v e p r o v e n i t . And I fo u g h t t o s t i c k t o i t ; and I h app en t o b e a p e r s o n t h a t . . . I l o v e c h a l l e n g e s ! I l i k e c h a l l e n g e s b e c a u s e t h a t ' s a p a r t o f my d a r in g s p i r i t t o s e e w h e th e r o r n o t I ca n a c c e p t a c h a l l e n g e and s u c c e e d .So f a r i n l i f e , and I 'm now f i f t y - s e v e n , I h a v e s u c c e e d e d in e v e r y c h a l l e n g e t h a t I h a v e g o n e a f t e r ?

B a r a k a : H ave y o u l a i d o u t a h e a v ie r c h a l l e n g e f o ry o u r s e l f i n t h e f u t u r e ?

C h ish o lm : I h a v e in a s e n s e . I h a v e f e l t t h a t I 'm g o in gt o do g r e a t e r and b ig g e r t h i n g s .

B a r a k a : T h a t ' s m a r v e lo u s . Thank you s o much f o r y o u rt im e , I 'm s u r e I c o u ld g o on f o r a n o th e r c o u p le o f h o u r s .


TAPE TRANSCRIPTION: 219

JOAN GANZ COONEY

S ep tem b e r 9 , 1982

B a r a k a : S t a r t in g b a ck a s f a r a y o u ca n rem em ber, w hatp o s i t i v e and n e g a t i v e t h i n g s h e lp e d y o u t o becom e a l e a d e r ?

C o o n e y ; I w is h I had a g o o d a n sw er t o t h a t . I s u r e l y b e l i e v e t h a t b i r t h o r d e r , and I w as num ber t h r e e o f t h r e e , b o rn v e r y c l o s e t o g e t h e r , t h a t t h a t c h i l d I s r e a l l y g o in g t o b e a s t r l v e r . I f t h e y h a v e t h e g e n e t i c e n e r g y , I th in k som e o f I t ' s program m ed and you c a n ' t h e lp I t . E n erg y I s a g e n e t i c t h i n g — e n e r g y and c a p a c i t y — l i k e p h y s i c a l h e a l t h i s a g e n e t i c m a t t e r , and e n e r g y and c a p a c i t y I s p a r t o f t h a t .

In my v ie w b i r t h o r d e r i s p a r t o f i t and I t ' s why on e s e e s t h e num ber o n e b o rn c h i l d s o o f t e n In t h e l e a d e r s h i p p o s i t i o n ; t h e y a r e t h e le a d e r In t h a t f a m i ly and t h e y u s u a l l y g o t a g r e a t d e a l o f a t t e n t i o n f o r a w h i le w i th o u t a n y s i b l i n g s .

I h a v e n ' t h e a r d much a b o u t t h r e e s , b u t I know f o r m y s e l f , I was c o n s t a n t l y s t r i v i n g t o k e e p up w ith my b r o t h e r and s i s t e r s . A l s o , I had a f a t h e r who h im s e l f w as a v e r y p o w e r fu l p e r s o n a l i t y , and who r e a l l y a d o r e d my s i s t e r . T hat w as w h er e t h e y i n and t h e y a n g w a s . I t w a s n ' t t h a t h e d i d n ' t l o v e m e, h e lo v e d m e, b u t h e d i d n ' t a d o r e me and I knew i t , and I w as c o n s t a n t l y t r y in g t o g e t h i s a p p r o v a l , and o n e w ay I d id i t w as t o t r y t o g e t good g r a d e s , t r y t o a c c o m p lis h , a s l o n g a s I w a s n ' t h i s " ty p e " . B e c a u s e I w as a f e i s t y , a r g u m e n t a t iv e , l i t t l e , k id — v e r y sm a r t— a l o t o f a d u l t s d o n ' t l i k e t h a t b e c a u s e y o u can a r g u e .

My m oth er a d o r e d i t b e c a u s e i t re m in d ed h e r o f my f a t h e r . S h e 'd s a y , "You h a v e y o u r f a t h e r ' s b r a ih ." So s h e s o r t o f p o s i t i o n e d me i n som e w ays a s a s o n , and in som e w ays a s a h ig h l y d e p e n d e n t d a u g h t e r . I w as h e r c l e a r f a v o r i t e . Our f a m ily w as d iv id e d i n t o t h e s e cam ps. I hada b r o th e r who w a s , a l a s , n o t a n y b o d y 's f a v o r i t e . He wast h e f i r s t b o r n , t h e o n ly b o y . He i s a l s o v e r y s u c c e s s f u l . He o n c e s a i d , v e r y b i t t e r l y , "The o n ly p e o p le who c o u n t in t h i s f a m ily w e re t h e g i r l s . " And, t h a t ' s t r u e , t h e g i r l sd id g e t a l o t m ore a t t e n t i o n . He w as a q u i e t e r k id andm ore s e l f - s u f f i c i e n t th a n t h e g i r l s w e r e ; b u t my m other b r o u g h t me up t o b e q u i t e d e p e n d e n t .

B a r a k a : D e p e n d en t? What k in d s o f t h i n g s d id s h e s a y t oyou?

C o o n e y : I w as h e r b a b y , a sm a r t b a b y , b u t s t i l l a b a b y .And a b aby t h a t w as h ig h s t r u n g , and a b ab y t h a t w as t o o


220t h i n , and a b ab y t h a t w a s n ' t s t r o n g , and a b aby t h a t was s t r e s s f u l — " e v e r y b o d y l e a v e th e b aby a l o n e , l e t h e r r e s t , o r l e t h e r do w h a te v e r s h e w a n ts t o d o " , b u t , I o n c e s a i d , s h e b r o u g h t me up t o b e s i c k and s u c c e s s f u l . S he a c h ie v e d , f o r t u n a t e l y , t h e o n e and n o t t h e o t h e r , b u t I n e v e r d ream ed t h a t som ehow , I w ou ld b e a s t a r , b u t s i c k a t home w it h h e r t a k in g c a r e o f me. As s o o n a s I c o u ld w a lk , I r e a l l y w a lk e d aw ay . I w e n t away t o c o l l e g e and th e n I m oved E a s t b e c a u s e I knew I had t o b r e a k t h a t d e p e n d e n c e .I t w as v e r y to u g h , th o u g h . I d o n ' t mean t h a t j u s t b e c a u s e I m oved E a s t t h a t I r e a l l y b r o k e t h e d e p e n d e n c y , th o u g h , b e c a u s e I d i d n ' t . I w as r e a l l y a l a t e b lo o m e r ; I d i d n ' t m arry u n t i l I w as t h i r t y - f o u r y e a r s o l d , and t h a t w as r e a l l y k in d o f t im in g m y s e l f — I w as s c a r e d o f a r e l a t i o n s h i p t h a t m ig h t becom e d e p e n d e n t .

B ut my m o th e r , t h e o n e t h in g s h e d id w i t h me, and s h e d id n o t a t a l l w i t h my s i s t e r , w as t o s i g n a l me: " D o n 't end up t h e way I d id " — m ean in g a s a h o u s e w if e and t h a t p la y e d a c r u c i a l r o l e in how I w e n t— n o t c o n s c i o u s l y — I a ssu m e d , a s s h e d id c o n s c i o u s l y , t h a t I w ou ld m arry you ng and h a v e c h i l d r e n , and n o t w ork; b u t t h a t i s n ' t w hat t h e s i g n a l w as t h a t w as co m in g o u t . I t w as a lw a y s " D o n 't end up l i k e m e." S he h a te d h o u se w o r k , s h e h a te d t h e d o m e s t ic r o l e , s h e b i t t e r l y r e s e n t e d i t , and I knew t h a t and f e l t i t . And when I f e e l s t u c h , w i t h o u t h e l p , o r w h a te v e r , I b ecom e j u s t l i k e h e r ; I b i t t e r l y r e s e n t i t . I c a n ' t b rea k t h a t o ld ta p e in my h ea d t h a t I am n o t s h e .

B ut s h e k e p t me f a r aw ay from t h e d o m e s t ic s c e n e . My s i s t e r lo v e d t o c o o k and lo v e d k i d s , and en d ed up a h o u s e w if e and m o th e r — a v e r y s u c c e s s f u l o n e — b u t s h e n e v e r d is c o u r a g e d my s i s t e r ; b u t s h e r e a l l y , i n h e r own w ay, d is c o u r a g e d me from e v e r g e t t i n g in v o lv e d i n d o m e s t ic c h o r e s .

B a r a k a : When y o u lo o k b a ck b e f o r e y o u l e f t hom e, b e tw e e nt h e a g e s o f tw o and f i v e w e re y o u a w are o f , o r do y o u rem em ber, w h at k in d o f c h i l d you w e re? I m ean, w e re y o u a w a r e o f s t r i v i n g t o g e t f a t h e r ' s a t t e n d i o n and y o u r m o t h e r 's r e s e n tm e n t o f t h e h ou sew ork ?

C o o n e y : I d o n ' t t h in k I w as a w are o f my m o t h e r 'sr e s e n tm e n t ; I w as v e r y a w are o f g e t t i n g my f a t h e r ' s a t t e n t i o n and n o t s u c c e e d in g , b u t I c o u ld g e t e v e r y o n e e l s e ' s . We a lw a y s had d o m e s t ic h e lp — i t w as in t h e t h i r t i e s and i t w as e a s y t o g e t and i n e x s p e n s i v e — and t h a t p e r s o n w as a lw a y s my f a v o r i t e p e r s o n , and w as my f r ie n d ; and I w ou ld g o i n t o h y s t e r i c s i f t h e y w e re f i r e d , b e c a u s e I w o u ld t r a n s f e r a l o t t o th em . My m o th e r w as s o b u sy w it h h a v in g t h r e e c h i l d r e n in t h r e e y e a r s — i n t h o s e d a y s , h a v in g som e d o m e s t ic h e lp j u s t m eant w o r k in g r i g h t a lo n g w it h th em . I rem em ber them p u t t i n g t h e c l o t h e s th r o u g h t t h e w r in g e r t o g e t h e r , and c a r r y in g them up t h e s t a i r s t o g e t h e r , and h a n g in g them on t h e l i n e t o g e t h e r . She w orked j u s t a s h ard a s t h e m o t h e r 's h e lp e r ; b u t w how ever


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ws my m o t h e r 's a id w as my b e s t f r i e n d and who I hung o u t w it h . And, I g o t h y s t e r i c a l a n y t im e o n e o f them l e f t . I w ou ld t r a n s f e r s o m uch.

B a r a k a ; Do you rem em ber a n y o n e o f t h o s e p e o p le who w e re r e a l l y Im p o r ta n t p s c h o l o g i c a l l y ?

C o o n e y : Y e s , t h e r e w e r e tw o , tw o B la c k women— wev a c i l l a t e d b e tw e e n I n d ia n and B la c k h e l p . The o n e s I hung o n to h ap p en ed t o b e B la c k women who w e r e m ore m a tu r e . We c o u ld e a s i l y g e t I n d ia n h e l p , b u t i t w as r e a l l y a c r u e l sy s te m ; T h e re w as an I n d ia n s c h o o l w h er e t h e s e k id s w ere rem oved from t h e r e s e r v a t i o n and b r o u g h t down a t f o u r t e e n , f i f t e e n , s i x t e e n and farm ed o u t f o r d o m e s t ic h e l p , an i n e x p e n s iv e s o u r c e o f h e lp .

B la c k women had much m ore s t a t u s th a n t h e I n d ia n and M exican women d id in A r iz o n a , b u t i t w as Jim Crow, and I w ou ld g o w ith w h o ev e r w as t h e h o u s e k e e p e r o f t h e moment and s i t up in t h e " c r o w 's n e s t " in t h e m o v ie t h e a t e r .

B a r a k a : You r e a l l y b ecam e a t t a c h e d and in v o lv e d w i t ht h a t !

C o o n e y : V ery in v o l v e d , and w h a te v e r t h e y d id , I d id . I d id n o t u n d e r s ta n d t h e i n j u s t i c e o f i t , b u t I knew t h a t I w as g o in g t o b e w h e r e v e r t h e y w e re g o in g t o b e , b u t tw o o f th em , named T urner and C o r r ie — I n e v e r h e a r d from M rs. T u rn er a g a in a f t e r s h e l e f t f o r f a m i ly r e a s o n s — b u t s h e w as by f a r t h e m o st im p o r ta n t p e r s o n in my l i f e a t t h a t a g e .

B a r a k a ; What k in d s o f t h i n g s d id s h e s a y t o you?

C o o n e y ; S he ta u g h t m e. She t a u g h t me in d e p e n d e n c e ; s h e ta u g h t me t o l a c e my s h o e s , and my ABCs. My m o th er t o l d m e, I rem em ber h e r , I do n o t rem em ber t h i s , b u t s h e l e f t f o r h e r d a y o f f w h i le I w as n a p p in g b e c a u s e s h e c o u ld n o t g e t aw ay i f I w as aw ake my c r y in g w as s o p i t i f u l . And my m o th e r s a y s , I w ou ld th e n g o b a ck t o h e r room c r y i n g , " T u rn er , T u r n e r" , I c a l l e d h e r b y h e r l a s t name and f in d s h e w as g o n e . And Mom s a y s , I w o u ld t h e n becom e h y s t e r i c a l . So i t w as a r e a l l y b ig r e l a t i o n s h i p . She was th e n r e p la c e d w i t h C o r r ie , whom I a b s o l u t e l y w o r sh ip p e d ; and my m other f i r e d h e r when I w as a b o u t f i v e — d e c id e d s h e d id n ' t w ant l i v e - i n h e lp a n y m o re . My m o th e r w as v e r y e r r a t i c , and I rem em ber p o u n d in g my m o th e r when s h e was f i r i n g C o r r ie — ca n y o u im a g in e ? B e c a u s e my a tt a c h m e n t was g r e a t e r t o h e r ( C o r r ie ) th a n i t w as t o them ( p a r e n t s ) .

B a r a k a : How d id Dad f i g u r e in w hen y o u w e re fo r m in ga t t a c h m e n ts t o t h e women?

C o o n e y : P a id n o t a t t e n t i o n a t a l l .


222

B a r a k a : None a t a l l , s o th e y ( t h e h e lp ) b ecam e e v e n m oreIm p o r ta n t a t t h a t p o in t ?

C o o n e y ; H is c u d d le bunny w as my s i s t e r who w as a f a r m ore c u d d ly c h i l d ; t h e r e w as much m ore y i n y a n g i n t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p , I w as f a r t o o f e i s t y and a r g u m e n t a t iv e and b r i g h t . He d id n ' t w ant t o b e c h a l l e n g e d e v e r y t im e h e made a s t a t e m e n t — I w as a w fu l in t h a t . I w as t r y in g t o g e t h i s a t t e n t i o n , and g e t in a c o n v e r s a t io n by c h a l l e n g in g him and h e d i d n ' t l i k e t h a t .

B a r a k a ; Was t h e f e i s t i n e s s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h a t r e l a t i o n s h i p o n ly o r i s t h a t t h e k in d o f p e r s o n y o u w e re?

C o o n e y ; I t w as j u s t t h a t r e l a t i o n s h i p . I 'm s s u r e w i t h my b r o t h e r and s i s t e r , we w e re a l l l i k e t r i p l e t s , t h e r e w as a l o t o f f i g h t i n g and a r g u in g , and c l o s e n e s s a s w e l l , b u t n o , w i t h o t h e r a d u l t s I w as n o t t h a t w ay and c e r t a i n l y n o t w it h my m o th e r . I w as h e r b aby and I u n d e r s to o d t h a t . S h e 'd l e t me t e a c h h e r , w h a te v e r I le a r n e d and fo u n d o u t ,I c o u ld com e and r e p o r t t o h e r . S h e 'd s a y , "Oh, y o u 'r e s o s m a r t" , o r s o m e th in g l i k e t h a t . W hereas w i t h my f a t h e r , I w as a lw a y s k in d o f th r o w in g t h e g a u n t l e t .

B a r a k a ; And you g o t t h a t k in d o f a f f i r m a t i o n from h e r — t h a t " y o u 'r e s o s m a r t , and y o u 'r e g o in g t o b e so m e th in g " t h a t k in d o f t h i n g — t h a t ' s g o o d . How d id you r e a c t t o t h e i r d e s c r i p t i o n s o f y o u — e i t h e r y o u r f a t h e r ' s t a c i t d e s c r i p t i o n s o r y o u r m o t h e r 's v e r b a l o n e s ?

C o o n e y ; W e l l , I t h in k I lo n g e d f o r h i s a t t e n t i o n .

B a r a k a : What do y o u t h in k h e th o u g h t o f you ?

C o o n e y : I t h in k I d i d n ' t f e e l h e l i k e d me a s w e l l a s mys i s t e r and I w as a lw a y s t a g g in g a lo n g — t h e t h r e e o f u sw e re l i k e a l i t t e r b e c a u s e we w e re s o c l o s e — b u t t h e y w e re a lw a y s d e v e lo p m e n t a l ly ah ea d o f me, s o t h e y c o u ld do c e r t a i n t h i n g s I c o u l d n ' t . And I f e l t awkward and I f e l t my f a t h e r w as la u g h in g a t m e, and I t h in k h e w a s , and t h e y w e re la u g h in g a t me a l o t — a t how i n e p t I w a s , p h y s i c a l l y a lw a y s , and I d i d n ' t u n d e r s ta n d d e v e lo p m e n t a l ly t h a t ' s t h e way i t w a s . S o , t h e r e w e re a l o t o f t h i n g s I d i d n ' t d o , s o I tu r n e d t o r e a d in g and i n t e l l e c t u a l p u r s u i t s t h a t t h e y w e re n o t a s g o o d a t and fou n d t h in g s w h er e t h e r e w as no c o m p e t ito n aro u n d me and I c o u ld e x c e l . And t h a t p r o b a b ly made a d i f f e r e n c e — t h a t i b u r ie d m y s e lf much m ore in a w o r ld o f i d e a s and a c a d e m ic t h i n g s .

B a r a k a : W ere you e v e r g iv e n an y k in d o f c h o r e s o r f a m ilyr e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s , o r b e in g in c h a r g e o f s o m e th in g , o r b e in g r e s p o n s i b l e f o r s o m e th in g ?

C o o n e y : No


B a r a k a : You w ere d e f i n i t e l y k e p t aw ay from i t .223

C o o n ey : Y e s .

B a r a k a ; W here w e r e y o u r e n e r g i e s d ir e c t e d ?

C ooney: K id s w e re e x p e c t e d t o d r y t h e d i s h e s , t h e r e w asno d is h w a s h e r w h e th e r t h e r e w as h e lp o r n o t . I o f t e n fo u n d a way o u t o f i t th o u g h b y s a y i n g , "I d o n ' t f e e l good" w h ich I knew my m o th e r w o u ld a lw a y s b e l i e v e . I w as b r i l l i a n t a t a v o id in g d o m e s t ic work from t h e v e r y b e g in n in g . O c c a s i o n a l ly I d id my s h a r e , b u t my s i s t e r w as s o good a t i t — a g a in i t w as p h y s i c a l . I w as a lw a y s l e s s w e l l - d e v e lo p e d s o i t w a s n ' t u n t i l t e n , e l e v e n o r t w e lv e t h a t I b eg a n t o c a t c h u p .

B a r a k a : When you s t a r t e d s c h o o l w h at k in d o f e x p e r i e n c ew as th a t ?

C o o n e y : I t w as v e r y g o o d . I w as a t home a t s c h o o l anda lw a y s a f a v o r i t e o f t h e t e a c h e r s , and I w as a lw a y s in t h e f r o n t s e a t — I w as t h e r e , I w as r e a l l y i n t e r e s t e d , I w as a dream p u p i l t o a t e a c h e r .

B a r a k a : W e ll , t h a t g o t y o u a l o t o f s u p p o r t . Do yourem em ber a n y p a r t i c u l a r t e a c h e r s , o r p r o j e c t s , o ra c t i v i t i e s you g o t i n v o lv e d in ?

C o o n e y : I w as n u t s a b o u t b a b i e s , and from t h e t im e I w asa b o u t s i x o r s e v e n , i f I d i d n ' t h a v e a n y t h in g t o do a f t e rs c h o o l , i f I w a s n ' t g o in g t o t a g a lo n g w i t h my s i s t e r , i w o u ld g o v i s i t t h e n e w e s t b a b y in t h e n e ig h b o r h o o d and b e g t o h o ld i t and b e g t o f e e d i t , and f i n a l l y b r o u g h t u p - -w hen I w as a b o u t e i g h t — I s t a r t e d b r in g in g up a n e ig h b o r ' s b a b y . I w e n t o v e r e v e r y , s i n g l e , d ay a f t e r s c h o o l I c o u ld . I had f u l l c a r e o f t h a t b a b y . My m o th er w o u ld n o t l e t me b a b y s i t a lo n e a t t h a t a g e and in d e e d , I s t a r t e d b e in g a s k e d b y my n e ig h b o r s w hen I w as e l e v e n o r t w e lv e , and my m o th e r s a i d n o . In f a c t I remem ber h e r s a y in g t o o n e woman, "Joan i s my b aby and I d o n ' t w an t h e r t o work a t n ig h t ." B u t , s h e w o u ld l e t me in th e a f t e r n o o n , b u t n o t f o r p a y ; b u t b e c a u s e i t w as my p a s s io n f o r b a b i e s . T h a t 's why e v e r y o n e assum ed I w ou ld m arry y o u n g and h a v e l o t s o f b a b i e s , b e c a u s e I w as s o c r a z y a b o u t them . I t h in k i t w as a way o f n o t b e in g a f e a r e d and b e in g in c h r g e o f s o m e th in g . And, e v e n t u a l l y in s c h o o l , I w as o f t e n ta k e n o u t o f c l a s s t o b e in c h a r g e o f t h e f i r s t g r a d e r s i f t h e t e a c h e r w as s i c k ; and i n e i g h t h g r a d e d id a l o t o f t h a t . I w as t h e o n e c h o s e n t o b e w ith t h e f i r s t g r a d e r s .

B a r a k a : You g o t a lo n g w e l l w i t h t h o s e l i t t l e o n e s .

C o o n e y : Oh, a d o r e d them and m a jo red i n c o l l e g e in E a r ly


C h ild h o o d E d u c a t io n .224

B a ra k a t T h a t ' s i n t e r e s t i n g .

C o o n e v : And th e n d i d n ' t w ant t o t e a c h a t a l l . A f t e r a w h i le t h a t w a s . . .

B a r a k a ; T hat w as d r u d g e r y , you n e e d e d a l o t m ore c h a l l e n g e th a n t h a t .

C o o n e v : I d i d n ' t w an t t o b e in t h e w o r ld o f women andc h i l d r e n . I w an te d t o do w hat men d id .

B a r a k a : D id y o u c o n s c i o u s ly t h in k t h a t ?

C o o n e v : Y e s . I w a n te d t o b e w h er e t h e y w e r e , I w a n te d t o w ork in an i n t e g r a t e d a tm o s p h e r e , and I had l o s t i n t e r e s t i n t e a c h in g c h i l d r e n . I n e v e r l o s t i n t e r e s t in w a n t in g t o do s o m e th in g a b o u t them a n d , i n c r e a s i n g l y , a b o u t p o v e r t y . T h at b ecam e a s o r t o f c e n t r a l them e in my l a t e t w e n t i e s , e a r l y t h i r t i e s ; and e v e n t u a l l y i t l e d t o a c e n t r a l i s s u e h e r e when we s t a r t e d o u r cr ew o f c h i l d r e n and s o e v e r y t h in g f i n a l l y cam e t o g e t h e r ; t h e e d u c a t i o n , t h e i n t e r e s t in p o v e r t y , t h e i n t e r e s t in c o m p e n s a to r y e d u c a t io n , and t o a l s o h a v e my own p e a c e and q u i e t . I t a l l f i n a l l y cam e t o g e t h e r .

B arak a ? How d id y o u r p e e r s r e a c t t o y o u from J u n io r H igh th r o u g h c o l l e g e ? D id y o u h a v e g o o d f r i e n d s h i p s , g o o d r e l a t i o n s h i p s ?

C o o n e v ; I l i k e d a l o t o f p e o p le and w as l i k e d b y a l o t o f p e o p le .

B a r a k a : So t h a t w as n e v e r a p ro b le m t o you ?

C oon ev: N o, I w as a v e r y p o p u la r t e e n a g e r and had a v e r yh app y a d o le s c e n c e , n o t a h app y c h i ld h o o d , b u t I had a v e r y h app y a d o le s c e n c e . I cam e i n t o my own and had l o t s o f b o y f r i e n d s , and l o t s o f g i r l f r i e n d s , and b y t h e t im e o f c o l l e g e , i t w as tw o o r t h r e e b e s t f r i e n d s , i s w h at i t w a s . I t w as much m ore in a s o r o r i t y . I t h in k I a lw a y s p r e f e r r e d n o t b e in g in a cr o w d , I a lw a y s p r e f e r r e d b e in g w it h o n e o r tw o p e o p le a t a t im e . I a lw a y s , n e a r ly a lw a y s , from c o l l e g e , had a s t e a d y b o y f r i e n d , r a t h e r th a n , q u o t e — p la y in g t h e f i e l d a s t h e y c a l l e d i t — I w o u ld do i t o c c a s i o n a l l y , b u t w o u ld a lw a y s end up s e t t l i n g on o n e . I a lw a y s fou n d i t m ore o r d e r ly n o t t o w on der who y o u w e re g o in g o u t w i t h S a tu r d a y n ig h t . And had tw o o r t h r e e v e r y c l o s e women f r i e n d s , tw o o r t h r e e o f whom re m a in e d v e r y c l o s e f r i e n d s who I had in c o l l e g e .

B a r a k a : D id you g e t an y k in d o f c a r e e r g u id a n c e from an yo f y o u r t e a c h e r s ? D id a n ybod y e v e r s a y , "You c o u ld b e


t h i s , o r you c o u ld b e th a t" ? 225

C o o n ev ; N o, b u t I w as v e r y a f f e c t e d b y tw o t e a c h e r s in h ig h s c h o o l , n o t i n c o l l e g e , who r e a l l y s t a r t e d me down t h e ro a d o f I d e a l is m a b o u t t h e p o o r . B oth w e re a c c u s e d o f b e in g C om m un ists, e v e n t u a l l y , d u r in g t h e M cC arthy p e r io d b e c a u s e t h e y w e r e t a l k i n g a b o u t p o o r p e o p le and t h a t w as v i r t u a l l y a C om m unist i d e a , t h a t t h e r i c h s h o u ld c a r e a b o u t t h e p o o r . One p r o b a b ly w as c l o s e , I know s h e had a te n d e n c y t o g o t o com m u nist m e e t in g s ; I d o n ' t t h in k s h e e v e r j o in e d t h e p a r t y . I fou n d h e r t e r r i f i c th o u g h , b u t I t h in k s h e w as h oun ded o u t o f t e a c h in g . The man s u r v i v e d . In f a c t , I r e c e iv e d t h e g o ld k e y in e d u c a t io n — t h e r e ' s a gro u p o f e d u c a t o r s , e v e r y y e a r , who g i v e o u t t h e g o ld k e y t o a p e r s o n who h a s had an e f f e c t - - w h o g e t s t o c h o s e t h e t e a c h e r who h a s had t h e m ost e f f e c t on h i s o r h e r l i f e . And, f o r e x a m p le , B i l l C osby g o t t h e aw ard th e y e a r a f t e r I d id and h e b r o u g h t in a f o u r t h g r a d e t e a c h e r ,o r a s i x t h g r a d e t e a c h e r , I f o r g o t w h ic h i t w as , and h e s a i d , "She a f f e c t e d my l i f e b e c a u s e I had h e r t w ic e ."

I d id n ' t e v e n know i f Bud Brow n, t h i s man who had s o a f f e c t e d my t h in k in g a s a t h i r t e e n y e a r o ld fr esh m a n in h ig h s c h o o l , w as a l i v e , and in d e e d h e w as v e r y i m p r e s s iv e o u t in P h o e n ix , and h e f l e w i n , and t h e t e a c h e r g e t s t h e g o ld k e y and t h e th o u sa n d d o l l a r s . And h e se e m e d , I mean h e '8 w o n d e r f u l , b u t h e seem ed s o c o n s e r v a t i v e t o me and h e made me la u g h t h a t h e had b e e n a c c u s e d o f b e in g to o l i b e r a l . I m ean, h e u s e d t o s a y t h e o n ly t h in g you ca n c o u n t on w as c h a n g e i t s e l f d u r in g w o r ld war I I ; and h e w as t a l k i n g t o u s a b o u t how H i t l e r w as t r e a t i n g t h e J e w s , and I w as b r o u g h t up C a t h o l i c by a C a t h o l i c m other and a J e w is h f a t h e r , b u t I w as v e r y i n t e r e s t e d in t h a t J e w is h s i d e , e v e n th o u g h my f a t h e r w a s n ' t r e l i g i o u s . And Bud b r o u g h t a l l t h o s e i s s u e s t o t h e f o r e f r o n t when no o n e w as t a l k i n g a b o u t H i t l e r and t h e Jew s b e f o r e t h e w ar w as o v e r - - e x c e p t t h i s g u y w as o n e o f th em .

B a r a k a ; Was t h a t t h e f i r s t t im e you b ecam e aw are o f d i s c r im in a t io n ?

C o o n e v : Y e s , and h e t a lk e d a b o u t d i s c r i m i n a t i o n . S e e , Iw as aw are o f d i s c r i m i n a t i o n in t h e m o v ie t h e a t e r s , and in s e g r e g a t e d s c h o o l s , b u t I w as in p a r o c h ia l s c h o o l s w h ich w e r e n ' t s e g r e g a t e d . T h e re w e r e n ' t an y B la c k s in o u r s h c o o l b e c a u s e t h a t w a s n ' t w h er e t h e y w e r e . I m ean, i t w as way o u t o f t h e s c h o o l d i s t r i c t , r e a l l y , i t w as o u t in th e c o u n tr y a t t h e t im e . And t h e y w o u ld h a v e no m eans o f g o in g t h e r e . I d o n ' t t h in k t h e y w ou ld h a v e b e e n d e n ie d had t h a t b e e n t h e i r p a r i s h , b u t t h e i r p a r i s h w as downtown and t h e y w en t t o S t . M a r y 's , b u t t h e y d id n o t g o t o p u b l i c . T h e re w as a B la c k p u b l ic h ig h s c h o o l and a B la c k grammar s c h o o l ; and t h e i n t e r e s t i n g t h in g i s , B a r r y G o ld w a ter in t r o d u c e d t h e l e g i s l a t i o n t h a t d e s e g r e g a t e d A r iz o n a s c h o o l s a y e a r o r tw o b e f o r e Brown v s . B oard o f


226E d u c a t io n . T hey had d e s e g r e g a t e d o u t t h e r e and i t was v e r y e l e c t r i f y i n g ; i t w as k in d o f fu n n y f o r a c o n s e r v a t i v e .

B a r a k a ; I t i s i r o n i c . You m e n t io n e d a s o r o r i t y . What d id t h a t mean t o you ?

C o o n e v ; I t w as v e r y e x t a b l i s h m e n t and o n e w an te d t h e b e s t and I f e l t i t w as t h e b e s t . My m o th e r , and t o som e d e g r e e , my f a t h e r , b u t m ore my m o th e r who had b e e n a p o o r g i r l i n M ic h ig a n — v e r y p o o r , h e r f a t h e r had b e e n k i l l e d when s h e w as tw o— and t h e m o th e r to o k i n b o a r d e r s . And, s o t h e y m oved t o A r iz o n a , s h e and h e r i n f a n t , s h e had an i n f a n t s i s t e r when h e r f a t h e r d i e d . And, s o when my m oth er w as e i g h t e e n and becam e a s e c r e t a r y o u t t h e r e and m et my f a t h e r . . . I ' m s o r r y , I g o t o f f . . . w h a t w as t h e q u e s t io n ?

B a r a k a : The s o r o r i t y , w h at d o e s i t mean t o you ?

C o o n ev ; Oh! s o s h e had a p o o r g i r l ' s a t t i t u d e to w a r d s s o c i a l a c c e p t a n c e . S o , s h e w a n te d h e r c h i l d r e n t o b es o c i a l l y a c c e p t e d . And, my f a t h e r w as o f a p r o m in a n tA r iz o n a f a m i ly — n o t r i c h , b u t p r o m in a n t , s o s h e — I t h in k p a r t o f h e r b e in g drawn t o him w as b e c a u s e h e w as s u c h an e s t a b l i s h e d f i g u r e i n a new p la c e t h a t s h e had com e t o .

B a r a k a ; S o , i t w as k in d o f e n c o u r a g e d a s t h e " th in g t od o ."

C o o n e y : And s h e l e a r n e d how c h i l d r e n s h o u ld lo o k . We hadl i t t l e hand made sm ocked d r e s s e s , and l i t t l e d u t c hh a ir c u t s ; s h e p ic k e d a l l t h a t up a b o u t how t h e u p p e r c l a s s d id t h i n g s s o i t becam e a p a r t o f h e r . A nd, my h usb and s a i d r e c e n t l y , "You may h a v e had a J e w is h f a t h e r and an I r i s h C a t h o l i c m o th e r , b u t y o u w e r e b r o u g h t up a s a WASP". And t h a t w as v e r y t r u e . My m o th e r le a r n e d how t h e WASPs d id i t and t h a t ' s how we w e re b r o u g h t u p . And t o h e r , s o c i a l a c c e p t a n c e , f o r h e r c h i l d r e n i n p a r t i c u l a r , m eant a g r e a t d e a l .

B a r a k a : S oun ds l i k e s h e had a l o t o f e n e r g y .

C oon ev; S he w as a s t r i v e r . You s e e , s h e r e a l l y w as as t r i v e r , s h e had a l o t o f sp u n k . T h a t w as q u i t e a l o t f o rt h i s woman com in g from a t i n y tow n i n M ic h ig a n , J a c k s o n .

B a r a k a : When d id t h e c o n c e p t o f c a r e e r b e g in t o com e t oyou ? What d o e s i t mean t o you ?

C o o n ev ; I t d id n o t com e t o me u n t i l my l a t e t w e n t i e s . I n i t i a l l y , I cam e t o New York t o g e t a j o b , and p r e t t y so o n I w a n ted t o b e in c o m m u n ic a t io n s . I w orked on a n ew sp a p e r in P h o e n ix f o r a y e a r . I l i v e d in W a sh in g to n


f o r a y e a r a f t e r c o l l e g e and l i v e d w i t h f r i e n d s , cam e b ack and w orked f o r a y e a r In P h o e n ix and s a v e d a l l t h e m oney. My p a r e n t s d i d n ' t c h a r g e me t o l i v e w i t h th em . I m ean, t h a t w as u n t h in k a b le In t h o s e d a y s . . . I t w ou ld b e now , f o r th em . What t h e y p e r m it t e d me t o do w as s a v e my $ 5 0 a w eek s a l a r y , In o r d e r t o g o t o Mew Y ork , w h ic h w as w hat I w a n ted t o d o . And I w a n te d t h e c r e d e n t i a l s o f . . . I w a n te d t o com e h e r e h a v in g b e e n In c o m m u n ic a t io n s , I g o t a jo b r i g h t aw ay a s a w om an's p a g e r e p o r t e r ; and I w as a l lo w e d t o do g e n e r a l a s s ig n m e n t work and had b y l i n e s . So when I cam e h e r e , I had a sc r a p b o o k and c l i p p i n g s and had no t r o u b le g e t t i n g a jo b In p u b l i c r e l a t i o n s , in t e l e v i s i o n , and e v e n t u a l l y w i t h a p r o d u c e r .

B araka ? What w as i t l i k e t h e n , t h e jo b ? What w as y o u r r e l a t i o n s h i p t o men and w e r e t h e r e a n y s u p p o r t s y s t e m s a s yo u w orked?

C o o n e v : I f e l t v e r y much a y o u n g d e p e n d e n t g i r l w o r k in g f o r p o w e r fu l men and w a n tin g t o p l e a s e them — and d id . I m ean, I w as a lw a y s g o o d a t w h a te v e r jo b I w as d o in g , I w as h ig h l y d e p e n d a b le and I w a s n ' t m ak ing an y m oney. When I came t o New Y o rk , I w as u s in g P h o e n ix s a l a r y f i g u r e s , t h e y w e re t h r i l l e d w hen t h e y fo u n d o u t I w as m aking s o much m o n e y . . . t h e n I fou n d o u t I w as m aking much l e s s th a n t h e p e o p le a ro u n d me who w e re d o in g t h e sam e w ork . So I f i n a l l y w e n t t o my b o s s and s a i d I s h o u ld g e t an i n c r e a s e , and h e s a i d , "I know i t , b u t a c c o r d in g t o com pany p o l i c y we c a n ' t make t h e a d j u s t m e n t ." B u t , h e s a i d h e w o u ld h e lp me g e t a n o t h e r j o b , and h e d id , and I w e n t t o work f o r U .S . S t e e l d o in g p u b l i c i t y on t h e i r t e l e v i s i o n show " U .S .S t e e l H our".

B a r a k a ; And y o u r b o s s w as in s t r u m e n t a l i n h e lp in g y o u g e t a b e t t e r p a y in g j o b .

C o o n e v : Y e s , s o I c o u ld make t h e a d ju s t m e n t t h a t w ay.

B a r a k a : Was t h i s a p r o m o t io n when you g o t t h i s h ig h e rp a y in g jo b ?

C o o n e v ; N o, n o t r e a l l y , i t w as much m ore o f an a d ju s t m e n t i n som e w a y s , i t w a s n ' t n e a r ly a s much f u n . In NBC you w e re a t a n e tw o r k and t h i s w as a b ig , s t a i d c o r p o r a t io n w h ich s p o n s o r e d a sh ow and w a n ted som eon e w r i t in g r e l e a s e s a b o u t i t g e n e r a t i n g p u b l i c i t y . B u t , I w as in p s y c h o a n a ly s i s and I w an te d t h a t . T hat w as v e r y im p o r ta n t t o me; I had m in o red in p s y c h o lo g y in c o l l e g e and becam e v e r y i n t r i g u e d w it h t h e id e a t h a t you c o u ld f in d o u t a b o u t y o u r s e l f . T h a t ' s how I fou n d o u t a b o u t my d e p e n d e n c ie s and t o do s o m e th in g a b o u t i t . S o , in som e w a y s , I th in k t h e jo b w as l e s s im p o r ta n t t o me.

My f a t h e r d ie d in t h a t p e r io d and t h a t w as a t e r r i b l e b lo w . And s o , I w as r e a l l y s e l f - a b s o r b e d ; t r y in g t o f in d


228o u t who I was and l o s i n g t h e p u p p e t e e r , r e a l l y . When he d ie d , I d o n ' t know. I w as l i v i n g th o u sa n d s o f m i l e s aw ay , and my m other was s t i l l a l i v e , b u t i t w as l i k e w hat was h o ld in g me up was g o n e .

B a r a k a ; T hat w as a lw a y s a l i k e a f o r c e in b a ck o f . . .

C oon ev: Though I t o t a l l y s u p p o r te d m y s e l f , and a l l t h a t ,h e w as s t i l l a b ig p o w e r fu l f o r c e in my l i f e , s o , i t to o k me a number o f y e a r s , a b o u t tw o o r t h r e e y e a r s t o g e t my s e a l e g s . And when I d id , c h a n n e l t h i r t e e n had j u s t becom e t h e l o c a l e d u c a t i o n a l s t a t i o n . I t had b een a co m m er c ia l s t a t i o n and I s a i d , " b o y , t h a t ' s f o r me! e d u c a t io n a l t . v . "

And I w en t o v e r , I fou n d a way o f m e e t in g t h e g e n e r a l m anager and I s a i d , " L et me do y o u r p u b l i c i t y . " He s a i d ,"I a l r e a d y h a v e so m e o n e d o in g p u b l c i t y . Can you p r o d u c e sh ow s?" And, I s a i d , Oh, s u r e . I t w as t h i s t a l k sh o w , p o l i t i c a l d e b a t e , c u l t u r a l d e b a t e . I knew a l o t a b o u t t h a t . As a v o l u n t e e r , I w as v e r y a c t i v e in p o l i t i c s , c u l t u r a l a f f a i r s . So I knew t h e p e o p le t o g e t on th e sh o w s and w hat t h e i s s u e s w e r e . I w as © cared t o d e a t h , b u t I w en t from t h e r e t o m ak ing d o c u m e n ta r ie s and e v e n t u a l l y made a d o c u m e n ta r y a b o u ta p r e c u r s o r t o Head S t a r t up in H arlem — an e x p e r im e n ta l p r o j e c t w h ich t h e g o v e r n m e n t w as fu n d in g t o s e e i f i n t e r v e n t i o n a t a g e t h r e e o r fo u r c o g n i t i v e t e a c h in g w ou ld a id t h o s e c h i l d r e n i n s c h o o l .

