Subterranean Negev Settlement T H O M A S E . L E V Y , D A V I D A L O N , C A R O L I N E G R I G S O N , A U G U S T I N H O L L ,

P A U L G O L D B E R G , Y O R K E R O W A N , A N D P A T R I C I A S M I T H

Subterranean Settlement in the Negev Désert, ca. 4500-3700 B C

Because the Holy Land occupies a land bridge between the two great centers of early Near Eastem cul­ture—Egypt and Mesopotamia— the Holy Land and its social évolu­tion have usually been linked to thèse core areas of ancient civiliza-tion. Récent excavations in Israel's northem Negev Désert at the late fifth to early fourth millennium BC settlement of Shiqmim provide in-sights into the growth and décline of the earliest agro-pastoral settle­ment System in the Beersheva Val­ley. The new data point to a local growth process with little direct influence from the outside world. Numerous radiocarbon détermina­tions, extensive Systems of subter­ranean rooms in the lowest occupa­tion levels, and a planned open-air settlement in the latest stratum, challenge théories conceming the developmental history of human societies in this part of the Near East. Analyses of fauna and craft specialization in métal add insi^ts into the émergence of the Mediter-ranean economy and social com­plexity in the ancient Levant.

Figure 1. Circular foundations of a multiple second­ary burial tomb, Shiqmim cemetery 111. T H O M A S L U D O V I S E

THE I ATE FIFTH TO EARLY FOURTH M1LLENNL\C marked a pcri-od of technological and social change along the eastern Mediterranean seaboard (Israël and Jordan). Most signih-cant, human populat ion increased dramatically, formai sanctuaries and cemeteries were established, metallurgy and craft specialization grew, distinct régional cultures

developed, and settlement centers or central places that coordinated social, économie, and religions activities emerged.« s

Archaeologists are divided i n their interprétation of thèse changes. Some scholars th ink thèse developments reflect the émergence of new social formations i n the lower Jordan Valley and northem Negev Désert. Based on ethnographie and ethnohistoric data, anthropological archaeo­logists such as T. E. Levy and A. H o l l refer to thèse vibrant hierarchi-cally organized societies as "chiefdom" organizations.i^-^^ Others, such as I . Gilead,!'' reconstmct the Levant as "provincial" and hnd little évidence for the émergence of social complexity during the Chalcolithic. According to that interprétation, culture change i n the Levant during this period was minimal and resulted from readjustments to larger-scale changes i n the ancient Near Eastem cultural centers. i^-^o

Two outstanding features of the Chalcolithic period i n Palestine are the enigmatic "subterranean villages" along the wadi banks of the Beersheva Valley, hrst discovered by J. Perrot,**5 48 a^id a sophisticated métal industry i n the Judean and Negev Déserts unparalleled at this time i n the Near E a s t . O p i n i o n s differ as to the significance of thèse developments for the évolution of society i n the Negev and Judean Déserts. Excavations at Shiqmim, a large Chalcolithic settlement center i n the Beersheva Valley, provide the detailed stratigraphie and material culture data necessary to examine thèse problems anew.

A Chalcolithic Settlement Center

D u r i n g our f i e l d survey i n the late 1970s, a prev ious ly u n k n o w n C h a l c o l i t h i c set t lement center was discovered west of the c i ty of Beersheva and named Shiqmim (Figures 1 & 2 ) . ' The site is -18 k m down-stream from the ChalcoUthic sites of Horvat Beter,'-* Bir es-Safadi,*& and Abu Matar*5 where Perrot hrst discovered Systems of subterranean rooms and tunnels.

On the north bank of the Nahal [Hebrew; Arabie = wadi, or seasonal drainage] Beersheva, along the interface between the semiarid I r a n o -

394 NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC RESEARCH (Si EXPLORATION 7(4)394-413; 1991

TURKEY

LEBANON*) SYRIA

Mediterranean Sea

ISRAËL (X^^

Study A r e a î / J O R D A N ;

m SAUDI ARABIA

EGYPT

0 km 200

40-

Figure 2. The site area in Israël, the eastem Mediterranean; Shiqmim is in the northem Negev semiarid désert zone.

Turanian and the arid Saharo-Arabian phytogeographic régions, Shiqmim is i n an area that is highly sensitive to fluctuations i n environmental con­dit ions (Figure 3).i9,20 JQ study social and environmental change at Shiqmim, we assembled an interdisciplinary research team.36 The site extends >9.5 ha and is associated w i t h the only k n o w n Chalcolithic ceme­tery site i n the northem Negev, which encompasses an additional 10 ha. Taken together, the settlement and mortuary complex rank among the larger late prehistoric sites i n southwest Asia.32

The settlement (Figure 4) consists of the upper village where thin cul­tural deposits (~1 m thick) rest on native hard-packed loessial hills, some 6 m above the wadi channel, and deposited during the Middle Paleolithic (80000 to 35 000 BP); and the lower village on a terrace above today's wadi channel. Extensive down-cutting of the valley by drainage during historié times has left Shiqmim and five neighboring, smaller satellite sites on this terrace, some 1.5 to 2 m above the m o d e m riverbed. This part of the Beersheva Valley receives an average of 180 m m of annual rainfall, below the 250 to 300 m m needed for successful dry farming today.^ Detailed geo-logical and environmental studiesis indicate that environmental condi­tions may have been -100 m m moister than today. Geomorphological investigations show that whi le today the valley b o t t o m is useless for widespread agricultural activity^' during the peak of Chalcolithic settle­ment i t was covered w i t h extensive arable soils.is

Settlement Planning through Time: Geomorphology and Archaeology

T H O M A S E. L E V Y , assistant director, Nelson Glueck School of Biblical Archaeology, Hebrew Union Collège, Jérusalem, Israël ( H U C - J I R ) .

D A V I D A L O N , researcher, Israël Antiquities Authority, Jérusalem, Israël ( I A A ) .

