sql: data manipulation

Chapter 5

SQL: Data Manipulation

2

SELECT Statement

SELECT [DISTINCT | ALL]

{* | [columnExpression [AS newName]] [,...] }

FROM TableName [alias] [, ...]

[WHERE condition]

[GROUP BY columnList] [HAVING condition]

[ORDER BY columnList]

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SELECT Statement

SELECT Specifies which columns are toappear in output

FROM Specifies table(s) to be usedWHERE Filters rowsGROUP BY Forms groups of rows with same

column value

HAVING Filters groups subject to somecondition

ORDER BY Specifies order of output

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SELECT Statement

• Order of clauses cannot be changed

• Only SELECT and FROM are mandatory

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Example 6.1 All Columns, All Rows

List full details of all staff.

SELECT staffNo, fName, lName, address,position, sex, DOB, salary, branchNo

FROM Staff;

• Can use * as an abbreviation for ‘all columns’:

SELECT *FROM Staff;

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Example 6.1 All Columns, All Rows

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Example 6.2 Specific Columns, All Rows

Produce a list of salaries for all staff, showingonly staff number, first and last names, andsalary.

SELECT staffNo, fName, lName, salary

FROM Staff;

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Example 6.2 Specific Columns, All Rows

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Example 6.3 Use of DISTINCT

List the property numbers of all propertiesthat have been viewed.

SELECT propertyNo

FROM Viewing;

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Example 6.3 Use of DISTINCT

• Use DISTINCT to eliminate duplicates:

SELECT DISTINCT propertyNo

FROM Viewing;

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Example 6.4 Calculated Fields

Produce list of monthly salaries for all staff,showing staff number, first/last name, andsalary.

SELECT staffNo, fName, lName, salary/12

FROM Staff;

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Example 6.4 Calculated Fields

• To name column, use AS clause:

SELECT staffNo, fName, lName, salary/12

AS monthlySalary

FROM Staff;

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Example 6.5 Comparison Search Condition

List all staff with a salary greater than 10,000.

SELECT staffNo, fName, lName, position,salary

FROM Staff

WHERE salary > 10000;

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Example 6.6 Compound Comparison Search Condition

List addresses of all branch offices in Londonor Glasgow.

SELECT *

FROM Branch

WHERE city = ‘London’ OR city = ‘Glasgow’;

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Example 6.7 Range Search Condition

List all staff with a salary between 20,000 and30,000.

SELECT staffNo, fName, lName, position,salaryFROM Staff

WHERE salary BETWEEN 20000 AND 30000;

• BETWEEN test includes endpoints of range

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• Negated version - NOT BETWEEN

• BETWEEN does not add much to SQL’sexpressive power. Could also write:

SELECT staffNo, fName, lName, position, salaryFROM Staff

WHERE salary>=20000 AND salary <= 30000;

• Useful for range of values

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Example 6.8 Set Membership

List all managers and supervisors.

SELECT staffNo, fName, lName, position

FROM Staff

WHERE position IN (‘Manager’, ‘Supervisor’);

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Example 6.8 Set Membership

•Negated version (NOT IN)

• IN does not add much to SQL’s expressive power.Could have expressed this as:


FROM Staff

WHERE position=‘Manager’ OR

position=‘Supervisor’;

• IN more efficient when set contains many values

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Example 6.9 Pattern Matching

Find all owners with the string ‘Glasgow’ intheir address.

SELECT ownerNo, fName, lName, address,telNo

FROM PrivateOwner

WHERE address LIKE ‘%Glasgow%’;

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Example 6.9 Pattern Matching

• SQL has two special pattern matchingsymbols:

– %: sequence of zero or more characters

– _ (underscore): any single character

• LIKE ‘%Glasgow%’ means sequence ofcharacters of any length containing ‘Glasgow’

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Example 6.10 NULL Search Condition

List details of all viewings on property PG4where a comment has not been supplied.

• There are 2 viewings for property PG4, onewith and one without a comment.

• Have to test for null explicitly using specialkeyword IS NULL:

SELECT clientNo, viewDateFROM ViewingWHERE propertyNo = ‘PG4’ AND

comment IS NULL;

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Example 6.10 NULL Search Condition

• Negated version (IS NOT NULL) can test for non-null values

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Example 6.11 Single Column Ordering

List salaries for all staff, arranged indescending order of salary.