And, I d id a d o cu m en ta r y on i t and Head s t a r t w as form ed a b o u t t h a t t im e , and b o u g h t 125 c o p i e s o f my sh ow s t o u s e in t e a c h e r t r a i n i n g . And d u r in g t h a t p e r io d I m et t h e man who w as t o becom e my h u sb a n d . He w as a r a d i c a l f e m i n i s t and a r a d i c a l c i v i l r i g h t e r o b s e s s e d w i t h r a c i a l I s s u e s .

[p o o r ta p e q u a l i t y ]

B e c a u s e in h i s v ie w , i f t h e r e had b e e n a women h ea d o f n ew s and p u b l ic a f f a i r s , i t w o u ld n o t h a v e b e e n a s im p o r ta n t a s o t h e r p u b l i c a f f a i r s d e p a r tm e n ts . I d o n ' t t h in k t h a t ' s t r u e to d a y , I t h in k a go o d woman w ou ld be t o t a l l y a c c e p t e d .

And t h e n , when w e r e fo r m in g w h at th e n w o u ld becom e C h i ld r e n ' s T e l e v i s i o n W orkshop, t h e r e w as a women u n f o r t u n a t e ly who s a i d , " t h e p r o j e c t w i l l n e v e r b e ta k e n s e r i o u s l y i f a w om an's t h e h ea d o f i t . " And o t h e r s w o r r ie d a b o u t i t , and I w as a sk e d t o draw up a l i s t o f p e o p le t h a t m ig h t head t h e p r o j e c t ; t h a t I w ou ld b e d e f i n i t e l y tw o .To w h ich my e x -h u sb a n d s a i d , "Baby, you t e l l them t h a t y o u 'r e n o t a v a i l a b l e f o r num ber tw o ." And s e e , I d o n ' t know i f I c o u ld h a v e d o n e t h a t w i t h o u t h im . And h e s a i d , " T h e r e 's no p r o j e c t w i t h o u t y o u , t h e y ' l l h a v e t o make you num ber o n e ." W hich i s a c t u a l l y w hat I w a n te d .

I t w as a p o k e r gam e, I d o n ' t know w h at I w ou ld h a v e d o n e i f I had b e e n l e f t o u t o f i t — i t w as s o much my b a b y .


229B a r a k a : B ut t h o s e e x p e r i e n c e s w e re t h e o n ly tw o w h er e y o ue v e r g o t t h e m e ssa g e t h a t “b e c a u s e y o u 'r e a w o m a n ..."

C o o n e v ; S u r e , b u t I w as p e r f e c t l y h appy t o b e ~ a s a s i n g l e woman b e f o r e I m et t h i s r a d i c a l f e m i n i s t — I d i d n ' t th n k women w e re e v e r m ore th a n " a s s i s t a n t to " o r num ber tw o o r t h r e e s o r f o u r s .

B a r a k a ; T h e re w e re no m o d e ls f o r women i n c h a r g e a s you grew u p . Or women t h a t you a d m ired and w a n te d t o b e l i k e a s y o u g re w u p .

C o o n e v : The woman who w as m o st a d m ired in my l i f e t i m e w asE le a n o r R o o s e v e l t and s h e a c t u a l l y g a in e d a l o t o f h e r s t a t u s b y b e in g t h e w i f e o f so m e o n e .

B a r a k a : How d o e s man/wom an, s e x u a l i t y a l l t h a t f i t i n t oy o u r d e v e lo p m e n t a s you w e r e s t r i v i n g — How d id y o u lo o k a t b o y s — you s a i d you w e re p o p u la r , you had a l o t o f d a t e s , how d id you lo o k a t r e l a t i o n s h i p s t o men? D oes t h a t h a v e an y b e a r in g who you a r e and how you g o t h e r e ?

C o o n e v : I d o n ' t know , i t ' s h ard t o f i g u r e b e c a u s e i f an yr e l a t i o n s h i p d o e s lo o k l i k e i t w as g o in g to w a r d s m a r r ia g e , I ' d a lw a y s c u t o f f , s o , o b v io u s l y , t h e r e w as s o m e th in g a b o u t t h a t t h a t f r ig h t e n e d me a l o t . B e c a u s e I t h in k I saw i t a s d e p e n d e n c e and I a l s o saw i t a s p r o b a b ly — h a v e t o h a v e c h i l d r e n , h a v e t o q u i t , h a v e t o m ove t o t h e s u b u r b s — i t w ou ld s i g n a l t h e end o f my own d e v e lo p m e n t . T h is w as t h e f i f t i e s and t h a t w as a h ig h l y r e p r e s s i n g i s s u e . I w as a c h i l d o f t h e s i x t i e s — i t i s n ' t t h e p e o p le who w e r e e i g h t e e n , i t w as p e o p le in t h e i r t h i r t i e s t h a t I t h in k w ere' m ost r a d i c a l i z e d a t l e a s t , I w as n o t , r a d i c a l i z e d i n t h e s e n s e o f m a r ch in g in t h e s t r e e t s , b u t i n t h e s e n s e o f how o n e v ie w e d o n e s e l f and o p p o r t u n i t y . T hat w as t h e w om an's m ovem ent t h a t s t a r t e d in t h e l a t e s i x t i e s , b u t t h e c i v i l r i g h t s m ovem ent w as e x t r e m e ly l i b e r a t i n g ; t h a t g r o u p s c o u ld band t o g e t h e r and e f f e c t c h a n g e — t h a t w as a v e r y l i b e r a t i n g m ovem ent, b u t in t h e f i f t i e s e v e r y t h in g had t o g o on s l o w l y th r o u g h t h e c o u r t s — and w h i le o n e w as h app y a b o u t Brown v s . B oard o f E d .— t h a t w as a l o n g , lo n g b a t t l e th r o u g h t h e c o u r t . The id e a o f g o in g i n t o t h e s t r e e t s w as a v e r y l i b e r a t i n g a c t i o n — g o o d , bad o r i n d i f f e r e n t — i t w as l i b e r a t i n g and th e n t h e V ietn a m w ar p r o t e s t s w e r e l i b e r a t i n g in t h e sam e w ay. I w as n o t a c t i v e in t h a t b e c a u s e , a s o p p o se d a s I w as t o th e w a r , I w as r e c e i v i n g f e d e r a l g o v er n m en t fu n d s and I f i g u r e d i f I w a n ted t o g o t h a t r o u t e o f f i g h t i n g th e P r e s id e n t o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s , I had t o r e s ig n t h i s , s o I had t o make a d e c i s i o n a s t o w hat ws m ore im p o r ta n t— I f e l t f o r t h e lo n g h a u l i t was m ore im p o r ta n t f o r me t o be h e r e — a s s e l f - s e r v i n g a s t h a t may h a v e b e e n , b u t I w a s n ' t g o in g t o make an y d i f f e r e n c e t o th e w ar and I c o u ld make a d i f f e r e n c e in c h i l d r e n ' s l i v e s .


230B a r a k a : T hat c e r t a i n l y h a s b e e n t r u e . A re you a w a r e— youh a v e h a v e to u c h e d on t h i s a l r e a d y , b u t I w an t t o a sk t o make s u r e — a r e you a w a r e o f a n y in n e r m o t iv a t io n t o e x c e l a n y th in g d r i v i n g you o r a n y th o u g h t s o f "I g o t t a b e t h e b e s t ."

C o o n ey ; W e ll , t h a t ' s a lw a y s b e e n t h e r e , I d o n ' t know w h ere i t com es from and i t c e r t a i n l y g e t s in t h e way when y o u 'r e s e t t i n g a t a b l e . I m ean, i t ' s a l o t o f b a g g a g e t o c a r r y , t h a t you f e e l y o u 'v e g o t t o do e v e r y t h in g e x c e l l e n t l y when i t d o e s n ' t m a t te r w i t h t h i n g s t h a t a r e n o t n o t i c e d e x c e p t b y y o u — my h u sb a n d h a s a lw a y s s a i d , "What i s t h e t e s t y o u 'r e g o in g t o p a s s h e r e !? " b e c a u s e h e ' s a lw a y s t r y in g t o g e t me t o t h in k — t o b e m ore r a t io n a l a b o u t i t . And, I k e e p s a y i n g , i t ' s i r r a t i o n a l , i t ' s a p a r t o f me— t h a t I m ust d o e v e r y t h i n g w e l l . I am a b e t t e r co m p r o m iser in work th a n I am in my p e r s o n a l l i f e and I w o r ry l e s s a b o u t w ork th a n I do i t i t ' s p e r s o n a l . I r e a l l y t h in k in som e w a y s , t h a t ' s w h er e I'm l e s s a p t — i s on t h e s i d e o f human r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h a l o t o f s t e p c h i l d r e n and g i v i n g d in n e r p a r t i e s w h ich t h e r e ' s p r e c io u s l i t t l e o f l e t me t e l l y o u . B ut b e c a u s e I do p r e c io u s l i t t l e o f i t , I 'm m ore u n c o m f o r t a b le , I'm i l l a t e a s e , I'm w o r r y in g m o re. My h u sb an d k e e p s s a y in g why do y o u w o r ry e v e r y t h in g t o d e a t h . The t r u t h i s , I d o n ' t know , u n l e s s i t ' s s o m e th in g r e a l t o w o r ry a b o u t , I h a v e my p r i o r i t i e s , I d e l e g a t e v e r y e a s i l y .

B a r a k a : Do you t h in k i t m ig h t h a v e a n y t h in g t o do w itht h e e x p e c t a t i o n s t h a t a r e l a i d on women? In t h e jo b s i t u a t i o n , t h e r e ' s t h e o b j e c t i v e and i t ' s k in d o f o u t s i d e o f you and you ca n do i t w e l l ; b u t when y o u 'r e t h e mom, o r t h e w i f e , o r t h e s o c i a l h o s t e s s , th e n t h e r e a r e a l l k in d s o f ju d g e m e n ts a b o u t how i t o u g h t t o b e d o n e and w hat a go o d o n e i s l i k e .

C o o n e v : I t ' s m ore s u b j e c t i v e — I h a d n ' t th o u g h t o f t h a t — i t ' s a m ore s u b j e c t i v e ju d g e m e n t , i s n ' t i t ? And t h e o u tco m e i s n o t v e r y c l e a r w h e th e r t h e c h i l d r e n w i l l l i k e y o u , o r t h e g u e s t s w i l l s a y , "Gee t h a t w as a good d in n e r " - - t h e y ' r e g o in g t o s a y i t , and t h e s t e p c h i l d r e n a r e g o in g t o b e p o l i t e ; b u t I h a d n ' t e v e r th o u g h t o f t h a t , you ju d g e y o u r s e l f on a m ore o b j e c t i v e s e t o f c r i t e r i a in work th a n you ca n in y o u r p e r s o n a l l i f e . T h a t i s a v e r y good a n sw er ; I'm s u r e t h e r e a r e women who sp e n d t h e i r t im e g i v i n g p a r t i e s I d o u b t w o r ry a b o u t them t h e w ay I w o r ry a b o u t tw o p e o p le co m in g t o d in n e r . T hey h a v e a s e t o f o b j e c t i v e c r i t e r i a — a r e t h e f l o w e r s r i g h t — i t g e t s t o be w hat th e y know t h e way I know my w ork .

B a r a k a : B ut i t ' s a l i t t l e d i f f e r e n t when i t com es t ohuman r e l a t i o n s h i p s .

C o o n e v : Human r e l a t i o n s h i p s ! R ig h t .


231Bara k a : You know w e 'r e a lw a y s f r a u g h t w i t h t h e f e e l i n go f : "Are t h e y s a y in g w hat t h e y m ean, o r d o t h e y r e a l l y l i k e me, o r do t h e y n o t l i k e me?"

C o o n e v : Y e s , and In t h i s jo b I am t h e o n e t h a t h a s t o b ep le a s e d — I d o n ' t h a v e t o do t h e p l e a s i n g . T hat so u n d s w o r se th a n t h e way I mean i t , b u t o b v io u s l y , l e a d e r s h i p I s a p e r fo r m a n c e — you m u st d o— you h a v e t o b e a g o o d l e a d e r . T h e r e 's s o m e th in g y o u h a v e t o do t o g a in t h e i r r e s p e c t , b u t I t ' s s o m e th in g t h a t com es v e r y r e a d i l y t o me w h a te v e r t h a t I s .

B a r a k a : Go on and t a l k a b o u t t h a t ? What i s y o u r I d e a o fle a d r s h ip ? How d o y o u d e f i n e I t ?

C o o n e v : T h a t ' s a h a rd q u e s t i o n . L e a d e r s h ip I s t h ea b i l i t y t o I n f l u e n c e p e o p le t o do w h at y o u t h in k o u g h t t o b e d o n e — I n f l u e n c e them t o do I t . You c a n ' t o r d e r s o m e th in g d o n e r i g h t . So you h a v e t o I n f l u e n c e I t . H arry Truman s a i d , a b o u t t h e j o b , when h e w as h e r e , h e s a i d , "My jo b i s r e a l l y t r y in g t o g e t p e o p le t o d o w h at t h e y o u g h t t o b e d o in g an yw ay . And t h a t ' s an e x a c t d e s c r i p t i o n o f w h at a l e a d e r d o e s , t r y in g t o g e t them t o do s o m e th in g you t h in k t h e y o u g h t t o be d o in g an yw ay . T hey m ust a g r e e w i t h y o u . T hey m ust s e e y o u r v i s i o n . You m u st h a v e a v i s i o n ; and a s e t o f g o a l s t h a t you ca n co m m u n ic a te . I w o u ld s a y c o m m u n ic a t io n i s t h e s i n e qua non o f l e a d e r s h i p . Y o u 'v e g o t t o b e a b le t o co m m u n ica te w hat t h e g o a l i s and h a v e a c o n s e n s u s from t h e p e o p le w o r k in g f o r y o u t h a t t h a t i s a w o r th y g o a l . B e c a u s e i n o u r d a y and a g e — y o u ca n h a v e r e c e s s i o n a r y p e r io d s w h er e e m p lo y e e s m ig h t b e a l i t t l e m ore a m e n a b le th a n o t h e r s — b u t t h e t r u t h o f t h e m a t te r i s t h e y ' r e n o t g o in g t o s t i c k w i t h you i f t h e y d o n ' t t h in k y o u 'v e g o t t h e r i g h t g o a l . T h e y 'r e e i t h e r g o in g t o s a b o t a g e i t o r l e a v e — o n e o r t h e o t h e r — n o t n e c e s s a r i l y c o n s c i o u s ly s a b o t a g e i t , b u t t h e y ' r e n o t g o in g t o do t h e jo b .

B a r a k a : As a woman l e a d e r , do you h a v e a n y r e s i s t a n c efrom men t a k in g r e s p o n s i b i l i t y ?

C o o n e v : I s u p p o s e som e o f them cam e t o w ork i n i t i a l l yw it h som e t r e p i d a t i o n a b o u t w hat i t w o u ld b e l i k e .A lw a y s , t h e y ' v e s a i d a f t e r w a r d s , "Oh g o s h , i t ' s s o much m ore fu n th a n w o r k in g f o r a m an," and I ' v e a lw a y s s a i d , " B e ca u se y o u g re w up w it h a woman a s b o s s — i t ' s a v e r y n a t u r a l t h in g ! " And t h e y ' r e n o t in c o m p e t i t i o n in t h e sam e w ay; you know , men a r e l i k e b o x ed in and lo c k e d i n t o d e a l i n g w i t h e a c h o t h e r . They d o n ' t h a v e t o do t h a t w i t h a woman. We had a s i t u a t i o n h e r e , t h a t i f I had b e e n a man, r e a l l y w ou ld h a v e b een a w f u l , and t h a t w as when a f t e r S esam e w e n t on t h e a i r , th e p r e s s r e a l l y c o n c e n t r a t e d on me a s i f I had d o n e i t s i n g l e h a n d e d ly . I t r i e d t o s p r e a d i t a ro u n d ; b u t t h e y w e re i n t e r e s t e d t h a t a woman had d o n e


232i t , and t h a t w as t h e s t o r y . And t h e w om en 's m ovem ent w asj u s t g e t t i n g u n d er w a y . B ut i f I had b e e n a man and hadt h a t c o n c e n t r a t i o n , a l o t o f men h e r e w o u ld h a v e l e f t , b e c a u s e t h e y had d o n e s o much w ork and w e r e su c h a p a r t o f i t and t h e y w e r e n ' t g e t t i n g an y p r e s s c r e d i t . I t made i t m ore b e a r a b le — t h e y d i d n ' t a d o r e i t , b u t som eon e had t o becom e t h e s p o k e s p e r s o n . I had t o a c c e p t t h e a t t e n t i o n in o r d e r t o g a in t h e l e v e r a g e I n e e d e d in t h e C o n g r e ss and w it h t h e l e g i s l a t u r e in o r d e r t o c o n t in u e o u r w ork . I had t o b ecom e som eone t h a t i t w as h ard t o s a y no t o . I f we w e re t o t h r i v e . And I t h in k t h e men u n d e r s to o d i t . And,I w ou ld s a y h e r e , m ore women h a v e b e e n g iv e n many moreo p p o r t u n i t i e s th a n m a le — o r g a n i z a t i o n n o t h ea d ed by a woman— t h e r e i s no p r e j u d i c e . B e c a u s e t h e y ' r e u s e d t o w o r k in g w i t h women.

B a r a k a : What p a r t d id r e l i g i o n , s p i r i t u a l i t y , o r ac o n c e p t o f a Suprem e B e in g — i s t h e r e a n y s p i r i t u a l a s p e c t t o y o u r l i f e .

C o o n e y : Oh, y e s ! T h e r e w as no q u e s t i o n t h a t t h e s i n g l eb ig g e s t i n f l u e n c e i n my b e l i e f t h a t I had t o do s o m e th in g f o r o t h e r s w as C h r i s t i a n i t y . I to o k i t v e r y s e r i o u s l y .I t to o k a lo n g t im e f o r me t o grow up and f i n d t h a t noon© e l s e b e l i e v e d t h e B i b l e , and t h e v e r s e " w h a ts o e v e r you do u n to t h e l e a s t o f my b r e t h r e n , s o a l s o y o u do u n t o me"— I t o o k t h a t t o t a l l y l i t e r a l l y ; and I lo o k e d arou n d and •nobody e l s e w a s , b u t i t w as t o o l a t e .

B a r a k a ; I t w as a l r e a d y a p a r t o f y o u !

C o o n e y : I am n o t a p r a c t i c i n g a n y t h in g a n y m o re , b u t I w ash e a v i l y , h e a v i l y i n f lu e n c e d b y C h r i s t i a n i t y — t h e r e ' s no q u e s t io n a b o u t i t .

B a r a k a ; W e ll , I w as g e t t i n g m ore a t — n o t s o much t h e p r a c t i c e o f i t , b u t t h e b e l i e f s y s t e m .

C o o n e y ; The b e l i e f t h a t I owed c o u ld n o t h a v e b een s t r o n g e r , b e c a u s e o f C h r i s t i a n i t y . My p a r e n t s — my m o th er w as a C a t h o l i c and my f a t h e r w as a g n o s t i c — b u t t h e y r e a l l y had t h a t p a r t i c u l a r b e l i e f s y s te m — t h a t t h e y o w ed . T hey endow ed u s w ith a l o t o f g u i l t s and a n x i e t i e s ; and I c o u p le d t h a t w i t h t h a t g u i l t w orks p e r f e c t l y w i t h C h r i s t i a n i t y . I owed b e c a u s e I f e l t s o f o r t u n a t e b e c a u s e I w as o ld en ou gh t o lo o k a ro u n d me and i t w as a s c l e a r t ome a s S t . P a u l on t h e ro a d t o D am ascus t h a t I owed and s ot h a t w as a h e a v y , h e a v y i n f l u e n c e .

B a r a k a : Do you e v e r t h in k o f y o u r s e l f a s an in s t r u m e n t o fa G r e a te r S p i r i t o r a G r e a te r Pow er t h a t ' s g iv e n y o u t h e t a l e n t and t h e know -how t o le a d ?

C oon ey: N c, I g u e s s n o t — I j u s t f e e l t h a t a s f a t e w e re


233h aded o u t , I w as j u s t g iv e n a l o t o f c a r d s and t h a t I o w e - - I d o n ' t f e e l an in s t r u m e n t , I f e e l lu c k y , o r w h a te v e r you w ant t o c a l l i t , p la y s an en o r m o u sl r o l e in a n y o n e 's l i f e - - i t i s lu c k y t h a t y o u h a v e m o b i l i t y and s t r e n g t h , a l o t o f p e o p le t h in k I u s e t h a t term t o o much— I d o n ' t t h in k you ca n u s e i t t o o m uch. What you do w i t h lu c k h a s t o d o w ith how you w e re b r o u g h t u p — w h e th e r y o u a c c e p t i t o r n o t , b u t a g a in , i t ' s v e r y h a rd f o r me t o ta k e a n y c r e d i t f o r a n y t h in g — w h ich i s o k a y . I m ean, I ' v e b e e n g iv e n m ore c r e d i t th a n I d e s e r v e , s o i t ' s a l l b a la n c e d o u t .

B a r a k a ; What w o u ld y o u s a y t o y ou n g women to d a y a b o u t c a r e e r and m a r r ia g e and le a d e r s h ip ? I f you w e re h a n d in g o u t a d v ic e t o a y o u n g c o l l e g e o r h ig h s c h o o l bunch?

C o o n e v : I w o u ld s a y , "You ca n h a v e i t a l l , b u t y o u w e rew rong i f y o u th o u g h t y o u c o u ld h a v e i t e a s i l y . " And I s t i l l h a v e v e r y m ixed f e e l i n g s a b o u t l e a v i n g a t home v e r y y o u n g c h i l d r e n i f y o u d o n ' t h a v e t o . S o , my a d v ic e t o a n y y o u n g g i r l i s g e t y o u r c a r e e r g o in g b e f o r e y o u m arry , o r i f y o u m a r ry , b e f o r e c h i l d r e n . P la n on t a k in g a fe w y e a r s o f f and e i t h e r work p a r t t im e o r r e - e n t e r ; b u t t o l e a v e an i n f a n t a t home— I c o u l d n ' t do i t , s o I c a n ' t g i v e t h a t a d v ic e . I know p e o p le who h a v e d o n e i t and h a v e v e r y s u c c e s s f u l c h i l d r e n — I j u s t c o u l d n ' t — n o t in t h e f i r s t t h r e e y e a r s . I c o u ld e a s i l y w a lk o u t t h e d o o r w i t h my t h r e e y e a r o l d , p u t t i n g t h a t c h i l d in n u r s e r y s c h o o l and me g o in g t c w o r k , w e 'd b e l e a v i n g t o g e t h e r . B ut t o j u s t l e a v e t h a t b a b y w it h h e l p , no m a t t e r how a d e q u a t e , w o u ld h a v e b e e n t o o h ard f o r me, t h e r e f o r e ; I c a n ' t g i v e t h a t a d v ic e .

B a r a k a : What a b o u t t h e c h o i c e o f a s p o u s e o r m o v in g i n t ot h e p r o f e s s i o n a l w o r ld — w h at w o u ld y o u s a y t o them a b o u t t h a t ?

C o o n e v ; W ell a g a i n , I w o u ld s u r e c o u n s e l n o t t o m arry y o u n g i f y o u w an t a c a r e e r b e c a u s e i t ' s j u s t t o o h a r d ; and a l l t h e s t u d i e s show t h a t t h e r e i s m ore s t r e s s in a c a r e e r w om an's home th a n t h e r e i s in a n o n - c a r e e r w om an's hom e. G u e ss w h a t! The s t u d i e s a r e r i g h t ! And t h e r e ' s g o in g t o b e m ore s t r e s s when t h e b aby com es a l s o , p a r t i c u l a r l y i f t h e woman h a s c a r e e r a m b i t io n s , and e i t h e r t h in k s s h e ' l l g o b a ck f o r a w h i le o r n o t - d o e s n ' t m a t te r w h i c h - s h e ' s s t i l l a n g l i n g t o g e t b ack i n , and l e t ' s s a y s h e g o e s b ack t o w ork when t h e b a b y 's tw o o r t h r e e . The d a y s h e g o e s b a ck t o w o r k , t h e r e ' s g o in g t o b e a l o t o f s t r e s s in h e r l i f e . S h e 's j u s t g o in g t o f e e l v e r y t i r e d , v e r y p u t u pon ; and u n l e s s s h e ' s g o t an i d e a l m a te , and v e r y fe w o f u s f in d t h a t , i t ' s g o in g t o b e m o s t ly up t o h e r . E ven i f th e m a n 's g o in g t o h e l p , s h e ' s t h e e x e c u t i v e — in t h a t hom e, s h e ' s t h e e x e c u t i v e . S h e 's g o t t o s a y w h at s h e w a n ts and som e d a y s s h e ' s g o in g t o w is h e v e r y o n e w o u ld r e a d h e r mind and n o b o d y 's g o in g t o do t h a t — n o t s i n c e we w e r e i n f a n t s


c o u ld a n y o n e r e a d o u r m in d s .My h usband h a s p o in t e d o u t , "Do y o u r e a l i z e t h a t i t

a l l s t a r t e d o u t w i t h som eon e r e a d in g o u r m in d s . Y our mom and y o u r dad c o u ld g u e s s when you w e r e h u n g ry and g u e s s when y o u w e re w e t no e v e n w i t h a n y s i g n a l from t h e b a b y .

B a r a k a : What k in d o f h u sb and d o e s i t t a k e t o d e a l w ithy o u r k in d o f s u c c e s s ?

C oon ev: W e ll , I d o n ' t know t h a t a h usb and c o u ld h a v e d on ei t — t h a t an y h u sb and c o u ld h a v e d o n e i t when i t was m e t e o r i t e and s t a r t im e . U n le s s h e had had h i s own s p o t l i g h t . W hether tw o c a n h a v e t h e s p o t l i g h t a t t h e sam e t im e , I d o n ' t know , b y t h e t im e I m a r r ie d p r e s e n t h u sb a n d , h e was a s t a r ; h e h a s h i s own s p o t l i g h t . The enorm ous am ount o f a t t e n t i o n t h a t I g o t — I w as on t h e b o a rd a t t h a t t im e . And s o w h i le t h e r e may b e a s t o r y t h a t a p p e a r s on me e v e r y now and t h e n , t h e r e w e re s t o r i e s t h a t a p p e a r e d on him — h e w r i t e s a r t i c l e s , h e ' s h ea d o f o n e o f t h e l a r g e s t b a n k in g f ir m s in t h e U n ite d S t a t e s . I c a n f e e l w hat women f e e l , who h a v e im p o r ta n t h u s b a n d s , and t h e r e w e re d a y s when I j u s t d o n ' t know who I am b e c a u s e I w as s o u s e d t o b e in g t h e s t a r when I w a lk e d in a room , and how e v e r y b o d y g o e s up t o him a s k in g h im , "What d id t h e P r e s id e n t s a y when you saw him t h e o t h e r day?" And I s a i d t o h im , "Boy i s t h i s e v e r d i f f i c u l t ! " B ut h e com es t o m e e t in g s , when I had b o a rd m e e t in g s , and h e com es a s s p o u s e — h e a lw a y s s a y s , "I n e v e r th o u g h t I ' d b e a s p o u s e ," b u t h e d o e s i t w it h g r e a t e q u a n im ity b e c a u s e h e i s s o im p o r ta n t . He w as Sonny Boy and I d o n ' t t h in k h e c o u ld h a v e ta k e n th e a t t e n t i o n o f t h e f a m i l y , b u t I w as f i f t y and h e w as f i f t y - tw o when we g o t m a r r ie d and we had l i v e d a l o t and had b e e n th r o u g h unh app y m a r r ia g e s , and we b o th w an ted e q u a ls by th e n , b u t e q u a ls a r e v e r y h a r d . E ven th o u g h you s a y t h a t , " t h a t ' s w h at I w a n t ," you f i n d i t i s h a rd b e c a u s e you com e o u t o f t h e i d e a t h a t s o m e o n e 's on t o p . And p a r t n e r s h ip s i s a v e r y d i f f i c u l t c o n c e p t in p r i v a t e l i v e s . I am a lw a y s — i f w e 'r e d o in g s o m e th in g h i s w ay— I te n d t o s a y , "we a lw a y s do i t y o u r w ay!" The t r u t h i s , a s h e p o in t s o u t , n in e t y - n in e p e r c e n t o f t h e t im e we d o t h in g s my w ay. B ut I becom e a l i t t l e g i r l — h a s t o b e d on e h i s w ay. U n t i l we c a n t a l k i t o u t and f i n a l l y d e c id e t h a t t h i s i s t h e w ay i t s h o u ld b e d o n e .

B a r a k a : You f e e l l i k e y o u 'v e g iv e n up s o m e th in g .

C o o n e v : T h a t 's r i g h t , and h e h a s , a w h o le b unch o f k id st h a t I c e r t a i n l y h a v e t o b e in v o lv e d w i t h and w an t t o b u t t h e r e a r e d a y s when I t h in k , "God! W hen 's my tu r n ? ! I th o u g h t I was g o in g t o h a v e i t a l l and i t tu r n s o u t I ' v e g o t a l l t h e s e k id s t h a t I ' v e g o t t o w a tc h !"

B a r a k a : T h e y 'r e g o in g t o grow up s o o n .


235C o o n e v : W e ll , o n e ' s o n ly t w e lv e , s o w e 'v e g o t a lo n g way t o g o . I know I t g o e s f a s t , b u t I 'm g o in g t o b e a v e r y o ld la d y f a s t !

B a r a k a ; I f I t ' s a n y c o m fo r t t o y o u , I t h a p p en s when t h e r e '8 o n ly o n e . When you w ant t o g i v e y o u r a t t e n t i o n t o y o u r s e l f , I t d o e s com e when you s t a r t t h i n k i n g , "When w i l l t h e d a y com e when I c a n do t h i n g s f o r m y s e l f ." I t ' s h a p p e n in g In my l i f e r i g h t now.

C o o n e v ; I th in k o n c e you e v e n s a y I t , y o u s t a r t s e t t i n g a s i d e som e t im e . I t h in k t h e m ost r e s e n t f u l women a r e t h e o n e s who h a v e t h e h a r d e s t t im e in mid l i f e a d ju s t m e n t a s t h e k id s a r e g r o w in g up— d i d n ' t s t a r t s a y i n g i t and d i n ' t s t a r t d e v e lo p in g t h e i r own l i f e .

I t h in k i t ' s much b e t t e r f o r t h e k i d s — t h e y h a v e b e e n am azed a t my h u sb and and I g iv e n t h e d i f f i c u l t y o f t h e m o th e r b r e a k in g up t h e home j u s t y o u r y e a r s a g o . And s o my h usb and bacam e r e a l l y a t t u n e d t o t h e tw o y o u n g e s t . And s o , when I m et h im , and we s t a r t e d g o in g o u t and I s t a r t e d s e e i n g him w it h t h e k i d s , I t h o u g h t , "I h a v e n e v e r s e e n a f a t h e r c o n c e r n h im s e l f w i t h t h e moment by moment p le a s u r e o f h i s c h i l d r e n , and t h e m in u te I s a i d i t h e saw i t and s t a r t e d p u l l i n g aw ay , b u t i n i t i a l l y i t c r e a t e d r e s e n t m e n t s and j e a l o u s i e s in me.

B a r a k a : W ould y o u r a d v ic e f o r you ng women b e an yd i f f e r e n t f o r y ou n g men?

C o o n e v : W e ll , I t h in k i t i s d i f f e r e n t f o r m en, I t h in k .T h e re i s no q u e s t io n t h a t i t ' s c h a n g in g , t h e r e i s no q u e s t i o n t h a t i t i s p r e d ic t e d t h a t a h u n d r ed p e r c e n t a r e g o in g t o b e w o r k in g i n t h e y e a r tw o th o u sa n d b e c a u s e o u r b ir t h r a t e i s on t h e d e c l i n e . T h e r e f o r e , t h e y h a v e g o t t o g o i n i t u n d e r s ta n d in g t h a t i f t h e y had a c o n v e n t io n a l m o th e r , t h e y a r e n ' t g o in g t o h a v e a c o n v e n t io n a l w i f e — and how d o t h e y t h in k a b o u t p a r e n t in g ? W e'v e g o t t o g e t i n t o t h a t . And m ore and m ore a r e d o in g i t , and m ore and m ore c o m p a n ie s a r e g i v i n g p a t e r n i t y l e a v e f o r m en. In S c a n d a n a v la , I f t h e jo b i s a jo b in w h ic h i t i s a t t a i n a b l e , t h e h u sb a n d o r w i f e c a n b e t r a in e d on i t and w ork e v e r y o t h e r d a y , and o n e s t a y s hom e. W e'r e n o t g o in g t o h a v e t h a t b e c a u s e w e ' r e g o in g t o n e e d tw o in c o m e s and n e e d t h e tw o w o r k e r s in t h e w o r k f o r c e . B ut t h e man i s g o in g t o h a v e t o g e t f a r m ore d e e p ly in v o l v e d , and I th in k t h e y a r e , b u t I h e a r d so m e th in g t h a t s tu n n e d me r e c e n t l y . H u n ter C o l l e g e , w h ich i s h ea d ed b y Donna S . , and s h e t o l d me t h e s t o r y , w as an a l l w om en's u n i v e r s i t y c o l l e g e — s o a l l t h e o f f i c e r s a r e women. The n u r s in g s c h o o l had g o n e t o z e r o — t h e y w e re a b o u t t o f o l d t h e n u r s in g s c h o o l .T h e ir s t u d e n t s had g o n e i n t o m e d ic a l s c h o o l i f t h e y w a n ted t o g o i n t o m e d ic in e — t h e y w e r e n ' t g o in g i n t o n u r s in g .T hey i n t e g r a t e d — b o y s and g i r l s — n o t o n e c l a s s p r e s i d e n t I s no fe m a le and t h e n u r s in g s c h o o l c a n ' t ta k e a l l t h e


a p p l i c a n t s . The women im m e d ia te ly r e v e r t e d t o th e p a s s i v e , s e c o n d - t o -m e n on t h e cam pus r o l e , and t h e men i n s t a n t l y to o k o v e r . S o , I ' l l t e l l you w e 'v e g o t a lo n g way t o g o , and a s much a s women h a t e t h i s , i t may b e p a r t i a l l y b i o l o g i c a l — we a r e c r e a t e d , we a r e t h e n u r t u r e r s and t o n u r tu r e t h a t b a b y , and t h a t i n f a n t we may h a v e som e d i f f e r e n t t h in g s g o in g o n .

B a r a k a : I th in k we d o , and I d o n ' t t h in k t h e r e ' s a n y t h in gw rong w ith i t .

C o o n ev : I t d o e s n ' t b o t h e r me. I m ean, b io l o g y i s d e s t i n yin c e r t a i n w a y s . I t d o e s n ' t mean i t ' s i n t r a n s i g e n t . And, many men— th e b e s t — h a v e a l o t o f fe m a le c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s — and many o f t h e b e s t women h a v e a l o t o f m a le c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . My h u sb a n d i s t e r r i f i c a l l y m a t e r n a l— h e r e h e i s a b ig b u s i n e s s many— and y e t h e i s a m a t e r n a l , t e n d e r , s e n s i t i v e , w o n d e r f u l f a t h e r and h u sb a n d . He h a s many " fem a le " c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , and I , o b v io u s l y , h a v e many t r a d i t i o n a l l y m a le c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . I f in d arou n d h im , I am te m p ted t o r e v e r t , t o r e g r e s s t o a l o t o f t h e m ore t r a d i t i o n a l w h in in g , f e m a le , l i t t l e g i r l . B ut p a r t o f h i s s t r e n g t h a r e , i n f a c t , h i s f e m a le c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . He i s n o t a f r a id o f h i s t e n d e r s i d e — a t a l l . W h ereas, I am a f r a id o f b e in g a r e c i p i e n t o f t h a t f o r f e a r t h a t w i l l w eaken me— l i k e Sam pson— c u t t i n g D e l i l a h ' s h a ir — I'm a f r a id I 'm g o in g t o b e t h e o n e t o h a v e my w in g s c l i p p e d . And t h a t com es from t h e d e e p d e p e n d e n c y t h a t 1) I was b r o u g h t up w i t h , and 2 ) a l o t o f g i r l s a r e b r o u g h t up w it h .

B a r a k a ; T h a t ' s why I 'm n o t m a r r ie d , b e c a u s e I f e l t e a c h t im e , t h e m in u te t h e y s t a r t e d t a k in g p a r t , I b eg a n t o l o s e s t a t u s a s a human b e i n g .

C o o n ev : I t ' s v e r y to u g h on t h e woman w h o 's s t r i v i n g f o rin d e p e n d e n c e . Many, many d e c i d e n o t t o g e t m a r r ie d . I w as f i v e y e a r s b e tw e e n m a r r ia g e s — I n e v e r th o u g h t I w ou ld m arry a g a in . I w as t h e m o st s tu n n e d p e r s o n b e c a u s e I l i k e d b e in g on my own— I l i k e d g o in g w hen I w a n ted t o g o . t h e r e w as an e le m e n t o f t h a t in d e p e n d e n c e I a d o r e d — I d id n o t h a v e c h i l d r e n — I d o n ' t know w hat d i f f e r e n c e t h a t m ig h t h a v e m ade, b u t I w as l o n e l y . T h e re w as no q u e s t io n I w as l o n e l y .

B a r a k a : L et me a s k t h i s l a s t q u e s t i o n : W ere t h e r e an ys i g n i f i c a n t e v e n t s , e x p e r i e n c e s , o r a n y t h in g e l s e t h a t l e d t o y o u r d e v e lo p m e n t?

C o o n ev : W e ll , I w as e x t r e m e ly lu c k y in m e n to r s , m a le . Im et t h e g e n e r a l m an ager a t T h ir t e e n and my h u sb and w e re b o th im p o r ta n t m e n to r s in my l i f e .


TAPE TRANSCRIPTION:237

MILLICENT FENWICK

J u ly 2 0 , 1982

N o te : The f i r s t p a r t o f t h e F en w ick t a p e w as e r a s e d byc h i l d h i s h h a n d s , b u t th a n k s t o g o o d n o t e t a k l n g by t h e l i s t e n e r s , a r e c o n s t r u c t io n w as p o s s i b l e .

M rs. F en w ick r e p o r t e d t h a t s h e w as i n f lu e n c e d b y a g r e a t d e a l o f r e a d in g in h e r c h i ld h o o d . Her f a m ily d e m o n s tr a te d no p r e j u d i c e , s o i t w as f o r e i g n t o h e r when s h e h ea rd o f i t . when s h e w as t h i r t e e n y e a r s o l d , s h e w as a f f e c t e d by a h i s t o r y t e a c h e r — M iss P e r k in s — who w as v e r y m o t iv a t in g b e c a u s e o f h e r z e s t f o r h i s t o r y . S he made i t i n t e r e s t i n g t o y o u n g M i l l i c e n t , who w as a g o o d s t u d e n t . H is t o r y becam e h e r f a v o r i t e s u b j e c t . S h e had som e i n t e r e s t in a r c h a e o lo g y ; b u t H i t l e r em erg ed d u r in g t h e - w a r , and h e r f i r s t c h i l d w as b o r n . S he s a i d s h e h a s n o t t r u s t e d g o v er n m en t s i n c e H i t l e r b e c a u s e o f t h e g r e a t c a p a c i t y t o f o o l p e o p le .

Young M i l l i c e n t a t t e n d e d b o a r d in g s c h o o l w h ere t h e r e w as an em p h a s is on c h a r a c t e r b u i l d i n g and t h e v i r t u e s o f h o n e s t y , r e l i a b i l i t y , a s e n s e o f d u t y and r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . She s a y s s h e was n o t an i n t e l l e c t and w as n o t aw are o f th e KKK o r o t h e r w r o n g s t h a t e x i s t e d i n t h i s c o u n t r y .

Her s i s t e r w as h e r c l o s e s t f a m i ly r e l a t i o n ; and M i l l i c e n t l e f t s c h o o l a t f i f t e e n — w it h o u t h e r h ig h s c h o o l d ip lo m a — and w en t t o l i v e i n S p a in — s h e f e l t t h a t h in d e r e d h e r c a r e e r . A c o u s in o f a c o u s in g o t h e r h e r f i r s t jo b a s a m o d e l .