C A R O L I N E G R I G S O N , assistant conservator, Odontological Muséum, the Royal Collège of Surgeons of England, London, England. A U G U S T I N H O L L , senior lecturer, Department of Ethnology and Prehistory, University of Paris X, Nanterre, France. P A U L G Q L D B E R G , professer, Institute of Archaeology, The Hebrew University, Jérusalem, Israël ( L A A ) .

YoRKE R o w A N , Ph.D. candidate, Department of Anthropology, University of Texas, Austin, TX.

P A T R I C L \, professer, Department of Anatomy and Embryology, Hebrew University-Hadassh School of Medicine, Jérusalem, Israël.

S U B T E R R A N E A N S E T T L E M E N T

From 1987 to 1989, excavations at Shiqmim revealed the longest chrono-stratigraphic séquence for a late hf th to early fourth mi l lennium site i n westem Palestine. The séquence extends >5 m i n depth and spans >800 radiocarbon years of occupation (4500 to 3700 BC). NO Late Neohthic or Early Bronze Age material was encountered. Similar séquences have been found at the other sites i n the Beersheva Valley where >25 villages Oourished d u r i n g the Chalcoli thic per iod and were abandoned i n the f o l l o w i n g Early Bronze Age. By 1989, a 4500-m2 area was exposed at Shiqmim. Of this area, some 450 m^ provides a représentative picture of the earliest occu­pation phases.

Three p r i m a r y architectural b u i l d i n g strata have been def ined at Shiqmim. The séquence conclusively supports the gênerai stratigraphie model originally proposed by Perrot.^s.^s Geomorphological observations i n the deep trenches and immédiate environs around Shiqmim show thick (-2 to 3 m ) gravel deposits below and contemporary w i t h the earliest (pioneer) occupation phases (strata I I I and I V ) . At this time the Wadi Beersheva was an active agent forcing human settlement activities to focus along the margins of the valley away from the wadi. To cope w i t h this geo­morphological constraint, the pioneer settlers at Shiqmim (and other Beersheva Valley settlements) devised a unique architectural adaptat ion— the enigmatic Systems of interconnected underground rooms, tunnels, and galleries (Figure 5, green area). The hard-packed redeposited loessial hills that border the Beersheva Valley provided the natural matrix for the pre­historic excavation of thèse subterranean house and tunnel complexes

396 RESEARCH & EXPLORATION : AUTUMN 1991

• sites w i t h pigs O sites without pigs

Wadi Gazzé D • ^

\

away from the active wadi channel. Although Perrot^s suggests that the underground settlements i n the Beersheva Valley were adaptations to arid conditions, the new Shiqmim environmental data show that thèse subter­ranean Systems flourished during the wettest phase of the late fifth mil len­nium. Contrary to the older theory the new data indicate that the under­ground Systems were a défensive adaptation to the cultural rather than the natural Negev environment.

The complète subterranean system excavated during the 1989 season is remarkably similar to the ones Perrot f o u n d at Bir es-Safadi.'*^ The Shiqmim underground complex includes 10 rooms connected by a séries of seven tunnels, ail i n the northem aspect of the site. The main rooms are large enough for an adult to stand fully erect (Figure 6). Not ail of the rooms were occupied at the same time; four phases of use were defined. A corrected accelerator radiocarbon date (OxA-2524; Table 1) from charcoal collected on the floor of room no. 7 dates to 4714 to 4350 BC (Figure 7).

The peak of subterranean settlement occurred i n the second latest phase. Radiocarbon déterminations from this phase are in the process of being counted. Eight interconnected underground rooms were i n use dur­ing this phase. The main entrance to the System was through a nearly ver­tical tunnel from the site surface into the largest room (Figure 6), w h i c h served as a gallery Connecting three tunnels to différent parts of the sub­terranean complex. NO storage facilities were found i n this chamber. O n the other hand, in room no. 7 (Figure 7), numerous bell-shaped pits, ~1 m wide and 1.5 m deep, punctured the floor. Not ail of thèse pits were con­temporary, but rather indicated repeated use, in-hl l ing, abandonment, and reoccupation of the subterranean rooms. In this phase, four of the under­ground rooms (no. 1 , 3, 7, 9) were strengthened by 0.5-m-thick stone support walls made of wadi cobbles and extending from one side of the room to the other. The walls vary in height, to a m a x i m u m of 2.62 m (Figure 7), and ail are in the southem aspect of the rooms. It is now clear that the walls formed a buttress to prevent the ceilings from collapsing. Hearths and cooking vessels on the floors of many of the underground rooms imply domestic activities.

During the pioneer phase settlers significantly altered the settlement landscape at Shiqmim. I n addition to digging the subterranean Systems, the original loessial h i l l topography was excavated to form a large terrace-like step extending for >45 m i n length and >2 m i n height (Figure 8). The underground rooms were excavated behind the terrace face. Défense may have been the init ial catalyst for the construction of subterranean rooms. Numerous underground villages were b u i l t i n n o r t h and east

Figure 3. Northem Negev with mean annual average rainfall. Major settlements with and without pig remains are indicated.

The new information... offers a hetter overall framework within which we can examine the dexelopment of specialized pastoralism andflood-water farming in a semiarid zone.

A R E V T E W E R

Figure 4 (following pages). The Shiqmim excavation and expédition camp along the north bank of the Nahal Beersheva. The stone foundations of rectilinear buidings, courtyards, and alley-ways were found <30 cm from the sutface. T H O M A S E. L E V Y ( H U C - J I R )

SUBTERRANEAN NEGEV SETTLEMENT : LEVY ET AL. 397

RESEARCH & EXPLORATION : AUTUMN 1991

SUBTERRANEAN NEGEV SETTLEMENT : LEVY ET AL. 399

Stratum (Str) I Destruction Copper Installatic

~K~^ L ' ~ M ' N ' O ' P ' Q ' R ' S '

C Mace head

j - * - ^ Str II Structures

P*^] Str I /Str II

Str II Destruction

Figure 5. Schematic plan of rectilinear and subter­ranean architecture at Shiqmim. The distribution of metal-related finds is also plotted. R E D R A W N F R O M M . K E R S E L

Africa for défense;^''3 during ttieir revolt against Rome i n AD 132 to 135, thejews excavated hundreds of underground défense Systems to évade the Roman army.