SELECT staffNo, fName, lName, salary

FROM Staff

ORDER BY salary DESC;

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Example 6.11 Single Column Ordering

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Example 6.12 Multiple Column Ordering

Produce abbreviated list of properties inorder of property type.

SELECT propertyNo, type, rooms, rent

FROM PropertyForRent

ORDER BY type;

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• Four flats in this list - as no minor sort keyspecified, system arranges these rows in anyorder it chooses

• To arrange in order of rent, specify minororder:

SELECT propertyNo, type, rooms, rentFROM PropertyForRent

ORDER BY type, rent DESC;

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SELECT Statement - Aggregates

• ISO standard defines five aggregate functions:

COUNT - returns number of values in specifiedcolumn

SUM - returns sum of values in specified column

AVG - returns average of values in specified column

MIN - returns smallest value in specified column

MAX - returns largest value in specified column

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• Each operates on single column of table andreturns single value

• COUNT, MIN, and MAX apply to numeric andnon-numeric fields

– SUM and AVG used on numeric fields only

• Each function eliminates nulls first andoperates only on remaining non-null values

– Except COUNT

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• COUNT(*) counts all rows of table

– Includes nulls and duplicate values

• Can use DISTINCT before column name toeliminate duplicates

• DISTINCT has no effect with MIN/MAX

– Has effect with SUM/AVG

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• Aggregate functions used only in SELECT list and HAVINGclause

• If SELECT list includes an aggregate function and there is noGROUP BY clause, SELECT list cannot reference column outwith aggregate function

• Illegal:

SELECT staffNo, COUNT(salary)

FROM Staff;

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Example 6.13 Use of COUNT(*)

How many properties cost more than £350per month to rent?

SELECT COUNT(*) AS myCount


WHERE rent > 350;

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Example 6.14 Use of COUNT(DISTINCT)

How many different properties viewed inMay ‘04?

SELECT COUNT(DISTINCT propertyNo) AS myCount

FROM Viewing

WHERE viewDate BETWEEN ‘1-May-04’

AND ‘31-May-04’;

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Example 6.15 Use of COUNT and SUM

Find number of Managers and sum of theirsalaries.

SELECT COUNT(staffNo) AS myCount,

SUM(salary) AS mySum

FROM Staff

WHERE position = ‘Manager’;

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Example 6.16 Use of MIN, MAX, AVG

Find minimum, maximum, and averagestaff salary.

SELECT MIN(salary) AS myMin,

MAX(salary) AS myMax,

AVG(salary) AS myAvg

FROM Staff;

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SELECT Statement - Grouping

• Use GROUP BY clause to get sub-totals

• SELECT and GROUP BY closely integrated:

– Each item in SELECT list must be single-valuedper group

– SELECT clause may only contain:• column names

• aggregate functions

• constants

• expression involving combinations of above

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SELECT Statement - Grouping

• All column names in SELECT list must appear in GROUP BYclause unless name used only in aggregate function

• If WHERE used with GROUP BY:

– WHERE applied first

– Then groups formed from remaining rows satisfyingpredicate

• ISO considers two nulls to be equal for purposes of GROUPBY

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Example 6.17 Use of GROUP BY

Find number of staff in each branch andtheir total salaries.

SELECT branchNo,

COUNT(staffNo) AS myCount,

SUM(salary) AS mySum

FROM Staff

GROUP BY branchNo

ORDER BY branchNo;

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Example 6.17 Use of GROUP BY

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Restricted Groupings – HAVING clause

• HAVING clause designed for use with GROUP BY to restrict groups that appear in final result table

• Similar to WHERE:

– WHERE filters individual rows

– HAVING filters groups

• Column names in HAVING clause must appear in GROUP BYlist or be contained within aggregate function

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Example 6.18 Use of HAVING

For each branch with more than 1 member ofstaff, find number of staff in each branch andsum of their salaries.