B a r a k a : How d id y o u h a n d le m o th e rh o o d and w o r k in g ?

F en w ick : Oh, i t w as a w f u l ly d i f f i c u l t r e a l l y and th e n It r i e d t o do t h e im p o s s ib l e and th e n I b r o u g h t my c h i l d r e n t o New Y ork; p a id $12 5 a m onth f o r an a p a r tm e n t . And my lu n c h w as $5 a w eek in t h e G ray B ar c a f e t e r i a , a lw a y s t h e sam e, f r a n k f u r t e r s and s a u e r k r a u t , cu p o f c o f f e e 80 c e n t s — 20 c e n t s t i p and t h a t w as i t . G ot my h a ir w ash ed in G ray Bar b e a u ty s a l o n , w i t h a sa n d w ic h and n e v e r to o k a t a x i o f c o u r s e ; n e v e r b o u g h t a n y c l o t h e s .

B a r a k a : What d id you do w i t h t h e c h i l d r e n w h i le you w erew o r k in g ?

F en w ick : W e ll , I had a w o n d e r fu l E n g lish w om an a t $ 80 am onth .

B a r a k a : I t to o k s t r i c t b u d g e t in g t o m anage a l l t h a t .

F e n w ic k : And f o r f o o d , I a lw a y s p u t a s i d e $20 p e r w eekand we n e v e r s p e n t i t .


238

B a r a k a : What i s y o u r d e f i n i t i o n o f a le a d e r ? What i s l e a d e r s h ip ?

F en w ick : I d o n ' t know . I t i s a m y s t e r y . I d o n ' t f e e ll i k e a l e a d e r .

B a r a k a : Y e t , p e o p le lo o k up t o y o u .

F e n w ic k : I'm t e r r i f i e d o f p o w er . I t h in k p ow er d o e s c o r r u p t . I ' v e s e e n i t down h e r e . Y o u 'v e g o t t o b e a w f u l ly c a r e f u l and n o t f a l l i n t o t h a t t r a p and b e g in t o th in k t h a t Members o f C o n g r e ss a s an e l i t e g r o u p — and a l l t h a t s p e c i a l t r e a t m e n t — I h a t e t h a t k in d o f t h i n g .

And l e a d e r s , w h at m akes a le a d e r ? I t ' s som ebod y who m anages t o e x p r e s s w h at a l a r g e num ber o f p e o p le f e e l in te rm s t h a t a r e c l e a r and f i n e r p e r h a p s th a n m ost p e o p le a r e a b le t o m an age. T o ls t o y s a i d an i n t e r e t i n g t h in g a b o u t l e a d e r s h i p . I d o n ' t rem em ber i f i t ' s t h e b e g in n in g o r t h e end c h a p t e r o f War and P e a c e b u t I th in k i t ' s t h e end and h e s a i d t h a t p e o p le a p p e a r t o le a d b u t t h e y n e v e r d o . T hey a r e l i k e c o r p s e s th row n up on a w a v e .

B a r a k a : You t h in k c h a n c e h a s a l o t t o do w i t h i t ?

F e n w ic k : I t ' s r e a l l y t h e p e o p le . The t im e com es in th ea f f a i r s o f m ankind and th e n o n e p e r s o n , l i k e C h u r c h i l l m anages t o e x p r e s s w h at t h a t w ave i s a l l a b o u t in te r m s o f a f o r c e t h a t i s s o m e t im e s s u b c o n s c io u s d e s i r e s o f th e m a ss . I t ' s t h e m ass t h a t m akes t h e l e a d e r , n o t t h e l e a d e r t h a t m akes t h e m a ss . At l e a s t t h a t ' s T o l s t o y ' s v ie w o f l e a d e r s h i p and i f y o u 'r e i n t e r e s t e d t h a t t h e o r y o f l e a d e r s h i p , t h a t s u b j e c t o f l e a d e r s h i p , you m ig h t b e i n t e r e s t e d in T o l s t o y .

B a r a k a : Oh, I rem em ber r e a d in g i t a w h i le b a c k , b u t Id o n ' t h a v e t h e sam e g r a s p o f i t t h a t y o u d o . What w ou ld you s a y t o y o u n g women to d a y a b o u t t a k i n g . . .Y o u s u p p o r t ERA. . .

F en w ick : .F or G o d 's s a k e , s t o p t h in k in g a b o u t y o u r s e l f .T h a t ' s t h e f i r s t t h i n g . G et y o u r s e n s e o f v a l u e s and s t i c k t o th em . L earn s e l f - d i s c i p l i n e s o you ca n make y o u r s e l f do w h at you d o n ' t w an t t o do when you know you o u g h t t o do i t . So t h a t y o u 'v e g o t t h a t tr em e n d o u s f o r c e o f c h a r a c t e r t h a t n o t h in g ca n ta k e aw ay . And a s p e o p le go a lo n g in t h e w o r ld , t h e y p r e t t y so o n ca n r e c o g n iz e when som ebody w a lk s in t h e d o o r w h e th e r t h e y ' v e g o t t h a t c a p a c i t y f o r s e l f d i s c i p l i n e o r n o t . B e c a u s e t h a t e n a b le s you t o k e e p y o u r s h ip on c o u r s e .

B a r a k a : Now you a t t r i b u t e y o u r own s e l f d i s c i p l i n e t ob e in g a b le t o c a r r y t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f r e p r e s e n t i n g and t h a t g o e s b a ck t o . . .


239

F en w ick : When you l e a r n t h a t you ca n make y o u r s e l f dow hat y o u d o n ' t w an t t o d o . And t h a t g i v e s y o u a q u a l i t y

B a r a k a : Were t h e s c h o o l s t h e o r i g i n o f m ost o f y o u r s e l fd i s c i p l i n e ? Your p a r e n t s ?

F en w ick : J u s t l i f e . I h a t e t o t e l l y o u how l a t e i t wasb e f o r e I e v e n r e c o g n iz e d t h a t a s a n e c e s s i t y . On a c c o u n t o f M iss C h a r lo t t e and h e r w h o le p o in t a b o u t c h a r a c t e r and d u ty and r e s p o n s i b l i t y . I had th o u g h t " T h a t 's a good t h in g ," I th o u g h t t h a t w as g o o d . B ut I w as a grow n woman a t V o g u e, f o r c e d b y c ir c u m s t a n c e s t o w r i t e t h e book o f E t i q u e t t e , w h ich I d i d n ' t w ant t o do and I th o u g h t t h a t w as a s n o b b is h , h o r r id s u b j e c t . B ut i t w as m oney in t h e bank and I d i d n ' t w an t t o l o s e my j o b , and t h e y i n s i s t e d t h a t I do i t . . And h a te d i t . I rem em ber w a lk in g up and down and g e t t i n g . . . I had tw o s e c r e t a r i e s t o d i c t a t e t o and I w ou ld t e l l th em , " j u s t g e t o u t o f t h e room . I t ' s n o t h a p p e n in g !" I rem em ber w a lk in g th r o u g h c o r r i d o r s and s a y i n g , "No, t h i s i s n ' t good e n o u g h . Y o u 'r e gon na g e t a p a y c h e c k on F r id a y . What k in d o f p e r s o n a r e you?"

B a r a k a : You f i n a l l y came t o . . . ?

F en w ick : And I r e a l i z e d , y e a h , t h a t w as r e a l l y th ec a p a c i t y f o r s e l f - d i s c i p l i n e . N ot t h a t i t w as a g o a l t o w r i t e t h a t d arn b o o k . B ut t o b e a b le t o do y o u r d u t y . To make y o u r s e l f do w h at you d o n ' t w ant t o d o .

B a r a k a : In o t h e r w o r d s , you s ig n e d o n . T hat w as y o u rta s k ?

F en w ick : And y o u 'r e gon na g e t m oney a t t h e end o f th ew eek and you damned w e l l b e t t e r e a r n i t . E ls e y o u 'r e n o t r e a l l y an y k in d o f p e r s o n .

B a r a k a : So t h a t w h o le b u s i n e s s a b o u t c h a r a c t e r r e a l l ycam e b a ck t o y o u . T h at w h o le b u s i n e s s a b o u t y o u r word m eanin g w h at you s a y . And y o u 'v e b een a b le t o draw upon t h a t in e v e r y c ir c u m s t a n c e .

F e n w ic k : And I rem em ber Daddy s a y in g : "A m a n 's w ordssh o u ld b e a s g ood a s h i s b o n d . An h o n o r a b le man d o e s n ' t n e e d a $ 1 0 ,0 0 0 p e n a l t y c l a u s e b e f o r e h e l i v e s up t o h i s w ord . I th in k o f t h a t a lm o s t e v e r y d a y down h e r e .

B a r a k a : Now, y o u r m oth er d ie d when you w e re y o u n g . Weret h e r e an y G ra n d m o th ers, women f i g u r e s who w e r e a b le t o do t h i n g s . . .

F e n w ic k : When I w as f i v e . No, No. I w as w i t h mys te p m o th e r who I d i d n ' t g e t a lo n g w i t h .


240B a r a k a : I ' v e h ea rd t h a t b e f o r e . So y o u r p o s i t i o n . . .

F en w ick : T h e re w as no m o th er f i g u r e .

B arak a: The women a t t h e s c h o o l w e re th o u g h .

F e n w ic k : I t w as an e x t r a d o r d in a r y t h in g w as th o u g h , whenI w as in b o a r d in g s c h o o l . As I w as g r o w in g up— b e f o r e we moved t o t h i s c o u n t r y , u n t i l I w as f i f t e e n , th e n we l e f t t o l i v e in S p a in — t h e r e w as s t i l l an a tm o s p h e r e . I f a g i r l , o n e o f ou r s c h o o l m a t e s , w an ted t o g o t o c o l l e g e , q u i t e a p a r t from a c a r e e r o r w o r k in g o r s o m e th in g , Oh, we w ou ld s a y "Oh s h e ' s a b r a in ." T hat w a s n ' t a c o m p lim e n t.At t h a t t im e you w e re a l i t t l e l e s s f e m in in e , a l i t t l e l e s s a t t r a c t i v e .

B a r a k a : And you w e r e a b r a in . D id you g e t t h o s em e s s a g e s ?

F e n w ic k : I w as b r i g h t b u t I w a s n ' t in t e n d in g t o g o t o c o l l e g e . I w as a b r i g h t s t u d e n t , b u t I w a s n ' t c l a s s i f i e d a s a b r a in b e c a u s e I d i d n ' t t a l k a b o u t g o in g o n to c o l l e g e .I w as r e a d in g p o e t r y and w r i t in g p o e t r y w h ieh w as e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t .

B a r a k a : Was t h e r e a n y s e n s e o f r e g r e t o r a n g e r a b o u t n o tg o in g t o c o l l e g e ?

F e n w ic k : W e ll , when we cam e b ack from a b r o a d I d id w an t t o ta k e som e c o u r s e s in t h e M e t r o p o l i t a n Museum o f A r t , w h ich w as a h a l f b lo c k down from t h e H o u se . I m a g in e , a h a l f b lo c k and y o u 'd b e i n s i d e t h a t d o o r . B ut my s te p m o th e r w o u ld n 't l e t me. S h e s a i d t h a t i t w as i n t e l l e c t u a l a r r o g a n c e .

B a r a k a : So i t w as h e r w is h t o co n fo rm y o u t o h e r id e a o f " D o n 't b e a b r a in ."

F en w ick : W e ll , I d o n ' t know . Y eah.

B arak a: D id you a g r e e w i t h t h e c o n c e p t o f i n t e l l e c t u a la r r o g a n c e ?

F e n w ic k : W e ll , i t n e v e r o c c u r r e d t o me, i n t e l l e c t u a la r r o g a n c e , b u t I d id know t h a t I w as a go o d s t u d e n t .Maybe s h e w as r i g h t .

B a r a k a : W e ll , I r e a l l y a p p r e c ia t e t h e t im e t h a t y o u 'v eg iv e n me and I ' d l i k e t o know i f t h e r e i s an y f i n a l t h in g t h a t y o u 'd l i k e t o s a y a b o u t l e a d e r s h i p and w hat women can do?

F en w ick : 1) F o r g e t y o u r s e l f . 2 ) L earn s e l f - d i s c i p l i n e . 3) N e v er go in f o r s e l f p i t y . I t ' s t h e m ost c r i p p l i n g


241t h in g you ca n d o . You ca n d e s t r o y y o u r c a p a c i t y f o r . . .an d a c c e p t o p p o r t u n i t i e s . D o n 't b e a f r a id o f th em . I th in k t h a t ' s v e r y im p o r ta n t t o o . I t ' s b e t t e r t o t r y , and f a i l th a n j u s t t o s t a y in s o m e p la c e s a f e .

B a r a k a : Why do yo u s u p p o r t t h e ERA. How d o e s i t r e l a t et o you?

F en w ick : 'C a u se I t h in k i t ' s s e n s i b l e .

B a r a k a : How d o e s i t r e l a t e t o t h e jo b h e r e . Do you f e e lmy n e e d , o r a w a r e n e s s o f how t h i n g s w ork on y o u a s a woman, in t h e p o s i t i o n o f m ak ing som e o f t h e m ost im p o r ta n t w o r ld d e c i s i o n s . How d o e s ERA r e l a t e t o t h e f a c t o f t h a t . . .

F en w ick : I d o n ' t t h in k a b o u t b e in g a woman a l l t h e t im et o t e l l you t h e t r u t h . When p e o p le q u e s t i o n me I 'v e n o t i c e d a few t h i n g s . I d o n ' t th in k women— I t h in k women a r e m ore s e n s i b l e . Men h a v e v i s i o n s and t h e y th in k b ig and w ant t o s e t up d e p a r tm e n ts and s u b s e c r e t a r i e s and a s s i s t a n t s e c r e t a r i e s and d e p u ty s e c r e t a r i e s . And s e p a r a t e o f f i c e s and p ro g ra m s and g e t t h e i r name on i t and sp en d a l o t o f m oney and i t ' s a l l a b ig v i s i o n . And women a r e th e o n e s t o s a y , "Hey! T hat maybe a l l r i g h t a s an id e a b u t i t a i n ' t w o r k in g down t h e r e ! " T hey a r e a p t t o c h e c k on t h e o p e r a t io n , I t h in k t h e y ' r e m ore p r a g m a t ic and l e s s v i s i o n a r y . We n e e d b o t h . W ith o u t v i s i o n t h e p e o p le w i l l p e r i s h , t h a t ' s t r u e . B ut you c a n n o t go on d r i v i n g p e o p le i n t o t h e mud. We h a v e c r e a t e d t r a p s i n t h i s c o u n tr y and b a i t e d them w it h m oney and th e n w onder why p e o p le w i l l f a l l in and n ob od y w i l l do a n y t h in g . I t ' s an a b s o lu t e n ig h tm a r e . T h a t ' s w h at women h a v e t o c o n t r ib u t e .

Now, I h a v e n o t i c e d a l s o t h a t women d o n ' t g e t b r ib e d o r d o n ' t ta k e b r i b e s . Now i s i t b e c a u s e we a r e n o t in p o s i t i o n s o f p ow er? B e c a u s e we a r e n o t . Or i s i t b e c a u s e we a r e i n n a t e ly m ore h o n e s t . I'm a f r a id n o t . B e c a u se I n o t i c e d s o m e th in g . We h a v e t h e s e c a u c u s e s in C o n g r e s s . I th o u g h t i t w as a w o n d e r fu l id e a u n t i l I a s a member o f t h e Women's C o n g r e ss was sh o c k e d t o d i s c o v e r t h a t o u r ch a ir m a n , L iz H oltzm an o f N. Y . , had o r g a n iz e d t o g e t 5 0 1 - C -3 t a x d e d u c t i b l e s t a t u s w i t h t h e c a u c u s s o t h a t c o r p o r a t e fu n d s and u n io n d u e s c o u ld b e g iv e n t o u s . My God. Now, t h a t ' s w r o n g .

No c o m m itte e o f C o n g r e ss s h o u ld h a v e t a x d e d u c t i b l e s t a t u s , t o r e c e iv e t a x d e d u c t i b l e g i f t s , my d e a r , t h a t ' s w rong and I q u i t . Now I d o n ' t know , in o t h e r w o r d s , w h e th e r w e 'r e gon na f a l l i n t o t h e sam e o ld t r a p s . I t was a woman who s a i d t o me when Abscam b r o k e , o n e o f my c o l l e a g u e s , a woman c o l l e a g u e , a d e m o c r a t , a n i c e woman, " T h a t's a t e r r i b l e s y s te m t o u s e on mem bers o f C o n g r e s s ."I s a i d , "Hey, j u s t a m in u t e . I f i t ' s i l l e g a l f o r c o u n t e r f e i t e r s and d ru g r u n n e r s , i t ' s i l l e g a l f o r u s ." Do you s e e th e t h in k in g ? T hat d is c o u r a g e d me— t h o s e tw o


242t h i n g s — a b o u t women in p o l i t i c s .

B e c a u s e when I w as in t h e a s s e m b ly a t hom e, t h e r e w as o n ly o n e o t h e r woman t h e r e when I g o t t h e r e and th e n o n e j o in e d u s t h e s e c o n d t im e a rou n d w it h t h e s e c o n d e l e c t i o n . T h e re w e re t h r e e o f u s . And t a l k w as g o in g arou n d a b o u t $ 1 0 ,0 0 0 g i f t s f o r e v e r y v o t e . And we w e r e n ' t o f f e r e d a n y t h in g . Oh, Ms. B a ra k a , i t was s o fu n n y , b e c a u s e t h e r e we w e re w i t h o u r i n t e g r i t y r i g h t o u t in f r o n t o f u s and we w ere r e a d y t o b e c h a l l e n g e d and nobod y o f f e r e d u s a cu p o f c o f f e e !

B a r a k a : You n e v e r g o t a c h a n c e t o b e in d ig n a n t a b o u t i t ?

F e n w ic k : E x a c t l y . I t was s o fu n n y . We w e re h a v in g a cupo f c o f f e e t o g e t h e r and I s a i d t h e r e i s a l l t h i s t a l k and we h a v e n ' t b e e n o f f e r e d a n y ; we f e l t w e re w e re s o r t o f se c o n d c l a s s . I d o n ' t know i f t h e y f e l t t h a t we w o u ld n ' t u n d e r s ta n d . B u t , o f c o u r s e , we w e re n o t c h a irm e n o f a c o m m itte e . I d o n ' t know .

B ut I 'm h app y t o s e e t h a t a l l t h e s e s c a n d a ls ; d r u g s , s e x , ABSCAM— no women. I d o n ' t know w h at w e 'r e g o in g t o o f f e r . I t h in k t h e r e a r e s e v e r a l t h i n g s t h a t we h a v e t o b e; I ' d j u s t l i k e t o t a l k , t o o , on t h e q u e s t i o n o f women and w om en 's i s s u e s . We had a v e r y i n t e r e s t i n g m e e t in g t h e o t h e r d a y . T h e re w e re s i x o f u s , tw o D e m o c r a t ic e l e c t e d o f f i c i a l s and o n e R e p u b lic a n e l e c t e d o f f i c i a l and t h r e e women from t h e , y o u m ig h t c a l l i t , C i v i l and A cadem ic L eagu e o f Women V o t e r s , E a g le to n I n s t i t u t e S e c t io n f o r women, who by now , a r e e x c e l l e n t , m a r v e lo u s s c i e n t i s t s .B ut a l l t h e p e o p le who a r e n o t in g o v er n m en t th o u g h t t h a t we o u g h t t o d e v o t e o u r s e l v e s t o w om en's i s s u e s . The e l e c t e d o f f i c i a l s , D em ocrat and R e p u b l ic a n s , s a i d " T h a t 's a t r a p ." You s t a r t d o in g t h a t . . . Y o u g e t e l e c t e d by a l l t h e p e o p le and y o u owe t o a l l t h e p e o p le , t h e sam e t r e a t m e n t . N ot j u s t women. In o t h e r w o r d s , i f t h e r e i s i n j u s t i c e o r s u f f e r i n g , Ban i t b a b y . P o o r d is a b l e d o ld m en, women n o t g iv e n e q u a l o p p o r t u n i t y , a l l o f t h o s e a r e u n j u s t o r s u f f e r i n g , and t h o s e a r e t h e t h in g s you s h o u ld c o n c e r n y o u r s e l f w i t h . I 'm s o h appy t h a t , in New J e r s e y , we h a v e now a woman a s t h e p r e s i d e n t o f o u r s t a t e b a r a s s o c i a t i o n , who i s an e x p e r t on t a x e s . S e e i t .

B a r a k a : I t ' s h a p p e n i n g . . .

F e n w ic k : T h a t ' s why I b e l i e v e in ERA. N ot b e c a u s e I w an tt o b e t h e f i r s t and h a v e a bunch o f women w o r k in g f o r women. W e've g o in g t o b e , I h o p e , a bunch o f c i t i z e n s w o r k in g f o r j u s t i c e . And i t i s n ' t f a i r t h a t in som e s t a t e s — women, by s t a t u t e — a r e f o r c e d t o go t o c o u r t t o g e t a p e r f e c t l y o b v io u s d e c i s i o n in t h e i r f a v o r .I t ' s s t i l l t r u e , s h e ca n a lw a y s g e t i t in h e r f a v o r , b e c a u s e common s e n s e u s u a l l y im p e ls , t h a t b u t s h e s h o u l d n ' t h a v e t o . She s h o u ld n ' t h a v e t o g e t a la w y e r , s h e s h o u l d n ' t h a v e t o w r e s t l e l i k e t h a t . O ld f a s h io n e d .


243

B a r a k a : I th in k t h a t a l o t o f y o u r e x p e r i e n c e s , t o r a i s ea f a m ily and h a v e a j o b , h a s c e r t a i n l y g iv e n you a n o th e r p e r s p e c t i v e a b o u t t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s t h a t y o u 'r e up a g a i n s t and you c e r t a i n l y w o u ld n o t l i k e t o h a v e t h o s e d i s c r i m i n a t i o n s b e c a u s e y o u 'r e a woman, e s p e c i a l l y u n d er t h o s e c ir c u m s t a n c e s .

F en w ick : You s e e , g o in g i n t o p u b l i s h i n g m a g a z in e s f o rwomen m o s t ly , V ogue c o n c e r n e d w it h w om en 's i n t e r e s t s , on e h ead e d i t o r — a woman, m an a g in g e d i t o r , a woman. Where we ra n i n t o men, a r t d e p a r tm e n t h ea d — man. When I g o t t h e r e i t w as a T urk. He w as s u c c e e d e d b y L ie b e rm a n , C o n d e n a st man, s t a r t e d t h e w h o le t h in g and p a s s i o n a t e l y i n t e r e s t e d in d e v e lo p in g t h i s l i t t l e e m p ir e . B e c a u s e t h e r e was V ogu e. T h ere w as G lam our. T h e re w as a p a t t e r n b o o k , t h e r e was H ouse and G a rd en , t h e r e w as a v a r i e t y .

B a r a k a : He w a n ted t o do an e m p ir e .

F en w ick : Y eah, and h e was an a w f u l l y n i c e man. The w agesw e r e n ' t t h a t h ig h , b u t i t w as v e r y n i c e t r e a t m e n t . You knew w hat a d i f f e r e n c e i t m ade. You know , i f you w ere s i c k h e knew you w e r e s i c k , and I mean i t w as j u s t a n i c e p la c e t o w ork . And t h e r e w as n e v e r an y fu n n y b u s i n e s s . . .

B arak a: H a r a ssm e n t , s e x u a l h a r a s s m e n t .

F en w ick : No, t h e b o a rd o f d i r e c t o r s w as a l l men e x c e p tf o r t h e e d i t o r in c h i e f and t h e m an ag in g e d i t o r w e re women, t h e r e w e re no o t h e r women on t h a t b o a r d . So t h e r e w as b u s i n e s s h a n d l in g , ra n t h e b ig p r e s s w h ic h w as th e u s u s a l w ork t h a t t h e y d id . We p r in t e d a l o t o f m a g a z in e s ,in a d d i t i o n t o o u r ow n. And i t w as a v e r y good andp r o f i t a b l e b u s i n e s s and d e c e n t p e o p le , and i t w as a n i c e a tm o sp h e r e t o work in and I w as v e r y h app y t h e r e .F o u r te e n y e a r s I s p e n t . And I w o u ld n ' t h a v e m is s e d b e in g p o o r . Now when I g e t t h e s e l e t t e r s , y o u s e e , why do I g e t u p s e t . B e c a u se i n t h a t p a c k a g e I lo o k f o r h a n d w r it te n l e t t e r s and t h e y t e l l me w h at p e o p le a r e up a g a i n s t .

B a r a k a : And you ca n r e l a t e t o i t — t h a t ' s g o o d .

F en w ick : Y e s , in my b lo o d , I g e t t h e s e d e s k l e t t e r s g o in g t h e id e a o f a b o u t 2 ,0 0 0 p e o p le l a i d o f f . . .

B a r a k a : We r e a l l y h a v e i t i n M ic h ig a n .

F en w ick : T h is i s p u r e ly an I l l i n o i s C a t e r p i l l a r F a c t o r y ;2 ,0 0 0 l a i d o f f l a s t w e ek .

You know, I saw on t h e new s th e o t h e r d ay w h o 's m aking t h o s e t r u c k s . T h o se 2 ,0 0 0 p e o p le s h o u ld b e w o r k in g on t h o s e t r u c k s f o r t h e S o v ie t p i p e l i n e . Who


g i v e s a d a rn i f i t ' s made in J a p a n ! You know we c a n ' t k e e p b u t t i n g o u r h e a d s a g a i n s t t h e w a l l . We k e e p b e h a v in g l i k e a bunch o f d e m o c r a ts who k e e p s a y in g i t ' s th e p r i n c i p l e , t h e P o le s and t h e A f g a n s . I 'm c r a z y a b o u t P o le s and A f g a n s . And t h e y k e e p s a y in g , w e l l , i t ' s th e p r i n c i p l e . B ut a l l I 'm t e l l i n g you t h a t t h i s i s j u s t w hat th e d e m o c r a ts u s e d t o do w i t h t h e i r p ro g rm s, p o r t r a y in g t h a t g o in g t o b e u s e d in c e n t r a l c i t i e s . I t d i d n ' t w ork . In my own s t a t e , t h e NAACP had t o s u e , b e c a u s e i t w as a l l p a tr o n a g e w i t h p o l i t i c i a n s .

B a r a k a : T h a t ' s o n e o f t h e t h i n g s i n o u r d i s t r i c t t h a tw e 'v e t r i e d t o lo o k a t . You h a v e , f o r e x a m p le , a b e a u t i f u l c o n c e p t . And th e n you t r y t o im p le m e n t t h a t c o n c e p t and i t g e t s f i l t e r e d th r o u g h a l o t o f p e o p le and f i n a l l y y o u g e t a fe w d o l l a r s down t o t h e p e o p le t h a t i t com es t o . T h e r e 's g o t t o b e a way b e tw e e n t h a ti n e f f e c t i v e s y s te m and t h e i d e a . T h e r e 's g o t t o b e a wayt o make i t w ork .

F e n w ic k : T h e r e 's som e c o m m u n ic a t io n s f o r t h e r e s t . Youknow L eon S u l l i v a n ca n t e l l y o u . H e 's a b u d d y , I h e a r h i sp r e s s a g e n t ' s down h e r e . B e c a u s e h e know s w h at h e i st a l k i n g a b o u t .

B a r a k a : I w ou ld l i k e so m e w h e re , HUD f o r e x a m p le , th e ys h o u ld b e a b le t o sh ow u s som ew here t h e y h a v e e l im in a t e d h o u s in g b l i g h t and som ew here in t h e c o u n tr y w h ere t h e y can g i v e u s a m o d e l. Y e s , we ca n do i t . I w o u ld l i k e f o r t h e D e p a r tm e n t o f E d u c a t io n t o b e a b le t o show u s t h a t i f we e l i m i n a t e d i s p a r i t i e s b e tw e e n low in c o m e , B la c k s , and t h e u p p er in c o m e p e o p le . W e'd b e show n how we ca n s u p p o r t t h e e d u c a t io n p r o c e s s . I ' d l i k e t o s e e a l i t t l e m ore e x p e r im e n t a t io n . I ' d l i k e t o s e e p e o p le s a y , "Do t h i s u n t i l w e 'v e g o t som e f i n a l r e s u l t s i n s t e a d o f j u s t m a s s a g in g t h e to p ."

F en w ick : We h a v e and I ' l l t e l l you o n e o f t h e p r o b le m s .F or e x a m p le , CETA, t h a t ' s a g o o d e x a m p le . I'm n o t t o o happ y a b o u t t h e CETA p rogram . I to o k a b la c k c o n t r a c t o r from N ewark t o b u i l d an e d u c a t io n a l d e f e n s e fu n d t o t r y t o g e t them t o f o r c e t h e u n io n s t o l e t t h e s e p e o p le a s a p p r e n t i c e s . And t h e y w o u ld n ' t e v e n to u c h a n y t h in g t o do w ith i t . So I w ent t o t h e NAACP and g o t Mr. H enry H a l l . And h e w as m ore v ig o r o u s s o I k in d o f r e a l i z e d w hat t h e y w e re up t o .

B a r a k a : You s a y h e h a s an ex a m p le o f w h er e i t g e t s t h ejo b d e n e .

F en w ick : And t h e t r o u b l e i s you e l i m i n a t e t o o many j o b s .And I c o u ld t e l l you o v e r and o v e r . I w an te d home h e a l t h c a r e . S u p p o se t h a t y o u 'r e e l i g i b l e t o g o t o a n u r s in g hom e. You d o n ' t r e a l l y h a v e t o h a v e 24 h our n u r s in g home


245a v a i l a b l e , w hat you n eed i s maybe o n c e o r t w ic e a w eek at h e r a p i s t o r s o m e th in g . And I s a y , l o o k , i t c o s t s $42 p e rd a y in a n u r s in g home in New J e r s e y . T h a t ' s w h at th e ta x p a y e r s p u t up f o r som eone who h a s n ' t g o t a n y m oney.G iv e t h a t f a m ily $21 a d a y . And h a v e a s o c i a l w ork er t h a tcom es t o v i s i t o n c e in a w h i le and a d o c t o r t o s a y s h e h a s t o h a v e th e r a p y t w ic e p e r w e ek . $21 a d a y w ou ld p a y f o r t h a t .

B a r a k a : Now, t h a t ' s a u n iq u e a p p r o a c h . T hat I d o n ' tt h in k e i t h e r s i d e w ou ld a g r e e t o . J u s t from my r e a d in g , I d o n ' t t h in k e i t h e r D em ocrat o r R e p u b lic a n w ou ld s a y g i v e th e m oney d i r e c t l y t o t h e p e o p le .

F en w ick : W ell o n e o f my y ou n g D e m o cr a ts s a i d t h a t ' s anen orm ous i d e a , u n t i l I com e t o w h er e t h e m oney w e n t and th e n o h , m e rcy , I c o u l d n ' t j o i n you in t h a t . I ' d g e t t o o much s u p p o r t from t h e p r o f e s s io n a l g r o u p s . I ' v e b een w o r k in g on t h i s s i n c e C a l i f a n o w as HEW. You know how lo n g a g o t h a t i s . And h e s a i d i t w as a g o o d i d e a . He s a i d I ' l l t r y i t in T e x a s . He t r i e d i t in tw o p la c e s in T e x a s . Urban and r u r a l . And t h e money n e v e r w e n t t o t h e f a m i ly . The money w e n t t o t h e g r o u p s . And t h e r e ' s t h e p r o b le m . W e've g o t a w h o le b u r e u c r a c y . . .a n d y o u t r y t o i n t e r f e r e w it h t h a t . . .

B a r a k a : G et t h e m oney down t o w h er e i t ' s su p p o s e d t o doth e jo b .

F en w ick : A b s o l u t e l y , why n o t? I f t h e D r . s a y s t h a t womano u g h t t o b e a t hom e. The c o m fo r t o f hom e. I h a v e a t y p i c a l c a s e . D i a b e t i c m o th er and d a u g h te r b o rn in t h e 5 0 ' s I t h i n k . M o th e r , s e c o n d l e g a m p u ta t io n and h e r e y e s i g h t w as f a i l i n g and s h e w as i n c o n t i n e n t , t h e m o th e r . And a l l t h e d a u g h te r w as n e e d e d j u s t a l i t t l e h e lp s o s h e c o u ld g e t o u t and do m a r k e t in g , h a v e som ebod y t h e r e .

B a r a k a : In t h e lo n g ru n , t h a t ' s l e s s e x p e n s i v e , t o o .

F e n w ic k : H a lf t h e c o s t ! Would t h e y l e t i t b e? No! I ft h e r e ' s a p r o b le m , w e 'v e g o t t h e a s s i s t a n c e . And w e 'v e g o t a good CETA p rogram w h ich w as c o n d u c te d by ( i n on e c a s e ) w i t h t h e a g r e e m e n t o f t h e u n io n , and t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n c o m p a n ie s and t h e B ureau o f A p p r e n t ic e s h ip and T r a in in g . And when t h e y f i n i s h e d t h a t c o u r s e , th e y w ou ld g e t t h e f i n i s h e d p rogram , t h e t i c k e t . T hat w as m oney in t h e b ank . M ost c e r t a i n l y i t h e lp e d . The o t h e r s e c t i o n w as d i f f e r e n t p e o p le who d i d n ' t w an t t o go i n t o th e s k i l l e d t r a d e s . T hat was o r g a n iz e d w i t h t h e com m unity c o l l e g e and t h e c o m p a n ie s i n v o lv e d . T hey d e v i s e d t o g e t h e r a c u r r ic u lu m . The p e o p le who p a s s e d , g o t $ 1 0 ,0 0 0 . Now, t h a t w o r k e d , b u t t h e y d o n ' t r e a l l y l i k e t h a t .


Appendix B

L i s t e n e r ' s Notes

246


247FACTORS IDENTIFIED BY INDEPENDENT LISTENERS— I n t e r v ie w ta p e s

b i r t h o r d e r g r a n d p a r e n ts c o m m u n ic a t io n / t a lk a t iv e c h i ld h o o d l e a d e r s h i p p a r e n t a l e x p e c t a t i o n s s c h o o l s y s te ma d u l t c o n f id e n c e in c h i l d r e a r i n g i n t e l l i g e n c e m easu rem en t ( What a g e ? )v e r b a l a s s e s s m e n t s o f i n t e l l i g e n c e — p a r e n t s , t e a c h e r s ,o t h e r s e a r l y r a c i a l e n v ir o n m e n t— p r e d o m in a n t lyB la c k ,w h i t e , m u l t i - c o l o r d i s c r i m i n a t i o np e e r s a t t i t u d e s to w a r d s i n t e l l e c t u a l a b i l i t i e sr o l e m o d e ls — l i v i n g , h i s t o r i c a lt e a c h e r g u id a n c e / e x p e c t a t io n sf a m i ly g o a l sf a m i ly m e s s a g e s r e : g o a l sid e a s a b o u t b e a u t y / s e l f - c o n c e p tf o r c e o f c h a r a c t e rb r i b e s o f f e r e de n e r g y ( h e r e d i t y )s t r i v i n g f o r f a t h e r ' s a t t e n t i o nf e i s t y , a r g u m e n t a t iv em o th e r r e w a r d in g i n t e l l i g e n c em o t h e r 's f a v o r i t el a t e b lo o m erf e a r , d e p e n d e n c yu n d e r s to o d m o th e r , b u t n o t - w i f e r o l e d o m e s t ic h e lpla g g e d b e h in d o t h e r s i b l i n g s b e c a u s e o f a g e and s t a g e o f

d e v e lo p m e n t tu r n e d t o b o o k s b e c a u s e s h e c o u ld e x c e l s c h o o l g o o d e x p e r i e n c ein v o lv e m e n t w i t h o t h e r c h i l d r e n — b a b y s i t t i n g r e j e c t i o n o f d o m e s t ic r o l e o f w i f e and m o th e r in e a r l y y e a r s s o c i a l c o n c e r n s ( c h i l d r e n / p o v e r t y / e q u a l i t y ) s m a l l c l o s e c i r c l e o f f r i e n d s h ig h s c h o o l t e a c h e r sj o in e d s o r o r i t y f o r s o c i a l a c c e p t a n c e d e c id e d on c a r e e r in l a t e 2 0 s w orked f o r p o w e r fu l men and f e l t d e p e n d e n t p s y c h o a n a 1y s i se n c o u n te r e d w o r ry a b o u t h a v in g a woman a t h ea d o f

o r g a n i z a t i o n (CTW) h app y in a s s i s t a n t r o l e n e e d e d t o b e t h e b e s t a t e v e r y t h in g r e l i g i o n a s an i n f lu e n c e t o h e lp o t h e r s o p p o r t u n i t i e s and w h at i s d on e w i t h th e m (lu c k ) w o r k in g m o th e rh o o d — b u d g e t in gl e a d e r s h i p — n o t e l i t e / T o l s t o y q u o t e / f o r g e t y o u r s e l f /k n e w s h e

w as b r i g h t , b u t u s e s " b ra in " a s a d e r o g a t o r y term


248l i f e g i v e s you s e l f - d i s c i p l i n e — grow n woman b e f o r e s h e

r e a l i z e dD u ty — F a t h e r /a m an 's word i s h i s b o n d , m o th e r d ie d when s h e

was f i v e no s e l f - p i t y a c c e p t o p p o r t u n i t i e s b e t t e r t o t r y and f a i lwomen a r e m ore p r a g m a t ic , men a r e v i s i o n a r ywomen a r e n o t m ore h o n e s s t , t h e y j u s t a r e n o t i n p o s i t i o no f

a u t h o r i t yw orked w ith a l o t o f women a s p e e r s f o r 14 y e a r s in t h e

p u b l i s h i n g b u s i n e s s l i f e member NAACP CHILDHOOD- v a l u e o f e d u c a t io n from p a r e n t s- c h i l d r e n s e n t t o t h e W. I n d ie s w h i le p a r e n t s work - t a l k a t i v e , d a r i n g , b r in g g ro u p t o g e t h e r - d i s c i p l i n e in s c h o o l , f a m ily in le a g u e w i t h t h e s c h o o l -g r a n d m o th e r k e p t s a y in g s h e w ou ld b e so m e b o d y ; e n c o u r a g e m e n t ,

s e e in g p o t e n t i a l SCHOOL- b o r e d , n o t c h a l l e n g e d RACE- f i r s t t im e a t 10 1 /2 in t h e U .S .- d e c id e d t o "show" p e o p le - d e c id e d t o e x c e l - a lw a y s b een a bookworm - l o v e d d a n c in g - t im e i n l i b r a r y- t o l d s h e c o u ld b e a t e a c h e r o r a n u r s eROLE MODELS- H a r r i e t Tubman- E le a n o r R o o s e v e l t-S o j o u r n e r T ru th- f a t h e r u n d e r s to o d , a lm o s t w o r sh ip p e d h e r-m o th e r t r a d i t i o n a l- s i n g le - m i n d e d , s tu b b o r nLEADERSHIP- t h r u s t upon h e r- c o m b in a t io n o f s e v e r a l q u a l i t i e s : i n t e l l e c t u a l , p e r s u a s i v e ,

c h a r i s m a t ic , com m itm ent - I am w hat I am b e c a u s e o f c o n f id e n c e in m y s e lf and my r e l a t i o n s h i p w ith God

b ir t h o r d e r , c o n s t a n t l y s t r i v i n g t o k e e p up w it h b r o t h e r and

s i s t e r- e n e r g y , c a p a c i t y , m o t iv a t io n a s g e n e t i c f a c t o r s - s t r i v e d t o g e t f a t h e r ' s a t t e n t i o n and a p p r o v a l and d id n o t


su c c e e d-m o th e r t r e a t e d h e r a s a s o n in many w ays -b r o u g h t up by m o th e r t o b e d e p e n d e n t— b aby o f t h e f a m ily -m o th e r i n f lu e n c e s t r o n g — " d o n ’ t en d up t h e way I d id — h o u s e

w ife " s h e h a te d h o u se w o rk and k e p t JGC aw ay from th e h ou sew ork s c e n e - l a t e b lo o m e r , m a r r ie d a t 34- p a r e n t s had d o m e s t ic h e lp in 1 9 3 0 s — c l o s e t o them ; t h e y t a u g h t h e r in d e p e n d e n c e , g r e a t i n f l u e n c e , ( t i e s h o e s ) - f i e s t y , a r g u m e n t a t iv e , b r ig h t a s a c h i l d - i n e p t p h y s i c a l l y com pared t o o l d e r s i b l i n g s — tu r n e d t o

r e a d in g , i n t e l l e c t u a l p u r s u i t s , w o r ld o f id e a s - n o t g iv e n r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s e a r l y ; " b r i l i a n t a t a v o id in g work" - i n s c h o o l , a f a v o r i t e o f t h e t e a c h e r , s c h o o l a good e x p e r ie n c e- e a r l y i n t e r e s t in b a b ie s ( 6 - 9 y e a r s o l d )-m a jo r e d in c o l l e g e i n e a r l y c h i ld h o o d e d u c a t io n , b u t d id n o t w ant t o t e a c h , w a n te d t o do w h at men d id - l o s t i n t e r e s t in r a i s i n g c h i l d r e n-b ec a m e i n t e r e s t e d i n p o v e r t y , w a n t in g t o do s o m e th in g in c o m p e n sa to r y e d u c a t io n-g o o d r e l a t i o n s h i p s d u r in g t e e n y e a r s ; 2 -3 b e s t s o r o r i t y f r i e n d s in c o l l e g e .-h a d s t e a d y b o y f r ie n d s - m o r e o r d e r ly t h a t way - a f f e c t e d by 2 o r 3 t e a c h e r s in h ig h s c h o o l — id e a l i s m r e g a r d in g p o o r p e o p le ( n o n e in c o l l e g e )- m o th e r : p o o r g i r l s a t t i t u d e to w a rd s o c i a l a c c e p t a b i l i t y , a s t r i v e r . W anted h e r g i r l s t o l e a r n how t o f i t in - c a r e e r d e v e lo p e d b e g in n in g in l a t e 2 0 s -w o rk ed f o r p o w e r fu l men who h e lp e d h e r g e t a jo b - s o u g h t o u t jo b in t e l e v i s i o n-m et husb and who w as in c o n t a c t w i t h s o c i a l p r o g r a m s -g o t i n t e r e s t e d in c h i l d r e n a g a in-h a d a p e r s o n a l f r i e n d in C a r n e g ie , becam e e x e c u t i v e d i r e c t o r o f S esam e S t r e e t , w i t h t h e a g r e e m e n t t h a t i t w ou ld s p l i t from NET i f i t w as s u c c e s s f u l - n e v e r had t o s t r u g g l e f o r p o s i t o n , a l t h o u g h p r e j u d ic e a g a i n s t women w orked a g a i n s t h e r e a r l y , i t w o u ld n 't b e a c o n c e r n now-m o st a d m ired E le a n o r R o o s e v e l t- a v o id e d m a r r ia g e a s a t h r e a t t o d e v e lo p m e n t- i n n e r m o t iv a t io n s t r o n g w i t h e v e n m undane t h i n g s — f e e l sa lw a y s m ust do t h i n g s w e l l- f e e l s a woman b o s s i s n a t u r a l s i n c e p e o p le grow up w ithwomen a s b o s s- C h r i s t i a n i t y a b ig i n f lu e n c e on d o in g s o m e th in g f o r o t h e r s , b e l i e f t h a t s h e ow ed,- f e e l s women s h o u ld g e t c a r e e r g o in g th e n h a v e c h i l d r e n-h u sb a n d m ust h a v e a c h ie v e d s ta r d o m in h i s own r i g h t -women r e v e r t t o p a s s i v e r o l e when p u t t o g e t h e r w i t h men - lu c k y in h a v in g m a le m e n to r s F en w ick :- i n f l u e n c e d by r e a d in g