At the base and along the face of the Shiqmim terrace, the pioneer set­tlers bui l t two remarkable open-air altars i n stratum I I I . Altar no. 1 faces east, is crescent-shaped, and stands >2.2 m high, 5.2 m long, and 2.6 m wide. Along its eastern side, two ledges lead to the altar surface where we found thick deposits of ash and several offerings (two V-shaped bowls, a small limestone mortar, and a tabular f l int scraper). Both the straight back wall and curved front wal l of the altar were made of stone foundations

400 RESEARCH & EXPLORATION : AUTUMN 1991

Figure 6 (above left). Cut-away view of rooms in portion of subterranean room and tunnel System. R E D R A W N F R O M G . C O O K A N D C . M E H L E R

Figure 7 (below). Subterranean room (no. 7) with a séries of bell-shaped pits eut into the floor. The roof has been remo\ed and a large support wall is visible on fhe ri^t. T H O M A S E . L E V Y ( H U C - J I R )

Figure 8 (left). Stone foundation walls of large (ca. 5.5 x 10 m) rectilinear building from stratum IL The door socket can be seen to the right of the meter stick. T H O M A S E . L E V Y ( H U C - J I R )

401

5 cm

Table 1 . Radiocarbon Dates from the Shiqmim Chalcolithic Settlement, Beersheva Valley

LAB NO./CONTEXT BP DATE CAL BC

LOWEST PiT EXCAVATED IN VILLAGE (STRATUM I V )

OxA-2523 L.3075-B.Z251 5710+140 4770,4577,4553,4547,4370

OxA-2526 L.3075-B.Z251 5540+150 4530,4363,4240

AVERAGE: 5630±102 4659,4468,4360

EARLIEST RECTILINEAR BUILDING (WALL ON GRAVÉES) IN LOWER VILLAGE, PHASE I I C

OXA-2522 L.017 5600±130 4657,4461,4340

STRATUM 111 ALTAR 1

OxA-2521 L.3053-B.349

OxA-2525 L.3053-B 173

AVERAGE:

5530+130 4500,4360,4245

5385+130 4360,4242,4040

5457+92 4365, 4342, 4236

UPPER VILLAGE WHERE EARLIEST DATES OBTAINED

61501180 RT-649D probe

RT-649B, L.415

5309, 5200, 5170, 5139, 4856, 5102, 5082

5750+180 4837, 4664, 4638, 4601, 4370

Figure 9 (above). Fenestrated stand or "incense humer" from altar I foundation deposit. c. H E R S C H ( I A A )

Figure 10 (below). Ovoid hole-mouth vessel, stratum III pottery cache. c. H E R S C H ( I A A )

SUBTERRANEAN ROOMS EXCAVATED

RT-1332 S-6, FiU, L.3292-B.747 CoUuvium in-fill

OxA-2520 S-3,Hearth, L.3290-B.728 Last Use of System

RT-1322 S-8, Stérile, L.3304/839 OxA-2524 S-7, Floor, L.3312-B.833

4700+80 3623, 3504, 3406, 3384, 3367

5060+140 4000, 3938, 3867, 3818, 3701

5190+75 5650+140

4212, 3996, 3829 4714,4496, 4350

AVERAGE CE EARLIEST DÉTERMINATIONS: 5626+51 4520,4467,4399

MAIN VILLAGE SETTLEMENT STRATUM I

RT-1339 Burial Fit, L3055-B.Z201 4940+70

RT-554A Room 1, Floor 1 5250+140

AVERAGE: 5002+63

STRATUM I I

RT-859C L.210, B.0317, Sq.K/11 5080+180

RT-859D L.216, B.0323, Sq.K/10 5370+180

RT-859E L.211, B.0328, Sq.K/10 5390+180

AVERAGE: 5280+104

EASTERN TRENCH: STRATIGRAPHIC SECTION

RT-859A, #10 3540± 90 RT-859H,#9 3850+120 RT-859B, #14, hearth 5460+140

3787, 3775, 3751, 3706, 3689

4240, 4039, 4010, 3828

3941,3785,3705

4211,3946, 3846, 3822, 3700 4370, 4238, 4000 4454, 4243, 4000

4240, 4215, 4205, 4138, 3990 4120, 4044

2027, 1888, 1749 2480,2334,2140 4460,4343,4155

402 RESEARCH & EXPLORATION : AUTUMN 1991

(~1 m high) and capped by a mud-brick superstructure. In the center of the altar we found a pottery deposit (Figures 9-12) . Sealed beneath the altar's surface, the pottery cache consisted of nine vessels including a fen­estrated stand ("incense burner") (Figure 9) and a unique high-necked jar wi th multiple handles and red-net décoration (Figure 11). Five pottery caches have been discovered at Shiqmim, each composed of the same basic assemblage of pottery vessels. Although we do not yet k n o w the symbolic meaning of thèse caches, we can infer that the construction of thèse altars indicates public worship.

O P E N - A I R S E T T L E M E N T

Based on the available radiocarbon dates (Table 1), sometime between 4340 and 4240 BC annual flow i n the main Wadi Beersheva channel sub-sided substantially, and silty sédiments filled the valley bottom. I n addi­tion to providing rich agricultural soils, this accumulation provided the dry land necessary for open-air settlement expansion i n the Beersheva Valley. At this time (stratum I I ) , the subterranean Systems were mostly abandoned, and an extensive settlement was established similar i n plan to the Chalcolithic type-site of Tuleilat Ghassul.^^ The stratum I I I altars went out of use and were covered over w i t h hundreds of cubic meters of sédi­ment f i l l . On top of this sédiment, large rectilinear buildings (Figure 8), courtyards, alleys, and domestic houses were established over a relatively short period. The layout and northwest-southeast orientation of the stra­tum I I architecture indicates the establishment of one of the earliest planned settlements i n Palestine.