SELECT branchNo,COUNT(staffNo) AS myCount,

SUM(salary) AS mySumFROM StaffGROUP BY branchNoHAVING COUNT(staffNo) > 1ORDER BY branchNo;

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Example 6.18 Use of HAVING

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Subqueries

• Some SQL statements can have SELECTembedded within them

• Ssubselect can be used in WHERE andHAVING clauses of an outer SELECT

– Called subquery or nested query

• Subselects may also appear in INSERT,UPDATE, and DELETE statements

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Example 6.19 Subquery with Equality

List staff who work in branch at ‘163 Main St’.


FROM Staff

WHERE branchNo =

(SELECT branchNo

FROM Branch

WHERE street = ‘163 Main St’);

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• Inner SELECT finds branch number for branchat ‘163 Main St’ (‘B003’).

• Outer SELECT then retrieves details of allstaff who work at this branch.

• Outer SELECT then becomes:


FROM Staff

WHERE branchNo = ‘B003’;

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Example 6.20 Subquery with Aggregate

List all staff whose salary is greater than the average salary,and show by how much.

SELECT staffNo, fName, lName, position,

salary – (SELECT AVG(salary) FROM Staff) As SalDiff

FROM Staff

WHERE salary >

(SELECT AVG(salary)

FROM Staff);

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• Cannot write ‘WHERE salary > AVG(salary)’

• Instead, use subquery to find average salary(17000), and then use outer SELECT to findthose staff with salary greater than this:

SELECT staffNo, fName, lName, position,

salary – 17000 As salDiff

FROM Staff

WHERE salary > 17000;

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Subquery Rules

• ORDER BY clause may not be used in subquery– May be used in outermost SELECT

• Subquery SELECT list must consist of singlecolumn name or expression– Except for subqueries that use EXISTS

• By default, column names refer to table namein FROM clause of subquery

• Can refer to table in FROM using alias

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Subquery Rules

• When subquery is operand in comparison

– Subquery must appear on right-hand side

• Subquery may not be used as operand in anexpression

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Example 6.21 Nested subquery: use of IN

List properties handled by staff at ‘163 Main St’.

SELECT propertyNo, street, city, postcode, type, rooms, rent


WHERE staffNo IN

(SELECT staffNo

FROM Staff

WHERE branchNo =

(SELECT branchNo

FROM Branch

WHERE street = ‘163 Main St’));

Chapter 6

SQL: Data Manipulation Cont’d

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ANY and ALL

• ANY and ALL used with subqueries thatproduce single column of numbers

• ALL– Condition only true if satisfied by all values

produced by subquery• ANY

– Condition true if satisfied by any values producedby subquery

• If subquery empty– ALL returns true– ANY returns false

• SOME may be used in place of ANY

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Example 6.22 Use of ANY/SOME

Find staff whose salary is larger than salary ofat least one member of staff at branch B003.

SELECT staffNo, fName, lName, position, salary

FROM Staff

WHERE salary > SOME

(SELECT salary

FROM Staff

WHERE branchNo = ‘B003’);

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Example 6.22 Use of ANY/SOME

• Inner query produces set {12000, 18000,24000} and outer query selects those staffwhose salaries are greater than any values inset

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Example 6.23 Use of ALL

Find staff whose salary is larger than salaryof every member of staff at branch B003.

SELECT staffNo, fName, lName, position, salary

FROM Staff

WHERE salary > ALL

(SELECT salary

FROM Staff

WHERE branchNo = ‘B003’);

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Example 6.23 Use of ALL

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Multi-Table Queries

• Can use subqueries provided result columnscome from same table

• If result columns come from more than onetable– Must use join

• To perform join– Include more than one table in FROM clause

• Use comma as separator and typically includeWHERE clause to specify join column(s)

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Multi-Table Queries

• Possible to use alias for table named inFROM clause

• Alias separated from table name with space

• Alias can be used to qualify column nameswhen there is ambiguity

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Example 6.24 Simple Join

List names of all clients who have viewed aproperty along with any comment supplied.

SELECT c.clientNo, fName, lName,

propertyNo, comment

FROM Client c, Viewing v

WHERE c.clientNo = v.clientNo;

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Example 6.24 Simple Join

• Only those rows from both tables that haveidentical values in clientNo columns(c.clientNo = v.clientNo) included in result

• Equivalent to equi-join in relational algebra

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Alternative JOIN Constructs

• SQL provides alternative ways to specify joins:

FROM Client c JOIN Viewing v ON c.clientNo = v.clientNo

FROM Client JOIN Viewing USING clientNo

FROM Client NATURAL JOIN Viewing

• FROM replaces original FROM and WHERE

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Example 6.25 Sorting a join

For each branch, list numbers and namesof staff who manage properties, andproperties they manage.