250- f a m i ly d e m o n s tr a te d no p r e j u d ic e- a t 1 3 , h i s t o r y t e a c h e r w as a m o t iv a t in g f o r c e- g o o d s t u d e n t- d e f e r r e d i n t e r e s t in a r c h a e o lo g y a f t e r f i r s t c h i l d w as b orn - h a s n o t t r u s t e d go v er n m en t s i n c e H i t l e r - a t t e n d e d b o a r d in g s c h o o l- s c h o o l s t r e s s e d c h a r a c t e r :h o n e s t y , r e l i a b i l i t y , s e n s e o f d u t y , r e s p o n s i b i l i t y-w a s n o t e x p o s e d t o w r o n g s t h a t e x i s t e d in t h i s c o u n tr y - s i s t e r c l o s e s t f a m i ly r e l a t i o n- l e f t h ig h s c h o o l a t 15 w i th o u t d ip lo m a , l i v e d in S p a in , h in d e r e d c a r e e r-m o th e r h o o d and w o r k in g d i f f i c u l t- b e in g a " b ra in " in s c h o o l w as s e e n a s a n e g a t i v e i n h e r g e n e r a t i o n .LEADERSHIP DEFINITIONS:i n t e l l e c t u a l , p e r s u a s i v e , c h a r is m a , co m m u n ic a t io n a b i l i t y -m a n a g e s t o e x p r e s s w h at a l a r g e num ber o f p e o p le f e e l in a c l e a r , c r i s p m anner-c o m m u n ic a tio n i s t h e : " s in e qua non" o f l e a d e r s h i p — m ust b e a b le t o c o m u n ic a te t o p e o p le w hat you t h in k t h e y s n o u ld b e d o in g and g e t them t o a g r e e w i t h you - i n f l u e n c e , n o t demand ADVICE TO YOUNG WOMEN:-y o u ca n h a v e i t a l l , b u t y o u 'r e w rong i f you t h in k youca n h a v e i t e a s i l y ; d o n ' t l e a v e a b aby a t home; w a i t f o rm a r r ia g e i f you w ant a c a r e e r- e v e r y i n d i v i d u a l h a s p o t e n t i a l ; s e t o b j e c t i v e s and g o a l s and p u r s u e them- g e t y o u r c a r e e r g o in g th e n h a v e c h i l d r e n and t a k e a fe w y e a r s o f f . Do n o t b e a r you ng i f you w ant a c a r e e r ; y o u r h usb and m ust h a v e a c h ie v e d s ta r d o m on h i s own r i g h t- g e t a s e n s e o f v a l u e s and s t i c k t o them - l e a r n s e l f - d i s c i p l i n e- d e v e lo p a f o r c e o f c h a r a c t e r t h a t no o n e ca n t a k e away - k e e p s h ip on c o u r s e-k n ow you ca n do w hat you d o n ' t w ant t o do- f o r g e t y o u r s e l f , do n o t p r a c t i c e s e l f - p i t y- d o n ' t l e t y o u r e n e r g i e s b e f r i t t e r e d a w a y . C h art y o u rc o u r s e and s t i c k t o i t . 90% o f p e o p le t o l d h e r s h e wasg o in g in t h e w rong d i r e c t i o n- b e t t e r t o t r y and f a i l th a n n o t t o t r y a t a l l


Appendix C

Ques t i onnai r e


252SURVEY

"The G row th and D e v e lo p m en t o f S u c c e s s f u l Women L e a d e r s : An E x a m in a t io n o f C o n t r ib u t in g F a c t o r s and R a c ia l C om p arison s"

PERSONAL INFORMATION

O r g a n i z a t i o n ,

P r o f e s s i o n1 ) e d u c a t io n [ ]2 ) b u s i n e s s [ ]3 ) g o v er n m en t [ j

4 ) human s e r v i c e s [ ]5 ) o t h e r _

( p l e a s e s p e c i f y )

FAMILY AND CHILDHOOD

1 How many s i s t e r s and b r o t h e r s h a v e y o u had?1) s i s t e r s2) b r o t h e r s

2 Among t h e a g e s o f t h e c h i l d r e n in y o u r f a m i l y , w e re you1 ) f i r s t b o r n ? [ ]

2 ) s e v e n o r m ore y e a r s y o u n g e r th a n t h e c h i l d b e f o r e y o u ? ! ]

3 ) in an e x p e r i e n c e w h ic h c r e a t e d a p o s i t i o n s i m i l a r t o f i r s t b o r n

o r o n ly c h i l d ? [ ]

4 ) m id d le ? [ ] 5 ) y o u n g e s t? [ ]

6 ) o n ly [ ] 7 ) orp h a n [ ]

3 How w o u ld y o u d e s c r ib e t h e f a m ily g ro u p i n w h ic h y o u w e re r a i s e d ?

l ) ( t w o p a r e n t s , c h i l d r e n ) t r a d i t i o n a l n u c le a r [ ]

2 ) (tw o p a r e n t s , c h i l d r e n ,g r a n d p a r e n t s o r o t h e r r e l a t i v e s )3 ) t r a d i t i o n a l e x t e n d e d ! ]

4 ) s i n g l e p a r e n t ! ]5 ) l e g a l g u a r d ia n ! ]

6 ) n o n - p a r e n t a l r e l a t i v e s ! ]7 ) o t h e r ____________________________



4 . What w as y o u r f a m i l y ' s e c o n o m ic in c o m e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n ?1 ) u p p e r [ ]

2 ) m id d le [ ]3 ) l o w e r [ j

5 . What i s t h e h ig h e s t e d u c a t i o n a l l e v e l a c h ie v e d by y o u & y o u r p a r e n t s ?

y o u m o th e r f a t h e r1 ) e le m e n t a r y2 ) h ig h s c h o o l3 ) c o l l e g e4 ) g r a d u a te d e g r e e

5 ) p o s t g r a d u a t e d e g r e e

[]U[][][]

6 . D id b o th y o u r p a r e n t s w ork w hen y o u w e r e a t s c h o o l a g e ?1 ) y e s [ ]2 ) no [ ]

7 . P l e a s e s p e c i f y y o u r p a r e n t s ' o c c u p a t i o n s d u r in g y o u r c h i ld h o o d .

1 m o th e r______________________________2 f a t h e r __________

8 . D id y o u r f a m i ly h i r e d o m e s t ic h e lp w hen y o u w e r e a c h i l d ?1 ) y e s [ ]2) n o [ ]

9 . D id y o u f e e l lo v e d b y y o u r p a r e n t s a s a c h i l d ? l ) y e s [ ]2 ) n o [ ]

1 0 . D id y o u f e e l s p e c i a l i n t h e e y e s o f y o u r p a r e n t s o r o t h e r im p o r ta n t a d u l t s ? ( c h e c k a l l t h a t a p p ly )

\ 1 ) m o t h e r [ ]2 ) f a t h e r [ ]

3 ) g r a n d f a t h e r [ ]4 ) g r a n d m o th e r [ ]

5 ) a u n t [ ]6 ) u n c l e [ ]

7 ) o t h e r _________________( p l e a s e s p e c i f y )

1 1 . How d id y o u r f a m i ly re w a r d e f f o r t an d a c h ie v e m e n t? (C heck a l l t h a t a p p ly )

1 ) a t t e n t i o n and c e l e b r a t i o n s M2 ) p r a i s e [ J

3 ) p r i v i l e g e s [ ]4 ) m o n ey [ ]

5 ) a s a m a t t e r - o f - c o u r s e e x p e c t a t i o n ! ]6 ) i n d i f f e r e n c e ! ]

7 ) c o l d - s h o u l d e r i n g ! 58 ) e n v y ! ]

9 ) h o s t i l i t y [ ]


1 2 . Was y o u r i n t e l l i g e n c e f o r m a l ly t e s t e d a s a c h i l d ?1 ) y e s [ ]2) n o [ ]

1 3 . I f y e s , w as i t 1 ) b e lo w a v e r a g e [ ]2 ) a v e r a g e [ j

3 ) a b o v e a v e r a g e [ ]4 ) g e n i u s [ ]

1 4 . I f y o u had t o p ic k o n e , w h ich o f th e f o l l o w i n g w o u ld b e s t d e s c r ib e p a r e n t a l / im p o r t a n t a d u l t a t t i t u d e s i n y o u r u p b r in g in g ?

1) P a r e n t s d id m ost o f th e s e l e c t i o n o f a c t i v i t i e s

o r p u r s u i t s ! ]

2) P a r e n t s l e t t h e i r c h i l d r e n p u r su e s e l f - s e l e c t e d

i n t e r e s t s [ ]

1 5 . W hich do y o u rem em ber a s t h e s t r o n g e r s o c i e t a l m e ssa g e a s y o u w e re g r o w in g up?

1) You m ust e x c e l in s c h o o l and o u t s i d e p u r s u i t s t o p r e p a r e

f o r y o u r f u t u r e c a r e e r [ ]

2 ) You m u st make y o u r s e l f d e s i r a b l e en o u g h t o a t t r a c t

a g o o d h u sb an d [ ]

1 6 . D id y o u r f a t h e r t h in k o f y o u a s fe m in in e o r a s a s u b s t i t u t e f o r a so n ? 1) f e m in in e [ ]

2 ) s o n s u b s t i t u t e t ]3 ) f e m in in e and s o n s u b s t l t u t e [ ]

1 7 .D id y o u s h a r e i n t e r e s t s and a c t i v i t i e s w i t h y o u r f a t h e r t h a t w e r e t r a d i t i o n a l l y f a t h e r / s o n p u r s u i t s ? l ) y e s t ]

2) n o [ ]

1 8 . D id y o u s h a r e I n t e r e s t s and a c t i v i t i e s w i t h y o u r m o th er t h a t w e r e t r a d i t i o n a l l y m o t h e r /d a u g h te r p u r s u i t s ?

1 ) y e s [ ]2) n o t ]

1 9 . D id y o u p a r t i c i p a t e i n team s p o r t s a s a c h i l d ?1 ) y e s [ ]2) n o [ ]


(1 4 — 1 7) 1 1 8 — 21.1 j a i l 2 0 3Y e s ( ] y e s [ ] y e s [ ]

no U no [ ] no [ ]

f a v o r i t e ?y e s [ ] y e s [ ] y e s [ ]

no [ ] no [ ] no [ ]

f a v o r i t e ?y e s [ ] y e s [ ] y e s [J

no [ ] no [ ] no [ ]

DIRECTIONS: F o r t h e f o l l o w i n g q u e s t i o n s , p l e a s e r e s p o n d f o r e v e r y a g e p e r i o d .

2 0 . As y o u w e r e g r o w in g up d id y o u f e e l t h a t y o u r p a r e n t s w e re c o n f i d e n t a b o u t t h e i r m e th o d s o f c h i l d r e a r i n g ?

( 6 — 9 ) (1 0 — 1 3 )y e s [ ] y e s [ ]

no [ ] no [ ]

2 1 . Were y o u y o u r m o th e r y e s [ ] y e s [ ]

no [ ] n o [ ]

2 2 . W ere you y o u r f a t h e r ' s f a v o r i t e ? y e s [ ] y e s [ ] y e s [ ]

no [ ] no [ ] no [ ]

2 3 . Were y o u y o u r g r a n d m o th e r 's f a v o r i t e ? ( m a te r n a l o'r p a t e r n a l )

y e s [ ] y e s [ ] y e s [ ] y e s [ ] y e s [ ]no [ ] no [ ] no [ ] no [ ] no [ ]

2 4 . W ere y o u y o u r g r a n d f a t h e r ' s f a v o r i t e ? ( m a te r n a l o r p a t e r n a l )


2 5 . D id y o u h a v e h o u s e h o ld d u t i e s a s a c h i l d ?y e s [ ] y e s [ ] y e s [ ] y e s [ ] y e s [ ]

no [ ] no [ ] no [ ] no ( ] no [ ]

2 6 . D id y o u h a v e a j o b o u t s i d e t h e home a s a c h i l d ?y e s ( ] y e s [ ] y e s [ ] y e s [ ] y e s [ ]

no [ ] no [ ] n o [ ] no [ ] no [ ]

2 7 . A re t h e r e f a m i l y a n e c d o t e s a b o u t e a r l y s i g n s o f y o u r l e a d e r s h i p a b i l i t i e s ?

y e s [ ] y e s [ ] y e s [ ] y e s [ ] y e s [ ]n o [ ] no [ ] no [ ] no [ ] no [ ]

2 8 . Do y o u r e c a l l f a m i l y m em bers d e s c r i b i n g y o u a s " sm art" " i n t e l l i g e n t " o r " b r ig h t" ?

y e s [ ] y e s [ ] y e s [ ] y e s [ ] y e s [ ]no [ ] no [ ] no ( ] no [ ] no [ ]

2 9 . D id y o u h a v e l i v i n g , f e m a le r o l e m o d e ls t o lo o k up t o a s a c h i l d ?y e s [ ] y e s [ ] y e s [ ] y e s [ ] y e s [ ]

no [ ] no [ ] no [ ] no [ ] no [ ]


256

( 6 — 9) (1 0 — 13) (1 4 — 17) ( 1 8 — 2 1) ( a l l a g e s )

3 0 . D id yo u h a v e h i s t o r i c a l o r c e l e b r i t y r o l e m o d e ls t o lo o k up t o a s a c h i ld ?


3 1 . Was t h e r e e v e r a t im e when y o u p r e f e r r e d t h e com pany o f men t o women?


DIRECTIONS: F or t h e f o l l o w i n g q u e s t i o n s , p l e a s e c h e c k ( )j u s t o n e a g e p e r io d .

3 2 . At w hat a g e d id y o u d e c id e upon a c a r e e r ?(a g e 2 — 5 v r s ) ( 6 — 9) (1 0 — 13) (1 4 — 1 7) ( 1 8 — 21)

[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]

3 3 . A t w hat a g e d id y o u becom e aw are o f d i f f e r e n t r o l e e x p e c t a t i o n s f o r g i r l s and b o y s?( a g e 2— 5 v r s ) ( 6 — 9 ) ( 1 0 — 13) ( 1 4 — 1 7) ( 1 3 — 2 1 )

[ ] U [ ] [ ] [ ]

3 4 . A t w h at a g e d id y o u becom e c o n s c io u s o f y o u r r a c i a l i d e n t i t y ?l a g e 2— 5 v r s ) ( 6 — 9 ) (1 0 — 13) ( 1 4 — 1 7) (1 8 — 2 1 )

[ ] [ ] [ ] M []


257DIRECTIONS: F or e a c h o f t h e f o l l o w i n g q u e s t i o n s p l e a s e c h e c k ( ) o n e b e s t r e s p o n s e .

3 5 . W hich i s t h e b e s t d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e r a c i a l e n v ir o n m e n t o f y o u r e a r l y y e a r s ? ( b i r t h th r o u g h e a r l y e le m e n ta r y s c h o o l )

1 ) P r e d o m in a n t ly W h ite [ ]2 ) P r e d o m in a n t ly B la c k [ ]

3 ) C o m p le t e ly i n t e g r a t e d [ ]4 ) M u l t i - r a c i a l [ ]

3 6 . As a c h i l d w e r e y o u m o st l i k e l y t o e x c e l in w h ic h o f t h e f o l l o w i n g a r e a s ?

1 ) b o o k s & s t u d i e s [ ] 2 ) p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t i e s [ ]

3 ) p e r f o r m in g a r t s [ j4 ) l e a d e r s h i p i n s c h o o l o r g a n i z a t i o n s ( ]

5 S o c i a l i z i n g [ ]

3 7 . How w o u ld y o u d e s c r i b e y o u r s c h o o l e x p e r i e n c e ?1 ) e n j o y a b le [ ]

2 ) c h a l l e n g in g [ ]3 ) n e g a t i v e l y s t r e s s f u l [ ]

4 ) b o r in g [ ]

3 8 . D id y o u s u f f e r a n y s o c i a l o r a c a d e m ic l o s s e s b e c a u s e o f y o u r a b i l i t i e s a s a c h i l d ?

1 S k i l l s s u f f e r e d [ ]2 ) p o p u l a r i t y s u f f e r e d [ ]

3 ) n o , I e n j o y e d b o th s k i l l s and p o p u l a r i t y [ ]

3 9 . P l e a s e c h e c k a l l o f t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s w h ic h y o u t h in k d e s c r ib e y o u a s a c h i l d :

1 ) t a l k a t i v e , c o m m u n ic a t iv e [2 ) f e i s t y , a r g u m e n t a t iv e [

3 ) s h y , i n t r o s p e c t i v e [4 ) d e p e n d e n t [

5 ) in d e p e n d e n t [6 ) a t h l e t i c [

7 ) c o m p e t i t i v e [8 ) lo w a c h i e v e r [

9 ) a v e r a g e a c h i e v e r [1 0 ) h ig h a c h i e v e r [

l l ) m o d e l c h i l d [ 1 2 ) p r o b le m c h i l d [


258

DIRECTIONS: F or e a c h o f t h e f o l l o w i n g q u e s t i o n s p l e a s e r e sp o n d by c h e c k in g ( ) a l l o p t i o n s t h a t a p p ly t o y o u .may c h e c k more th a n o n e .

a d o le s c e n c ew i t h in

m a r r ia g e/ c o l l e g e / / 1 s t d e c a d e /c h i ld h o o d /

4 0 .Was t h e r e a p e r io d i n y o u r l i f e when you w e r e a n g ry ?

[ ] [ ] I ] [ ] [ ]

4 1 .Was t h e r e a t im e when u n e x p r e s s e d a n g e r c a u s e d you t o b e d e p r e s s e d ?

[] [] [] [] []4 2 .Was t h e r e a t im e when y o u r a n g e r w as tr a n s f o r m e d i n t o i n i t i a t i v e and a c h ie v e m e n t?

[ ] M [ ] [ ] [ ]

4 3 . Was t h e r e a t im e w hen you w ere l i k e l y t o s t a n d y o u r g ro u n db y c o n f r o n t in g p e r c e iv e d i n j u s t i c e s ?

[] [] [] [] []4 4 .Was t h e r e a t im e w hen y o u r w i l l i n g n e s s t o c o n f r o n t g a in e d y o u g r e a t e r r e s p e c t from t h o s e aro u n d you ?

[] [] [] [] []45'.w hen d id y o u l e a r n o fg e n d e r d i f f e r e n c e s ? (c h e c k o n e )

£] [ ] £] [ ] [ ]4 6 .When d id y o u f i r s t becom e aw are o f g e n d e r r o l e r e s t r i c t i o n s ? (c h e c k o n e )

[ ] [ ] [ 1 [ 1 [ ]

4 7 . ,When d id y o u becom e a w a r e o f r a c e r e s t r i c t i o n s ? (c h e c k o n e )

[ ] U [ ] [ ] [ ]

c a r e e rm a t u r it y


259

a d o l e s c e n c ec h i l d h o o d / / c o l l e g e /

w i t h i n m a r r ia g e c a r e e r

/ 1 s t d e c a d e /

c a r e e rm a t u r it y

Was t h e r e a t im e w hen y o u w e r e e n v io u s o f th e fr e e d o m b o y s see m ed t o h a v e?

[ ] [ ] [ ] U [ ]

Was t h e r e a t im e w hen y o u w e r e c l o s e r t o y o u r f a t h e r th a n t o y o u r m o th er?

[ ] [ J [ ] [ ] [ ]

Was t h e r e a t im e when y o u e x p e r i e n c e d a p e r io d o f c o n f l i c t w i t h y o u r m o th e r?

[ ] [ ] £] M [ ]

Was t h e r e a t im e when y o u e x p e r i e n c e d a p e r io d o f c o n f l i c t w i t h y o u r f a t h e r ?

Was t h e r e a t im e w hen y o u e m u la te d m a le r o l e m o d e ls ?

[ ] * [ ] I ]

Was t h e r e a t im e when y o u e m u la te d f e m a le r o l e m o d e ls ?

□ £] £] [ ] [ ]

5 4 .Was t h e r e a t im e w hen y o u d i s l i k e d t h e com pany o f t r a d i t i o n a l women?

[] H [] [] []55 .Was t h e r e a t im e when y o u w e r el i k e l y t o a c c e p t o r g a n i z a t i o n s / i n s t i t u t i o n sa s t h e y w e re?

[ ] £] [ ] £] [ ]

5 6 .Was t h e r e a t im e w hen y o u w e r el i k e l y t o t r y t o c h a n g e o r g a n i z a t i o n s /i n s t i t u t i o n s ?

[ ] [3 £] £] [ ]


260w i t h i n c a r e e r

a d o le s c e n c e m a r r ia g e c a r e e r m a t u r it y c h i l d h o o d / / c o l l e g e / / 1 s t d e c a d e / / n e v e r

5 7 .A t w hat a g e d id y o u b e g in t o e x p e c t t o w ork t o s u p p o r t y o u r s e l f ? (c h e c k o n e )

[] [] [] [] [] [] []

5 8 .A t w hat a g e d id y o u b e g in t o t h in k o f m a r r ia g e ? ( c h e c k o n e )

[] [] [] [] [] [] []5 9 .A t w h ich p o in t d idy ou c o n s c i o u s ly c h o o s e t od e la y y o u r p e r s o n a l l i f e g o a l st o a d v a n c e i n y o u r c a r e e r ? (c h e c k o n e )

[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]

6 0 .A t w hat a g e d id y o u make a c o n s c io u s com m itm ent t o r e a c h f o r t h e t o p l e v e l s o f y o u r c h o s e n f i e l d ? (c h e c k o n e )

[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]

6 1 .Was t h e r e a t im e w hen y o u e n c o u n te r e d d i s c r i m i n a t i o n b e c a u s e o f g e n d e r ?

[] [] [] [] [] [] []6 2 .Was t h e r e a t im e w hen y o u e n c o u n te r e d d i s c r i m i n a t i o n b e c a u s e o f r a c e ?

[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]

6 3 .Was t h e r e a t im e w hen y o u w e re d e l i b e r a t e l y p la c e d in an " im p o s s ib le " s i t u a t i o n w h ic h w as d e s ig n e d t o d e m o n s tr a te y o u r " i n a b i l i t y ? "

[] (] N [] [] [] []( I f you a n sw e r e d no t o q u e s t i o n 6 3 , p l e a s e s k ip q u e s t i o n 6 4 . )

6 4 .D id y o u tr iu m p h o v e r i t ?

D y e s [ ]2 ) no [ ]


COLLEGE YEARS

6 5 . D id y o u g o t o c o l l e g e ?D y e s [ ]

2 ) no [ ]( I f y o u r a n sw e r i s no p l e a s e s k ip t o q u e s t i o n 7 3 )

6 6 . A t w h at a g e d id y o u b e g in c o l l e g e ? ____________________________

6 7 . Had y o u d e c id e d u pon a c a r e e r o r c o u r s e o f s t u d y b e f o r e y o u e n t e r e d c o l l e g e ?

D y e s [ ]2 ) no [ ]

6 8 . What w as y o u r u n d e r g r a d u a t e c o u r s e o f s t u d y ?1 ) b u s i n e s s [ ]

2 ) e d u c a t io n [ ]3 ) f i n e a r t s [ ]

4 ) e n g i n e e r in g (j5 ) l i b e r a l a r t s [ ]

6 ) s c i e n c e & m ath ( ]7 ) o t h e r [J


6 9 . D id y o u g o t o g r a d u a t e s c h o o l ? ( I f no s k ip t o q u e s t i o n 73)D y e s [ ]

2 ) no [ ]7 0 . What w as y o u r g r a d u a t e c o u r s e o f s t u d y ?

1) b u s i n e s s [ ]2 ) e d u c a t io n [ ]3 ) f i n e a r t s [ ]

4 ) e n g i n e e r in g [ ]5 ) l i b e r a l a r t s [ j

6 ) s c i e n c e & m ath [ j7 ) o t h e r [ ]


7 1 . In c o l l e g e d id y o u f e e l c l o s e s t t o1 ) men [ ]

2 ) women [ ]3 )b o t h [ ]

4 ) n e i t h e r [ ]

7 2 . D id y o u p le d g e t o a s o r o r i t y ?D y e s [ ]

2 ) no [ j

7 3 . W ere y o u r p a r e n t s s u p p o r t i v e o f y o u r c a r e e r c h o ic e ?1 ) y e s ( ]

2 ) no [ ]


262FI RST CAREER DECADE

7 4 . At w h at a g e d id y o u s t a r t y o u r c a r e e r ? _______________________

7 5 . W hich o f t h e f o l l o w i n g b e s t d e s c r ib e s t h e m eans by w h ich you g o t y o u r f i r s t c a r e e r jo b ? (c h e c k o n e )

l ) y o u r own i n i t i a t i v e [ ]2 ) p la c e m e n t s e r v i c e ! ]

3 ) f a t h e r ' s c o n n e c t io n s []4 ) m o t h e r 's c o n n e c t io n s ! ]

5 ) f r i e n d s o f f a m i l y ! ]6 ) p e r s o n a l f r i e n d ! ]

7 ) jo b s p e c i a l l y c r e a t e d ! ]8 ) m e n t o r 's c o n n e c t io n s [ ]

9 ) h u s b a n d ' s c o n n e c t i o n s [ ]

7 6 . Was y o u r f i r s t jo b a t e n t r y l e v e l o r a b o v e?1 ) e n t r y l e v e l [ ]2 ) s u p e r v i s o r y [ ]

3 ) m id d le m an agem en t[ ]4 ) u p p er m an agem en t[ ]

5 ) e x e c u t i v e l e v e l [ j

7 7 . How s o o n w as y o u r move t o t h e n e x t l e v e l ?l ) L e s s t h a n a y e a r [ ]

2) 1 -3 y e a r s [ ]3 ) 4 - 6 y e a r s [ j4 ) 7 - 1 0 y e a r s [ ]

5 ) m ore th a n t e n y e a r s [•]

7 8 . W hich b e s t d e s c r i b e s t h e a t t i t u d e o f y o u r f i r s t b o s s to w a r d s y o u ? ( c h e c k o n e )

1 ) m e n to r [ ]2 ) s u p p o r t e r ! ]

3 ) i n d i f f e r e n t ! ]4 ) a n t a g o n i s t i c [ ]

7 9 . When d id y o u r e c e i v e y o u r f i r s t t i t l e and r e s p o n s i b i l i t y c h a n g e?

l ) l e s s th a n a y e a r [ ]2 ) 1 - 3 y e a r s [ ]3 ) 4 - 6 y e a r s ! 3

4 ) 7 - 1 0 y e a r s ! ]5 ) m ore th a n t e n y e a r s [ j

8 0 . When d id y o u r e c e i v e y o u r f i r s t s a l a r y i n c r e a s e ?t 1 ) l e s s th a n a y e a r ! ]

2) 1 -3 y e a r s f ]3) 4 - 6 y e a r s f ]

4) 7 -1 0 y e a r s ! ]5) m ore th a n t e n y e a r s [ ]


263

8 1 . A t w h a t p o in t w e r e y o u t h e o n ly woman e m p lo y e d a t t h a t l e v e l i n y o u r o r g a n i z a t i o n ?

1 ) e n t r y l e v e l [ ]2 ) s u p e r v i s o r y [ ]

3 ) m id d le m a n a g e m e n t[]4 ) u p p e r m a n a g em en t[ ]

5 ) e x e c u t i v e l e v e l [ ]6 ) n e v e r [ j

8 2 . A t w h a t p o in t w e r e y o u t h e o n ly B la c k p e r s o n e m p lo y e d a t t h a t l e v e l i n y o u r o r g a n i z a t i o n ?

1 ) e n t r y l e v e l [ ]2 ) s u p e r v i s o r y [ j

3 ) m id d le m a n a g em en t[ ]4 ) u p p e r m a n a g em en t[ j

5 ) e x e c u t i v e l e v e l [ ]6 ) n e v e r [ ]

8 3 . D id y o u e v e r s e e y o u r s e l f a s p o s s i b l y b e c o m in g p r e s i d e n t o f y o u r o r g a n i z a t i o n ?

1 ) y e s [ ]2) n o [ ]

8 4 . D id /d o y o u h a v e a m e n to r d u r in g t h e f i r s t d e c a d e o f y o u r c a r e e r ?

1 )n o m e n t o r [ ]2 ) W h ite man m e n t o r [ j

3 ) W h ite woman m e n t o r [ ]4 ) B la c k man m e n t o r [ j

5 ) B la c k woman m e n t o r [ j

8 5 . D e s c r ib e y o u r s o c i a l a c t i v i t i e s o u t s i d e o f w ork d u r in g y o u r f i r s t c a r e e r d e c a d e .

1 )n o s o c i a l l i f e [ ]2 )m o s t w e r e j o b - r e l a t e d a c t i v i t i e s [ ]3 ) m o st a c t i v i t i e s u n r e l a t e d t o j o b [ ]

8 6 . W hich o f t h e f o l l o w i n g d e s c r i b e s t h e a t t i t u d e s o f y o u r m a le s u b o r d i n a t e s to w a r d s you ?

1 ) c o o p e r a t i v e [ ]2 ) c o l d l y p r o f e s s i o n a l [ ]

3 ) i n d i f f e r e n t [ ]4 ) i n s u b o r d i n a t e [ ]

5 ) u n d e r m in in g [ ]


2648 7 . Have y o u e v e r b e e n s e x u a l l y h a r a s s e d on th e jo b ?

1 ) y e s [ ]2) n o [ ]

8 8 . How o f t e n d id y o u c h a n g e c o m p a n ie s in p u r s u i t o f c a r e e r ad v a n c em e n t d u r in g t h e f i r s t d e c a d e ?

1) o n c e [ ]2) 3 t i m e s ! ]3) 4 t i m e s ! ]4) S t i m e s ! ]

5 ) m ore th a n 5 t i m e s ! ]

8 9 . How w ou ld you d e s c r ib e y o u r c a r e e r s t y l e ? (C heck a l l t h a t a p p ly )

1) d i r e c t ! ]2 ) f a c t u a l [ j

3 ) b u s i n e s s and t a s k o r i e n t e d ! ]4 ) e m o t i o n a l l y d i s t a n t ! ]5 )m in im iz e f e m i n i n i t y ! ]

6 )m in im iz e r a c e [ ]7 ) c o n s e r v a t i v e d r e s s - f o r - s u c c e s s (M a llo y ) w a r d r o b e ! ]

8 ) c o n s e r v a t i v e d r e s s w i t h fe m in in e t o u c h e s ! ]9 ) f e m in in e d r e s s [ ]

1 0 ) h a rd d r i v i n g , a g g r e s s i v e ! ]1 1 ) a s s e r t i v e [ ]

12 ) v i s i b l e ! ] 1-3)p e r s u a s i v e ! ] 14) c o m b a t iv e ! ]

1 5 ) warm and n u r t u r in g ! ] 1 6 ) f r i e n d l y ! ]

9 0 . W hich w e re m ore c o m f o r t a b le r e l a t i o n s h i p s on y o u r f i r s t c a r e e r - r e l a t e d jo b ?

1 ) p e e r r e l a t i o n s ! ]2 ) b o s s r e l a t i o n s ! ]

9 1 . W hich o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e g a v e y o u t h e b e s t a d v a n t a g e s i n y o u r c a r e e r c lim b ?

1 ) fo r m a l s t r u c t u r e ! ]2 ) in f o r m a l s t r u c t u r e ! ]

9 2 . W hich b e s t d e s c r ib e s y o u r s u b o r d in a t e s ' w i l l i n g n e s s t o f o l l o w y o u r l e a d e r s h i p ( c h e c k o n e )

1 ) l o y a l t y , t h e y i d e n t i f y w i t h y o u [ ]2 ) p r o f e s s i o n a l i s m , team w ork , d e s i r e t o a d v a n c e ! ]

3 ) i n t i m i d a t i o n , f e a r o f a u t h o r i t y ! ]


265

9 3 . W hich o f t h e f o l l o w i n g b e s t d e s c r i b e s y o u r r e a s o n s f o r a s p i r i n g t o l e a d e r s h i p ?

l ) l l k e t o c o n t r o l and d i r e c t o t h e r s [ ]2 ) e c o n o m ic s t a t u s [ ]

3 ) s o c l a l s t a t u s [ ]4 ) a d m ir a t io n [ J

5 ) a t t e n t i o n [ ]6 ) d o m i n a t i o n [ j

7 ) r e v e n g e [ jH ave y o u e x p e r i e n c e d t h e f o l l o w i n g jo b s i t u a t i o n s ?

9 4 . A d i s c u s s i o n w h e r e men a c k n o w le d g e an d b u i l d on e a c h o t h e r ' s s t a t e m e n t s w h i l e i g n o r i n g a w om an's ( y o u r s ) ?

D y e s [ ]2 ) no [ ]

9 5 . A d i s c u s s i o n w h er e W h ite men a n d /o r women a c k n o w le d g e and b u i l d on e a c h o t h e r ' s s t a t e m e n t s w h i l e i g n o r i n g a B la c k wom an' s ( y o u r s )? 1 ) y e s [ ]

2 )n o [ ]

9 6 . A D i s c u s s i o n w h e r e B la c k men a n d /o r women a c k n o w le d g e and b u i l d on e a c h o t h e r ' s s t a t e m e n t s w h i l e i g n o r i n g a W h ite w om an's ( y o u r s ) ?

D y e s [ ]2 ) no [ ]

9 7 . A s u p e r i o r ' s r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e q u a l i t y o f y o u r w ork s e r v e d a s a c a r e e r c a t a l y s t .

D y e s [ ]2 ) no [ ]

9 8 . You w e r e a h a r d w o r k e r an d had t h e g o o d lu c k t o b e c h o s e n f o r a d v a n c e m e n t .

D y e s [ ]2 ) no [ ]

9 9 . You a d v a n c e d b y y o u r a c t i v e s e e k i n g o f s u p p o r t o f y o u r b o s s e s , s u b o r d i n a t e s and o t h e r s .

D y e s [ ]2 ) no [ ]

1 0 0 . The r e p o r t i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p s o f y o u r p o s i t i o n a r e c l e a r and d i r e c t .

D y e s [ ]2 ) no [ ]

1 0 1 . You e n j o y m u t u a l ly s u p p o r t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h y o u r c o - w o r k e r s .

D y e s [ ]2 ) no [ j


2661 0 2 . You had a p e r io d o f s e l f - d o u b t — n o t r e a l l y s u r e y o u knew

en o u g h t o h a n d le t h e jo b and ad v a n c em e n t1 ) y e s [ ]

2 ) no [ ]CAREER MATURITY

1 0 3 . You h a v e r e a c h e d c a r e e r m a t u r it y (1 0 y e a r s o r m o r e ) .l ) y e s [ J

2 ) n o [ ]( P l e a s e a n sw er th e f o l l o w i n g q u e s t i o n s r e g a r d l e s s t o y o u r a n sw er t o q u e s t i o n 1 0 3 . )

1 0 4 . You h a v e r e a c h e d y o u r c u r r e n t p o s i t i o n w i t h th e p r o m o t io n s and s a l a r y t h a t you d e s e r v e .

l ) y e s [ ]2 ) n o [ ]

1 0 5 . In y o u r o r g a n i z a t i o n i s c a r e e r a d v a n c em e n t f o r women a t y o u r l e v e l an e x c e p t i o n o r t h e norm?

1 ) e x c e p t i o n [ ]2 ) n o r m []

1 0 6 . I s c a r e e r a d v a n c em e n t f o r B la c k women a t y o u r l e v e l th e e x c e p t i o n o r t h e norm?

1 ) e x c e p t i o n [ ]2 ) norm [ j

1 0 7 . Once y o u e s t a b l i s h e d y o u r s e l f , d id y o u com e t o a p o in t o f h a v in g t o c o n f r o n t t h e c h o i c e o f c o n t in u e d c a r e e r s t r i v i n g v s . m a r r ia g e and c h i ld r e n ?

1 ) y e s [ ]2 ) n o [ ]

1 0 8 . What d id you d e c id e ?1 ) c o n t in u e d c a r e e r a d v a n c e m e n t[ ]

2 ) f o c u s on p e r s o n a l l i f e [ ]3 ) b o t h [ ]

1 0 9 . D id y o u com e t o a p o in t when you no l o n g e r f e l t t h e n eed t o m in im iz e b e in g a woman t o b e c o m f o r t a b le d o in g y o u r jo b ?

1 ) y e s [ ]2 ) n o [ ]

1 1 0 . W hich h a v e , a t som e tim e in y o u r c a r e e r h i s t o r y , b een u s e d i n an e v a l u a t i o n o f y o u r p e r fo r m a n c e ?

l ) t o o o u t s p o k e n [ ]2 ) t o o lo w p r o f i l e t ]

3 ) t o o c o m b a t iv e ! ]4 ) to o c o m p r o m is in g !]

5 ) n o t a team p l a y e r ! ]6 ) t o o a g g r e s s i v e ! ]

7 ) u n a b le t o h a n d le r e q u ir e m e n ts o f t h e j o b ! j8 ) n o n e ! ]


( I f y o u a n sw e r e d "none" t o q u e s t i o n 110 p l e a s e s k ip q u e s t i o n1 1 1 )

1 1 1 . What w as y o u r r e s p o n s e t o t h a t e v a l u a t i o n ?l ) g o t m ore t r a i n i n g ! ]

2 ) a d a p t e d c o n fo r m in g b e h a v io r ! ]3 ) s o u g h t t o i n t e r j e c t a n o t h e r

p e r s p e c t i v e on how y o u w e reb e in g p e r c e i v e d ! ]

4 ) p r o t e s t e d t h e e v a l u a t i o n ! ]5 ) s o u g h t a n e v a l u a t i o n from a n o t h e r s o u r c e ! ]

1 1 2 . H ave y o u e v e r b e e n an a c t i v e member o f c i v i l r i g h t s o r o t h e r B la c k a d v a n c e m e n t o r g a n i z a t i o n s ?