Evidence of extensive b u m i n g of the settlement i n both of thèse strata suggests warfare or other violence. I n strata I and I I , 30% of the entire village was destroyed by burning. Conflict is also indicated by the preva-lence of stone and copper mace heads at Shiqmim and other Chalcolithic sites i n Palestine.536,37 A l t h o u g h a few weapons appear i n the Late Neolithic,36 by the time of the early Chalcolithic settlement phases thèse symbols of prestige and warfare become important éléments i n the stone and métal assemblages.

R E G I O N A L C H R O N O L O G I C A L S Y N C H R O N I S M S

Radiocarbon dating of deposits from Shiqmim show this site to have the longest chronological séquence for a Chalcolithic site i n Israël. Only the Chalcolithic type site, Tuleilat Ghassul in Jordan, has a longer séquence w h i c h spans the N e o l i t h i c - C h a l c o l i t h i c t r a n s i t i o n . T h e S h i q m i m chronometric séquence adds greater clarity for understanding the local évolution of culture as well as the chronological synchronism between the Beersheva Valley culture and other régions i n the Levant.

To place the Shiqmim chronometric séquence i n its southern Levantine context, we statistically averaged the dates based on their stratigraphic context. We then plotted the range for average dates i n calendar years BC based on one standard déviation. We calibrated and averaged dates based on M . Stuiver and P J. Riemer's computer program for radiocarbon âge calibration,58 using method A w i t h one standard déviation. A similar method of averaging dates has been carr ied o u t for N e o l i t h i c and Predynastic Egypt by F Hassan. 6 TO clarify the temporal and cultural rela-tionships between Palestine and Egypt during the late sixth to early fourth millennium BC, the Delta and Upper Egyptian chrono-cultural units are plot ted w i t h the contemporary Palestinian ones that span the Late

Figure 11. High-necked jar with multiple handles, altar I foundation deposit. R E D R A W N F R O M Z . R A D O V A N ( H U C - J I R )

Figure 12. Votive basait bowl, stratum III. c. H E R S C H ( I A A )

SUBTERRANEAN NEGEV SETTLEMENT : LEVY ET AL. 403

THE LAST SETTLEMENT OCCUPATION (STRATUM L CA. 3940 TO 3700 BC) .

Only two déterminations are available for the last phase of occupation (Table 1). Thèse samples come from a burial pit i n the village where an exquisite ivory hairpin was found (Figure 14) and from a floor deposit associated w i t h one of the larger buildings (no. 1 , Figure 5) at the site where another ivory object was found. The last settlement stratum is con­temporary w i t h the beginning of the Nagada I occupation and the early settlement at Maadi. The discovery of an ivory vial (Figure 15), teardrop-shaped and similar to Nagada 1 spécimens, highlights the possibility of trade i n hnished ivory (hippopotamus) products from Egypt to Palestine at this time.

The S h i q m i m archi tec tura l séquence supports I . Rizkana and J. Seeher'ssi contention that the underground houses found i n the basai stra­tum at Maadi are similar to those i n the Beersheva sites and bolsters M . Hoffman's^s thesis that the underground dwellings at Maadi may have belonged to traders or other persons from the Beersheva Valley.

I N T E R S I T E V A R I A B I L I T Y O F L I T H I C T O O L S A N D D E B I T A G E As discussed by Y. Rowan and S. Rosen,39.4o différent types of excavated loci may be broadly characterized by the density of tools and debitage. This aspect is examined elsewhere i n détail for ail loci of the 1987 to 1989 investigations at Shiqmim, but here we compare the subterranean system and the open-air settlement excavated during the 1989 season.

Assemblages from both areas underscore the prédominance of a flake industry, w i t h a low percentage of the overall assemblage comprised of blades and bladelets, core tools (axes, adzes, and chisels), and "tabular" flake scrapers (Figure 13). Such an assemblage reflects the primarily domes­tic nature of the stoneware, w i t h only a small proportion constituted by the more specialized techniques of the blade and "tabular" scrapers, which may be imports. Though a greater volume was excavated from the subterranean features, a much greater proportion of ail chipped stone tools and waste was recovered from the open-air village (Table 2).

The much lower tool and debitage density of deposits from the subter­ranean area results from the colluvial f i l l and loessial collapse i n the sub­terranean rooms, tunnels, and pits. Density data indicate that l i m i t e d activities involving chipped stone-tool production and use occurred i n the subterranean rooms.

The Economy: Pastoral Adaptations

A. Sherratt postula tes,54.55 largely on the basis of pictorial évidence from the O l d W o r l d , that d u r i n g the late f i f t h to early f o u r t h m i l l e n n i u m , people began to use animais intensively for their secondary products, that is, products that can be used i n the life of the animal (milk , wool , and muscle power). This hypothesis is being tested using the faunal remains from Shiqmim and contemporary sites. Negev archaeozoological w o r k is still in progress, but we can draw some conclusions.2.'5.2i-24,27,29

H U N T E R S OR H E R D E R S ? Of the 3135 fragments of animal bones and teeth so far identified to taxon (Table 3), the majority are from sheep, goats, and cattle w i t h some dogs. I t is clear from their small size that they are ail from domestic animais.

Figure 14 (above). Dove-shaped ivory hairpin from stratum I. 1. c. H E R S C H ( I A A )

Figure 15 (below). Ivory vial with herringhone design, from underground room (no.9). R E D R A W N F R O M Z . R A D O V A N ( H U C - J I R )

SUBTERRANEAN NEGEV SETTLEMENT : LEVY ET AL .

Table 3. Taxa at Shiqmim

The central issue of this paper concems adaptation to a shifting, arid environ­ment... The late fifth to early fourth millennium was a time of fundamental changes in society in Egypt, Palestine, and Mesopotamici The developments of Shiqmim fit into this gêner­ai picture....