SELECT s.branchNo, s.staffNo, fName, lName,propertyNo

FROM Staff s, PropertyForRent pWHERE s.staffNo = p.staffNoORDER BY s.branchNo, s.staffNo, propertyNo;

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Example 6.25 Sorting a join

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Example 6.26 Three Table Join

For each branch, list staff who manageproperties, including city in which branch islocated and properties they manage.

SELECT b.branchNo, b.city, s.staffNo, fName, lName,propertyNo

FROM Branch b, Staff s, PropertyForRent pWHERE b.branchNo = s.branchNo AND

s.staffNo = p.staffNoORDER BY b.branchNo, s.staffNo, propertyNo;

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Example 6.26 Three Table Join

• Alternative formulation for FROM and WHERE:

FROM (Branch b JOIN Staff s USING branchNo) AS

bs JOIN PropertyForRent p USING staffNo

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Example 6.27 Multiple Grouping Columns

Find number of properties handled by eachstaff member by branch.

SELECT s.branchNo, s.staffNo, COUNT(*) AS myCount

FROM Staff s, PropertyForRent p

WHERE s.staffNo = p.staffNo

GROUP BY s.branchNo, s.staffNo

ORDER BY s.branchNo, s.staffNo;

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Example 6.27 Multiple Grouping Columns

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Computing a Join

Procedure for generating results of a join are:

1. Form Cartesian product of tables named in FROM clause

2. If WHERE clause:

– Apply search condition to each row of product table

– Retain rows that satisfy condition

3. For each remaining row, determine value of each item inSELECT list to produce single row in result table

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Computing a Join

4. If DISTINCT specified, eliminate any duplicaterows from result table

6. If ORDER BY clause, sort result table asrequired

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Outer Joins

• If one row of joined table is unmatched, rowomitted from result table

• Outer join operations retain rows that do notsatisfy join condition

• Consider following tables:

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Outer Joins

• The (inner) join of these two tables:

SELECT b.*, p.*

FROM Branch1 b, PropertyForRent1 p

WHERE b.bCity = p.pCity;

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Example 6.28 Left Outer Join

List branches and properties that are insame city along with any unmatchedbranches.

SELECT b.*, p.*

FROM Branch1 b LEFT JOIN

PropertyForRent1 p ON b.bCity = p.pCity;

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Example 6.28 Left Outer Join

• Includes rows of first (left) table unmatchedwith rows from second (right) table

• Columns from second table filled with NULLs

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Example 6.29 Right Outer Join

List branches and properties in same cityand any unmatched properties.

SELECT b.*, p.*

FROM Branch1 b RIGHT JOIN


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Example 6.29 Right Outer Join

• Right Outer join includes rows of second(right) table unmatched with rows from first(left) table

• Columns from first table filled with NULLs

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Example 6.30 Full Outer Join

List branches and properties in same cityand any unmatched branches or properties.

SELECT b.*, p.*

FROM Branch1 b FULL JOIN


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Example 6.30 Full Outer Join

• Includes rows unmatched in both tables

• Unmatched columns filled with NULLs

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EXISTS and NOT EXISTS

• EXISTS and NOT EXISTS used only withsubqueries

• Produce simple true/false result

• True if and only if there exists at least onerow in result table returned by subquery

• False if subquery returns empty result table

• NOT EXISTS is the opposite of EXISTS

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EXISTS and NOT EXISTS

• As (NOT) EXISTS check only for existence ornon-existence of rows in subquery resulttable, subquery can contain any number ofcolumns

• Common for subqueries following (NOT)EXISTS to be of form:

(SELECT * ...)

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Example 6.31 Query using EXISTS

Find all staff who work in a London branch.