1 ) y e s [ ]2 ) n o [ ]

1 1 3 .H ave y o u e v e r b e e n an a c t i v e member o f w o m en 's p o l i t i c a l and a d v o c a c y o r g a n i z a t i o n s l i k e NOW o r s o m e th in g s i m i l a r ?

1 ) y e s [ ] 2 ) n o [ ]

1 1 4 . A re y o u w i l l i n g t o h i r e women a s s u b o r d in a t e s ?1 ) y e s [ ]

2 ) n o [ ]

1 1 5 . How lo n g w e r e y o u on t h e j o b b e f o r e y o u f e l t c o m f o r t a b le d e l e g a t i n g r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s an d t u r n in g down new r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s ?

1) n e v e r [ ]2 ) 1 -5 y e a r s f ]

3 ) 6 - 1 0 y e a r s [ ]4 ) 10 o r m ore y e a r s ! ]

1 1 6 . W ere y o u l i k e l y t o f a c e a n t a g o n i s t i c e n v y from1 ) B la c k w om en[]

2 ) B la c k m e n !]3 ) W h ite w om enf]

4 ) W h ite m e n []5 ) a l l [ ]

6 ) n o n e ! ]

1 1 7 . Who w as m ore l i k e l y t o com e fo r w a r d t o h e lp a t a n y t im e d u r in g y o u r c a r e e r ?

1 ) B la c k w om en[]2 ) B la c k m e n !j

3 ) W h ite w om en[]4 ) W h ite ra e n []

5 ) a l l [ ]6 ) n o n e [ ]


11 8 . W hich o f t h e f o l l o w i n g c r i s e s h a v e you had t o f a c e and o vercom e?

1 ) b e in g f i r e d f o r " in c o m p e te n c e " [ ]2 ) b e in g f i r e d f o r " n o t b e in g a team p la y e r " [ ]3 ) b e in g d e n ie d p r o m o t io n f o r " in c o m p e te n c e " [ ]

4 ) b e in g d e n ie d p r o m o t io n f o r " n o t b e in g a team p la y e r " [ j5 ) n o n e [ ]

(S k ip t h e n e x t q u e s t i o n i f you a n sw e r e d "none" t o q u e s t io n 11 8 )

1 1 9 . D id th e c r i s i s h e lp ' o r h u r t y o u r c a r e e r ?1 ) h e l p [ ]2 ) h u r t [ ]

3)m ade no d i f f e r e n c e [ ]

W hich o f th e f o l l o w i n g e x p e r i e n c e s h a v e y o u had a t a m atu re c a r e e r l e v e l a f t e r an e v a l u a t i o n o f y o u r f i r s t c a r e e r d e c a d e ?

1 2 0 . A r e a s s e s s m e n t o f y o u r s t y l e o f r e l a t i n g t o p e o p le t h a t l e d t o a l e s s t e c h n i c a l , m ore human a p p r o a c h .

l ) y e s [ ] 2 ) n o [ ]

1 2 1 . S e e in g c r i t i c i s m a s an o b j e c t i v e o p p o r t u n i t y f o r l e a r n i n g .

1 ) y e s [ ] 2 ) n o [ ]

1 2 2 . N e v er q u i t e s u r e i f c r i t i c i s m i s b ia s e d by g e n d e rs t e r e o t y p e s h e ld by t h e c r i t i c .

1 ) y e s [ ] 2 ) n o [ ]

1 2 3 . N e v er q u i t e s u r e i f c r i t i c i s m i s b ia s e d by r a c i a ls t e r e o t y p e s h e ld by t h e c r i t i c .

1 ) y e s [ ] 2 ) n o [ ]

1 2 4 . L e s s l i k e l y t o d o m in a te and m ore l i k e l y t o p e r s u a d e s u b o r d in a t e s

1 ) y e s [ ] 2 ) n o [ ]

1 2 5 . L ik e ly t o d e s c r ib e y o u r s e l f a s happy?1 ) y e s [ ]

2 ) n o [ ]1 2 6 . . L ik e ly t o d e s c r ib e y o u r s e l f a s re w a rd ed ?

1 ) y e s [ ] 2 ) n o [ ]

1 2 7 . L ik e ly t o d e s c r ib e y o u r s e l f a s s a t i s f i e d ?1 ) y e s [ ]

2 ) n o [ ]


l ) y e s [ ] 2 ) n o [ j

l ) y e s [ ] 2 ) n o [ ]

1 2 8 . L ik e l y t o d e s c r i b e y o u r s e l f a s on g u a r d ?

1 2 9 . F r e e r t o t a k e r i s k s ?

MARRIAGE/PERSONAL DATA

1 3 0 . M a r i t a l s t a t u s : l ) s i n g l e [ ]2 ) m a r r ie d [ ]

3 ) l i v i n g w i t h s o m e o n e [ ]4 ) s e p a r a t e d [ ]

5 ) w id o w e d [ ]6 ) d i v o r c e d [ ]

( I f s e p a r a t e d , w id o w ed o r d iv o r c e d p l e a s e a n sw e r a l l q u e s t i o n s a s t h e y p e r t a i n t o y o u r fo r m e r m a r r ia g e )

1 3 1 . In b a la n c i n g t h e f o l l o w i n g r o l e s , w h ic h i s t h e m o st a n x ie t y - p r o d u c i n g : l ) a l l [ ]

2 ) m o th e r h o o d [ ]3 ) m a r r ia g e [ j

4 ) c a r e e r [ j5 ) n o n e [ ]

1 3 2 . D o e s y o u r h u s b a n d /m a te e a r n m ore o r l e s s in c o m e th a n y o u ? 1 ) m o r e [ ]

2 ) l e s s [ ]1 3 3 . I f y o u a n s w e r e d “ l e s s " t o q u e s t i o n 1 3 2 , h a s y o u r

h u s b a n d 's In com e e v e r b e e n a s o u r c e o f t e n s i o n b e tw e e n y o u ?

l ) y e s [ ] 2 ) n o [ ]

1 3 4 . I s h e s u p p o r t i v e o f c o n t in u e d c a r e e r a d v a n c e m e n t f o r y o u ?

1 ) y e s , h e w a n ts me t o s t r i v e f o ra l l p o s s i b l e p r o m o tio n s !; ]

2 ) n o , h e t h i n k s I ' v e g o n e f a re n o u g h f o r o u r n e e d s [ ]

1 3 5 . I n g e n e r a l , I p r e f e r t o t h in k o f my p e r s o n a l l i f e a s s e p a r a t e from my c a r e e r . l ) y e s [ ]

2 ) n o [ ]

1 3 6 . Y our c u r r e n t p e r s o n a l in c o m e l e v e l :1 ) $ 2 0 ,0 0 0 — $ 5 0 ,0 0 0 [ ]2 ) $ 5 1 ,0 0 0 — $ 8 0 , 0 0 0 [ ]

3 ) $ 8 1 ,0 0 0 — $ 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 ( ]4 ) $ 1 0 1 ,0 0 0 an d a b o v e u


2701 3 7 . R ank: In y o u r o r g a n i z a t i o n , w h at i s t h e l e v e l o f y o u r

jo b c l a s s i f i c a t i o n ? 1 ) S u p e r in t e n d e n t ! ]2) P r e s i d e n t , C h ie f E x e c u t iv e O f f ic e r ( C E O )[ ]

3 ) C h a ir p e r s o n o f t h e B o a r d ! ]4 ) t o p l e v e l a p p o i n t e e ! ]

5 ) to p l e v e l a d m in i s t r a t o r /m a n a g e r ! ]S) m id d le a d m in is t r a t o r /m a n a g e r ! ]

7 ) O th e r_______________________( p l e a s e s p e c i f y )

1 3 8 . R e s p o n s i b i l i t y : Do y o u h a v e t h e a u t h o r i t y t o e s t a b l i s h b u d g e t p r i o r i t i e s f o r y o u r o r g a n i z a t i o n ?

1 ) y e s [ ] 2 ) n o [ ]

1 3 9 . Do y o u c o n t r o l e x p e n d i t u r e s f o r y o u r o r g a n iz a t io n ?l ) y e s [ ]

2 ) n o ! ]1 4 0 . Do you s u p e r v i s e l i n e and s t a f f p e r s o n n e l?

1 ) y e s [ ]2 ) n o [ ]

1 4 1 . How many p e o p le do you s u p e r v i s e ?1 ) 0 — 1 0 [ ]

2 ) 11 — 2 0 [ ]3) 2 1 — 3 0 ! ]4 ) 31 — 4 0 [ ]5) 41 — 5 0 [ ]

6) 51+____________( p l e a s e s p e c i f y )

1 4 2 . D oes y o u r w ork h a v e a c r i t i c a l b e a r in g on th e f u t u r e o f y o u r o r g a n iz a t io n ?

1 ) y e s [ ]2 ) n o [ ]

1 4 3 . O r g a n iz a t io n r a n k : W hich o n e o f t h e f o l l o w i n g c a t e g o r i e s b e s t d e s c r ib e s y o u r o r g a n i z a t i o n ran k ?

1) A l a r g e m e t r o p o l i t a n s c h o o l d i s t r i c t ! ]2 ) A F o r t u n e 5 00 co m p a n y !]

3 ) A F o r tu n e 1000 com p an y!]4 ) S t a t e / n a t i o n a l H o u s e /S e n a te d i s t r i c t ! ]

5 ) A C o l l e g e o r U n i v e r s i t y ! ]6 ) A n a t i o n a l l y r e c o g n iz e d o r g a n i z a t i o n ! ]

( P l e a s e s p e c i f y ) _________________________________________7 ) o t h e r ( p l e a s e s p e c i f y ) __________________________

1 4 4 . Have y o u r e c e iv e d t h e a t t e n t i o n o f t h e p r i n t or e l e c t r o n i c m e d ia i n t h e p a s t y e a r ?

1) n o t a t a l l [ ]2) 1— 5 t i m e s [ ]

3 ) 6+ t i m e s [ ]

1 4 5 . H ave y o u e a r n e d an aw ard in t h e p a s t f i v e y e a r s ?l ) y e s [ ]

2 ) n o [ ]( I f th e a n sw er i s no p l e a s e s k ip t h e n e x t q u e s t io n )


2711 4 6 . I f y e s . w as I t : 1 ) i n t e r n a t i o n a l [ ]

2 ) n a t i o n a l [ ]3 ) s t a t e [ ]

1 4 7 . I f y o u had n o t c h o s e n a c a r e e r w o u ld y o u h a v e had som e o t h e r m eans o f s u p p o r t? l ) y e s [ ]

2 ) n o . I h a v e a lw a y s b e e n my s o l e m eans o f s u p p o r t [ ]

1 4 8 . A ge a t l a s t b ir t h d a y1) 25 o r u n d e r [ ]

2 ) 2 6 — 3 5 [ ]3 ) 3 6 — 4 5 [ ]4 ) 4 6 — 5 5 [ ]

5 ) 65 o r o v e r [ ]

1 4 9 . R a c ia l h e r i t a g e / i d e n t i t y1 ) A f r o - A m e r ic a n /B la c k [ ]

2 ) C a u c a s ia n /W h ite [ ]

LEADERSHIP/ADVICE

1 5 0 . In y o u r c u r r e n t r o l e i s t h e r e a c o n t i n u a l n e e d t o d e m o n s tr a te l e a d e r s h i p i n o r d e r t o h o ld y o u r p o s i t i o n o r a d v a n c e ?

1) y e s [ ]2 ) n o [ ]

1 5 1 . In y o u r o p in i o n , d o e s t h e sam e h o ld t r u e f o r men?1) y e s [ ]

2) no [ ]

1 5 2 . W hich do y o u t h i n k i s t h e m o st im p o r ta n t k e y t o s u c c e s s f u l l e a d e a r s h i p i n p u r s u i t o f a c a r e e r ? (c h e c k o n e )

1 ) f o c u s on i n d i v i d u a l s e l f - im p r o v e m e n t [ ]2 ) f o c u s on fo r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e

o f w ork e n v ir o n m e n t [ ]3 ) f o c u s on I n fo r m a l s y s t e m s o f r e l a t i o n s h i p s [ ]

4 ) f o c u s on a l l e g i a n c e s an d l o y a l t i e s ! ]5 ) a b i l i t y t o g r a n t and r e p a y f a v o r s ! ]

1 5 3 . W hich b e s t c h a r a c t e r i z e s y o u r v ie w o f y o u r w ork?

1) m eans o f e a r n in g a l i v i n g [ ]2) te d iu m , r o u t i n e ! ]

3 ) l e a r n i n g o p p o r t u n i t y ! 34 ) a c h a n c e t o m ove u p [ j

1 5 4 . Do y o u r e a d p e r i o d i c a l s an d p r o f e s s i o n a l l i t e r a t u r e f o r c a r e e r a d v ic e a n d in f o r m a t io n ? 1 ) y e s [ ]

2) n o [ ]

( I f y o u a n s w e r e d no t o q u e s t i o n 152 p l e a s e s k ip t o q u e s t i o n 1 5 5 )


2721 5 5 . W hich o f th e f o l l o w i n g p u b l i c a t i o n s w o u ld y o u recom end

t o you ng women a s p ir in g t o l e a d e r s h ip ? (c h e c k a l l t h a t a p p ly )

1 ) B la c k E n t e r p r i s e ! ]2 ) E s s e n c e ! j

3 ) F o r b e s [ ]4 ) F o r t u n e ! ]

5) MS. [ ]6 ) S a v v y !j

7 ) W a ll S t r e e t J o u r n a l! ]8 ) p r o f e s s i o n a l j o u r n a l ! ]

p le a s e p r o v id e y o u r j o u r n a l t i t l e on t h e n e x t l i n e )

9 ) o t h e r ( p l e a s e s p e c i f y ) _____________________________________1 0 ) n o n e ! ]

1 5 6 . Do yo u b e lo n g t o a n y p r o f e s s i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s ?1 ) y e s [ ]

2 ) n o [ ]

1 5 7 . What p r o f e s s i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s w o u ld y o u recom m end t o you ng women a s p i r i n g t o l e a d e r s h ip ? ( p l e a s e s p e c i f y )

1 5 8 . Do you a t t e n d le a d e r sh ip /m a n a g e m e n t c o n f e r e n c e s and t r a in i n g s e m in a r s on a r e g u la r b a s i s ? l ) y e s [ ]

2 ) n o [ ]1 5 9 . What l e a d e r s h i p c o n f e r e n c e s o r s e m in a r s w o u ld you

recom m end t o y o u n g women a s p i r i n g t o l e a d e r s h ip ? ( p l e a s e s p e c i f y )

1 6 0 . W hich b e s t d e s c r ib e s t h e w ay y o u a p p ly y o u r c a p a b i l i t i e s i n y o u r w o r k , ( p l e a s e ra n k 1 , 2 , 3 )

1 )1 r e l y on fo r m a l t r a i n i n g and m a n a g e m e n t / le a d e r s h ip t h e o r y a s a g u id e ! ]

2 )1 r e l y on i n s t i n c t and e x p e r i e n c e ! ]3 ) 1 r e l y on o t h e r s in my f i e l d ! j

1 6 1 . A re you f a m i l i a r w i t h a n y o f t h e f o l l o w i n g t y p e s o f l e a d e r sh ip /m a n a g e m e n t t h e o r i e s ? (c h e c k a l l t h a t a p p ly )

1 ) l e a d e r t r a i t t h e o r i e s : ! ] (T he m a n a g e r ia l g r i d , B la k e & M outon)

2 ) s u b o r d in a t e m o t iv a t io n t h e o r i e s : ! ] ( t h e o r y X an d t h e o r y Y, M cgregor)

3 ) m ethod t h e o r i e s : ! ] (m anagem ent by o b j e c t iv e s t M B O ] , D r u c k e r)4 ) o r g a n i z a t i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t h e o r i e s : ! ]

( e i g h t " In S e a r c h o f E x c e l l e n c e " p r i n c i p l e s , P e t e r s & W aterm an)

5 ) o t h e r ( p l e a s e s p e c i f y )

6 ) a l l [ ]7 ) n o n e [ ]


1 6 2 . W hich o f t h e s e t h e o r i e s h a v e p r o v e n u s e f u l In t h e p r a c t i c e o f y o u r jo b ?

1 ) l e a d e r t r a i t t h e o r i e s : ! ] (T h e m a n a g e r ia l g r i d , B la k e & M outon)

2 ) s u b o r d in a t e m o t iv a t io n t h e o r i e s : ! ] ( t h e o r y X and t h e o r y Y, M c g re g o r)

3 ) m eth o d t h e o r i e s : ! ] (m anagem en t by o b j e c t iv e s ( M B O ] , O ru ck er )4 ) o r g a n i z a t i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t h e o r i e s : ! ]

( e i g h t " In S e a r c h o f E x c e l l e n c e " p r i n c i p l e s , P e t e r s & W aterm an)

5 ) o t h e r ( p l e a s e s p e c i f y )

6 ) a l l [ ]7 ) n o n e ! ]

The f o l l o w i n g a d v ic e t o y o u n g women who a s p i r e t o l e a d e r s h i p w as o f f e r e d b y women o f n a t io n a l ly - k n o w n r e p u t a t i o n s . W hich s t a t e m e n t s b e s t r e f l e c t y o u r v ie w s ? (Y ou may c h e c k m ore th a n o n e )

1 6 3 . "You c a n h a v e i t a l l , b u t y o u 'r e w rong i f y o u t h in ky o u c a n h a v e i t e a s i l y . " ! ]

1 6 4 . "W ait f o r m a r r ia g e i f y o u w an t a c a r e e r ." [ ]

1 6 5 . " D o n 't l e a v e a b a b y a t hom e." [ ]

1 6 6 . " E v e ry i n d i v i d u a l h a s p o t e n t i a l ; s e t o b j e c t i v e s andp u r s u e th e m ." [ ]

1 6 7 . "G et y o u r c a r e e r g o i n g th e n h a v e c h i l d r e n and t a k e afe w y e a r s o f f . " [ ]

1 6 8 . "Your h u sb a n d m u st h a v e a c h ie v e d s ta r d o m i n h i s ownr i g h t i f y o u 'r e g o i n g f o r t h e t o p ." [ ]

1 6 9 . "G et a s e n s e o f v a l u e s an d s t i c k t o th e m ." [ ]

1 7 0 . " L earn s e l f - d i s c i p l i n e . " ( ]

1 7 1 . " D e v e lo p a f o r c e o f c h a r a c t e r t h a t no o n e c a n t a k ea w a y ." [ ]

1 7 2 . "Keep y o u r s h i p on c o u r s e ." [ ]

1 7 3 . "Know t h a t y o u c a n d o w h a t y o u d o n ' t w a n t t o d o ." ( ]

1 7 4 . " F o r g e t y o u r s e l f ; d o n o t p r a c t i c e s e l f - p i t y . " [ ]

1 7 5 . " D o n 't l e t y o u r e n e r g i e s b e f r i t t e r e d aw ay; c h a r t y o u rc o u r s e and s t i c k t o i t . 9 0 * o f p e o p le w i l l t e l l y o u y o u 'r e g o in g i n t h e w rong d i r e c t i o n — d o n ' t l i s t e n t o th em !" [ ]

1 7 6 . " I t ' s b e t t e r , t o t r y an d f a i l th a n n o t t o t r y a t a l l . " [ ]


P le a s e add an y a d v ic e o f y o u r own t h a t y o u w o u ld l i k e t o s h a r e .

Thank you s o much f o r y o u r t im e and a t t e n t i o n t o t h i s p r o j e c t . I f you w o u ld l i k e t o r e c e i v e a summary r e p o r t o f t h i s s t u d y , p l e a s e p r o v id e y o u r name and m a i l in g a d d r e s s b e lo w and r e t u r n w it h a p o s t a g e p a id * e n v e lo p e :

name___________________________________________ ____________________

a d d r e s s ___________________________________________________________

c i t y __________________________________ s t a t e _________ z i p _________


Appendix D

Code Book

275


276

CODEBOOK FOR SUCCESSFUL WOMEN LEADERS QUESTIONNAIRE .ID # (u p p e r r i g h t b o x ) tkctdB-^M -r fc'

O c c u p a t io n c o d e : (u p p e r l e f t b o x ) E ,B , D , G, H, L , 6 , R, St'>-?- COLUMNS QUESTION RESPONSES

9 9 ) no a n sw e r1 -2 1 0 ) No s i s t e r s

1) S i s t e r s : a c t u a l n o .

3 - 4 1 9 9 ) no a n sw e r0 ) No b r o t h e r s2) B r o t h e r s : a c t u a l n o .

5 - 8 2 0 ) No a n sw e r5 2 1) F i r s t ( i t e m 1)

2) M id d le (4 )3 ) Y o u n g e s t (5 )4 ) O n ly (6 )

5 2 S e v e n y e a r s y o u n g e r . . . ( 2 )1) Y es2) No

7 2 In an e x p e r i e n c e . . s i m i l a r (3 )1) Y es2) No

8 2 O rphan (7 )1) Y e s2) No

9 3 0 ) No a n sw e r1) T r a d i t i o n a l N u c le a r2) T r a d , e x t e n d e d (2 & 3 )3 ) S i n g l e p a r e n t (4 )4 ) L e g a l g u a r d ia n ( 5 ) *5) N o n - p a r e n t a l R e l a t i v e

( 6 )♦when b o th 4 & 5 a r e

c h e c k e d c h o o s e 56 ) O th e r & ( l i s t )

(End o f p a g e 1)

0 ) No a n sw e r1) U pper2) M id d le3) L ow er4 ) L o w e r -m id d le5) D o n ’ t know


2 277

COLUMNS QUESTION RESPONSESYou

0) No a n s w e r1 ) E l e m e n t a r y2 ) High S c h o o l3) Col l e g e4) G r a d u a t efi) P o s t G r a d u a t e

M oth e r0) No a n s w e r1 ) E1e m e n t a r y2 ) High S c h o o l3) Co 11 e g e4) G r a d u a t e5) P o s t G r a d u a t e

F a t h e r0) No a n s w e r1 ) E l e m e n t a r y2 ) Hig h S c h o o l3) C o l l e g e4) G r a d u a t e5) P o s t G r a d u a t e

0) No a n s w e r1) y e s2 ) no

M oth er0} No a n s w e rl j h o m e m a k e r / h o u s e w i f e2 ) d o m e s t i c s e r v i c e3 ) s e r v i c e f e m a l e d o m i n a t e d4 ) t e c b n i c a l5 ) b l u e c o l l a r6 ) w h i t e c o l l a r7 ) p r o f e s s i o n a 18 ) e n t r e p r e n e u r9) o t h e r

F a t h e rC) No a n s w e r1 ) l a b o r e r2 ) s e r v i c e / m a l e d o m i n a t e d3) t r a d e s4) t e c h n i c a l5) b l u e c o l l a r6 ) w h i t e c o l l a r7) p r o f e s s i o n a l3) e n t r e p r e n e u r9) o t h e r


3

QUESTION

278RESPONSES

No a n s w e rYe sNo

No a n s w e rYe sNo

M o t h e r ( 1 )YesNo

F a t h e r ( 2 )YesNo

G r a n d f a t h e r {3 )Ye sNo

G r a n d m o t h e r ( 4 )Ye sNo

A u nt (f i )YesNo

U n c l e ( 6 )YesNo

O th e r (7 )Ye sNo

No Answer

a t t n . & c e l e b . ( 1 )YesNo

p r a i s e ( 2 )YesNo


4 279

COLUMNS QUESTION RESPONSES

p r i v i l e g e s (3 )29 11 1 )

2 )YesNo

30 1 1

J ) 2)

money (4 )YesNo

31 11

1 ) 2 ’)

m a t t e r o f c o u r s e Y e s ( 5 t No

32 11

1 )2 )

i n d i f f e r e n c e ( 6 )Ye sNo

33 11

1 ) 2 )

c o l d - s h o u l d e r i n g Ye s (7) No

34 1 11 )

e n v y ( 8 ) Ye s

35 11

( s k i p 1 2 )

2 )

1 )2 )

No

h o s t i l i t y ( 9 )Ye sNo

36 13 0) No a n s w e r / n o t t e s t e d1 ) b e l o w a v e r a g e2 ) a v e r a g e3) a b o v e a v e r a g e4 ) g e n i u s

37 14 0 )1 )2 )

n o a n s w e r p a r e n t s s e l e c t c h i l d r e n s e l e c t

38 15 0 )1 )2 )

no a n s w e rp r e p a r e f o r c a r e e r a t t r a c t husban d

39 16 0)1 )2 )3)4)

no a n s w e r f e m i n i n e s o n s u b . fem & s o n s u b o t h e r ( l i s t )


5


40 17 0) no a n s w e r1) y e s2) no

41 18 0) no a n s w e r1) y e s2) no

42 19 0) no a n s w e r1 ) y e s2) no

43 20 ( m e t h o d s ) 1 ) no a n s w e r

44 20 1) y e s ( 6 - 9 )2) no

45 20 1 ) y e s ( 1 0 - 1 3 )2) no

46 20 1 ) y e s ( 1 4 - 1 7 )2) no

47 20 1 ) y e s ( 1 8 - 2 1 )2) no

48 20 1) y e s ( a l l a g e s )2) no ,

49 21 ( m . f a v o r i t e ) 1) no a n s w e r

50 21 1) y e s ( 6 - 9 )2) no

51 21 1) y e s ( 1 0 - 1 3 )2) no

52 21 1) y e s ( 1 4 - 1 7 )2) no

53 21 1) y e s ( 1 8 - 2 1 )2) no

54 21 1) y e s ( a l l a g e s )2) no

* I f " a l l a g e s " c a t e g o r y i s c h e c k e d y e s t h e n a l l c a t e g o r i e s "yes"



65 22 ( f . f a v o r j t e ) 1) no a n s w e r

56 22 1) y e s ( 6 - 9 )2) no

57 22 1) y e s ( 1 0 - 1 3 )2) no

58 22 3) y e s ( 1 4 - 1 7 )2) no

59 22 1) y e s ( 1 8 - 2 1 )2) no

60 22 1) y e s ( a l l a g e s )2) no

61 23 ( g . m . f a v o r . i t e ) 1) no a n s w e r

62 23 1) y e s ( 6 - 9 )2) no

6 3 23 1) y e s ( 1 0 - 1 3 )2) no

6 4 23 1) y e s ( 1 4 - 1 7 )2) no

65 23 1) y e s ( 1 8 - 2 1 )2) no

66 23 1) y e s ( a l l a g e s )2) no

67 24 ( g . f . f a v o r i t e ) 1) no a n s w e r

68 24 1) y e s ( 6 - 9 )2) no

69 24 1) y e s ( 1 0 - 1 3 )2) no

70 24 1) y e s ( 1 4 - 1 7 )2) no

71 24 1) y e s ( 1 8 - 2 1 )2) no

72 24 1) y e s ( a l l a g e s )2) no


7


73 25 ( h o u s e d u t i e s ) 1) no a n s w e r

74 2 5 1 ) 2)

y e sno

( 6 - 9 )

7 5 2 5 3 ) 2)

y e sno

( 1 0 - 1 3 )

76 2 5 1)2)

y e sno

( 1 4 - 1 7 )

77 25 1)2)

y e sno

( 1 8 - 2 1 )

78 2 5 D2)

y e sno

( a l l a g e s )

79 26 ( j o b o u t s i d e ) 1) no a n s w e r

80 26 1 ) 2)

y e sno

( 6 - 9 )

81 26 1)2)

y e sno

( 1 0 - 1 3 )

82 26 1)2)

y e sno

(1 4- 1 .7 )

83 26 1)2)

y e sno

( 1 8 - 2 1 )

84 26 1)2)

y e sno

( a l l a g e s )

85 27 ( a n e c d o t e s ) 1) no a n s w e r

86 27 1)2)

y e sno

( 6 - 9 )

87 27 1)2)

y e sno

( 1 0 - 1 3 )

88 27 1)2)

y e sno

( 1 4 - 1 7 )

89 27 1)2)

y e sno

( 1 8 - 2 1 )

90 27 1)2)

y e sno

( a l l a g e s )


283

103

104

QUESTION

28 ( d e s c r ib e d s m a r t)

28

28

29 ( 1 i v i n g m o d e ls )

29

29-

29

30 ( h i s t . / c e l e b . )m o d e ls

RESPONSES

1) no a n s w e r

1) y e s ( 6 - 9 )2) no

1) y e s ( 1 0 - 1 3 )2) no

1) y e s ( 1 4 - 1 7 )2) no

1) y e s ( 3 8 - 2 1 )2) no

1) y e s ( a l l a g e s )2) no

3 ) no a n s w e r

1) y e s ( 6 - 9 )2) no

1) y e s ( 3 0 - 1 3 )2) no

1) y e s ( 1 4 - 3 7 )2) no

1) y e s ( 1 8 - 2 3 )2) no

1) y e s ( a l l a g e s )2) no

1) no a n s w e r

1) y e s ( 6 - 9 )2) no

3.) y e s ( 1 0 - 1 3 )2) no

1) y e s ( 1 4 - 1 7 )2) no

1) y e s ( 1 8 - 2 1 )2) no

1) y e s ( a l l a g e s )2) no



109 31 ( p r e f e r men) I ) no a n s w e r

110 31 1) y e s ( 6 - 9 )2 ) no

111 31 1) y e s ( 1 0 - 1 3 )2) no

112 31 3) y e s ( 1 4 - 1 7 )2) no

113 31 1) y e s ( 1 8 - 2 1 )2) no

114 31 3) y e s ( a l l a g e s2) no

( d e c i d e c a r e e r )115 32 0 ) no a n s w e r

1) 2 - 5 y r s .2) 6 - 93) 1 0 - 1 34) 1 4 - 1 75 ) 1 8 - 2 16) 3 0 s7) 4 0 s8) 5 0 s9 ) d i d n ' t d e c i d e

( g e n d e r a w a r e n e s s )0) no a n s w e r1) 2 - 5 y r s .2) 6 - 93‘) 1 0 - 1 34) 1 4 - 1 75) 18-21.6) 3 0 s7) 4 0 s8) 5 0 s9) n e v e r


COLUMNS

117

118

119

1 2 0

12 1

1 2 2

123

124

125

126

10QUESTION

34

35

36

37

38

39 ( c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s )

39

39

39

39

RESPONSES ( r a c e a w a r e n e s s )

0 ) no a n s w e r1) 2 - 5 y r s .2) 6 - 93) 1 0 - 1 34 ) 1 4 - 1 7S) 1 8 - 2 16) 3 0 s7) 4 0 s8) 5 0 s

,9 ) n e v e r

0) no a n s w e r1) p r e . w h i t e2) p r e . b l a c k3) i n t e g r a t e d4) m u l t i - r a c i a l

0) no a n s w e r1) b o o k s & s t u d i e s2) p h y s . a c t i v i t i e s3 ) p e r f . a r t s4 ) s c h o o l l e a d e r5) s o c i a l i z i n g6) a l l b u t p h y s i c a l7) h o o k s / s t u d i e s , a r t s8) #1 & # 49) a l l0) no a n s w e r1) e n j o y a b l e2) c h a l l e n g i n g3) s t r e s s f u l4) b o r i n g

0) no a n s w e r1) s k i l l s s u f f e r e d2) p o p u l a r i t y s u f f .3 ) e n j o y e d b o t h4 ) b o th s u f f e r e d1) no a n s w e r

t a l k a t i v e ( 1 )1) y e s2) no

f e i s t y (2 )1 ) y e s2) no

s h y (3 )1) y e s2) no

d e p e n d e n t ( 4 )1) y e s2) no


11 286QUESTION RESPONSES

i n d e p e n d e n t (5 )39 1) y e s

2) noa t h l e t i c (6 )

39 1) y e s2) no

c o m p e t i t i v e ! 7)' 3 9 1) y e s

2) nolow a c h i e v e r ! 8)

39 1) y e s2) no

a v e . a c h i e v e r (9 )39 1) y e s

2) noh i g h a c h i e v e r ( 1 0 )

39 1) y e s2) no

model c h i 1d ( 1 1 )39 1) y e s

2) nop r o b . c h i l d ( 1 2 )

39 1) y e s2) no

c h i ld h o o d40 ( a n g r y ) 1) y e s

2) noa d o l e s c e n c e

40 1) y e s2) no

c o l l e g e40 1) y e s

2) noi n m a r r i a g e

40 1) y e s2) no

1 s t c a r e e r d e c a d e 40 1) y e s

2) noc a r e e r m a t u r i t y

40 1) y e s2) no

n e v e r40 1) y e s

2) no


12 287

COLUMNS QUESTION

142 41 ( d e p r e s s e d )

143 41

144 41

145 41

146 41

147 41

148 41

149 42 (a n g e r t r a n s f o r m e d )

150 4?

151 42

152 42

153 42

154 42

155 42

c h i l d h o n d1) y e s2) no

a d o l e s c e n c e1) y e s2) no

c o l l e g e1) y e s2) no

i n m a r r i a g e1) y e s2) no

1 s t c a r e e r d e c a d e1) y e s2) no

c a r e e r m a t u r i t y1) y e s2) no

n e v e r1) y e s2) no

c h i l d h o o d1) y e s2) no

a d o l e s c e n c e1) y e s2) no


i n m a r r i a g e 1 ) y e s2) no

1 s t c a r e e r d e c a d e 1 ) y e s2) no

c a r e e r m a t u r i t y1) y e s2) no

n e v e r1) y e s2) no


13 288


c h i l d h o o d156 43 ( c o n f r o n t i n g ) 1 )

2)y e snoa d o l e s c e n c e

157 43 1)2)

y e snoc o l 1e g e

158 43 1)2)

y e snoin m a r r i a g e

159 43 1 ) 2)

y e sno1 s t c a r e e r d e c a d e

160 4 3 3 ) 2)

y e snoc a r e e r m a t u r i t y

161 43 1)2)

y e snon e v e r

162 43 1)2)

y e sno

c h i l d h o o d163 44 ( g a i n e d r e s p e c t ) 1 )

2)y e snoa d o l e s c e n c e

164 44 1)2)

y e snoc o l l e g e

165 44 1)2)

y e snoi n m a r r i a g e

166 44 1)2)

y e sno1 s t c a r e e r d e c a d e

167 44 1)2)

y e snoc a r e e r m a t u r i t y

168 44 1)2)

y e snon e v e r

169 44 1)2)

y e sno


14

COLUMNS QUKSTTON

170 45 ( l e a r n g e n d e r )

g e n d e r 46 ( a w a r e r e s t r i c t .

r a c e47 ( a w a r e r e s t r i c t . )

173 48 ( e n v y h o y s )

174 48

175 48

176 48

289

RESPONSES

no a n s w e rc h i I d h o o da d o ] e s c e n c ec o l l e g ein m a r r i a g e1 s t c a r e e r d e c a d ec a r e e r m a t u r i t yn e v e r

no a n s w e rc h i l d h o o da d o l e s c e n c ec o l l e g ei n m a r r i a g e1 s t c a r e e r d e c a d ec a r e e r m a t u r i t yn e v e r

no a n s w e rc h i I d h o o da d o l e s c e n c ec o l l e g ei n m a r r i a g e1 s t c a r e e r d e c a d ec a r e e r m a t u r i t yn e v e r

c h i I d h o o dy e snoa d o l e s c e n c ey e snoc o l l e g ey e snoin m a r r i a g ey e sno1 s t c a r e e r d e c a d ey e snoc a r e e r m a t u r i t yy e snon e v e ry e sno-


290

QUESTION RESPONSES

49 ( c l o s e r t o f a t h e r ) c h i ld h o o d1) y e s2 ) no

49 a d o le s c e n c e1) y e s2 ) no

49 c o l l e g e1) y e s2 ) no

49 In m a r r ia g e1) y e s2 ) no

49 1 s t c a r e e r d e c a d e1) y e s2 ) no

c a r e e r m a t u r it y 49 1) y e s

2 ) no n e v e r

49 1) y e s2 ) no

50 ( c o n f l i c t m o th e r ) c h i ld h o o d1) y e s2 ) no

50 a d o le s c e n c e1) y e s2) no

50 c o l l e g e1) y e s2) no

50 i n m a r r ia g e1) y e s2 ) no

50 1 s t c a r e e r d e c a d e1 ) y e s2 ) no

50 c a r e e r m a t u r it y1 ) y e s2 ) no

50 n e v e r1) y e s2 ) no


291

COLUMNS

194

195

196

QUESTION

51 ( c o n f l i c t f a t h e r )

200

START RECORD 2

52 (m a le r .m o d e ls )

52

52

52

52

52

RESPONSES

c h i ld h o o d1) y e s2 ) no

a d o le s c e n c e1) y e s2 ) no

c o l l e g e •1) y e s2) no

in m a r r ia g e1) y e s2) no

1 s t c a r e e r d e c a d e1) y e s2 ) no

c a r e e r m a t u r it y1) y e s2) no

n e v e r1) y e s2 ) no

c h i ld h o o d1) y e s2) no

a d o le s c e n c e1) y e s2 ) no

c o l l e g e1) y e s2 ) no

in m a r r ia g e1) y e s2 ) no


c a r e e r m a t u r it y1) y e s2 ) no




c h i ld h o o d8 5 3 ( f e m a le r .m o d e ls ) 1) y e s

2) noa d o le s c e n c e

9 53 1) y e s2 ) no

c o l l e g e10 53 1) y e s

2) noin m a r r ia g e

11 53 1) y e s2 ) no

1 s t c a r e e r d e c a d e12 53 1) y e s

2 ) noc a r e e r m a t u r it y

13 53 1) y e s2) no

n e v e r14 53 1) y e s

2) no

c h i ld h o o d15 54 ( d i s . t r a d women) 1) y e s

2 ) noa d o le s c e n c e

16 54 1) y e s2 ) no

c o l l e g e17 54 1) y e s

2 ) noin m a r r ia g e

18 54 1) y e s2 ) no

1 s t c a r e e r d e c a d e19 54 1) y e s

2 ) noc a r e e r m a t u r it y

20 54 1) y e s2 ) no

n e v e r21 54 1) y e s

2 ) no


293

c h i ld h o o d 55 ( a c c e p t o r g . / i n s t . ) l ) y e s

2) noa d o le s c e n c e

1) y e s2) no .






c h i ld h o o d 56 ( t r y c h a n g e ) 1) y e s

2 ) noa d o le s c e n c e

1) y e s2 ) no


i n m a r r ia g e1) y e s2 ) no





COLUMNS36

37

38

39

40

41

42

43

44

45

46

19

QUESTION57 ( e x p e c t t o w ork)

58 ( t h i n k m a r r ia g e )

59 ( d e l a y p e r s o n a l )

60 ( r e a c h to p )

6 1 ( s e x d i s c r i m .)