A REVIEWER

TAXON NO. %

DOMESTIC cattle 256 8.17 sheep 265 8.45 goat 168 5.36 sheep/goat 2285 72.89 dog 23 0.73 TOTAL domestic 2997 95.60

?DOMESTIC pig 3 0.10 equid 9 0.28 donkey 1 0.03 horse 4 - 0.13 TOTAL ?domestic 17 0.54

WILD gazelle 43 1.36 hartebeest 4 0.13 hippopotamus 3 0.09 lion? 2 0.06 small cat 8 0.26 fox 8 0.26 hare 4 0.13 ostrich 4 0.13 bird 36 1.15 fish 9 0.29

LOLAL 121 3.86

TOTAL 3135 100 Certain!)' Inti-usive: camel—l, Probably Imnasive: rodent—9, reptile(?)—2, tortoise—2, Agama sp.—1, snake—I.

The three horse bones are likely to have been from domestic animais because no w i l d horses are k n o w n f r o m the southern Levant i n the Holocene. Two of the remaining equid bones are of smaller animais, possi-bly onagers, but more probably of domestic donkeys; the equid remains together constitute only 0.5% of the total sample.

Pig bones are few and fragmentary and come from immature animais. As they comprise only 0 . 1 % of the fauna they may be intrusive. The source of thèse bones may be a large Byzantine village 1.5 k m upstream from the site. Altematively they may dérive from w i l d animais and may be of little or no économie, cultural, or environmental importance.

The remains of w i l d animais (e.g., gazelle, hartebeest, and ostrich) constitute just below 4% of the total assemblage. The animal-based part of the economy consisted almost entirely of the husbandry of three domestic animais: sheep, goats, and cattle (Table 3). The domestic nature of the ani­mal economy holcb true for ail the other Chalcolithic sites analyzed from the Negev.

M E A T , M I L K , A N D W O O L The vast majority of the animal bones from Shiqmim are broken i n a way that suggests dismemberment, butchery and the procurement of bone mar-row; that is, they are the remains of animais whose flesh had been eaten.

406 RESEARCH & EXPLORATION : AUTUMN 1991

Table 4. Domestic Ungulate Proportions at Shiqmim

TAXON TOTAL RAW

TOTAL PROPORTIONATELY

%

sheep goats

265 168

2285 256

1663 1055

55.9 35.5

(91.4) 8.6

sheep/goats cattle 256

TOTAL 2974 2974 100

Sheep and goats make up 9 1 % of the domestic ungulates, and cattle nearly 9%; but despite the apparent dominance of sheep and goats, a single ox provides roughly 10 times as much meat as a sheep or a goat, so i n terms of meat the oxen's contribution would have been approximately equal. At Safadi there was almost exactly the same proportion of sheep and goats to cattle (90.9% to 9.1%) in a sample of some 2000 identified bones.^s Many of the sheep and goat bones could not be identified beyond category. Thèse catégories were allocated to the species counts in the same proportions as the bones that could be identified to species; that is, by 265 to 168, or 61.2% sheep to 38.8% goats (Table 4). I n round figures catUe provided -50% of the meat consumed at Shiqmim, sheep 30%, and goats 20%.

The use of wool is suggested by the fact that the bones definitely identi­fied as sheep outnumber those of goats by 265 to 168, -3:2 (Table 4). This ratio contrasts w i t h the situation at Safadi where goats slightly outnum-bered sheep. Nevertheless the use of wool at Safadi was indicated by a dif­férence i n the aging and sexing pattems of the sheep and goats; although the majority of the maies of both species were ki l led when young, far more ewes than nanny goats were kept into old âge. This pattern probably indicates that as well as providing meat, both species provided m i l k and that sheep also provided w o o l — a pattern probably also tme at Shiqmim, with perhaps an even greater stress on wool production.

A N I M A L P O W E R CATTLE, TRACTION, AND LOAD CARRYING. Four of the 256 cattle bones have lésions possibly caused by tract ion: a distal metapodial and a distal metacarpal each have an expanded distal condyle, and a middle phalanx has a broadened proximal epiphysis; the proximal shaft of a fémur has marked protubérances and tendon insertions. A i l thèse conditions could be due to old âge, but i n other large samples of early domestic cattle (for example, that from the English Neolithic site of W i n d m i l l H i l l ) , none of the bones have lésions of this k i n d , even though many of the cows sur-vived into old âge.

The probable présence of draught cattle implies the use of ploughs or carts or both i n the Levant as early as the Chalcohthic. Pictograms show that both ploughs and solid-wheeled carts were i n use i n the late fourth millennium ( U m k ) times i n Mesopotamia.^ which were probably original­ly drawn by c a t t l e . T h e faunal évidence suggests that ploughing w i t h cat­tle may have begun to replace or accompany hoe cultivation i n the Levant in the early fourth mil lennium. The possibility that cattle were used as pack animais is suggested by the figurine of a bul l from Fin Gedi carrying two chums.

The Shiqmim site is perhaps the largest and hest preserved Chalcolithic (ca. 4500 to 3200 BC) village known to date in westem Palestine. Unfor-tunately, the site was hea-vily damaged in 1985 hy a bulldozer belonging to a petroleum exploration firm. This and the fact that the site is in a mïlitary firing zone highlight the impor­tance of completing the Phase II investigation before the site is completely destroyed.