FROM Staff s

WHERE EXISTS

(SELECT *

FROM Branch b

WHERE s.branchNo = b.branchNo AND

city = ‘London’);

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• Note, search condition s.branchNo =b.branchNo is necessary to consider correctbranch record for each member of staff

• If omitted, would get all staff records listedout because subquery:SELECT * FROM Branch WHERE city=‘London’

• would always be true and query would be:SELECT staffNo, fName, lName, position FROM StaffWHERE true;

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• Could also write this query using joinconstruct:


FROM Staff s, Branch b

WHERE s.branchNo = b.branchNo AND

city = ‘London’;

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Union, Intersect, and Difference (Except)

• Can use normal set operations of Union,Intersection, and Difference to combine resultsof two or more queries into single result table

• Union of two tables, A and B, is tablecontaining all rows in either A or B or both

• Intersection is table containing all rowscommon to both A and B

• Difference is table containing all rows in A butnot in B

• Two tables must be union compatible

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• Format of set operator clause in each case is:

op [ALL] [CORRESPONDING [BY {column1 [, ...]}]]

• If CORRESPONDING BY specified, set operationperformed on the named column(s)

• If CORRESPONDING specified but not BY clause,operation performed on common columns

• If ALL specified, result can include duplicate rows

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Example 6.32 Use of UNION

List all cities where there is either a branchoffice or a property.

(SELECT cityFROM BranchWHERE city IS NOT NULL) UNION(SELECT cityFROM PropertyForRentWHERE city IS NOT NULL);

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• Or

(SELECT *FROM BranchWHERE city IS NOT NULL)UNION CORRESPONDING BY city(SELECT *FROM PropertyForRentWHERE city IS NOT NULL);

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• Produces result tables from both queries andmerges both tables together.

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Example 6.33 Use of INTERSECT

List all cities where there is both a branchoffice and a property.

(SELECT city FROM Branch)

INTERSECT

(SELECT city FROM PropertyForRent);

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• Or

(SELECT * FROM Branch)

INTERSECT CORRESPONDING BY city

(SELECT * FROM PropertyForRent);

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• Could rewrite this query without INTERSECToperator:

SELECT b.cityFROM Branch b PropertyForRent pWHERE b.city = p.city;

• Or:SELECT DISTINCT city FROM Branch bWHERE EXISTS

(SELECT * FROM PropertyForRent pWHERE p.city = b.city);

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Example 6.34 Use of EXCEPT

List of all cities where there is a branch officebut no properties.

(SELECT city FROM Branch)EXCEPT(SELECT city FROM PropertyForRent);

• Or

(SELECT * FROM Branch)EXCEPT CORRESPONDING BY city(SELECT * FROM PropertyForRent);

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Example 6.34 Use of EXCEPT

• Could rewrite this query without EXCEPT:SELECT DISTINCT city FROM BranchWHERE city NOT IN

(SELECT city FROM PropertyForRent);

• OrSELECT DISTINCT city FROM Branch bWHERE NOT EXISTS

(SELECT * FROM PropertyForRent pWHERE p.city = b.city);

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INSERT

INSERT INTO TableName [ (columnList) ]

VALUES (dataValueList)

• columnList optional; if omitted, SQL assumes listof all columns in original CREATE TABLE order

• Any columns omitted must have been declaredas NULL when table was created, unlessDEFAULT specified when creating column

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INSERT

• dataValueList must match columnList asfollows:

– number of items in each list must be same

– must be direct correspondence in position ofitems in two lists

– data type of each item in dataValueList mustbe compatible with data type of correspondingcolumn

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Example 6.35 INSERT … VALUES

Insert a new row into Staff table supplyingdata for all columns.

INSERT INTO Staff

VALUES (‘SG16’, ‘Alan’, ‘Brown’, ‘Assistant’, ‘M’,Date‘1957-05-25’, 8300, ‘B003’);

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Example 6.36 INSERT using Defaults

Insert a new row into Staff table supplyingdata for all mandatory columns.

INSERT INTO Staff (staffNo, fName, lName,position, salary, branchNo)

VALUES (‘SG44’, ‘Anne’, ‘Jones’,‘Assistant’, 8100, ‘B003’);

• OrINSERT INTO StaffVALUES (‘SG44’, ‘Anne’, ‘Jones’, ‘Assistant’, NULL,

NULL, 8100, ‘B003’);

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INSERT … SELECT

• Second form of INSERT allows multiplerows to be copied from one or more tablesto another:

INSERT INTO TableName [ (columnList) ]

SELECT ...