61

61

61

61

61

61

RESPONSES0) no a n sw e r1) a d o le s c e n c e2) c o l l e g e3 ) i n m a r r ia g e4 ) 1 s t c a r e e r d e c a d e5 ) c a r e e r m a t u r it y6 ) n e v e r7 ) c h i ld h o o d07 n o a n sw e rl ) a d o le s c e n c e2) c o l l e g e3) in m a r r ia g e4) 1 s t c a r e e r d e c a d e5) c a r e e r m a t u r it y6 ) n e v e r7) c h i ld h o o d0 ) no a n sw er1) a d o le s c e n c e2) c o l l e g e3) in m a r r ia g e4 ) 1 s t c a r e e r d e c a d e5 ) c a r e e r m a t u r it y6 ) n e v e r0 ) no a n sw er1) a d o le s c e n c e2) c o l l e g e3) in m a r r ia g e4) 1 s t c a r e e r d e c a d e5) c a r e e r m a t u r it y6) n e v e r

c h iI d h o o d1) y e s2) no

a d o le s c e n c e1) y e s2) no

c o l l e g e1) y e s2 ) no



c a r e e r m a t u r it y1) y e s2 ) no



20295


c h i l d h o o d47 62 ( r a c e d i s c r i m . ) 1 )

2 )y e sn oa d o l e s c e n c e

48 62 1 )2 )

y e sn oc o l l e g e

49 62 1 )2 )

y e sn oi n m a r r i a g e

50 62 1 )2 )

y e sn o1s t c a r e e r d e c a d e

51 62 1 )2 )

y e sn oc a r e e r m a t u r i t y

52 62 1 )2 )

y e sn on e v e r

53 62 1 )2 )

y e sn oc h i l d h o o d

54 63 ( i m p o s s i b l e s i t . ) 1 )2 )

y e sn oa d o l e s c e n c e

55 63 1 )2 )

y e sn oc o l l e g e

56 63 1 )2 )

y e sn oi n m a r r i a g e

57 63 1 )2 )

y e sn o1s t c a r e e r d e c a d e

58 63 1 )2 )

y e sn oc a r e e r m a t u r i t y

59 63 1 )2 )

y e sn on e v e r

60 63 1 )2 )

y e sn o

61 64 9)1 )2 )

n o a n s w e ry e sn o

62 65 0 )1 )2 )

no a n s w e ry e sno


COLUMNS6 3 -6 4

65

66

67

68

69

70

71

7 2 -7 3

7 4 -7 5

QUESTION66

67

68

69

70

71

72

73

74

74

296

RESPONSES c o d e a c t u a l n u m b e r

0 ) n o a n s w e r1 ) y e s2 ) no

0 ) n o a n s w e r1 ) b u s i n e s s2 ) e d u c a t i o n3) f i n e a r t s4 ) e n g i n e e r i n g5) l i b e r a l a r t s6 ) s c i e n c e 6e m a th7 ) o t h e r ( l i s t )

0 ) n o a n s w e r1 ) y e s2 ) n o

1) b u s i n e s s2 ) e d u c a t io n3) f i n e a r t s4 ) e n g i n e e r in g5) l i b e r a l a r t s6 ) s c i e n c e & m ath7) o t h e r ( l i s t )

0 ) n o a n sw e r1) men2) women3) b o th4 ) n e i t h e r

0 ) n o a n sw e r1) y e s2) no

0) no a n sw er1) y e s2) no

f i r s t a c t u a l num ber

s e c o n d a c t u a l num ber


QUESTION RESPONSES

0 ) n o a n s w e r1 ) own i n i t i a t i v e

2 ) p l a c e m e n t s e r v i c e3 ) f a t h e r ' s c o n n e c t i o n s4 ) m o t h e r 's c o n n e c t i o n s5) f r i e n d s o f f a m i l y6 ) p e r s o n a l f r i e n d

7 ) j o b s p e c i a l l y c r e a t e d8 ) m e n t o r 's c o n n e c t i o n s9 ) h u s b a n d 's c o n n e c t i o n s

0 ) n o a n s w e r1 ) e n t r y l e v e l2 ) s u p e r v i s o r y l e v e l3 ) m id d le m a n a g e m e n t4 ) u p p e r m a n a g e m e n t5 ) e x e c u t i v e l e v e l

n o a n s w e r l e s s t h a n a 1 -3 y e a r s4 - 6 y e a r s 7 - 1 0 y e a r s t e n + y e a r s

0 ) n o a n sw e r1) m e n to r2) s u p p o r t e r3 ) i n d i f f e r e n t4) a n t a g o n i s t i c

0 ) no a n sw e r1) l e s s th a n a y e a r2) 1 - 3 y e a r s3 ) 4 - 6 y e a r s4) 7 - 1 0 y e a r s5) t e n + y e a r s

0 ) n o a n sw e r1) l e s s th a n a y e a r2) 1 - 3 y e a r s3 ) 4 - 6 y e a r s4) 7 - 1 0 y e a r s5) t e n + y e a r s


COLUMNS QUESTION82 8 1 ( o n l y w om an)

8 2 ( o n I y B la c k )

84 83

85 84

RESPONSES n o a n s w e r e n t r y l e v e l s u p e r v i s o r y l e v e l m id d le m a n a g e m e n t u p p e r m a n a g e m e n t e x e c u t i v e l e v e l n e v e re v e r y l e v e l n o a n s w e r e n t r y l e v e l s u p e r v i s o r y l e v e l m id d le m a n a g e m e n t u p p e r m a n a g e m e n t e x e c u t i v e l e v e l n e v e re v e r y l e v e l n o a n s w e r y e s n on o a n s w e rn o m e n to rWM m e n to rWW m e n to rBM m e n to rBW m e n to rw h i t e s / m & wb l a c k s / m'& wwomen o n l ym en o n l yn o a n s w e rn o s o c i a l l i f ej o b - r e l a t e dn o t j o b - r e l a t e dn o a n s w e rc o o p e r a t i v ec o l d , p r o f e s s i o n a li n d i f f e r e n ti n s u b o r d i n a t eu n d e r m in in g

n o a n s w e ry e sn on o a n s w e r o n c e34554n e v e rt w i c e

298


299

QUESTION RESPONSES89 n o r e s p o n s e

1) y e s2) n o

89 d i r e c t1) y e s2) n o

89 f a c t u a l1) y e s2) n o

89 b u s . / t a s k o r i e n t e d1) y e s2) n o

89 e m o t i o n a l l y d i s t a n t1) y e s2) n o

89 m in im iz e f e m i n i n i t y1) y e s2) no

89 m in im iz e r a c e1 ) y e s2) n o

89 M a l lo y w a r d r o b e1) y e s2 ) n o

89 c o n s e r v . / f e m i n i n e1) y e s2 ) no

89 f e m i n i n e1) y e s2) no

89 a g g r e s s i v e1 ) y e s2 ) n o

89 a s s e r t i v e1 ) y e s2) no

89 v i s i b l e1) y e s2 ) n o

89 p e r s u a s i v e1) y e s2) n o

89 c o m b a t iv e1) y e s2 ) no

89 w a r m / n u r t u r i n g1) y e s2 ) n o

89 f r i e n d l y1) y e s2 ) n o


25 300

COLUMNS107

RESPONSES n o r e s p o n s e p e e r b o s s

n o r e s p o n s ef o r m a lI n f o r m a l

n o r e s p o n s e l o y a l t yp r o f e s s i o n a l i s m i n t i m i d a t i o n 1 & 2n o r e s p o n s ec o n t r o l / d i r e c te c o n o m ics o c i a la d m ir a t io na t t e n t i o nd o m i n a t i o nr e v e n g es e r v i c ec o m b i n a t i o nn o r e s p o n s ey e s

n o r e s p o n s e y e s







301

COLUMNS

118

119

120

121

122

123

124

125

126

127

128

. 129

130

QUESTION

101

106

107

108( o f t h o s e who

c h o s e " y e s " o n # 1 0 7 )

109

0 ) n o r e s p o n s e1) y e s2) n o

0 ) n o r e s p o n s e1) y e s2 ) n o


0) n o r e s p o n s e1) y e s2) n o

0 ) n o r e s p o n s e1) e x c e p t i o n2) no rm

0 ) n o r e s p o n s e1) e x c e p t i o n2) no rm0 ) n o r e s p o n s e1) y e s2) n o

0 ) n o r e s p o n s e1) c a r e e r2) p e r s o n a l l i f e3 ) b o th


1) n o r e s p o n s e

o u t s p o k e n1) y e s2) n olo w p r o f i l e1) y e s2) n o c o m b a t iv e1) y e s2 ) n o


27302

COLUMNS QUESTION RESPONSES131 110 c o m p ro m is in g

1) y e s2) non o t te a m p l a y e r

132 110 1) y e s2 ) n ot o o a g g r e s s i v e

133 110 1) y e s2) n oc a n ' t h a n d l e j o b

134 110 1) y e s 2 ) n o

n o n e135 110 1) y e s

2 ) n o

136 111 0 ) n o a n s w e r1) g o t m o re t r a i n i n g2) c o n f o rm e d3) g a v e o t h e r p e r s p e c t .4 ) p r o t e s t e d5) a n o t h e r ' s e v a l u a t i o n

137 112 0) n o a n s w e r1) y e s2 ) n o

138 113 0 ) n o a n s w e r1) y e s2 ) n o

139 114 0 ) n o a n s w e r1) y e s2) n o

140 115 0 ) n o a n s w e r1) n e v e r2) 1 -53) 6 - 1 04 ) 10+

141 116 b la n k = n o a n s w e r /n o n e0 ) w h i t e s o n l y1) BW2) BM3) WW4 ) WM5) a l l6 ) a l l b u t BW7 ) BW/WM8 ) B & W women9 ) b l a c k s o n l y


28 303

COLUMNS QUESTION RESPONSES142 117 0 )

1)2)3)4 )5 )6 )7 )8 ) 9 )

n o n eBWBMWWWMa l lw h i t e sbw/wmb l a c k swomen

143 118 0 )1)2)3 )4 )5)

n o a n s w e r f i r e d / i n c o m p , f i r e d / t e a m p l a y e r d e n ie d / im c o m p . d e n i e d / t e a m p l a y e r n o n e

144 119 0 ) 1) 2) 3 )

n o a n s w e rh e l ph u r tn o d i f f e r e n c e

145 120 0)1)2)


146 121 0 )1)2)


147 122 0 )1)2)


148 123 0 )1)2)

n o a n s w e ry e sno

149 124 0) n o a n s w e r1)2)

y e sno

150 125 0)1)2)


151 126 0)1)2)


152 127 0 )1)2)


153 128 0 ) 1) 2)


154 129 0)1)'2 )



304

COLUMNS QUESTION RESPONSES155 130 0 ) n o a n s w e r

1) s i n g l e2) m a r r i e d3 ) l i v i n g w /so m e o n e4) s e p a r a t e d5) w id o w e d6 ) d i v o r c e d

156 131 0 ) n o a n s w e r1) a l l2) m o th e rh o o d3) m a r r i a g e4 ) c a r e e r5 ) n o n e

157 132 0 ) n o a n s w e r1) m o re2) l e s s3 ) sam e

158 133 0 ) n o a n s w e r1) y e s2) no

159 134 0 ) n o a n s w e r1) y e s , s t r i v e2 ) n o , f a r e n o u g h

1 60- 135 0 ) n o a n s w e r1) y e s2 ) n o

161 136* 0 ) n o a n s w e r1 ) 0 2 0 - 3 5 0 ,0 0 02 ) 5 1 - 0 8 0 ,0 0 03 ) 8 1 - 0 1 0 0 ,0 0 04 ) 1 0 1 ,0 0 0 +5 ) l e s s t h a n 0 2 0 ,0 0 0

162 137 * 0 ) n o a n s w e r1 ) S u p t .2 ) P re s /C E O3 ) B o a rd C h a i r4 ) t o p a p p o i n t e e5 ) t o p ad m /m g r6 ) m id d le ad m /m g r7 ) o t h e r ( l i s t )8 ) e l e c t e d p o s i t i o n9 ) t e a c h e r / e d u c a t o r


COLUMNS

30

QUESTION RESPONSES

305

0 ) n o a n s w e r1) y e s2) n o

0 ) n o a n s w e r1) y e s2) no

0 ) n o a n s w e r1) y e s

0 ) n o a n s w e r1 ) 1 - 1 02 ) 1 1 - 2 03 ) 2 1 -3 04) 3 1 -4 05) 4 1 - 5 06 ) 51 +

0 ) n o a n s w e r1 ) y e s2 ) no

0 ) n o a n s w e r .1 ) l r g / m e t r o / s c h . d i s t2 ) F o r t u n e 5 0 03 ) F o r t u n e 100 04 ) p o l i t i c a l d i s t r i c t5 ) c o l l e g e / u n i v e r s i t y6 ) n a t . o r g ( l i s t )7 ) o t h e r ( l i s t )

0 ) no a n s w e r1) no2) 1 -53) 6+

0 ) n o a n s w e r1) y e s2) no


COLUMNS QUESTION RESPONSES171 146* 0 ) n o a n s w e r

1) I n t e r n a t i o n a l2) n a t i o n a l3 ) s t a t e4 ) l o c a l5 ) a l l6 ) s t a t e / l o c a l7 ) s t a t e / n a t i o n a l8 ) a l l b u t i n t e r n a t ' l

0 ) n o a n s w e r1) y e s2 ) no

0) n o a n s w e r1) 25 o r u n d e r2) 2 6 -3 53) 3 6 -4 54 ) 4 6 -5 55) 5 6 -6 46 ) 65+

174 1 49* 0 ) n o a n s w e r1) B la c k2) W h ite

175 150 0 ) n o a n s w e r1) y e s2) no

176 151 0 ) n o a n s w e r1) y e s2) no

177 152 0 ) n o a n s w e r1) s e l f - im p r o v e m e n t2 ) f o r m a l s t r u c t u r e3 ) i n f o r m a l r e l a t i o n s4 ) a l l i e s / l o y a l t i e s5 ) g r a n t / r e p a y f a v o r s6 ) 1 & o t h e r r e s p o n s e s7 ) 3 & o t h e r r e s p o n s e s8 ) 1 & 3


307

COLUMNS QUESTION RESPONSES178 1 53 0 ) n o a n s w e r

1) m e a n s t o a l i v i n g2) r o u t i n e3 ) l e a r n i n g o p p .4 ) c h a n c e t o m ove u p5 ) e n jo y m e n t6 ) s e r v i c e7 ) a l l b u t 48 ) 1 «c 49 ) 3 & 4

0 ) n o a n s w e r1) y e s2 ) no

1) n o a n s w e r

B la c k e n t e r p r i s e1) y e s (1 )2 ) no

E s s e n c e (2 )1) y e s2 ) no

F o r b e s (3 )1) y e s2) no

F o r t u n e (4 )1) y e s2 ) no

MS. ( 5 )1) y e s2 ) no

S a v v y (6 )1) y e s2) no

WSJ (7 )1) y e s2) no

P r o f . J o u r n a l (8 )1) y e s ( l i s t )2) no

O th e r ( l i s t ) (9 )


308

COLUMNS QUESTION RESPONSES189 1 56 0 ) n o a n s w e r

1) y e s2 ) n o

157 ( l i s t )

190 158 0 ) n o a n s w e r1) y e s2 ) n o

159 ( l i s t )

191 160 0 ) n o a n s w e rt r a i n i n g ( ra n k .)

1 )2 )3)

192 1 60 0 ) n o a n s w e re x p e r i e n c e1)2 )3 )

193 160 0 ) n o a n s w e ro t h e r s1)2 )3)

194 161 1 ) n o a n s w e r

195 161 t r a i t t h e o r i e s1 ) y e s2 ) n o

196 161 m o t i v a t i o n t h e o r y1) y e s2 ) n o

197 161 m e th o d t h e o r y1) y e s2 ) no

198 161 o r g a n i z a t o n1) y e s2 ) no

199 161 o t h e r1) y e s2 ) n o ( l i s t )


343C


200

START RECORD 3

161 a l l1) y e s2) n o

1 161 n o n e1) y e s2 ) no

2 162 1) n o a n s w e r

3 162 t r a i t t h e o r i e s 1} y e s 2 ) n o

4 162 m o t i v a t i o n t h e o r y1) y e s2) n o

5 162 m e th o d t h e o r y1) y e s2 ) n o

6 162 o r g a n i z a t o n1) y e s2 ) no

7 162 o t h e r ' 1 ) y e s

2 ) n o ( l i s t )a 162 a l l

1 ) y e s2 ) n o

9 162 n o n e1) y e s2 ) no

10 1 6 3 -1 7 6 1) n o a n s w e r s t o 1 6 3 -1 7 6

n 163 1) y e s2 ) no

12 164 1) y e s2 ) n o

13 165 1) y e s2 ) n o

14 166 1) y e s2 ) n o


310

COLUMNS QUESTION RESPONSES15 167 1) y e s

2 ) no

16 168 1) y e s2) n o

17 169 1) y e s2) n o

18 170 1) y e s2) n o

19 171 1) y e s2) n o

20 172 1) y e s2} n o

21 173 1 ) y e s2 ) n o

22 174 1) y e s2 ) n o

23 175 1) y e s2 ) n o

24 176 1) y e s2 ) n o

l a s t p a g e " a d v i c e o f y o u r ow n"0 ) n o a d v i c e1 ) a d v i c e g i v e n

( l i s t )

P l e a s e i n i t i a l t h e f r o n t p a g e w hen c o d in g i s c o m p l e t e . T h an k y o u .


Responses

Appendix E

" F i l l In" and "O ther” C a teg o rie s


RESPONSES TO "FILL-IN" AND "OTHER11 CATEGORIES312

P r o f e s s i o n s

Law C o m m issio n e r

A r t s M anager S c h o o l b o a r d member

P h y s ic ia n e n t e r t a in m e n t

Law yer c o m m u n ic a t io n an d n ew s

M e n ta l H e a l t h P r o f e s s o r , s o c i a l w ork

J u d g e

J o u r n a lis m

u rb a n a f f a i r s

f i l m an d v i d e o s e r v i c e s

S o c i o l o g y <t P s y c h o lo g y

P u b l i s h i n g

B r o a d c a s t in g

R e a l E s t a t e B r o k e r

p r o f e s s i o n a l r e g i s t e r e d P a r l ia m e n t a r ia n

n e w sp a p e r e d i t o r

U rban a f f a i r s a d m i n i s t r a t o r

U n io n O f f i c e r

P r i v a t e F o u n d a t io n

C o m m u n ica tio n s

C o n s u l t a n t

D o c to r o f O p to m etry

N u r s in g

N a t io n a l T rad e A s s o c i a t io n

A c c o u n t a n t

I n t e r n a t i o n a l A v i a t i o n

E d i t o r i a l C onsum er A f f a i r s

P r o f e s s i o n a l S e r v i c e s

P r o f e s s i o n a l S o c i e t y

D i r e c t o r / N o n - P r o f i t O r g a n iz a t io n


313

Professions (continued)F o u n d a tio n A d m in is t r a t io n

H o s p i t a l A d m in is t r a t io n

P h ila n t h r o p y

P h a r m a c e u t ic a l I n d u s t r y

T V -E n te r ta in m e n t

L ib r a r la n s h ip

A d v e r t i s in g

P o l i c y R e se a r c h

C o n c e r t M anagem ent

News and I n t e r n a t io n a l R e la t io n s

S o c i a l Work

D ip lo m a t ic S e r v i c e s

S o c i a l S e r v i c e s

V o lu n t e e r


314

How w o u ld y o u d e s c r ib e t h e f a m ily gro u p in w h ich y o u w e re r a i s e d ?

G r a n d p a r e n ts g r a n d p a r e n ts and s e l fa lo n e

F a th e r and s te p m o th e r

S in g l e p a r e n t /g r a n d p a r e n t s o r p h a n e d , r a i s e d byg ra n d m o th er and a u n t

G randm other

U n t i l f a t h e r ' s d e a th p a r e n t s and a u n t

M o th e r 's d e a t h , a g e 13

S t e p f a t h e r

One p a r e n t , o ld e r b r o t h e r

P a t e r n a l g r a n d m o th e r , m aid en a u n t

G r a n d fa th e r and a u n t

T e a c h e r

F a th e r l i v i n g s e p a r a t e l y

P a r e n t / n o n - l e g a l g u a r d ia n

S t e p f a t h e r and c h i l d r e n

D iv o r c e , r e s p o n d e n t a g e 10

F a th e r r e m a r r ie d

F a t h e r ' s d e a t h , a g e 6 m o n th s; m o t h e r 's d e a t h , 6 y e a r s

F a th e r and g r a n d p a r e n ts ; f a t h e r and s te p m o th e r a t 10 y e a r s

F r ie n d s o f f a m i ly - " ad op ted "


M o th e r 's O c c u p a tio n D u r in g C h ild h o o d

H o u se w ife

Shop ow ner

L ib r a r y a s s i s t a n t and Cook

Farm er

S e a m s t r e s s

T e a ch er

C l e r i c a l

G overnm ent w ork er

A c c o u n t in g c l e r k

D o m e stic

C o l l e g e p r o f e s s o r

F a c t o r y w ork er

W a it r e s s , M aid , B e a u t i c ia n

M id w ife

P r e s s e r in C le a n e r s

S e a m s t r e s s and D e s ig n e r

E xam iner

V a r io u s

Laundry

C o s m e t o lo g is t

L ib r a r ia n

A i r l i n e s m atron

C i v i l s e r v i c e

S o c i a l w orker

E le m e n ta r y s c h o o l p r i n c i p a l

Owner, Day c a r e

s c h o o l p r i n c i p a l

x - r a y t e c h n i c i a n

l i b r a r y e d u c a t o r

m e d ic a l s o c i a l w orker

p r i v a t e m u s ic t e a c h e r

ward a t t e n d e n t

bank t e l l e r

g o v er n m en t a n a ly s t

c a s h i e r i n g s u p e r v i s o r

s h a r e c r o p p e r

a c t r e s s

e x e c u t i v e s e c r e t a r y


316M o th e r 's O c c u p a t io n ( c o n t in u e d )

C a t e r e r

R e s ta u r a n t ow ner

R e s ta u r a n t m anager

V o lu n t e e r l e a d e r

S e c r e t a r y

R a d io s a l e s

O p to m e tr ic A s s i s t a n t a n t

S t o r e k e e p e r

A c c o u n ta n t

O f f i c e M anager

Dry c l e a n i n g

P r i n t e r ' s a s s i s t a n t

C l e r k / c a s h i e r

L e g a l S e c r e t a r y

E d ito r

I n su r a n c e C o. c l e r k

A r c h i t e c t

B o o k k ee p e r

S c h o o l r e a d in g c o n s u l t a n t

P u b l ic r e l a t i o n s

C a se w o rk er , w e l f a r e

S t a t i s t i c i a n

None

E n tr e p r e n e u r

Funded o c c u p a t io n a l t h e r a p y c e n t e r

G ro c ery s t o r e a s s i s t a n t


317

M o t h e r 's O c c u p a tio n ( c o n t in u e d )

S u b s t i t u t e t e a c h e r

A u th o r , H i s t o r ia n

A r t i s t

I n s u r a n c e s a l e s

B aker

R e t a i l r e p r e s e n t a t iv e

S w itc h b o a r d o p e r a t o r

P r a c t i c a l n u r s e


Father's OccupationS m a ll b u s i n e s s ow ner

S u p e r in te n d e n t o f c o n s t r u c t i o n

G overnm ent w ork er

L a b o r er

E v a n g e l i s t

Farm er

P o lic e m a n

S t e e l w ork er

I n su r a n c e a g e n t

M a in te n a n c e

A uto m e ch a n ic

P a in t e r

T e c h n ic ia n

C o n tr a c to r

L e t t e r c a r r i e r

M i l i t a r y

D e c e a se d

C o l l e g e p r o f e s s o r

V a le t

C o n s t r u c t io n

M in i s t e r

T a i lo r

T e a c h e r

C o r p o r a te M anager

C h a u f fe r

Farm er

318

i n t e r i o r d e c o r a t o r

n ew sp a p e r e d i t o r

p o l i t i c i a n

m i n is t e r

u n i v e r s i t y t r e a s u r e r

h o u se m o v er

p o d i a t r i s t

r a d io re p a ir m a n

r e a l e s t a t e

w ard a t t e n d a n t

p h a r m a c is t

r a i l r o a d te r m in a l

p o r t e r

c o n c r e t e f i n i s h e r

tr u c k d r i v e r

b a r b e r

d o ck w o r k e r

m e rch a n t seam an

t e c h n i c a l w r i t e r

c o n s t r u c t i o n a p p r a is e r

p o l i c e o f f i c e r

m i l lw o r k e r

s e l f - e m p lo y e d

e n g in e e r

s h a r e c r o p p e r

d i r e c t o r o f p u b l i c w orks


F a t h e r ' s O c c u p a t io n ( c o n t in u e d )

Cook

I n su r a n c e a g e n t

T ea m ster and L a b o r er

P a in t e r

F a c t o r y w o r k e r

M achine o p e r a t o r

C a r p e n te r

A uto M ech a n ic

C o l l e g e p r o f e s s o r , c o a c h

B r ic k la y e r

Doorman

M iner

Saw m i l l

C h e f , b a r b e r

S c h o o l c u s t o d ia n

R e s ta u r a n t ow ner

C o l l e g e d ea n

B u s in e s s

J a n i t o r

B r ic k l a y e r

B la c k s m it h , fa r m er

P h y s ic ia n

T ruck D r iv e r

R a ilr o a d e m p lo y e e

C i v i l s e r v i c e m anager

C o n tr a c to r


Father's Occupation (continued)M achin e sh o p

P h a r m a c is t

P o r t e r

C i t y g o v er n m en t

D e n t i s t

Bus d r iv e r

E p i s c o p a l ia n p r i e s t

P r i n c i p a l / A s s i s t a n t S u p e r in te n d e n t

F in a n c ie r

S k i l l e d c r a f t s m e n

A g r ic u l t u r a l e c o n o m is t

W h o le s a le w a tch m a t e r i a l s

P r o f e s s o r

Car s a l e s _

T h e a t r i c a l ro a d co m p a n ie s

O p t o m e t r is t

A t to r n e y

B u i ld e r

D i r e c t o r , P u b l i c w e l f a r e

V e t e r in a r ia n

C o l l e g e P r e s id e n t

G e o lo g i s t

S a le sm a n

Bar ow ner

L o g g in g , c o n s e r v a t io n

O f f i c e work


Father's Occupation (continued)S a le s m anager

Farm m anager

M a n u fa c tu r in g

P o l i c e d e p a r tm e n t

E x e c u t iv e

F o r e s t e r

S ig n p a in t e r

Many I n t e r e s t s

N u c le a r p h y s i c i s t

P u b l ic r e l a t i o n s

R a ilr o a d c o n d u c to r

P r o f e s s i o n a l f u n d r a is e r

P r e s id e n t own com pany

I n d u s t r i a l c o n t r o l l e r

C i v i l e n g in e e r

W r ite r and e d i t o r

M u s ic ia n

P la n t ow ner

E n g in e e r

Company t r e a s u r e r

I n v e s tm e n t a n a ly s t

C h em ist

Dry c l e a n e r

N ew spaper V ic e P r e s id e n t

C om m ercial a d v is o r

P la n t s u p e r v i s o r


F a t h e r ' s O c c u p a tio n

P l a n t a t i o n ow ner

Owner c o n s t r u c t i o n f ir m

D i r e c t o r o f a d v e r t i s i n g

E l e c t r i c i a n

C ou n ty a g r i c u l t u r a l a g e n t

B u s in e s s e x e c u t i v e

C e r t i f i e d P u b l i c A c c o u n ta n t

S e l f em p lo y ed

T e x t i l e e n g in e e r

B a k e ry form an

C i v i l i a n p e r s o n n e l o f f i c e

R a ilw a y m a il

C o r p o r a te a c c o u n ta n t

R e a l e s t a t e b r o k e r

P u r c h a s in g a g e n t

P r o f e s s o r , D ir e c t o r o f r e s e a r c h

S to c k r a i s e r ( s h e e p )

I n v e n t o r

D i s t r i c t M anager, u t i l i t y com pany

B ank er

S t a t e D e p a rtm en t o f E d u c.a tio n

F a b r ic m i l l s

T a x i d r i v e r

G ard en er

M o r t ic ia n


323

D id you f e e l s p e c i a l in t h e e v e s o f y o u r p a r e n t s o r o t h e r im p o r ta n t a d u l t s ?

Church members a l l r e l a t i v e s

S i b l i n g s f r i e n d s , n e ig h b o r s ,r e l a t i v e s , t e a c h e r s

P a r i s h i o n e r s , t e a c h e r s

T e a c h e r s m i n i s t e r , t e a c h e r

C o u s in , s i s t e r

S c h o o l o f f i c i a l s

S i s t e r s and b r o t h e r s

G o d p a re n ts

F a m ily f r ie n d s

E v ery o n e

P a r e n t s ' f r i e n d s

H o u se k e ep er

The cook

R e l i g i o u s nun s ( t e a c h e r s )

M others o f f r i e n d s

O th er c h i l d r e n

Many a u n t s , u n c le s and c o u s in s

F a m ily M .D .'s

O ld e r b r o t h e r s and s i s t e r s

G re a t a u n t s

Community in G en er a l


324What w as y o u r u n d e r g r a d u a te c o u r s e o f s tu d y ?

S p e e c h p a th o lo g y

P e r s o n a l m anagem ent; human r e l a t i o n s

E n g l i s h

F a m ily l i f e e d u c a t io n

B u s in e s s and e c o n o m ic s

P o l i t i c a l s c i e n c e .

C h r i s t ia n e d u c a t io n

J o u r n a lis m

S o c io lo g y and P s y c h o lo g y

S o c i a l W e lfa r e

L ib r a r y s c i e n c e

M u sic p e r fo r m a n c e and e d u c a t io n

N u r s in g

S o c i a l s c i e n c e

H u m a n itie s

P re-m ed

E co n o m ics

K ept c h a n g in g , v a r io u s

N u r s in g

J o u r n a lis m

H is t o r y m in or

P h ilo s o p h y m ajor

I n t e r n a t io n a l r e l a t i o n s

C om m un ication a r t s

C o m m u n ica tio n s , G overnm ent

I n t e r n a t io n a l A f f a i r s


325

What w as y o u r g r a d u a te c o u r s e o f s tu d y ?

E co n o m ics

V e t e r in a r i a n , P h y s ic a l E d u c a t io n

A r t and P s y c h o lo g y

P h ilo s o p h y

P r e - la w

L a n d sca p e A r c h i t e c t u r e

F o r e ig n L angu age

D i e t e t i c s


In y o u r o r g a n i z a t i o n , w h at I s t h e l e v e l o f y o u r lo b c l a s s i f i c a t i o n ?

P a r t n e r

E le c t e d

D e p a rtm en t ch a irm a n

R e t ir e d

S o le p r a c t i t i o n e r

S h a r e h o ld e r

Member o f t h e f ir m

Dean o f la w s c h o o l

S e n io r a d v is o r

A m bassad or, D e p u ty A s s i s t a n t

One o f 13 ju d g e s

P r e s i d i n g ju d g e

S o le p r o p r i e t o r

A s s o c i a t e p r o f e s s o r

S e n io r p r o j e c t e n g in e e r

A s s i s t a n t t o s u p e r in t e n d e n t

E le c t e d ju d g e

C o u n s e lo r

E le c t e d C i t y o f f i c i a l

E d u c a to r

C h a ir p e r s o n o f U n i v e r s i t y d e p a r tm e n t

S c h o o l Board member

A s s i s t a n t p r o f e s s o r

The b o s s

C o u n c il member

T e a c h e r

A cadem ic A p p o in tm e n t

T en ured p r o f e s s o r

Lower l e v e l

B oard o f EOA

L e g a l

C i t y o f f i c i a l

E m p loyee

E le c t e d J u d g e

S e l f em p lo y ed

I n s t r u c t o r

F a c u l t y


327W hich o n e o f t h e f o l l o w i n g c a t e g o r i e s b e s t d e s c r ib e s y o u r o r g a n iz a t io n ran k ?

P a r t n e r s h ip

C i t y c o u n c i l

P r i v a t e c o n s u l t in g f ir m

Em ploym ent t r a i n i n g c e n t e r

L o c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n , u t i l i t y b i l l a s s i s t a n c e

E d u c a t io n a l t h e r a p y and r e s e a r c h c e n t e r

S t a t e m e n ta l h o s p i t a l

C h r i s t ia n c o l l e g e

S e l f em p loyed

S m a ll s c h o o l

P r i v a t e / n o n p r o f i t c o r p o r a t io n

NAACP

M u n ic ip a l i t y o f 9 0 .0 0 0

Medium s c h o o l d i s t r i c t

M u n ic ip a l c o u r t

S m a ll b u s in e s s

L a r g e s t c i t y r e c r e a t i o n d e p a r tm e n t in U. S .

S m a ll p u b l ic c o r p o r a t io n

S e n io r c i t i z e n s c e n t e r

I n t e r n a t io n a l CPA f ir m

U n ion o f f i c i a l

Law fir m

L a rg e p r i v a t e fo u n d a t io n

E ld e r ly a d v o c a c y

P u b l i c r e l a t i o n s g ro u p

S m a ll in v e s tm e n t p a r t n e r s h ip


328Which one of the following categories best describes vourorganization rank? continuedR e se a r c h (own b u s i n e s s )

P r i v a t e p r a c t i c e

N u t r i t io n r e s e a r c h c e n t e r

A d v e r t i s in g a g e n c y

Law s c h o o l

M ajor law fir m

S m a ll , l o c a l m a g a z in e

C h ild c a r e a g e n c y

S e c o n d a r y s c h o o l

S m a ll s t u d y c e n t e r a t H arvard

R e g u la to r y a g e n c y

In d e p e n d e n t j u d i c i a l b ody

R e se a r c h in f o r e i g n p o l i c y


Which of the following publications would you recommend toyoung women aspiring to leadership?NY T im es

W orking Women

B each N e w s le t t e r

P e r s o n n e l J o u r n a l

C h r o n ic le o f H ig h e r E d u c a t io n

AARP/PSTA

N a t io n a l C i t i e s / M u n i c i p a l G overnm ent

J o u r n a ls in S c i e n c e , M e d ic in e and T e c h n o lo g y

P u b l ic A d m in is t r a t io n R ev iew

F o c u s : J o i n t C e n te r f o r P o l i t i c a l S t u d i e s

N a t io n a l s c i e n c e t e a c h e r

AASA-AERA—C h r o n ic a l H ig h e r Ed

D e lt a S igm a T h e ta

ABWA

S c h o o l b o a rd new s

C a se C u r r e n ts

Ebony

P s y c h o lo g y T oday

U nion and p o l i t i c a l m a g a z in e s

M odern M a t u r it y

Change

B u s in e s s Week

U. S . News and W orld R e p o r t

Too many t o name

S m ith s o n ia n

Tim e

Newsweek

E x e c u t iv e F em ale

INC.

Ed L e a d e r s h ip

S t a t e B ar J o u r n a l

Com m unity D e v e lo p m en t D ig e s t

A d v e r t i s in g Age & Ad Week

Kappan

A m erican P la n n in g A s s o c .

U .S . s a v i n g s and Loan L ea g u e P u b l i c a t io n


What p r o f e s s i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s w ou ld y o u recom m end t o y o u n g women a s p ir in g t o le a d e r s h ip ?

s o r o r i t i e s B u s in e s s and P r o f e s s i o n a lWomen

Bar A s s o c i a t io n 100 B la c k Women

A m erican A s s o c i a t io n o f H ig h e r Ed

H arvard M anagem ent S em in ar A s s o c . W at. S c i e n c eT e a c h e r s

A m erican A c c o u n t in g A s s o c i a t io n

WABSE-AASA AERA

NASSP ASCD

NOW U rban L ea g u e

Women In C o m m u n ica tio n s S o r o p to m is t I n t e r n a t io n a l

N a t io n a l A s s o c i a t io n F or Women D eans

Women In H ig h e r E d u c a t io n E x e c u t iv e Women InG overnm ent

D e lt a S igm a T h e ta D e lt a Kappa Gamma S o c i e t y

N a t io n a l E d u c a t io n A s s o c i a t io n ASACH, ASA

NCCW F ed . E m ployed Women (FEW)

L ea g u e o f Women V o t e r s T o a s t m i s t r e s s

A m erica n M anagem ent A s s o c i a t io n

Z o n ta AAUW

A m erican B u s in e s s Women W omen's Chamber o fCommerce

A l t r u s a I n t e r n a t io n a l P i Lambda T h e ta

Chamber o f Commerce BWF

ASPA N a t io n a l Forum f o r P u b l i c A d m in is t r a t o r s

D e m o c r a t ic Women Women o f A c h ie v e m e n t

P h i D e l t a Kappa AKA S o r o r i t y

N a t io n a l L eagu e f o r N u r s in g A m erican S o c i e t y o fA s s o c i a t io n E x e c u t iv e s


331

What p r o f e s s io n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s w ou ld you recomm end t o you ng women a s p i r i n g t o l e a d e r s h ip ? c o n t in u e d

A m erican C o l l e g e o f H e a lth C are E x e c u t iv e s

N a t io n a l C o u n c il on F a m ily R e la t io n s

A m erican Women in R a d io and TV

A m erican Academy o f H o s p i t a l A t to r n e y s

A m erican L ib r a r y A s s o c i a t io n

A s s o c i a t io n f o r S u p e r v is io n and C u rr ic u lu m D e v e lo p m en t


What l e a d e r s h i p c o n f e r e n c e s o r s e m in a r s w o u ld y o u recomm end t o y ou n g women a s p ir in g t o l e a d e r s h ip ?

A m erican M anagem ent A s s o c i a t io n

A m erican S o c i e t y A s s o c i a t io n o f E x e c u t iv e s

H arvard B u s in e s s

K ennedy I n s t i t u t e

C o l l e g e o f N u r s in g S e m in a r s

X e r o x 's MTTP ( M anaging T ask T h r ee P e o p le )

C a t h o l i c H e a lth A s s o c i a t io n L e a d e r s h ip P rogram s

ADV Women o f NY

R e t ir e d T e a c h e r s A s s o c i a t io n

M is s o u r i W omen's N etw ork

C o n fe r e n c e in S c i e n c e and M e d ic a l E d u c a t io n

G i f t e d and T a le n t e d L e a d e r s h ip C o n fe r e n c e

Dunn and B r a d s t r e e t B u s in e s s W omen's T r a in in g I n s t i t u t e

Women o f A c h ie v e m e n t

L e a d e r s f o r t h e 8 0 s , ACE

L e a d e r s h ip F l i n t

HERS (A m erica n C o u n se l o f ED)

I n s t i t u t i o n f o r E d u c a t io n M anagem ent

I n t e r n a t io n a l P la t fo r m A s s o c i a t io n

C o n g r e s s io n a l B la c k C aucus

E .L .E .C .T .

Women In M anagem ent

F .E .W . N a t io n a l T r a in in g C o n fe r e n c e

D a le C a r n e g ie


333

A re you f a m i l i a r w i t h a n y o f t h e f o l l o w i n g t y p e s o fle a d e r sh ip /m a n a g e m e n t t h e o r i e s ?

B rew er , Power M anagem ent

W arren B e n n is

W in/W in N e g o t i a t i o n s

M ic h a e l D u r s t , m anagem ent b y r e s p o n s i b i l i t y

H e r se y and B la n c h a r d

M a slo w 's H ie r a r c h y

S e e you a t t h e Top, Z ig Z ig l a r

One M in u te M anager

H a ll T onner I n v e n to r y

TA

C o g n i t iv e D is s o n a n c e

W ilso n L e a r n in g C e n t e r s

M a tr ix

C o n tin g e n c y


334Which theories have proven useful in the practice of vourjob?o r g a n i z a t i o n a l h e a l t h

H a ll Tonna I n v e n to r y

EST T r a in in g

S e e You At t h e Top

One M in u te M anager

B la n c h a r d — s i t u a t i o n a l l e a d e r s h ip

m anagem ent b y r e s p o n s i b i l i t y

Edward D e r n ig , J a p a n e s e m anagem ent

W in /w in n e g o t i a t i o n s

B rew er

B e n n ls


335

Please add any advice of your own that you would like toshare.B e l i e v e In y o u r s e l f .

D o n 't b e a f r a id t o p o s tp o n e o r s e t a s i d e m oney o r pow er f o r t h e s a t i s f a c t i o n o f a h appy f a m i ly .

S u c c e s s I s n o t t h e sam e f o r a l l p e o p le .

S eek a m ate who b e l i e v e s In s h a r in g and m u tu a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y / m u t u a l r e s p e c t . D o n 't p u t y o u r n e e d s l a s t In t h e fa m ily s e t t i n g .

A lw ays b e p r e p a r e d a c a d e m ic a l ly and l e a r n t h e p o l i t i c s o f y o u r com pany— know y o u r s t u f f .

Look on th e human s i d e o f t h i n g s . U se common s e n s e .T h e re a r e no r e a l p r o b le m s , t h e r e a r e r e a l o p p o r t \ in i t i e s t o b r in g a b o u t c h a n g e .

R e - e v a lu a t e g o a l s and o b j e c t i v e s r e g u l a r l y and a d j u s t them c o n f i d e n t l y a s you grow and d e v e lo p . P u t God f i r s t in a l l t h i n g s .

Young women s h o u ld n o t s e l l t h e i r d ream s s h o r t . R each f o rt h e s t a r s and d a r e t o dream t h e i m p o s s ib l e .

We make s t a t e m e n t s d a i l y — t o g e t a h e a d , t h e y m ust b e p o s i t i v e s t a t e m e n t s .

D o n 't l e t t h e i n s e c u r i t i e s and m is t r e a t m e n t d i r e c t e d a g a a i n s t you by o t h e r s g e t you dow n. I t i s t h e i r p ro b lem n o t y o u r s .

" I f a t h in g i s w o r th d o in g , i t ' s w o r th d o in g w e l l . " (From my f a t h e r ' s p e r e n n ia l a d v ic e ) D o n 't g i v e up; f o l l o w y o u r dream w it h an a c t i o n p la n .