N G S G R A N T P R O P O S A L

SUBTERRANEAN NEGEV SETTLEMENT : LEVY ET AL. 407

Figure 16. The proximal humérus ofahorse(Shq89 1054) on left, compared with modem donkey on right. z. R A D O V A N ( H U C - J I R )

HORSES A N D DONKEYS. Bones of liorses (Equus caballus) can be dist in-guished from those of onagers (Equus hemionus), w i l d donkeys (Equus africanus), and domestic donkeys (Equus asinus) because of their greater size. Horses have recently been identified from Shiqmim and from other Chalcolithic sites i n the northern Negev.^3 The bones are i n the same size range as the horse bones S. Davis^^ identified from the third mil lennium town site of Arad i n the northem Negev and those from a number of sec­ond mi l lennium sites i n the Near East and Egypt. They were larger than donkeys from the fourth mil lennium site of Rubeidheh i n Mesopotamia.44 One of the horse bones at Shiqmim is a proximal humems (Eigure 16) w i t h a proximal breadth of 92.6 m m , compared w i t h 91.2 m m for the same measurement from a skeleton of an undoubted horse at the Roman site of Gamla. The Shiqmim sample was found i n a solid Chalcohthic con­text, subterranean room 8 sealed by a stérile deposit dated chronometri-cally to 4212 to 3829 BC (RT-1322, Table 1). U n t i l the publication of the Arad horses i t was assumed on both osteological and pictorial grounds that domestic horses were introduced into the Near East and Egypt i n the early second m i l l e n n i u m BC, probably by the Hyksos.^- ' io is W i t h the Shiqmim évidence, the likely date of their introduction can now be moved back from the third to the late hfth-early fourth mil lennium.

P I G S AS E N V I R O N M E N T A L I N D I C A T O R S I n the northern Negev, as an ecotonal région, small différences i n distance may be accompanied by large changes i n environmental conditions. Great environmental différence over a short distance is particularly tme for rain­fall (Eigure 3). One of the most striking features of the faunal assemblages from the Chalcolithic sites of the northem Negev is the différence i n n u m ­ber of pig bones: Some have many and others have none or very few (Table 5). There is a definite corrélation between the présence or absence of pigs and the modem rainfall distribution of the Negev. Sites w i t h pigs have >250 m m of average annual rainfall, and those w i t h negligible n u m -bers or no pigs have <200 m m . Environmental determinism may account for pig keeping, but cultural factors may reinforce i t .

The isohyet separating probable f rom improbable areas for domestic pigs must have lain between the présent 250-mm contour at Gilat and

Table 5. The Percentage of Pig Bones in Chalcolithic Sites in the Northern Negev

SITE NAME NO. DOMESTTC PIG BONES MODERN ARTIODACTYL (%) RAINFALL

BONES (MM)

WITH PIGS Gilat33 291 17.9 -250 Wadi Gaza D15.47 g i 35 .0 -250 Grar25 1207 16.1 -300

FEW PIGS OR NONE Shiqmim33* 2977 Horvat Beter2 173 Bir es-Safadii5 514 Tell Abu Matar27 245 *present work

0.1 -180 0 200 0 200 0 200

RESEARCH & EXPLORATION : AUTUMN 1991

Wadi Gaza site D and the 200-mm hmit at Beersheva. The environmental conditions pigs require to survive hot températures include adéquate wal-low and shade; the probable l imi t for domestic pigs i n primitive condi­tions w o u l d be at the l i m i t of woodland, that is, at 350 m m . t e o xhe ancient 300-mm isohyet must have lain along the présent 250-mm line. This observation is supported by the analysis of ^^C of mid-Holocene land snail shell,2o which implies that the 300-mm isohyet, the present-day l imi t for dry f a r m i n g , w o u l d have been j u s t n o r t h of S h i q m i m and the Beersheva sites. Dry farming at Shiqmim would have been rather hazard-ous, and the inhabitants of Shiqmim may have practiced simple f lood-water irrigation.^^

The research at Shiqmim, which in many ways is a model of its type, has produced a wealth of infor­mation and can lead to important new insights.

A REVIEWER

Burial Practices: Cemetery and Village

Shiqmim is the only Chalcolithic site i n the northem Negev where a sepa-rate cemetery complex has been found i n association w i t h a settlement. The cemetery extends for >1 k m along an Eocene chalk ridge overlooking the Wadi Beersheva. On a séries of eight hilltops, clusters of grave circles, cist graves, and burial caims have been found which are interpreted as separate cemetery sites (Figures 1,17,&18).36.38 Similar cemeteries have been found i n eastem Palestine near Tuleilat Ghassul at Adeimeh.57 The présence of human burials both i n the village and i n the large h i l l top cemeteries provides a striking example of the diverse ways of dealing w i t h the dead that characterizes the Chalcolithic period in the southem Levant.

Three dist inct cemetery complexes have yielded abundant h u m a n remains associated w i t h the stone foundations of buria l circles. Bone préservation was poor i n the cemeteries; however, 99 persons were identi­fied from 16 burial circles, and âge and sex could be determined for most of them. Burial circle 51 from cemetery V contained the largest number of individuals found i n any one burial circle—at least 27 adults and children of both sexes, the youngest ~3 years old, the oldest >50 years old.

The early burials i n this stmcture were secondary interments of différ­ent types. Bones were found stacked i n ceramic basins, i n stone-lined pits, and i n orderly clusters, usually w i t h the skull on top of the long bones. One secondary burial of a maie i n his m i d 30s, perhaps a warrior, placed on fragments of a large ossuary was found w i t h a hématite mace-head lying underneath the mandible. Many of the other piles of bones were associated w i t h V-shaped bowls, some containing human bones, most fre-quently the lower jaw bone. The distribution of bone piles, w i t h offerings, throughout this and other stmctures indicates that thèse were secondary interments, rather than the displaced bones of earlier burials subsequently moved aside to make room for later burials, as described at other contem­porary sites.6 I n this case, i t may well be that bones of those who had died at Shiqmim or elsewhere were brought to Shiqmim for ritual interment i n the extensive cemetery complex. Altematively, the empty stone-lined cists adjacent to the cemeteries may have served for exposing the bodies after death prior to their burial i n the stone circles.^s I f this were the case, the burials i n the cemeteries would seem to have been only of the local inhab­itants of Shiqmim.

The distribution of the human bones found i n the village suggests a very différent attitude toward disposai of the dead. Remains of 30 indiv id­uals of both sexes were identified, ranging i n âge from bir th to old âge.