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Example 6.37 INSERT … SELECT

Assume there is a table StaffPropCount thatcontains names of staff and number ofproperties they manage:

StaffPropCount(staffNo, fName, lName, propCnt)

Populate StaffPropCount using Staff andPropertyForRent tables.

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INSERT INTO StaffPropCount

(SELECT s.staffNo, fName, lName, COUNT(*)



GROUP BY s.staffNo, fName, lName)

UNION

(SELECT staffNo, fName, lName, 0

FROM Staff

WHERE staffNo NOT IN

(SELECT DISTINCT staffNo

FROM PropertyForRent));

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• If second part of UNION omitted, excludes those staff who currently do not manage any properties

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UPDATE

UPDATE TableName

SET columnName1 = dataValue1

[, columnName2 = dataValue2...]

[WHERE searchCondition]

• TableName can be name of base table orupdatable view

• SET clause specifies names of one or morecolumns to be updated

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UPDATE

• WHERE clause is optional:

– if omitted, named columns are updated for allrows in table

– if specified, only rows that satisfysearchCondition updated

• New dataValue(s) must be compatible withdata type for corresponding column

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Example 6.38/39 UPDATE All Rows

Give all staff a 3% pay increase.

UPDATE StaffSET salary = salary*1.03;

Give all Managers a 5% pay increase.

UPDATE StaffSET salary = salary*1.05WHERE position = ‘Manager’;

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Example 6.40 UPDATE Multiple Columns

Promote David Ford (staffNo=‘SG14’) toManager and change his salary to £18,000.

UPDATE Staff

SET position = ‘Manager’, salary = 18000

WHERE staffNo = ‘SG14’;

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DELETE

DELETE FROM TableName

[WHERE searchCondition]

• TableName can be name of base table or updatable view

• searchCondition optional; if omitted, all rows deleted fromtable

– Table not deleted

• If search_condition specified, only rows that satisfycondition deleted

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Example 6.41/42 DELETE Specific Rows

Delete all viewings that relate to propertyPG4.

DELETE FROM ViewingWHERE propertyNo = ‘PG4’;

Delete all records from the Viewing table.

DELETE FROM Viewing;

Chapter 7

SQL: Data Definition

Pearson Education © 2009

114

ISO SQL Data Types


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Integrity Enhancement Feature

• Integrity constraints:

– required data

– domain constraints

– entity integrity

– referential integrity

– general constraints.


116


Required Data

position VARCHAR(10) NOT NULL

Domain Constraints

(a) CHECK

sex CHAR NOT NULL

CHECK (sex IN (‘M’, ‘F’))


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(b) CREATE DOMAIN

CREATE DOMAIN DomainName [AS] dataType

[DEFAULT defaultOption]

[CHECK (searchCondition)]

For example:

CREATE DOMAIN SexType AS CHAR

CHECK (VALUE IN (‘M’, ‘F’));

sex SexType NOT NULL


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• searchCondition can involve a table lookup:

CREATE DOMAIN BranchNo AS CHAR(4)CHECK (VALUE IN (SELECT branchNo

FROM Branch));

• Domains can be removed using DROPDOMAIN:

DROP DOMAIN DomainName[RESTRICT | CASCADE]


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IEF - Entity Integrity

• Primary key of table must contain unique, non-null valuefor each row

• ISO standard supports FOREIGN KEY clause in CREATE andALTER TABLE statements:

PRIMARY KEY(staffNo)

PRIMARY KEY(clientNo, propertyNo)

• Can only have one PRIMARY KEY clause per table

• Can still ensure uniqueness for alternate keys usingUNIQUE:

UNIQUE(telNo)


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IEF - Referential Integrity

• FK is column or set of columns that links eachrow in child table containing foreign FK to row ofparent table containing matching PK

• Referential integrity means that, if FK containsvalue, that value must refer to existing row inparent table

• ISO standard supports definition of FKs withFOREIGN KEY clause in CREATE and ALTER TABLE:

FOREIGN KEY(branchNo) REFERENCES Branch


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• Any INSERT/UPDATE attempting to create FKvalue in child table without matching CK value inparent is rejected

• Action taken attempting to update/delete CKvalue in parent table with matching rows in childis dependent on referential action specifiedusing ON UPDATE and ON DELETE subclauses:

– CASCADE - SET NULL– SET DEFAULT - NO ACTION


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CASCADE: Delete row from parent and delete matching rows inchild, in cascading manner

SET NULL: Delete row from parent and set FK column(s) in childto NULL

Only valid if FK columns are NOT NULL

SET DEFAULT: Delete row from parent and set each componentof FK in child to specified default

Only valid if DEFAULT specified for FK columns

NO ACTION: Reject delete from parent - Default


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FOREIGN KEY (staffNo) REFERENCES StaffON DELETE SET NULL

FOREIGN KEY (ownerNo) REFERENCES OwnerON UPDATE CASCADE


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IEF - General Constraints

• Could use CHECK/UNIQUE in CREATE andALTER TABLE

• Similar to CHECK clause:

CREATE ASSERTION AssertionName

CHECK (searchCondition)


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IEF - General Constraints

CREATE ASSERTION StaffNotHandlingTooMuch

CHECK (NOT EXISTS (SELECT staffNo


GROUP BY staffNo

HAVING COUNT(*) > 100))


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Data Definition

• SQL DDL allows database objects such asschemas, domains, tables, views, and indexes tobe created and destroyed

• Main SQLDDL statements:CREATE SCHEMA DROP SCHEMA

CREATE/ALTER DOMAIN DROPDOMAIN

CREATE/ALTER TABLE DROPTABLE

CREATE VIEW DROPVIEW

• Many DBMSs also provide:

CREATE INDEX DROP INDEX


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Data Definition

• Relations and other database objects exist in anenvironment

• Each environment contains one or morecatalogs, and each catalog consists of set ofschemas

• Schema is named collection of related databaseobjects

• Objects in schema can be tables, views, domains,assertions– All have same owner


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CREATE SCHEMA

CREATE SCHEMA [Name |

AUTHORIZATION CreatorId ]

DROP SCHEMA Name [RESTRICT | CASCADE ]

• With RESTRICT (default)

– Schema must be empty or operation fails

• With CASCADE

– Operation cascades to drop all objects associatedwith schema in order defined above

– If any operations fail → DROP SCHEMA fails


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CREATE TABLE

CREATE TABLE TableName{(colName dataType [NOT NULL] [UNIQUE][DEFAULT defaultOption][CHECK searchCondition] [,...]}[PRIMARY KEY (listOfColumns),]{[UNIQUE (listOfColumns),] […,]}{[FOREIGN KEY (listOfFKColumns)REFERENCES ParentTableName [(listOfCKColumns)],[ON UPDATE referentialAction][ON DELETE referentialAction ]] [,…]}{[CHECK (searchCondition)] [,…] })


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CREATE TABLE

• Creates table with one or more columns of specifieddataType

• With NOT NULL

– System rejects any attempt to insert null in column

• Can specify DEFAULT value for column

• Primary keys should always be specified as NOT NULL

• FOREIGN KEY clause specifies FK along with referentialaction


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Example 7.1 - CREATE TABLE

CREATE DOMAIN OwnerNumber AS VARCHAR(5)

CHECK (VALUE IN (SELECT ownerNo FROM PrivateOwner));

CREATE DOMAIN StaffNumber AS VARCHAR(5)

CHECK (VALUE IN (SELECT staffNo FROM Staff));

CREATE DOMAIN PNumber AS VARCHAR(5);

CREATE DOMAIN PRooms AS SMALLINT;

CHECK(VALUE BETWEEN 1 AND 15);

CREATE DOMAIN PRent AS DECIMAL(6,2)

CHECK(VALUE BETWEEN 0 AND 9999.99);


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Example 7.1 - CREATE TABLE

CREATE TABLE PropertyForRent (propertyNo PNumber NOT NULL, ….rooms PRooms NOT NULL DEFAULT 4, rent PRent NOT NULL, DEFAULT 600, ownerNo OwnerNumber NOT NULL, staffNo StaffNumber

Constraint StaffNotHandlingTooMuch ….branchNo BranchNumber NOT NULL,PRIMARY KEY (propertyNo),FOREIGN KEY (staffNo) REFERENCES Staff ON DELETE SET NULL ON UPDATE CASCADE ….);


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ALTER TABLE

• Add new column

• Drop column

• Add new table constraint

• Drop table constraint

• Set default for column

• Drop default for column


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Example 7.2(a) - ALTER TABLE

Change Staff table by removing default of‘Assistant’ for position column and settingdefault for sex column to female (‘F’).