T ake a d v a n ta g e o f t h o s e m e n to r s in y o u r p e r s o n a l andc a r e e r l i f e . I f yo u d o n ' t h a v e o n e , f i n d o n e .

T hin k in te rm s o f s e r v i c e r a t h e r th a n p ow er; and m ove on when you f e e l y o u r g ro w th h a s en d ed in t h a t r o l e .

A s u c c e s s f u l p e r s o n t r i e s t o l e a r n from t h o s e who a r e s u p e r io r t o h im , m akes com m itm ents and f o l l o w s th r o u g h .

D o n 't be f e a r f u l o f w o r k in g f o r y o u r own com pany. I t i s so m e tim e s th e m ost e f f e c t i v e way t o a c h i e v e s u c c e s s . F in d a s o l i d s o u r c e o f e x t e r n a l and i n t e r n a l s t r e n g t h — I c a l l i t God.


Please add any advice of your own that you would like toshare. (Continued)N o th in g I s v e r y e a s y . I t I s s o s im p le t o l i s t e n t o a d v ic e . You m ust c h a r t y o u r own c o u r s e and d e c id e w hat you ca n l i v e w i t h .

As a fo r m e r ly u n m a rr ied te e n a g e m o th e r , I t h in k i t I s c r u c i a l l y im p o r ta n t t h a t we r e c o g i n iz e and e n c o u r a g a e t h e p o t e n t i a l o f y o u n g B la c k women who do n o t f i t t h e s ta n d a r d s u c c e s s / l e a d e r s h i p m o ld . I am lo o k in g f o r a fo r m a l m eans o f e x p r e s s io n f o r t h i s i d e a .

R a c ia l and g e n d e r d i s c r i m i n a t i o n i s i n t e n s e in t h e l e g a l p r o f e s s io n

Be a s w e l l p r e p a r e d a s yo u can t o do y o u r j o b . A dopt t h ep h i lo s o p h y t h a t you m ust b e e n g a g e d in l e a r n i n g a l l y o u rl i f e ; and t h a t l e a r n i n g i s a v a i l a b l e t o you from many s o u r c e s . U n d e r sta n d t h a t you h a v e t o w ork h a r d .

Do n o t m ix b u s i n e s s w i t h p le a s u r e

H avin g a p e r s o n a l f a i t h i s im p o r ta n t t o s u c c e s s .

N e v er u n d e r e s t im a t e t h e i n t e l l i g e n c e o f o t h e r s . S ta y f l e x i b l e , q u e s t i o n e v e r y t h i n g , b e e x t r e m e ly c u r i o u s .

A lw ays e v a l u a t e w h at you do and why; Be w i l l i n g t o c h a n g e - -y o u r i d e a s , y o u r w a y s , y o u r l i f e a s y o u l e a r n .

Your c a r e e r s h o u ld n o t b e a l l - c o n s u m in g . D e v e lo p m u l t i p l e i n t e r e s t s s o y o u ca n a c t w ith o u t f e a r o f l o s i n g i t a l l . R e ta in v e r s a t i l i t y .

P er fo r m y o u r r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s t o t h e b e s t o f y o u r a b i l i t y w ith e n th u s ia s m . B e l i e v e t h a t d o o r s o f o p p o r t u n i t y w i l l op en t o y o u .

R e la x w i t h i t . The g r e a t t h in g a b o u t c a r e e r s i s t h a t you e n j o y d o in g them .

The s e c r e t o f s u c c e s s i s p r e p a r a t io n .

B e in g a " p r o f e s s i o n a l v o lu n t e e r " i s a m o st r e w a r d in g c a r e e r and s h o u ld n o t b e o v e r lo o k e d by women who a r e f i n a n c i a l l y a b le t o p u r s u e su c h a l i f e .

I t h in k i t i s im p o r ta n t t o " e x p e c t th e u n e x p e c te d " and t o b e a b le t o b e f l e x i b l e in r e s p o n s e - p e r s o n a l l y and p r o f e s s i o n a l l y . B a b ie s a r e n o t th e o n ly r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s we h a v e d u r in g a l i f e t i m e — and som e p r o f e s s i o n a l o p p o r t u n i t i e s a p p e a r t h a t a r e f a r b ig g e r th a n a n y we may h a v e p la n n e d .


Please add any advice of your own that you would like toshare. (Continued)G et t h e b e s t p o s s i b l e e d u c a t io n a v a i l a b l e p r e s e n t e v id e n c e a b o u t y o u r e x p e r i e n c e and a b i l i t y t o do t h e jo b .

B e g in no m a t te r w h at y o u r a g e o r c ir c u m s t a n c e s . L e a r n in g I s a l i f e l o n g p u r s u i t . F in d s o m e th in g t o c h e r i s a b o u t e v e r y d a y .

Do an o u t s t a n d in g jo b In t h e jo b you h a v e . D o n 't c o m p la in a b o u t b u r e a u c r a t ic o b s t a c l e s — work y o u r way arou n d them .

P r o v id e s u p p o r t and r o l e m o d els t o p e e r women and y o u n g e r women— a s men h a v e a lw a y s d o n e f o r e a c h o t h e r .

T ry t o h a v e fu n , la u g h e v e r y d a y . Keep y o u r c h i l d i s h e n th u sa s im a s you g e t a k ic k o u t o f l i t t l e t h i n g s . S e t p r i o r i t y t im e f o r h u sb a n d and c h i l d r e n . T hey m ust n e v e r f e e l l e f t o u t . T a l k . . . a n y t h i n g , . . j u s t k e e p co m m u n ica t io n o p e n .

Know w hat a c t i v i t i e s n o u r is h you t h a t you e n j o y ; t h a t h a v e m ean in g f o r you and k e e p them in y o u r l i f e .

"N ever do t o o t h e r s w h at y o u w ou ld n o t w an t d o n e t o y o u r s e l f ."

You ca n a c h ie v e a n y t h in g i f you t r y h a rd en o u g h , lo n g e n o u g h .

T ry a s e c o n d c a r e e r a f t e r e a r l y r e t i r e m e n t ; i t ca n b e r e w a r d in g .

Keep y o u r p e r s p e c t i v e ! I h a v e tw o p e r s o n a l m o t t o e s : 1) I t ' s o n ly a h o b b y , and 2 ) I t a i n ' t arm s and l e g s .

T r u s t y o u r i n s t i n c t s . D o n 't w a s te t im e w ith a n g r y a c t i v i t i e s — th e y a r e d e s t r u c t i v e .

Women— h ang in t h e r e . D o n 't g i v e u p .

D e v e lo p a b a la n c e d s e n s e o f c o n f id e n c e in y o u r s e l f . Be h o n e s t .

A good d a y c a r e p r o v id e r i s a t r e a s u r e .

My f e e l i n g i s t h a t t h e e v e r - i n c r e a s i n g num bers o f women e n t e r i n g b u s in e s s w i l l , o v e r t h e v e r y lo n g r u n , h a v e a p o s i t i v e e f f e c t on t h e way c o m p a n ie s do b u s i n e s s and r e l a t e t o t h e i r e m p lo y e e s . B e in g l e s s th r e a t e n e d th a n m en, women w i l l b e a b le t o s h a r e t h e b u r d e n s and r e w a rd s o f pow er b e t t e r .


Appendix F

Who's Who C r i te r ia

338


339SELECTION CRITERIA

W ho's Who Among B la c k A m erica n s 1965

S ta n d a r d s and c r i t e r i a : In d e v e lo p in g d em anding y e tr e a l i s t i c a l l y f l e x i b l e s ta n d a r d f o r i n c l u s i o n in Who1s Who Among B la c k A m e r ic a n s , p r im a r y c o n s i d e r a t i o n was g iv e n t o th e e x t e n d o f an i n d i v i d u a l ' s r e f e r e n c e i n t e r e s t . In tu r n t h a t r e f e r e n c e i n t e r e s t , n o t in g in many c a s e s t h e u n iq u e c o n t r ib u t i o n s o f B la c k A m erica n s in an e v o l v i n g b u t s t i l l r e s t r i c t e d s o c i e t y , f o c u s e d on tw o f a c t o r s : 1 ) t h e p o s i t i o n o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y h e ld and 2) t h e l e v e l o f s i g n i f i c a n a c h ie v e m e n t a t t a in e d in a c e r e e r o f m e r i t o r io u s a c t i v i t y .

A d m is s io n s b a s e d on p o s i t i o n in c lu d e d a l l M embers o f C o n g r e s s , mem bers o f t h e P r e s i d e n t ' s c a b i n e t , a l l f e d e r a l j u d g e s , s t a t e s a t t o r n e y s g e n e r a l , j u d g e s o f s t a t e , c o u n ty and m u n ic ip a l t e r r i t o r i a l c o u r t s U .S . a m b a ssa d o r s and m i n i s t e r s , c o n s u ls g e n e r a l o r c o u n s e l s a t im p o r ta n t p o s t s h e a d s o f m ajor c o l l e g e s and u n i v e r s i t i e s , o f f i c e r s o f h ig h ran k in t h e m i l i t a r y , h e a d s o f l e a d in g p h i l a n t h r o p i c , e d u c a t io n a l and s c i e n t i f i c s o c i e t i e s , h e a d s and p r i n c i p a l l e a d e r s o f r e l i g i o u s d e n o m in a t io n s , p r i n c i p a l o f f i c e r s o f l e a d in g b u s i n e s s e s and o t h e r i n d i v i d u a l s c h o s e n b e c a u s e o f in c u m b e n c y , a u t h o r s h ip o r m em b ersh ip .

A d m is s io n s b a s e d on i n d i v i d u a l a c h ie v e m e n t w e re d e te r m in e d by v a r i o u s c r i t e r i a q u a l i t a t i v e l y c o m p ile d f o r th e v a r io u s s p h e r e s o f a c t i v i t y . To b e s e l e c t e d on t h i s b a s i s , an i n d i v i d u a l m u st h a v e a c c o m p lis h e d som e c o n s p ic u o u s a c h ie v e m e n t — s o m e th in g t h a t d i s t i n g u i s h e s him from t h e v a s t m a j o r i t y o f h i s c o n t e m p o r a r ie s .

W ho's Who In A m erica 1986

The g u id in g p r i n c i p l e . . .w o u ld b e t o c h r o n i c l e t h e l i v e s o f i n d i v i d u a l s w h o se a c h ie v e m e n ts and c o n t r ib u t i o n s t o s o c i e t y made them s u b j e c t s o f w id e s p r e a d r e f e r e n c e and in q u ir y . I n d i v i d u a l s b ecom e e l i g i b l e f o r l i s t i n g by v ir t x i e o f t h e i r p o s i t i o n s and / o r n o te w o r th y a c h ie v e m e n ts t h a t h a v e p r o v e d t o b e o f s i g n i f i c a n t v a lu e t o s o c i e t y . An i n d i v i s u a l s d e s i r e t o b e l i s t e d i s n o t s u f f i c i e n t r e a s o n f o r i n c l u s i o n . S i m i l a r l y w e a lt h o r s o c i a l p o s i t i o n i s n o t a c r i t e r i o n . P u r c h a s e o f t h e book i s n e v e r a f a c t o r in t h e s e l e c t i o n o f b io g r a p h e e s


Appendix 6

C o n tr ib u to rs

340


341

CONTRIBUTORS

This p ro je c t could n o t have been com pleted w ith o u t th e su p p o rt o f th e fo llow ing c o n tr ib u to r s :

The Graduate C ollege W estern Michigan U n iv ers ity

J & B Computer

I l l i n o i s Envelope

Sarkozy Bakery

Brenda A tkins Los A ngeles, CA

Sadie W aterford Jones C hicago, IL

YJean Chambers J u d ith LotasGary, IN New York, NY

Mrs. Henry Cobb J e n e lle MoorheadBaton Rouge, LA Eugene, OR

A lb e r ta C o lc lase r Lynne 0 ' Shea-ThybonyW ooster, OH W arren, MI

N. June Davis Iowa C ity , IA

E liz a b e th Douglas Beaver F a l l s , PA

Mary PowerS ta te U n iv e rs ity , AR

Marsha P rovost C hattanooga, TN

K athleen E ggleston Menlo Park, CA

Carmen F in ley Palo A lto , CA

Ruth Fleming San F ra n c isc o , CA

Nancy Freeman S e a t t l e , WA

Ruby G a rre tt A t la n ta , GA

C ath erin e Henn B oston , MA

Joy Rencher Los A ngeles, CA

Posy Shepard Greenwich, CT

Is a b e l le Smith B a t t le Creek, MI

B rere ton S tu r te v a n t A lexandria , Va

Johanna Tallman La Canada, CA

Constance Wilds Danbury, CT


Appendix H

Complete L is t of V a riab les

342


343

Demographics

1. B ir th o rd er (n ■ 501)

F i r s t born 36.3%M iddle born 31.7%Youngest 20.2%Only c h ild 11.8%

2. Seven y ea rs younger than th e c h i ld ahead (_n ■ 500)

Yes 6.2%No 93.8%

3. E xperience s im ila r to f i r s t born (ja « 37)

Yes 89.2%No 10.8%

4. Fam ily group (n - 491)B lack White

T ra d i tio n a l n u c le a r 62.3% 29.5% 32.8%T ra d i tio n a l extended 25.3% 14.9% 10.4%S in g le paren t 8.8% 6.3% 2.4%Legal guard ian 0.6% 0.4% 0.2%N onparental r e la t iv e 0.8% 0.6% 0.2%O ther 2.2% 1.0% 1.2%

imlly economic c l a s s i f i c a t i o n (n ■ 488)B lack W hite

Upper 7.8% 1.0% 6.8%M iddle 57.0% 26.6% 30.3%Lower 35.2% 25.2% 10.0%

ispondents ' ed u c atio n (n - 487)Black White

High school 4.1% 1.2% 2.9%C ollege 20.9% 9.2% 11.7%G raduate 34.7% 20.1% 14.6%P o stg rad u ate 40.2% 22.2% 13.1%


344

7. M a r ita l s ta tu s (n ■ 498)B lack White

S ing le 16.5% 7.6% 8.8%M arried 49.2% 24.9% 24.3%L iving w ith someone 2.6% 0.6% 2.0%Separated 3.0% 2.6% 0.4%Widowed 6.4% 3.4% 3.0%Divorced 22.3% 14.7% 8.6%

8 . Age (n - 492)Black White

25 o r under 0.6% 0.4% 0.2%26-35 4.5% 3.5% 1.0%36-45 32.5% 20.3% 12.2%46-55 38.8% 21.1% 17.7%56-65 16.7% 6.1% 10.6%65+ 6.9% 1.4% 5.5%

Success C r i te r ia

< $20,000 $20 ,000-$50,000 $51,000-$80,000 $81,000-$100,000 $101, 000+

Black White

0.8% 0.8% 0.0%40.7% 31.7% 9.1%34.0% 15.4% 18.5%

8.6% 2.5% 6.2%15.8% 2.3% 13.6%

10. Job rank (n - 492)

Superin tenden tPresident/CEOBoard c h a irTop AppointeeTop m an a g er/ad m in is tra to rM iddle managerE lec ted p o s itio nTeacherOther

B lack White

0.8% 0.6% 0.2%17.1% 6.1% 11.0%

2.4% 0.8% 1.6%9.8% 3.3% 6.5%

29.9% 12.4% 17.5%22.6% 18.3% 4.3%

1.0% 1.0% 0.0%0.2% 0.2% 0.0%

16.3% 10.2% 6.1%


345

11. A u th o rity to e s ta b l i s h budget p r i o r i t i e s (n - 487)

Yes 65.5%No 34.5%

12. C ontro l of E xpenditures (n. - 486)B lack White

Yes 63.4% 29.6% 33.7%No 36.6% 24.1% 12.6%

13. S uperv ision o f l in e and s t a f f personnel (n ■ 464)

B lack White

Yes 78.3% 39.3% 39.0%No 21.7% 14.5% 7.2%

14. Number o f people su p erv ise d (ii - 464)

Black White

1-10 58.8% 36.0% 22.8%11-20 11.0% 4.5% 6.5%21-30 6.7% 2.8% 3.9%31-40 3.2% 1.9% 1.3%41-50 3.9% 1.9% 1.9%51+ 16.4% • 5.2% 11.2%

15. Job c r i t i c a l to o rg a n iz a t io n 's fu tu re (ii ■ 497)

B lack White

Yes 83.9% 42.7% 41.2%No 16.1% 10.3% 5.8%

16. O rgan ization rank ( n - 494)B lack White

Large metro school d i s t r i c t 6.5% 6.3% 0.2%F ortune 500 company 11.5% 4.0% 7.5%Fortune 1,000 company 2.2% 0.4% 1.8%P o l i t i c a l d i s t r i c t 2.8% 2.6% 0.2%C ollege or u n iv e r s i ty 28.1% 18.2% 9.9%N a tio n a lly known o rg a n iz a tio n 29.4% 11.5% 17.8%Other 19.4% 10.3% 9.1%


346

Media a t te n t io n in th e p as t year (ii - 496) B lack White

0 tim es 16.5% 7.5% 9.1%1-5 tim es 55.2% 32.5% 22.8%6+ tim es 28.2% 13.1% 15.1%

18. Award re ce iv e d w ith in th e p a s t 5 y ea rs (n - 494)

Black White

Yes 77.9% 45.1% 32.8%No 22.1% 7.9% 14.2%

19. Type of award (n - 381)B lack White

In te r n a t io n a l 9.7% 3.7% 6.0%N ationa l 40.2% 17.3% 22.8%S ta te 31.2% 22.6% 8.7%Local 6.8% 5.5% 1.3%A ll 2.1% 1.0% 1.0%S ta te and lo c a l 0.8% 0.8% 0.0%S ta te and n a t io n a l 9.2% 7.1% 2.1%

Fam ily and Childhood

20. Loved by p a ren ts as a c h ild (n ■ 480)Black White

Yes 94.6% 52.1% 42.5%No 5.4% 1.7% 3.8%

21. P are n ts h ire d dom estic help (n - 492)Black White

Yes 38.8% 11.2% 27.6%No 61.2% 41.7% 19.5%

22. Both p a ren ts worked (n ■ 482)Black White

Yes 49.2% 32.8% 16.4%No 50.8% 19.5% 31.3%


347

23. A tte n tio n and c e le b ra tio n fo r ch ildhood achievem ents (n ■ 501)

B lack White

Yes 48.1% 27.9% 20.2%No 51.9% 25.0% 26.9%

24. P ra ise fo r ch ildhood achievem ent (n - 501)

Yes 75.4%No 24.6%

25. P r iv ile g e s fo r ch ildhood achievem ent (n ■ 499)

B lack White

Yes 21.2% 16.4% 4.8%No 78.8% 36.5% 42.3%

26. Money fo r ch ildhood achievem ent (n =■ 499)

B lack White

Yes 15.0% 10.0% 5.0%No 85.0% 42.9% 42.1%

27. M a tte r -o f-c o u rse e x p e c ta tio n fo r childhood achievem ent (n ■ 501)

Black White

Yes 53.5% 23.8% 29.7%No 46.5% 29.1% 17.4%

28. In d if fe re n c e to ch ildhood achievem ent (n = 501)

Yes 3.0%No 97.0%

29. Cold shou lder to ch ildhood achievem ent (ii - 501)

Yes 0.4%No 99.6%


348

30. Envy toward ch ildhood accom plishm ents

Yes 1.8%No 98.2%

31. H o s t i l i ty toward ch ildhood accom plishm ent (n ■ 498)

Yes 2.0%No 98.0%

32. I n te l l ig e n c e (n ■ 310)B lack White

Below average 2.3% 1.9% 0.3%Average 11.0% 7.7% 3.2%Above average 76.5% ' 40.3% 36.1%Genius 10.3% 3.9% 6.5%

33. Household d u t ie s , ages 6-9 (n - 501)

Yes 8.0%No 92.0%


Yes 16.6%No 83.4%

35. Household d u t ie s , ages 14-17 (n ■ 501)

Yes 18.0%No 82.0%


Yes 10.8%No. 89.2%

37. Household d u t ie s , a l l ages (n ■ 501)

B lack White

Yes 68.7% 41.1% 27.5%No 31.3% 11.8% 19.6%


349

38. Job o u ts id e th e home, ages 6-9 (n - SOI)

39. Job o u ts id e th e home, ages 10-13 (n - 501)

40. Job o u ts id e th e home, ages 14-17 (a - 501)

41. Job o u ts id e th e home, ages 18-21 (n - 501)

42. Job o u ts id e th e home, a l l ages (n - 501)

43. M other's h ig h e s t e d u c a tio n (ii ■ 500)

44. M other's occupation (ii ■ 428)Black White

Homemaker/housewife 44.6% 18.9% 25.7%Domestic s e rv ic e 11.0% 10.3% 0.7%Female s e rv ic e in d u s try 14.7% 9.6% 5.1%T echn ical 0.2% 0.2% 0.0%Blue c o l l a r 3.7% 3.0% 0.7%White c o l l a r 6.8% 2.8% 4.0%P ro fe s s io n a l 17.1% 10.7% 6.3%E ntre p ren e u r 1.9% 0.5% 1.4%


350

45. S p e c ia l Co m other as a c h i ld (n ■ 500)

Black White

Yes 79.4% 44.0% 35.4%No 20.6% 8.8% 11.8%

46. C lose r to f a th e r d u ring ch ildhood (n » 501)

Yes 26.1%Nu 73.9%

47. C lose r to f a th e r in ado lescence (n - 501)

Yes 29.7%No 70.3%

48. Never c lo se to f a th e r (ii - 500)

Yes 42.8%No 57.2%

49. F a th e r 's f a v o r i te , a l l ages (n - 501)

Yes 38.1%No 61.9%

50. S p ec ia l to f a th e r (ii - 501)

Yes 78.8%No 21.2%

51. F a th e r 's occupation (n ■ 484)Black White

Laborer 23.3% 18.0% 5.2%Male se rv ic e in d u s try 7.4% 5.2% 2.2%Trades 6.7% 3.9% 2.8%T echn ical 2.0% 1.5% 0.4%Blue c o l la r 9.3% 6.3% 3.0%White c o l la r 12.6% 3.0% 9.6%P ro fe s s io n a l 26.5% 12.4% 14.1%E ntrep reneur 10.7% 3.7% 7.0%O ther 1.5% 0.4% 1.1%


351

52. Father's education (n ■ 484)Black White

elem entary 28.9% 18.4% 10.5%High school 29.1% 16.9% 12.2%C ollege 23.8% 10.1% 13.6%Graduate 10.3% 3.1% 7.2%P o stg rad u ate 7.9% 4.1% 3.7%

53. M other's f a v o r i t e , a l l ages

Yes 25.9%No 74.1%

54. M other's f a v o r i t e , ages 6-9 (n ■ 501)

B lack White

Yes 6.6% 4.6% 2.0%No 93.4% 48.3% 45.1%

55. M other's f a v o r i t e , ages 10-13 (n ■ 501)

B lack White

Yes 6.2% 4.4% 1.8%No 93.8% 48.5% 43.5%

56. M other's f a v o r i te , ages 14-17 (n ■ 501)

Yes 4.8%No 95.2%

57. M other's f a v o r i t e , ages 18-21 (n - 501)

Yes 7.6%No 92.4%

58. C o n flic t w ith m other in childhood (ji ■ 501)

Yes 10.2%No 89.8%


352

59. C o n flic t w ith mother in m arriage (ri ■ 501)

Yes 12.2%No 87.8%

60. C o n f lic t w ith mother in f i r s t c a re e r decade (n ■ 501)

Yes 11.0%No 89.0%

61. Never had c o n f l ic t w ith mother (n ■ 501)

Yes 33.7%No 66.3%

62. F a th e r 's f a v o r i te , ages 6-9 (n ■ 501)

Yes 6.6%No 93.4%

63. F a th e r 's f a v o r i te , ages 10-13 (n - 501)

Yes 5.4%No 94.6%

64. F a th e r 's f a v o r i te , ages 14-17 (n ■ 501)

Yes 4.8%No 95.2%

65. F a th e r 's f a v o r i te , 18-21 (n - 501)

Yes 4.0%No 96.0%

66. C loser to f a th e r in c o lle g e (n ■ 501)

Yes 18.4%No 81.6%


353

67. C loser to fa th e r in f i r s t c a re e r decade (a ■ 501)

Yes 11.2%No 88.8%

68. C loser to f a th e r in m arriage (n ■ 501)

Yes 7.0%No 93.0%

69. C loser to f a th e r in c a re e r m a tu ri ty (n = 501)

Yes 9.6%No 90.4%

70. C o n flic t w ith fa th e r in ch ildhood (n - 501)

Yes 9.6%No 90.4%

71. C o n flic t f a th e r in c o lle g e (n ■ 501)

Yes 18.8%No- 81.2%

72. C o n flic t w ith fa th e r in m arriage (n - 501)

Yes 8.2%No 91.8%

73. C o n flic t w ith fa th e r in f i r s t c a re e r decade (n - 501)

Yes 6.0%No 94.0%

74. C o n flic t w ith f a th e r in c a re e r m a tu rity (ri - 501)

Yes 47.7%No 52.3%


354

75. Never had c o n f l ic t w ith f a th e r (n - 501)

Yes 3.4%No 96.6%

76. S p ec ia l to g ra n d fa th e r (ti * 500)

Yes 37.8%No 62.2%

77. G ra n d fa th e r 's f a v o r i te , ages 6-9 (ii - 501)

Yes 5.4%No 94.6%

78. G ra n d fa th e r 's f a v o r i te , ages 10-13 (n - 501)

Yes 3.0%No 97.0%

79. G ra n d fa th e r 's f a v o r i te , ages 14-17 (n ■ 501)

Yes 2.8%No 97.2%

80. G ra n d fa th e r 's f a v o r i te , ages 18-21 (n - 501)

Yes 1.2%No 98.8%

81. G ra n d fa th e r 's f a v o r i te , a l l ages (n ■ 501)

Black White

Yes 17.2% 11.2% 6.0%No 82.8% 41.7% 41.1%

82. S p ec ia l to grandmother (n = 500)

Black White

Yes 53.6% 31.4% 22.2%No 46.4% 2.1.4% 25.0%


83. G randm other's f a v o r i t e , ages 6-9 (n - 501)

Yes 5.1%No 94.6%

84. G randm other's f a v o r i t e , ages 10-13 (n ■ 501)

Yes 3.4%No 96.6%

85. G randm other's f a v o r i t e , ages 14-17 (n - 501)

Yes 2.2%No 97.8%

86. G randm other's f a v o r i t e , ages 18-21 (ii - 501)

Yes 2.0%No 98.0%

87. G randm other's f a v o r i t e , a l l ages (n ■ 501)

B lack White

Yes 28.9% 17.8% 11.2%No 71.1% 35.1% 35.9%

88. S p ec ia l to au n t (n * 500)Black White

Yes 58.0% 34.4% 23.6%No 42.0% 18.4% 23.6%

89. S p ec ia l to un cle (ri ■ 500)B lack White

Yes 48.4% 30.8% 17.6%No 51.6% 22.0% 29.6%

90. S p ec ia l to o th e rs (n - 499)

Yes 23.6%No 76.4%


35691. Who se le c te d c h i l d 's a c t i v i t i e s (11 - 477)

Black White

P are n ts s e le c te d 38.8% 22.6% 16.1%C hild s e le c te d 61.2% 30.0% 31.2%

92. P are n ts c o n f id e n t in c h ild re a r in g , ages 6-9 (n ̂ - 501)

Yes 17.8%No 82.2%

93. P are n ts co n f id e n t in c h i ld re a r in g , ages 10-13 (n * 498)

Yes 16.1%No 83.9%

94. P a re n ts co n f id e n t in c h ild re a r in g , ages 14-17 (n - 498)

Yes 9.4%No 90.6%

95. P a re n ts co n f id e n t in c h ild re a r in g , ages 18-21 (n - 501)

Yes 6.4%No 93.6%

96. P are n t c o n f id e n t in c h i ld re a r in g a t a l l ages (n - 501)

Yes 72.1%No 27.9%

97. Fam ily anecdotes about re sp o n d en t's le a d e rsh ip a b i l i t y , ages 6-9 (n ■ 501)

Yes 4.6%No 95.4%

98. Fam ily anecdotes about re sp o n d en t's le a d e rsh ip a b i l i t y , ages 10- 13 (n - 501)

Yes 11.4%No 88.6%


35799. Fam ily anecdotes about re sp o n d en t's le a d e rsh ip a b i l i t y ages,

14-17 (n - 501)

Yes 15.2%No 84.8%

100. Fam ily anecdotes about re sp o n d en t's le a d e rsh ip a b i l i t y , ages 18-21 (n - 501)

Yes 15.4%No 84.6%

101. Fam ily anecdo tes about re sp o n d en t's le a d e rsh ip a b i l i t y , a l l ages (ti ■ 501)

— Black White

Yes 49.9% 29.1% 20.8%No 50.1% 23.8% 26.3%

102. D escribed as sm art, ages 6-9 (n - 501)

Yes 2.4%No 97.6%

103. D escribed as sm art, ages 10-13 (n ■ 501)

Yes 7.2%No 92.8%


Yes 8.8%No 91.2%


Yes 9.4%No 90.6%


358

107.

108.

109.

110.

111.

112.

D escribed as sm art, a l l ages (a - 501)

Black

Yes 80.8% 45.3%No 19.2% 7.6%

Anger In childhood (n ■ 501)

Yes 15.4%No 84.6%

D epression In ch ildhood (n - 501)

Yes 5.8%No 94.8%

Anger in to i n i t i a t i v e and achievem ent d u rin g childhood

Yes 6.0%No 94.0%

C onfronted in ju s t i c e s du ring ch ildhood (ii ■ 501)

Yes 20.2%No 79.8%

Gained re sp e c t fo r c o n fro n tin g in ch ildhood (n - 501)

Yes 10.2%No 89.8%

Envy boys in ch ildhood (n ■ 500)

Yes 20.0%No 80.0%

Accept o rg a n iz a tio n s and in s t i t u t i o n s in ch ildhood (n •

Black White

Yes 35.7% 14.0% 21.8%No 64.3% 38.9% 25.3%

White

35.5%1 1 . 6%

(n - 501)

501)


359

114. Try to change o rg a n iz a tio n s and i n s t i t u t i o n s in childhood (n ■500)

Yes 4.8%No 95.2%

115. Area of school ex c e lle n c e (n. 464)

Books and s tu d ie s 62.1%P h y s ic a l a c t i v i t i e s 5.6%Perform ing a r t s 2.4%School le a d e rsh ip 10.3%S o c ia liz in g 3.0%

116. A tti tu d e s towards schoo l ( ii - 501)Black White

Enjoyable 69.5% 39.1% 30.5%C hallenging 20.8% 13.3% 7.5%S tr e s s fu l 5.4% 3.0% 2.4 %Boring 4.3% 0.9% 3.4%

117. Impact of childhood a b i l i t i e s (n - 453)

S k i l l s s u ffe re d 4.4%P o p u la rity s u ffe re d 24.9%Enjoyed s k i l l s and p o p u la r i ty 70.0%Both s u ffe re d 0.7%

118. Childhood c h a r a c t e r i s t i c , t a lk a t iv e and com m unicative (n • 501)

B lack White

Yes 54.9% 33.5% 19.4%No 45.1% 21.4% 25.7%

119. Childhood c h a r a c t e r i s t i c , f e i s ty and argum entative (n = 501)

B lack White

Yes 25.3% 15.8% 9.6%No 74.7% 37.1% 37.5%


360

120. Childhood c h a r a c t e r i s t i c , shy (n - 501)

Yes 35.1%No 64.9%

121. Childhood c h a r a c t e r i s t i c , dependent (n *> 501)

Yes 10.2%No 89.8%

122. Childhood c h a r a c t e r i s t i c , independent (ja - 501)

B lack White

Yes 71.9% 41.3% 30.5%No 28.1% 11.6% 16.6%

123. Childhood c h a r a c t e r i s t i c , a t h l e t i c (a - 501)

Yes 27.1%No 72.9%

124. Childhood c h a r a c t e r i s t i c , c o m p e titiv e (n - 501)

B lack White

Yes 55.9% 32.3% 23.6%No - 44.1% 20.6% 23.6%

125. Childhood c h a r a c t e r i s t i c , low a c h ie v e r (n_- 501)

Yes 1.8%No 98.2%

126. Childhood c h a r a c t e r i s t i c , average a c h ie v e r (ii ■ 501)

Yes 14.6%No 85.4%

127. Childhood c h a r a c t e r i s t i c , high a c h iev er (n = 501)

Yes 72.3%No 27.7%


361

128. Childhood c h a r a c t e r i s t i c , model c h ild (n * 501)

B lack White

Yes 45.7% 26.5% 19.2%No 54.3% 26.3% 27.9%

129. Childhood c h a r a c t e r i s t i c , problem c h i ld (11 - 501)

Yes 6.6%No 93.4%

A dolescence

130. Job o u ts id e th e home, ages 14-17 (n ■ 501)

Yes 40.7%No 59.3%

131. Anger in ado lescence (n - 501)

Yes 40.7%No 59.3%

132. Anger caused d ep ress io n in ado lescence (n ■ 501)

Yes 17.6%No 82.4%

133. Anger in to i n i t i a t i v e and achievem ent (ji - 501)

White

7.4%39.7%

Yes 39.9%No 60.1%

Black

Yes 19.4% 12.0%No 80.6% 40.9%

134. C onfronting i n ju s t i c e (ri ■ 501)


362

135. Gained re sp e c t fo r co n fro n tin g (n - 501)

Yes 21.4%No 78.6%

136. Envy freedom of m ales (n ■ 501)

. Black White

Yes 39.3% 23.4% 16.0%No 60.7% 29.5% 31.1%

137. L iv ing ro le models a t ages 14-17 (n - 501)

Yes 7.2%No 92.8%

138. Emulate m ales In ado lescence (n ■ 501)

Yes 11.4%No 88.6%

139. Emulate fem ales In ado lescence (n - 500)

B lack White

Yes 35.6% 21.8% 13.8%No 64.4% 31.2% 33.2%

140. D is lik e th e company of t r a d i t i o n a l women In ado lescence (n ■ 501) “

Yes 9.2%No 90.8%

141. T rie d to change o rg a n iz a tio n s In ado lescence (ji - 501)

Yes 22.0%No 78.0%

142. C o n flic t w ith m other in adolescence (n =* 501)

Yes 45.5%No 54.5%


363

143. C o n flic t w ith f a th e r in ado lescence (n ■ 501)

Yes 27.0%No 73.0%

C ollege Years

144. A ttended c o lle g e ( £ ■ 501)

Yes 95.8%No 4.2%

145. U ndergraduate course o f study (ii ■ 475)

B lack White

B usiness 12.6% E ducation 13.9% Fine a r t s 4.0% E ng ineering 0.6% L ib e ra l a r t s 45.9% Science & m athem atics 9.9% Other 13.1%

8 .0%11.4%

1.5%0 .0%

21.1%5.5%6.5%

4.6%2.5%2.5%0 .6%

24.8%4.4%6.5%

Decided c a re e r b e fo re c o lle g e (n - 501)

Black White

Yes 60.7% 36.9% No 39.3% 16.0%

23.8%23.4%

147. A ttended g ra d u a te school (n » 501)

Black White

Yes 75.6% 42.7% 32.9%No 24.4% 10.2% 14.2%


364

148. G raduate degree (n ■ 501)B lack White

Business 12.4% 6.3% 6 .1%Education 27.2% 22.2% 5.0%F ine a r t s 1 .6% 1.3% 0.3%E ngineering 1 .0% 0.5% 0.5%L ib e ra l a r t s 14.0% 5.8% 8.2%Science & m athem atics 6 .6% 2.4% 4.2%Other 37.1% 18.3% 18.8%

149. P a re n ts su p p o rtiv e o f c a re e r choice (ii ■ 501)

Yes 86.8%No 13.2%

150. Job o u ts id e the hone, ages 18-21 (n » 501)

Yes 56.3%No 43.7%

151. Fam ily anecdotes about re sp o n d en t's le a d e rsh ip a b i l i t y a t ages 18-21 (n - 501)

Yes 15.4%No 84.6%

152. H is to r ic a l o r c e le b r i ty ro le models a t ages 18-21 (n ■ 501)

Yes 41.7%No 58.3%

153. Anger in co lle g e (n ■ 501)

Yes 24.4%No 75.6%

154. D epression from unexpressed anger in c o lle g e (n ■ 501)

Yes 14.0%No 86.0%


365

155. Anger in to i n i t i a t i v e and achievem ent in c o lle g e (n ■ 501)

B lack White

Yes 25.7% 17.4% 8.4%No 74.3% 35.5% 38.7%

156. Confronted in ju s t i c e s in c o lle g e (ji “ 501)

B lack White

Yes 52.1% 29.9% 22.2%No 47.9% 23.0% 25.0%

157. Respected fo r c o n fro n tin g (n - 501)

B lack White

Yes 37.9% 24.0% 14.0%No 62.1% 28.9% 33.1%

158. Envied freedom of males (n ■ 501)

B lack White

Yes 21.0% 8.6% 12.4%No 79.0% 44.3% 34.7%

159. Emulated m ales in c o lle g e (jn - 501)

Yes 16.8%No 83.2%

160. Emulated fem ales in c o lle g e (n - 501)

Black White

Yes 32.5% 20.6% 12.0%No 67.5% 32.3% 35.1%

161. D is lik e d th e company o f t r a d i t i o n a l women in co lle g e (ii ■ 501)

Yes 22.0%No 78.0%


366

162. Accepted s ta tu s quo o f o rg a n iz a tio n s and I n s t i t u t i o n s (n - 501)

Black White

Yes 29.7% 12.6% 17.2%No 70.3% 40.3% 29.9%

163. Tried to change o rg a n iz a tio n s and I n s t i t u t i o n s In c o lle g e (n - 501) “

B lack White

Yes 51.7% 31.7% 20.0%No 48.3% 21.2% 27.1%

164. D e lib e ra te ly p laced in Im possib le s i tu a t io n s (n ■ 501)

Black White

Yes 7.8% 6.8% 1.0%No 92.2% 46.1% 46.1%

165. P re fe rre d company o f men in c o lle g e (n - 501)

B lack White

Yes 41.7% 25.0% 16.8%No 58.3% 27.9% 30.3%

166. C lose f r ie n d s in c o lle g e (n - 501)

B lack White

Men 14.8% 7.0% 7.7%Women 26.8% 12.5% 14.3%Both 51.4% 30.7% 20.7%N eith e r 7.0% 5.0% 2 .0%

167. Pledged a s o ro r i ty (ji ■ 501)

B lack White

Yes 33.7% 22.8% 11.0%No 66.3% 30.1% 36.1%


367

M arriage

168. Age responden ts began to th in k o f m arriage ( n - 494)

B lack White

Childhood 3.8% 1.0% 2 .8%Adolescence 26.9% 12.6% 14.4%C ollege 49.6% 31.0% 18.6%M arriage 1 .8% 0 .8% 1 .0%F ir s t c a re e r decade 12.3% 5.9% 6.5%C areer m atu rity 2 .2% 0 .6% 1.6%Never 3.2% 1.2% 2.0%

169. Anger in m arriage (ii « 501)

Yes 41.5%No 58.5%

170. D epression in m arriage (n ■ 501)

Yes 32.9%No 67.1%

171. Anger as a m o tiv a to r in m arriage (_n - 501)

Black White

Yes 25.5% 15.8% 9.8%No 74.5% 37.1% 37.3%

172. C o n fro n ta tio n in m arriage (n - 501)

B lack White

Yes 40.1% 23.6% 29.3%No 59.9% 16.6% 30.5%

173. Respected fo r co n fro n tin g (n ■ 501)

B lack White

Yes 23.4% 14.4% 9.0%No 76.6% 38.5% 38.1%


368

174. Envy males In m arriage (n. - 501)

Yes 15.0%No 85.0%

175. Accept o rg a n iz a tio n s and I n s t i t u t i o n s In m arriage (n - 501)

Black White

Yes 14.6% 5.6% 9.0%No 85.4% 47.3% 38.1%

176. T ried to change o rg a n iz a tio n s and I n s t i t u t i o n s In m arriag e (n ■ 501)

B lack White

Yes 32.1% 19.6% 12.6%No 67.9% 33.3% 34.5%

177. Delay p e rso n a l g o a ls fo r c a re e r (n - 484)

B lack White

Childhood 0 .2% 0 .2% 0 .0%A dolescence 4.1% 3.3% 0 .8%C ollege 17.6% 12.4% 5.2%M arriage 10.7% 8.3% 2.5%F ir s t c a re e r decade 17.4% 8.3% 9.1%C areer m atu rity 5.0% 3.7% 1.2%Never 45.0% 17.1% 27.9%

178. Im possib le s i tu a t io n In m arriage (n ■ 501)

Yes 3.8%No 96.2%

179. Most a n x ie ty -p ro d u c in g ro le (n ■ 501)

A ll 14.5%Motherhood 23.1%M arriage 21.4%Career 20.0%None 21.0%


369

180. H usband's Income compared to re sp o n d e n t's (in ■ 378)

B lack White

More 41.0% 19.3% 21.7%Less 57.9% 36.0% 22.0%Same 1 .1% 0.3% 0 .8%

181. H usband's Income as a source o f te n s io n (n * 501)

Black White

Yes 24.4% 16.0% 8.4%No 75.6% 36.9% 38.7%

182. H usband's su p p o rtiv e o f con tinued c a re e r advancement (n - 501)

Yes 61.9%No 38.1%

183. P e rso n a l l i f e s e p a ra te from c a re e r (n ■ 500)

Yes 64.4%No 35.6%

184. Respondents had o th e r means of support (n - 498)

Yes 35.3%No 64.7%

185. Respondents' ad v ice : "You can have I t a l l , b u t no t e a s i l y ”(n - 501)

Yes 1.0%No 99.0%

186. R espondents' ad v ice : "Wait fo r m arriage i f you want a ca ree r"(n - 501)

Yes 75.6%No 24.4%


370187. Respondents' ad v ic e : "D on 't lea v e a baby a t home" (n ■ 501)

Yes 6.6%No 93.4%

188. R espondents' ad v ice : "Every In d iv id u a l has p o te n t ia l ; s e to b je c tiv e s and pursue them" (n ■ 501)

Yes 5.6%No 94.4%

189. R espondents' ad v ic e : "Your husband must have achieved stardomin h i s own r i g h t i f y o u 'r e g o in g f o r th e to p " (n. ■ 501)

Yes 7.6%No 92.4%

190. R espondents' ad v ic e : "Get your c a re e r going then have c h ild re nand ta k e a few y e a r s o f f " (ja ■ 501)

B lack White

Yes 85.8% 48.7% 37.1%No 14.2% 4.2% 10.0%

F i r s t C areer Decade

191. Means o f g e t t in g f i r s t job (n ■ 498)

Own i n i t i a t i v e 67.1%Placement s e rv ic e 12.4%F a th e r 's connections 3.6%M other's connections 0.6%F rien d s of fam ily 2.2%P ersona l f r ie n d 4.6%Job s p e c ia l ly c re a te d 1.6%M ento r's connections 6.4%Husband's connections 1.4%


371

192. Level o f f i r s t job (n ■ 501)

E n try le v e l 84.6%S uperv iso ry le v e l 7.8%Middle management 4.0%Upper management 0.8%E xecutive le v e l 1.8%

Less than 1 y ea r1-3 y ea rs4-6 yea rs7-10 y ea rsMore than 10 y ea rs

job le v e l (n - 501)

B lack White

25.3% 10.3% 15.0%56.7% 30.1% 26.5%11.0% 7.4% 3.6%

4.4% 3.4% 1.0%2 .6% 1.6% 1.0%

194. A tti tu d e of f i r s t boss (n - 501)

Mentor 24.4%S upporter 56.1%In d if f e re n t 14.0%A n tag o n is tic 5.6%'

195. Time o f f i r s t t i t l e change (n - 501)B lack White

Less th an 1 y ea r 22.4% 10.8% 11.6%1-3 y ea rs 55.1% 27.7% 27.3%4-6 years 14.0% 8 .2% 5.8%7-10 years 4.6% 3.8% 0 .8%More than 10 y ea rs 4.0% 2.4% 1.6%

196. F i r s t s a la r y in c re a se (n - 466)B lack White

Less th an 1 yea r 41.6% 18.7% 23.0%1-3 years 54.7% 32.6% 22.1%4-6 years 2.4% 1.5% 0.9%7-10 y ears 0 .6% 0.4% 0 .2%More than 10 y ea rs 0.4% 0 .2% 0 .2%


372

198.