Figure 17. Flexed adult maie primary burial facing west, found in bell-shaped pit of subter­ranean room. Unlike the cemetery, village burials loch any offerings. T H O M A S E . L E V Y ( H U C - J I R )

SUBTERRANEAN NEGEV SETTLEMENT : LEVY ET AL. 409

Figure 18. Archaeologist freeing adult maie skeleton from the soil ofhis burial in bell-shaped pit (see Figure 17). T H O M A S E . L E V Y ( H U C - J I R )

However, there was httle évidence of spécial care or treatment of the bones. They were found i n rubbish pits, on the floors of rooms, i n the walls, and i n the Connecting tunnels and were frequently mixed w i t h rub­bish. The secondary burials were typically scattered i n refuse found o n floors and mixed w i t h animal bones.

I n the village, only six intentional burials were identified; four primary and two secondary. A primary burial of an adult maie i n his m i d 40s was found lying tightly flexed on his side, i n a bell-shaped pi t dug into the floor of subterranean room 6 (Figure 18). Although clearly undisturbed, no artifacts were found w i t h this burial.

Two différences are évident between the composition of the cemetery and village dead. First, no infant remains were recovered from the ceme­teries although older children and adolescents constituted 20% of ail i n d i ­viduals identified. I n contrast, 26% of ail those found i n the village were <1 year old. Second, while grave offerings were consistently présent i n the cemetery complex, they were absent i n the village.

Comparison of the cemetery and village dead indicates that w i t h the exception of infants, neither âge nor sex were determining factors regard-ing place of burial. Examination of the âge and sex distribution shows that vidth the exception of very young infants, children of ail âges and adults of both sexes were buried i n the cemeteries and usually w i t h i n the same grave circle. If, therefore, the cemetery burials are those of a privileged subgroup w i t h i n the Shiqmim population, thèse privilèges seem not to have been restricted to any spécifie âge or sex category, but were shared by maies, females, and children. Presumably the grave circles were used for family burials over an extended period, as suggested for the caves contain­ing Chalcolithic ossuary burials at Ben Shemen.^^

The numerous instances of infant jar burials reported i n the Chal­col i th ic of the southern Levant have frequently been interpreted as indicative of spécial treatment or even sacrifice of this âge group.^s How-

410 RESEARCH & EXPLORATION : AUTUMN 1991

ever, the hndings f rom Shiqmim suggest no consistent pattern of i n ­fant burial . The prevalence of infants i n Chalcolithic cemeteries of ail types is extremely low. Because the frequency of infant deaths reported even for the village of Shiqmim is lower than that recorded for contem­porary rural societies without access to médical care, it may be assumed that the intersite différences reflect b u r i a l practices rather than i n ­fant mortahty.

Craft Specialization: Ivory and Métal

Perrot+fi suggested that an ivory workshop existed at Bir es-Safadi during the late fourth mil lennium because he found some ivory détritus and cop­per awls which he interpreted as having been used to work ivory. The dis­covery of the ivory dove-shaped hairpin (Figure 14), vial (Figure 15), and other items (Figure 20) at Shiqmim ( w i t h strong Predynastic Badarian Egyptian parallels) and the large ivory sickle-shaped object w i t h clear Palestinian parallels,' may indicate that both finished products and raw ivory (primarily hippopotamus tusks) were imported to the Beersheva sites. Recently it has been suggested that hippopotami inhabited the Israeli coastal plain during the Chalcolithic period,^^ although only two bones of hippopotomus were found, and neither of them are tusks. Nevertheless, the rarity of this material would have made it a prized item among local élite groups in the Beersheva Valley.

The most developed craft specialization i n the Beersheva Valley and the southem Levant was no doubt metallurgy based on copper smelting and casting. I n Israël, sites that évince métal production are l imited to this région. I n a récent study by T. E. Levy and S. Shalev conceming the nature and rôle of métal product ion i n Chalcolithic Palestine, i t was suggested that the Beersheva Valley culture had an information monopoly on ail the aspects connected wi th métal production from mining to final casting.+i Based on archaeometallurgical material collected at Shiqmim, S. Shalev and R J. Northover'^ demonstrated the présence of two distinct manufacturing processes at Shiqmim. Whereas utilitarian-shaped objects, such as axes, awls, and chisels were forged from nearly pure copper pro-cured from the Wadi Feinan in Jordan, elaborately shaped objects, includ­ing mace heads and scepters, were east mainly from arsenical ore—the same ore type used to east the magnificent crowns, mace heads, and scepters found i n the famousjudean Désert Nahal Mishmar Hoard.+^.si i n an analysis of the hoard, C. A. Key^' suggested that the or ig in of the arsenical ore used in the hoard was Armenian or Azerbaijan, >1300 k m from southern Palestine. The implication of Key's work was that the local Chalcolithic population was not sophisticated enough to have produced such exquisite objects.^^

Pétrographie analysis of one of the copper mace heads from Shiqmim (Figure 19) showed that the core was made of a local glauconitic chalk found in the central Arava Valley, opposite the copper sources at Eeinan.s^ The implication here is that not only were "util itarian tools" manufactured locally, but also the elaborately shaped objects. Although we only sum-marize here, the metallurgical data from Shiqmim and other Beersheva Valley sites provide new vistas conceming the technological expertise of the Chalcolithic metalworkers of southem Palestine. From this perspec­tive, craft specialization i n métal, ivory, and perhaps other média, can be

SUBTERRANEAN NEGEV SETTLEMENT : LEVY ET AL.

Figure 19 (above). Copper mace head in section. Metallurgical analysis shows this to be made of a high arsenical ore. Pétrographie analysis of the stone core has demonstrated that it is made of chalk from the Arava valley. The latter findings suggest that this and other elabo-rate copper objects were produced locally. T H O M A S E. L E V Y

Figure 20 (below). Ivory standard handle, Stratum II. c. H E R S C H ( I A A )

3 cm

411

As the Chalcolithic period précèdes the rise of the first Early Bronze urhan centers in the southem Levant, it is of key impor­tance for examining some of the processes which may have led to the émergence of social complexity in ancient Palestine. The excavations at Shiqmim provide an idéal locale for investigating thèse problems because it is one of the deepest stratified (5 m) sites of the Beersheva Valley Chalcolithic culture, and unlïke many fourth millennium sites, it contains widespread évidence of copper metallurgy.

NGS GRANT PROPOSAL

viewed as a means for strengthening the growth and maintenance of the social élite i n the Beersheva Valley.

Conclusions

Years of f i e ldwork and interdiscipl inary research using science-based archaeology provide the needed tools for studies of cultural change during humankind's formative years. At Shiqmim, stratigraphy and radiocarbon dating show that the innovative communities of the late f i f th to early fourth mi l lennium of southern Palestine evolved over a period of some 800 radiocarbon years w i t h little direct influence from Mesopotamia or Egypt. The need to meet both environmental and cultural challenges, such as compétition over resources, leading to warfare and conflict, i n a marginal désert zone helped promote some of the most dynamic changes i n the prehistory of human occupation i n the southern Levant. Thèse changes laid the foundations for the évolution of the earliest towns and cities i n the southem Levant during the following Early Bronze Age.

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nary note on the distribution of Chalcolithic sites on the Wadi Beersheva and lower Wadi Besor drainage system, Israël Exploration Journal 30:140-147; 1980.

2. Angress, S.: Mammal remains from Horvat Beter (Beersheba). Atiqot 2:53-71; 1959.

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7. Boessneck, J.: Tell el-Dab'a lU. Die Tierknochenjunde 1966-1969, vol. 5. Ôster-reiche Akademie der Wissenschaft, Denk-schrift der Gesamtakademie, Vienna; 1976.

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16. Earle, T . : The évolution of chiefdoms. Current Anthropology 30:84-88; 1989.

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18. Goldberg, P.: The geology and stratigraphy of Shiqmim. Levy, T.E., edi­tor: Shiqmim 1. British Archaeological Reports International Séries 356, Oxford, 35-43; 1987.

19. Goldberg, P.; & Rosen, A. M. : Early Holocene paleoenvironments of Israël. Levy, T.E., editor: Shiqmim 1. British Archaeological Reports Inter­national Séries 356, Oxford, 23-33; 1987.

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412 RESEARCH & EXPLORATION : AUTUMN 1991

Rosen, A. Early farming societies in the Negev désert. National Géographie Research Reports 21:256-257; 1985.

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27. Josien, T . : La faune chalcol-ithiques des gisements Palestiniens de Bir es-Safadi et Bir Abou Matar. Israël Exploration Journal 5:246-256; 1955.

28. Hoffman, M . A.: Egypt bejore the Pharaohs: The Prehistoric Eoundations of Egyptian Civilization. Routledge and Kegan Paul, London; 1984.

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30. Kenyon, K. M . : Archaeology in the Holy Land (4th éd.). Methuen, London; 1985.

31 . Key, C. A.: The trace-element composition of the copper and copper alloy artifacts of the Nahal Mishmar hoard. Bar Adon, P., editor: The Cave of the Treasure. Israël Exploration Journal, Jérusalem, 238-243; 1980.

32. Kramer, C : Spatial organization in contemporary Southwest Asian villages and archaeological sampling. Cuyler Young, T. Jr., Smith, P.E.L., & Mortensen, P., editors: The Hilly Flanfes. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 347-368; 1983.

33. Levy, T . E.: Chalcolithic Settlement and Subsistence in the Northem Negev Désert, Israël. University Microfilms, Ann Arbor, MI ; 1981.

34. Levy, T . E.: The émergence of spe­cialized pastoralism in the southern Levant. World Archaeology 15:15-36; 1983.

35. Levy, T . E.: The Chalcohthic Period. Biblical Archaeolo^st 49:83-106; 1986.

36. Levy, T. E.: Shiqmim L British Archaeological Reports International Séries 356, Oxford; 1987.

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38. Levy, T. E.; & Alon, D . : The Chalcohthic mortuary site near Mezad Aluf, Northem Negev désert. Third pre-liminary report, 1982 season. BASOR Supplément 23:121-135; 1985.

39. Levy, T. E.; Alon, D . ; Goldberg, P.; et al.: Protohistoric investigations at the Shiqmim Chalcohthic village and ceme­tery: An intérim report on the 1987 sea­son. BASOR Supplément 27-.29-46; 1991.

40. Levy, T. E.; & Rosen, S. A.: The chipped stone industry at Shiqmim: Typological considérations. Levy, T.E., editor: Shiqmim L British Archaeological Reports 356, Oxford, 281-294; 1987.

41. Levy, T. E.; & Shalev, S.: Prehistoric metalworking in the southern Levant: Archaeometallurgical and social perspectives. World Archaeology 20:353-372; 1989.

42. Mallon, A.; Koeppel, R.; & Neuville, R.: Teleilat Ghassul I, 1929-1932. Pontihcal Biblical Institute, Rome; 1934.

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54. Sherratt, A. G.: Plough and pas­toralism: Aspects of the secondary prod­ucts révolution. Hodder, L, Isaac, G., & Hammond, N., editors: Pattems oJthe Past: Studies in Honour oJ David Clarhe. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 261-305; 1981.

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57. Stekelis, M . : Les Monuments Mégalithiques de Palestine. Archives de ITnstitut de Paléontologie Humanine, Mémoire 15, Paris; 1935.

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A C K N O W L E D G M E N T S Analysis of the human remains was car­ried out with the help of Sara Ben Yitzhak and Pamela Sabari. We are grateful to François Poplin, Laboratoire Anatomie Comparée, Museé national Histoire naturelle (Paris), for his ivory identifica­tions. This project was made possible by gênerons grants from the National Endowment for the Humanities, the National Géographie Society, the Skirball Foundation, the Nelson Glueck School of Biblical Archaeology (Hebrew Union Collège, Jemsalem), and the C. Paul Johnson Charitable Foundation (Chicago). We would also like to thank the director of the Israël Antiquity Authority, Amir Drori, for his help. Thanks also to A. Biran, director of the Nelson Glueck School of Bibhcal Archaeology, for his continued support. Finally we thank James Anderson who supervised the excavation of the subter­ranean System at Shiqmim.

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