199.

200.

201.

202.

C lear re p o r tin g r e la t io n s h ip s (n ■ 501)

B lack White

Yes 75.2% 41.7% 33.5%No 24.8% 11.2% 13.6%

Mutual support o f co-w orkers (n ■ 501)

Yes 89.4%No 10.6%

"A s u p e r io r 's re c o g n it io n o f your work served as a c a re e r c a t a l y s t " (n * 501)

Yes 87.6%No 12.5%

"Luck" caused job advancement (ji - 501)

Yes 74.9%No 25.1%

A ctive seeking caused job advancement (n * 501)

Yes 42.1%No 57.9%

Number o f company changes fo r c a re e r advancement (n - 501)

1 43.1%2 1 . 2%3 33.4%4 8.7%5 3.4%5+ 1.9%Never 8.2%

Experienced a p erio d o f se lf-d o u b t d u ring f i r s t c a re e r decade (n - 501)

Yes 51.9%No 48.1%


204. Experienced anger d u rin g f i r s t c a re e r decade (n ■ 501)

Yes 31.9%No 68.1%

205. Unexpressed anger caused d ep ress io n (ji ■ 501)

Yes 1 8 .6ZNo 81.4%

'106. Anger as a m otive fo r i n i t i a t i v e and achievem ent (n ” 501)

B lack White

Yes 39.3% 2 3 .0Z 16.4%No 6 0 .7Z 29.9% 30.7%

207. C o n fro n ta tio n o f pe rce iv e d in ju s t i c e s (n - 501)

Black W hite

Yes 62.7% 35.5% 27.1%No 37.3% 17.4% 20.0%

208. Gained re s p e c t fo r co n fro n tin g (ja ■ 501) '

B lack White

Yes 5 6 .1Z 3 2 .1Z 24.0ZNo 4 3 .9Z 20.8% 23.2%

209. Envied male freedom (n - 501)

B lack White

Yes 19.4% 6.8Z 12.6%No 80.6% 46.1% 34.5%

210. Accepted o rg a n iz a tio n s and i n s t i t u t i o n s as they were (n ̂ ■ 501)

Yes 22.0%No 78.0%


374211. Tried to change organizations (ji * 501)

Black White

Yes 66.5% 37.5% 28.9%No 33.5% 15.4% 18.2%

212. Saw h e r s e l f as p re s id e n t of o rg a n iz a tio n (ja - 501)

B lack White

Yes 34.9% 15.6% 19.4%No 65.1% 37.3% 27.7%

213. Mentor (n ■ 483)B lack White

No mentor 35.2% 17.8% 17.4%W hite male m entor 30.2% 10.1% 20.1%W hite fem ale m entor 10.6% 3.5% 7.0%B lack male m entor 9.7% 9.7% 0 .0%Black fem ale mentor 9.3% 9.3% 0 .0%White male and female m entors 2.5% 0.4% 2 .1%Black male and female m entors 0 .6% 0 .6% 0 .0%White and B lack female m entors 0.4% 0 .2% 0 .2%W hite and Black male m entors 1.4% 1.4% 0 .0%

214. S o c ia l a c t i v i t y in f i r s t c a re e r decade (n - 479)

No s o c ia l l i f e 2.9%J o b -re la te d s o c ia l l i f e 31.3%N o n -jo b -re la te d s o c ia l l i f e 65.8%

215. A tti tu d e o f male su b o rd in a te s (ii ■ 501)

B lack White

C oopera tive 76.4% 37.0% 39.1%Cold, p ro fe s s io n a l 15.8% 11.0% 4.8%I n d if f e re n t 3.6% 2 .2% 1.4%In su b o rd in a te 1 .2% 0 .6% 0 .6%Undermining 3.0% 1.8% 1 .2%


375

216. S ubordinate m o tiv a tio n .(n ■ 501)Black White

L oyalty 36.1% 16.4% 19.8%P ro fe ssio n a lism 61.1% 34.5% 26.5%In tim id a tio n 0 .8% 0 .8% 0 .0%L oyalty and p ro fe s s io n a lism 2 .0% 1.2% 0 .8%

217. Most com fortab le job re la t io n s h ip s (n - 501)

P eers 68.3%Boss 31.7%

218. Best o rg a n iz a tio n a l s t r u c tu r e fo r advancement (n *» 501)

Formal s t ru c tu re 46.3%Inform al s t r u c tu r e 53.7%

C areer M atu rity

219. Reached c a re e r m a tu ri ty (n - 501)

B lack White

Yes 90.4% 46.3% 44.1%No 9.6% 6.6% 3.0%

220. Had s a la r y and prom otion deserved (n ■ 501)

B lack White

Yes 64.5% 29.5% 34.9%No 35.5% 23.4% 12.2%

221. Came to a choice betw een con tinued c a re e r s t r iv in g versu s m arriage and c h ild re n (n - 501)

Yes 33.3%No 66.7%


376

222. Chose between c a re e r and p e rso n a l l i f e (n ■ 384)

C areer 18.82P erso n a l l i f e 2.9ZBoth 74.7%

223. Anger in c a re e r m a tu ri ty (n - 501)

Yes 26.5%No 73.5%

224. D epression in c a re e r m a tu rity (n ■ 501)

Yes 15.4%No 84.6%

225. Anger as m o tiv a to r in c a re e r m a tu rity (n ■ 501)

Black White

Yes 35.3% 21.2% 14.2%No. 64.7% 31.7% 32.9%

226. Confronted p erceiv e d in ju s t i c e in c a re e r m a tu ri ty ( £ ■ 501)

Yes 61.9%No 38.1%

227. Gained re sp e c t fo r co n fro n tin g (n - 501)

Yes 57.5%No 42.5%

228. Envied m ales in c a re e r m a tu rity (ii = 501)

B lack White

Yes 10.4% 3.6% 6.8%No 89.6% 49.3% 40.3%

229. Accepted o rg a n iz a tio n s and i n s t i t u t i o n s as they were

Yes 12.0%No 88.0%


377

230. T ried to change o rg a n iz a tio n s and I n s t i t u t i o n s (n - 501)

B lack White

Yes 62.3% 30.7% 31.5%No 37.7% 22.2% 15.6%

231. S e lf-d e sc rib e d c a re e r s ty le c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , d i r e c t (n ■ 501)

Yes 75.2%No 24.8%

232. S e lf-d e sc rib e d c a re e r s ty le c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , f a c tu a l (n - 501)

B lack White

Yes 55.5% 24.8% 30.7%No 44.5% 28.1% 16.4%

233. S e lf-d e sc rib e d c a re e r s ty le c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , b u sin ess and ta sk o rie n te d (n - 501)

Yes 73.7%No 26.3%

234. S e lf-d e sc rib e d c a re e r s ty le c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , e m o tio n a lly d i s t a n t (n - 501)

Yes 7.8%No 92.2%

235. S e lf-d e sc rib e d c a re e r s ty le c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , m inim ize ra ce (n " 501)

B lack White

Yes 15.4% 12.0% 3.4%No 84.6% 40.9% 43.7%

236. S e lf-d e sc rib e d c a re e r s ty le c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , M allory wardrobe (n - 501)

Yes 11.6%No 88.4%


237. S e l£ -d esc rlb ed c a re e r s ty le c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , co n se rv a tiv e d re ss w ith fem in ine touches (n - SOI)

Yes 55.3%No 44.7%

238. S e lf -d e sc r ib e d c a re e r s ty le c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , - 501)

Yes 19.0%No 81.0%

239. S e lf-d e sc rib e d c a re e r s ty le c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , 501)

Yes 19.4%No 80.6%

240. S e lf -d e s c r ib e d c a re e r s ty le c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , 501)

B lack White

Yes 66.9% 38.9% 27.9%No 33.1% 14.0% 19.2%

241. S e lf-d e sc rib e d c a re e r s ty le c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ,

Yes 59.7%No 40.3%

242. S e lf -d e sc r ib e d c a re e r s ty le c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , 501)

Black White

Yes 66.9% 32.3% 34.5%No 33.1% 20.6% 12.6%

243. S e lf-d e sc rib e d c a re e r s ty le c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ,

Yes 9.2%No 90.8%

fem in ine d re ss (n

a g g re ss iv e (n »

a s s e r t iv e (n *

v i s ib l e (n - 501)

p e rsu a s iv e ( n =

com bative (jn - 501)


379

244. S e lf-d e sc rib e d c a re e r s ty le c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , n u rtu rin g (n ■ 501)

Yes 45.3%No 54.7%

245. S e lf-d e sc rib e d c a re e r s ty le c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , f r ie n d ly (ii ■ 501)

Yes 81.2%No 18.8%

246. S e lf-d e sc rib e d c a re e r s ty le c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , happy (n ■ 501)

Yes 85.0%No 15.0%

247. S e lf-d e sc rib e d c a re e r s ty le c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , rewarded (n ■ 501)

Yes 81.8%No 18.2%

248. S e lf-d e sc rib e d c a re e r s ty le c h a r a c te r i s t i c s ^ s a t i s f i e d (n -501)

B lack White

Yes 71.7% 34.5% 37.1%No 28.3% 18.4% 10.0%

249. S e lf-d e sc rib e d c a re e r s ty le c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , guarded (n ■ 501)

B lack White

Yes 45.1% 29.5% 23.4%No 54.9% 15.6% 31.5%

250. S e lf-d e sc rib e d c a re e r s ty le c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , f r e e to take r is k s (n - 501)

B lack White

Yes 75.6% 37.7% 37.9%No 24.4% 15.2% 9.2%


380

251. N egative perform ance a p p r a is a l , i .e . , (a) too outspoken, (b) too low p r o f i l e , (c) too com bative, (d) too com prom ising, (e) no t a team p la y e r , ( f ) too ag g ress iv e , o r (g) unable to handle job re q u irem en ts .

Yes 56.1%No 43.9%

Response to n eg a tiv e perform ance a p p ra is a l (n - 240)

B lack White

More t r a in in g 12.1% 7.1% 5.0%Conformed 18.8% 7.1% 11.7%Added an o th e r p e rsp e c tiv e 46.3% 28.3% 17.9%P ro te s te d 17.5% 11.3% 6.3%Sought e v a lu a tio n from someone

e ls e 5.4% 4.6% 0 .8%

Learned to view c r i t i c i s m as p o s i t iv e (n ■ 501)

B lack White

Yes 83.0% 46.1% 36.9%No 17.0% 6.8% 10.2%

R eassessed s ty le , became le s s te c h n ic a l (a - 501)

Yes 46.1%No 53.9%

255. R eassessed s ty le , l e s s l i k e ly to dom inate more l i k e ly to p e rsuade su b o rd in a te s (n - 501)

Yes 69.3%No 30.7%

256. Time b efo re com fo rtab le d e le g a tin g ta sk s and tu rn in g down new r e s p o n s ib i l i t i e s (jo - 464)

Never 18.5%1-5 years 59.7%6-10 y ea rs 14.2%10+ y ea rs 7.5%


Perception of Gender Impact

257. Learned gender d if fe re n c e s (n ■ 474)

Childhood 63..7%Adolescence 23..2%C ollege 4..9%M arriage 1 ,.9%F i r s t c a re e r decade 3..6%C areer m a tu rity 1 ..9%Never 0 ..8%

258. Age o f aw areness o f d i f f e r e n t gender ro le e x p e c ta tio n s (n - 460)

Black White

2-5 y ea rs o ld 13.0% 7.6% 5.4%6-9 y ea rs o ld 26.3% 17.2% 9.1%10-13 y ea rs o ld 24.8% 14.8% 10.3%14-17 y ea rs o ld 20.2% 9.3% 10.9%18-21 y ears o ld 13.5% 5.2% 8.3%30s 0 .2% 0 .0% 0 .2%Never 2 .0% 0.7% 1.3%

259. Age of aw areness of gender ro le r e s t r ic t io n s (ii ■ 486)

Childhood 29.8% 19.1% 10.7%A dolescence 32.1% 18.5% 13.6%C ollege 10.7% 4.9% 5.8%M arriage . 3.9% 1.9% 2 .1%F ir s t c a re e r decade 13.0% 5.1% 7.8%C areer m a tu rity 3.9% 1.4% 2.5%Never 6 .6% 1.9% 4.7%

260. P a r t ic ip a te d in team sp o r ts (n = 489)

B lack White

Yes 54.0% 32.3% 21.7%No 46.0% • 20.7% 25.4%


382

261. Shared t r a d i t i o n a l m other and d augh te r p u rs u i ts (n 479)

Black White

Yes 80.2% 45.5% 34.7%No 19.8% 7.3% 12.5%

262. Shared t r a d i t i o n a l ly fa th e r and son p u rs u i ts w ith f a th e r (n » 452)

Yes 41.6%No 58.4%

263. F a th e r 's views tov?ards daugh ter (n - 447)

B lack White

Feminine 69.4% 42.3% 27.1%Son s u b s t i tu te 5.4% 3.8% 1.6%Feminine and son s u b s t i tu te 24.8% 6.7% 18.1%Other 0.4% 0 .0% 0.4%

264. S o c ie ta l messages re g ard in g m arriage and c a re e r (n - 462)

B lack White

P repare fo r c a re e r 90.5% 51.9% 38,,5%A tt ra c t a husband 9.5% 3.2% 6.3%

265. Never experienced d ep ress io n because o f unexpressed anger (n ** 501)

Yes 39.3%No 60.7%

266. Never been angry (n - 501)Black White

Yes 20.0%, 7.6% 12.4%No 80.0% 45.3% 34.7%

267. I n i t i a t i v e aud achievem ent never m otiva ted by anger (ri * 501)

B lack W hite

Yes 22.4% 8.8% 13.6%No 77.6% 44.1% 33.5%


268. Never confron ted I n ju s t ic e s (n ■ 501)

B lack White

Yes 7.6% 2.8% 4.8%No 92.4% 50.1% 42.3%

269. Never gained re s p e c t by co n fro n tin g (n ■ 501)

B lack White

Yes 8.2% 2.4% 5.8%, No 91.8% 50.5% 41.3%

270. Never envied freedom of m ales (n - 501)

Yes 37.3%No 62.7%

271. L iv ing ro le models a t ages 6-9 (n ■ 501)

Yes 3.8%No 96.3%

272. L iv ing ro le models a t ages 10-13 (ji - 501)

Yes 5.6%No 94.4%

273. L iv ing r o le models a t ages 14-17 (n - 501)

Yes 6.4%No 93.6%

274. L iv ing ro le models a t ages 18-21 (n - 501)

B lack White

Yes 65.1% 39.9% 25.1%No 34.9% 13.0% 22.0%


384

275. L iv ing ro le models a t a l l ages (n - 501)

Yes 78.3%No 21.7%

276. H is to r ic a l o r c e le b r i ty ro le models a t ages 6-9 (n 3 501)

Yes 85.4%No 14.6%

277. H is to r ic a l o r c e le b r i ty r o le models a t ages 10-13 (n ■ 304)

B lack White

Yes 91.8% 58.9% 32.9%No 8.2% 3.3% 4.9%

278. H is to r ic a l o r c e le b r i ty r o le models a t ages 14-17 (ji * 501)

B lack White

Yes 95.0% 61.1% 34.0%No 5.0% 1.3% 3.6%

279. H is to r ic a l o r c e le b r i ty ro le model a t ages 18-21 (n ■ 501)

B lack White

Yes 44.1% 29.1% 15.0%No 55.9% 23.8% 32.1%

280. H is to r ic a l o r c e le b r i ty r o le model a t a l l ages (ii ■ 501)

Yes 7.,2%No 92.8%

281. Emulate male ro le models in ch ildhood (ii 3 501)

Yes 16.8%No 83.2%

282. Emulate male ro le models in c o lle g e (ri 3 501)

Yes 16.8%No 83.2%


385

283. Emulate male ro le models In m arriage (n * 501)

Yes 5.0%No 95.0%

284. Emulate male ro le models In f i r s t c a re e r decade (ii ■ 501)

Black White

Yes 26.9% 10.6% 16.4%No 73.1% 42.3% 30.7%

285. Emulate male ro le models in c a re e r m a tu ri ty ( ii *■ 501)

Black White

Yes 14.2% 5.0% 9.2%No 85.8% 47.9% 37.9%

286. Never em ulated male ro le model (n ■ 501)

B lack White

Yes 53.6% 32.0% 21.6%No 46.4% 21.0% 25.4%

287. Emulated female r o le models in ch ild h o o d ,(n - 500)

Black White

Yes 21.0% 13.2% 7.8%No 79.0% 39.8% 39.2%

288. Emulated female r o le models in c o lle g e (n. ■ 500)

Black White

Yes 32.6% 20.6% 12.0%No 67.4% 32.4% 35.0%

289. Emulated female ro le models in m arriage (ii « 501)

Black White

Yes 20.4% 13.2% 7.2%No 79.6% 39.7% 39.9%


386

290. Emulated female r o le models in c a re e r m a tu ri ty ( 1 1 ■ 500)

Yes 24.82No 75.2%

291. Emulated female ro le models in f i r s t c a re e r decade (n ■ 499)

Black White

Yes 31,7% 20.2% 11.4%No 68.3% 32.7% 35.7%

292. Never em ulated fem ale ro le models (ii - 499)

B lack White

Yes 26.1% 11.0% 15.0%No 73.9% 42.1% 31.9%

293. P re fe r re d company o f men a t ages 6-9 (]i ■ 501)

Yes 4.6%No 95.4%

294. P re fe r re d the company o f men a t ages 10-13 (n - 501)

Yes 7.8%No 92.2%

295. P re fe r re d th e company o f men a t ages 14-17

Yes 26.7%No 73.3%

296. P re fe r re d th e company of men a t ages 18-21 (n - 501)

Black White

Yes 41.7% 25.0% 16.8%No 58.3% 27.9% 30.3%


387

297. P re fe rre d th e company of men a t c o lle g e (n ■ 501)

Yes 26.5%No 73.5%

298. D is lik e d th e company of t r a d i t i o n a l women In childhood (n ■ 501)

Yes 3.8%No 96.2%

299. D is lik e d th e company of t r a d i t i o n a l women In f i r s t c a re e r d ec ad e (n - 501)

Yes 29.3%No 70.7%

300. D is lik e d th e company of t r a d i t i o n a l women In m arriage (n ■ 501)

Yes 20.4%No 79.6%

301. D is lik e d th e company of t r a d i t i o n a l women in c a re e r m a tu rity (n - 501)

Yes 17.6%No 82.4%

302. Never d is l ik e d company o f t r a d i t i o n a l women (n ■ 500)

Black White

Yes 49.0% 23.0% 26.0%No 51.0% 30.0% 21.0%

303. Never t r i e d to change o rg a n iz a tio n s (n - 501)

B lack White

Yes 7.6% 2.4% 5.2%No 92.4% 50.5% 41.9%

304. Sex d is c r im in a tio n in ch ildhood (n ■ 497)

Yes 7.4%No 92.6%


388

305. Sex d isc r im in a tio n in ado lescence (ja - 501)

B lack White

Yes 15.6% 10.0% 5.6%No 84.4% 42.9% 41.5%

306. Sex d isc rim in a tio n in c o lle g e (n * 501)

Yes 27.7%No 72.3%

307. Sex d isc rim in a tio n in m arriage (n - 501)

B lack White

Yes 15.4% 10.4% 5.0%No 84.6% 42.5% 42.1%

308. Sex d isc rim in a tio n in f i r s t c a re e r decade (n ■ 499)

Yes 63.9%No 36.1%

309. Sex d isc r im in a tio n in c a re e r m a tu rity (n - 501)

Yes 32.1%No 67.9%

310. Never experienced sex d isc r im in a tio n (n - 501)

B lack White

Yes 14.4% 5.2% 9.2%No 85.6% 47.7% 37.9%

311. Experienced sexua l harassm ent (ri ■ 501)

Yes 26.1%No 73.9%


389

312. Minimized fe m in in ity In c a re e r s ty le (11 ■ 501)

Yes 13.0%No 87.0%

313. D ecision no t to m inim ize fe m in in ity (n - 501)

Yes 6 9 .5ZNo 3 0 .5Z

314. Only woman employed (ii ■ 461)Black White

E ntry le v e l 16.9% 9.1% 7.8%Superv iso ry le v e l 7.2% 4.1% 3.0%Middle management 10.6% 5.2% 5.4%Upper management 7.2% 3.7% 3.5%Executive le v e l 15.6% 4.3% 11.3%Never 40.1% 27.3% 12.3%Every le v e l 2.4% 0.4% 2.0%

iree r advancement fo r women a t h er l e v e l (n - 501)

B lack White

Exception 61.7% 30.1% 31.5%Norm 38.3% 22.8% 15.6%

316. Men Ignored women In d is c u s s io n (n - 501)

Yes 6 6 .7ZNo 33.3%

317. Suspected sex b ia s in job c r i t i c i s m (n ■ 501)

B lack White

Yes 36.9% 23.0% 14.0%No 63.1% 29.9% 33.1%

318. C ontinual need to dem onstra te le a d e rsh ip (ii * 501)

Yes 85.6%No 14.4%


390

319. P erceiv e men's need to dem onstra te le a d e rs h ip c o n tin u a lly (n - 501) ~

Black White

Yes 75.2% 35.1% 40.1%No 24.8% 17.8% 7.0%

320. W illin g to h i re women

Yes 98.6%No 1.4%

321. Member women's advocacy group (ii ■ 501)

Yes 44.7%No 55.3%

P erc ep tio n of Race Impact

322. Childhood r a c i a l environm ent (n - 468)

B lack White

Predom inantly White 50.4% 8 .1% 42.3%Predom inantly B lack 40.8% 40.4% 0.4%In te g ra te d 4.5% 3.6% 0.9%M u lti r a c ia l 4.3% 3.6% 0 .6%

Age of aw areness o f r a c i a l id e n t i ty (n - 472)

Black White

2-5 y ea rs 23.7% 16.7% 7.0%6-9 y ears 32.8% 21.4% 11.4%10-13 years 22.0% 11.9% 10.2%14-17 years 10.4% 4.2% 6 .1%18-21 years 10.0% 1.5% 8.5%30s 0.4% 0 .2% 0 .2%Never 0 .6% 0 .2% 0.4%


391

324. Awareness o f ra ce r e s t r ic t io n s (n. - 501)

Black White

Childhood 40.3% 28.8% 11.5%A dolescence 33.0% 16.6% 16.4%C ollege 13.4% 3.8% 9.6%M arriage 0.5% 0.5% 0 .0%F ir s t c a re e r decade 6 .6% 2 .1% 4.5%C areer m atu rity 1.4% 0 .2% 1.2%Never 4.7% 0.7 % 4.0%

325. Encountered ra ce d is c r im in a tio n in ch ildhood (n ■ 501)

Black White

Yes 18.4% 18.4% 0.0%No 81.6% 34.5% 47.1%

326. Encountered ra ce d is c r im in a tio n in c o lle g e (ii 19 501)

Black White

Yes 29.5% 28.5% 1.0%No 70.5% 24.4% 46.1%

327. Encountered ra ce d is c r im in a tio n in m arriage (n ■ 501)

.B lack White

Yes 10.8% 10.4% 0.4%No 89.2% 42.5% 46.7%

328. Encountered ra ce d is c r im in a t io n in f i r s t c a re e r decade (n ■ 501)

B lack White

Yes 34.5% 33.1% 1.4%No 65.5% 19.8% 45.7%

329. Encountered ra ce d is c r im in a tio n in c a re e r m a tu rity (n ■ 501)

B lack White

Yes 20.2% 19.6% 0.6%No 79.8% 33.3% 46.5%


392

330. Never encountered ra c e d isc rim in a tio n (11 * 501)

Black White

Yes 43.9% 2.0% 41.9%No 56.1% 50.9% 5.2%

331. D e lib e ra te ly p laced in a p o s itio n to f a i l d u ring childhood (n =• 501)

Yes 1.4%No 98.6%

332. D e lib e ra te ly p laced in a p o s i tio n to f a i l du ring ado lescence (n - 501)

B lack White

Yes 4.2% 3.4% 0.8%No 95.8% 49.5% 46.3%

333. D e lib e ra te ly p laced in a p o s itio n to f a i l du ring c o lle g e (n - 501)

B lack White

Yes 7.8% 6.8% 1.0%No 92.2% 46.1% 46.1%

334. D e lib e ra te ly p laced in a p o s i tio n to f a i l d u ring m arriag e (n -500) "

Yes 3.8%No 96.2%

335. D e lib e ra te ly p laced in a p o s itio n to f a i l du ring f i r s t c a re e r d ec ad e (n ■ 501)

B lack White

Yes 23.2% 16.8% 6.4%No 76.8% 36.1% 40.7%

336. D e lib e ra te ly p laced in a p o s itio n to f a l l d u ring c a re e r m a tu rity (n " 501)

Yes 18.6%No 81.4%


393

337. Never d e l ib e r a te ly s e t up to f a i l (n - 501)

B lack White

Yes 54.1% 23.0% 31.1%No 45.9% 29.9% 16.0%

338. Triumphed over d e l ib e r a te s e t up to cause f a i l u r e (n

B lack White

Yes 39.5% 27.5% 12.0%No 60r 5% 25.3% 35.1%

339. Only B lack women employed (n ■ 365)

Black White

E ntry le v e l 14.2% 14.2% 0 .0%S uperv iso ry le v e l 9.3% 9.3% 0 .0%Middle management 12.9% 12.9% 0 .0%Upper management 6 .0% 6 .0% 0 .0%E xecutive le v e l 4.7% 4.7% 0 .0%Never 52.6% 21.4% 31.2%Every le v e l 0.3% 0.3% 0 .0%

340. Suspect ra ce b ia s in job c r i t i c i s m (n - 501)

B lack White

Yes 28.3% 26.9% 1.4%No 71.7% 25.9% 45.7%

341. W hites ig n o re B lack woman in d isc u ss io n (n ■ 501)

B lack White

Yes 35.9% 33.1% 2.8%No 64.1% 19.8% 44.3%

342. C areer advancement fo r Black women a t h er le v e l (n ■

White

30.3%16.8%

Black

E xception 69.3% 38.9%Norm 30.7% 14.0%

- 501)

501)


394343. A n tag o n is tic envy from co-w orkers (n - 354)

BlackBlack women 9.6% 9.3%B lack men 5.1% 4.8%White women 14.4% 6.5%White men 14.7% 4.8%A ll 21.5% 16.9%A ll bu t B lack women 24.6% 10.2%B lack women, W hite men 1.4% 1.4%Women only 4.8% 4.5%Blacks only 4.0% 4.0%

io h elp s w ith re sp o n d e n t 's c a re e r (n - 473)

Black

B lack women 8.9% 8.5%B lack men 9.1% 8.9%White women 7.8% 2.7%W hite men 26.0% 8 .2%A ll 26.4% 13.5%A ll but Black women 11.6% 3.2%Black women, W hite men 3.6% 3.2%Woman only 5.3% r).l%Blacks only 1.3% 0 .6%

345. C areer c r i s i s (n ■ 486)B lack

F ired as incom petent 3.1% 1.2%F ire d as no t a team p lay e r 3.5% 2 .1%Denied prom otion as incom petent Denied prom otion as no t a team

2 .1% 1.4%

p la y e r 6 .6% 3.9%None 84.8% 44.4%

s u i t of c a re e r c r i s i s (n * 78)B lack White

Helped c a re e r 57.7% 34.6% 23.1%H urt c a re e r 19.2% 5.1% 14.1%Made no d i f fe re n c e 23.1% 16.7% 6.4%

White

0.3%0.3%7.9%9.9%4.5%

14.4%0 .0%0.3%0 . 0%

White

0.4%0.2%5.1%

17.8%12.9%8.5%0.4%0 . 2%0 . 6%

White

1.9%1.4%0.6%

2.7%40.3%


395

A ctive member In c i v i l r i g h ts o r Black advancement o rg a n iz at i o n s (n - 501)

Black W hite

Yes 59.5% 46.1% 13.4%No 40.5% 6 .8% 33.7%

Views on Work and L eadersh ip

348. Age she began to expect to work (jn * 498)

349.

Childhood 2.7%A dolescence 10.6%C ollege 16.6%M arriage 3.9%F ir s t c a re e r decade 35.8%C areer m atu rity 18.4%Never 12.1%

Age decided c a re e r (ii ■ 469)B lack White

2-5 y ea rs old 3.2% 1.3% 1.9%6-9 years old 9.2% 5.8% 3.4%10-13 years o ld 18.3% 10.7% 7.7%14-17 y ea rs old 29.9% 18.8% 11.1%18-21 years o ld 36.2% 16.8% 19.4%30s 2 .8% 0.9% 1.9%Never 0.4% 0 .0% 0.4%

O ccupation (n ■ 501)B lack White

Business 27.5% 10.0% 17.6%Doctor 0.4% 0 .2% 0 .2%Educator 38.9% 26.3% 12.6%Foundation ex e cu tiv e 0 .2% 0 .2% 0 .0%Government and p o l i t i c s 12.8% 8.4% 4.4%H ealth and human se rv ic e s 7.0% 3.4% 3.6%Lawyer 5.6% 2 .0% 3.6%O thers 7.4% 2 .2% 5.2%Self-em ployed 0 .2% 0 .2% 0 .0%


396

Commitment to reach the top (n ■ 489)B lack White

Childhood 8.4% 4.3% 3.8%A dolescence 34.1% 19.1% 15.1%C ollege 28.9% 15.5% 13.5%M arriage 9.6% 5.6% 4.0%F i r s t c a re e r decade 12.4% 6 .0% 6.4%C areer m a tu rity 3.2% 0 .6% 2 .6%Never 3.2% 1.6% 1.6%

352. M otives fo r a s p ir in g to lea d (n ■ 411)Black White

C on tro l and d i r e c t o th e rs 28.0% 14.1% 13.9%Economic 25.8% 17.0% 8 .8%S o cia l 3.9% 2.4% 1.5%A dm iration 6 .6% 3.9% 2.7%A tte n tio n 1.5% 0 .0% 1.5%Revenge 0 .2% 0 .2% 0 .0%S erv ice 1.9% 1.0% 1 .0%Marked com bination of responses 32.1% 15.1% 17.0%

353. View of work (n - A64)B lack White

Means to ea rn a l iv in g 19.2% 12.6% 6.7%R outine 0.9% 0 .6% 0 .2%Learning o p p o rtu n ity 60.8% 28.4% 32.3%Chance to move up 10.1% 5.8% 4.3%Enjoyment 1.3% 0 .2% 1.1%S erv ice 0.4% 0.4% 0 .0%Marked a l l but a chance

to move up 0.4% 0 .2% 0 .2%Earn l iv in g and chance to

move up 1.3% 0.9% 0.4%L earning o p p o rtu n ity and

chance to move up 5.6% 3.7% 1.9%

irk methods: f i r s t rank (n ■ 501)Black White

E xperience f i r s t 55.1% 23.6% 31.5%T ra in in g second 31.3% 25.0% 6.4%O ther people th i r d 13.6% 4.4% 9.2%


397

355. Work m ethods: second rank (11 - 501)B lack White

T ra in in g f i r s t 59.5% 24.6% 34.9%E xperience second 35.9% 24.4% 11.6%O ther people th i rd 4.6% 4.0% 0 .6%

356. Work methods: th i r d rank (n ■ 501)B lack W hi-'

Experience f i r s t 63.5% 30.3% 33.1%O ther people second 33.9% 21.6% 12.4%T ra in in g th i rd 2 .6% 1.0% 1.6%

357. F am ilia r w ith le a d e rsh ip t r a i t th e o r ie s (n - 501)

Black White

Yes 18.4% 11.8% 6.6%No 81.6% 41.1% 40.5%

358. F a m ilia r w ith su b o rd in a te m o tiv a tio n th e o r ie s in le a d e rsh ip (n - 501)

Yes 23.6%No 76.4%

359. F am ilia r w ith p r a c t i c a l method th e o r ie s in le a d e rsh ip (n - 501)

Yes 41.7%No 58.3%

360. F a m ilia r w ith o rg a n iz a tio n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c th e o r ie s in le a d e rsh ip (n ■ 501)

Yes 47.5%No 52.5%

361. Respondents suggested th e o r ie s of le a d e rs h ip (ii ■ 501)

Yes 4.4%No 95.6%


398

362. Respondents f a m il ia r w ith a l l th e o r ie s (n - 501)

Yes 16.2%No 83.8%

363. No le a d e rsh ip th e o r ie s u s e fu l (ii “ 501)

Yes 19.0%No 81.0%

364. L eadersh ip t r a i t th e o r ie s u s e fu l (n - 501)

Yes 2.4%No 97.6%

365. S ubordinate m o tiv a tio n th e o r ie s u se fu l (n - 501)

Black White

Yes 14.2% 9.6% 4.6%No 85.8% 43.3% 42.5%

366. Method th e o r ie s o f le a d e rs h ip u s e fu l (n - 501)

Yes 14.8%No 85.2%

367. O rg an iza tio n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c th e o r ie s of le a d e rsh ip u se fu l (n - 501)

Yes 33.3%No 67.7%

368. O ther u se fu l th e o r ie s suggested by responden ts (ii ■ 501)

Yes 35.3%No 64.7%

369. A ll le a d e rsh ip th e o r ie s u se fu l (ii = 501)

Yes 3.6%No 96.4%


399

370. Advice: "Get a sense of v a lu e s and s t ic k to them" (n - 501)

Yes 7.6%No 92.4%

371. Advice: "Learn s e l f - d is c ip l in e " (n - 501)

Black White

79.0%21 .0%

44.1% 34.9%8 . 8% 1 2 . 2%

372. Advice: "Develop a fo rc e o f c h a ra c te r th a t no one can tak eaw ay'’ ( n * 5 0 1 )

YesNo

8 8 . 2%11. 8%

373. Advice: "Keep your sh ip on course" (n ■ 501)

Black White

Yes 69.5%30.5%

40.9%1 2 . 0%

28.5%18.6%

374. Advice: "Know th a t you can do what you d o n 't want to do" (n ■501)

B lack White

44.5%55.5%

27.9%25.0%

16.6%30.5%

375. Advice: "Forget y o u rs e lf ; do no t p ra c t ic e s e l f - p i t y " (n - 501)

Yes 46.1%No 53.9%

376. Advice: "Don't l e t your en e rg ies be f r i t t e r e d away; c h a r t yourcourse and s t ic k to i t . N inety p e rc e n t o f people w i l l t e l l you you 're going in th e wrong d i re c t io n — do n 't l i s t e n to them."(n - 501)

Yes 40.3%59.7%


400

377. Advice: " I t 's b e t t e r to t r y and f a l l than not to t r y a t a l l "

Yes 27.7% 17.6% 10.2%No 72.3% 35.3% 36.9%

378. R espondent's own adv ice on le a d e rsh ip (n ■ 501)

Black White

Advice 80.0% 46.7% 33.3%No advice 20.0% 6.2% 13.8%

379. A ttend le a d e rsh ip co nferences and sem inars (n - 501)

B lack White

Yes 44.1% 29.3% 14.8%No 55.9% 23.6% 32.3%

380. Key to su c c e s s fu l le a d e rsh ip (n » 464)

Self-im provem ent 45.9%Formal s t r u c tu r e 18.3%‘Inform al r e la t io n s h ip s 26.1%A ll ie s , l o y a l t i e s 4.5%A b il i ty to g ra n t and repay fa v o rs 0.4%

381. Reads p e r io d ic a ls and p ro fe s s io n a l l i t e r a t u r e (n - 501)

Yes 83.8%No 16.2%

382. Recommended B lack E n te r p r is e (n ■ 501)

Black White

Yes 36.7% 35.7% 1.0%No 63.3% 17.2% ' 46.1%


401

383. Recommended Essence (n ■ 501)

Black White

Yes 25.7% 25.3% 0.4%No 74.3% 27.5% 46.7%

384. Recommended Forbes (n - 501)

Yes 26.7%No 73.3%

385. Recommended Fortune (n » 501)

Yes' 32.1%-N o 67.9%

386. Recommended Ms’ (n - 501)

Yes 16.2%No 83.8%

387. Recommended Saw y (ii ■ 501)Black White

Yes 19.4% 13.0% 6.4%No 80.6% 39.9% 40.7%

388. Recommended W all S tr e e t Jo u rn a l

Yes 59.5%No 40.5%

389. Recommended t h e i r p ro fe s s io n a l jo u rn a ls

Yes 56.9%No 43.1%

390. Member o f p ro fe s s io n a l o rg a n iz a tio n s (n = 501)

Yes 89.4%No 10.6%


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