ALTER TABLE Staff

ALTER position DROP DEFAULT;

ALTER TABLE Staff

ALTER sex SET DEFAULT ‘F’;


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Example 7.2(b) - ALTER TABLE

Remove constraint from PropertyForRent that staff are not allowed to handle more than 100 properties at a time. Add new column to Client table.

ALTER TABLE PropertyForRentDROP CONSTRAINT StaffNotHandlingTooMuch;

ALTER TABLE ClientADD prefNoRooms PRooms;


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DROP TABLE

DROP TABLE TableName [RESTRICT | CASCADE]

e.g. DROP TABLE PropertyForRent;

• Removes named table and all rows

• With RESTRICT

– If any other objects depend for their existence on continuedexistence of this table → SQL does not allow request

• With CASCADE

– SQL drops all dependent objects (and objects dependent onthese objects)


137

Views

View

Dynamic result of one or more relationaloperations operating on base relations toproduce another relation

• Virtual relation that does not necessarilyactually exist in database but is producedupon request, at time of request


138

Views

• Contents of a view are defined as query on one or morebase relations

• View resolution

– Any operations on view automatically translated intooperations on relations from which derived

• View materialization

– View stored as temporary table

– Maintained as underlying base tables are updated


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SQL - CREATE VIEW

CREATE VIEW ViewName [ (newColumnName [,...]) ]

AS subselect

[WITH [CASCADED | LOCAL] CHECK OPTION]

• Can assign name to each column in view

• If list of column names specified

–Must have same number of items as number of columnsproduced by subselect

• If omitted

–Each column takes name of corresponding column insubselect


140

SQL - CREATE VIEW

• List must be specified if any ambiguity in column name

• Subselect known as defining query

• WITH CHECK OPTION

– Ensures if row fails to satisfy WHERE clause of definingquery - not added to underlying base table

• Need SELECT privilege on all tables referenced in subselect

• Need USAGE privilege on any domains used in referencedcolumns


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Example 7.3 - Create Horizontal View

Create view so that manager at branch B003 canonly see details for staff who work in his or heroffice.

CREATE VIEW Manager3StaffAS SELECT *

FROM StaffWHERE branchNo = ‘B003’;


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Example 7.4 - Create Vertical View

Create view of staff details at branch B003excluding salaries.

CREATE VIEW Staff3

AS SELECT staffNo, fName, lName, position, sex

FROM Staff



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Example 7.5 - Grouped and Joined Views

Create view of staff who manage propertiesfor rent, including branch number they workat, staff number, and number of propertiesthey manage.

CREATE VIEW StaffPropCnt (branchNo, staffNo, cnt)

AS SELECT s.branchNo, s.staffNo, COUNT(*)



GROUP BY s.branchNo, s.staffNo;


144

Example 7.3 - Grouped and Joined Views


145

SQL - DROP VIEW

DROP VIEW ViewName [RESTRICT | CASCADE]

• Causes definition of view to be deleted fromdatabase

• For example:

DROP VIEW Manager3Staff;


146

SQL - DROP VIEW

• With CASCADE

– All related dependent objects deleted; i.e. any viewsdefined on view being dropped.

• With RESTRICT (default)

– If any other objects depend for existence oncontinued existence of view being dropped →command rejected


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View Resolution

Count number of properties managed by eachmember at branch B003.

SELECT staffNo, cnt

FROM StaffPropCnt

WHERE branchNo = ‘B003’

ORDER BY staffNo;


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View Resolution

(a) View column names in SELECT list aretranslated into corresponding columnnames in defining query:

SELECT s.staffNo As staffNo, COUNT(*) As cnt

(b) View names in FROM replaced withcorresponding FROM lists of definingquery:



149

View Resolution

(c) WHERE from user query combined with WHEREof defining query using AND:

WHERE s.staffNo = p.staffNo AND branchNo = ‘B003’

(d) GROUP BY and HAVING clauses copied fromdefining query:


(e) ORDER BY copied from query with view column

name translated into defining query column

nameORDER BY s.staffNo


150

View Resolution

(f) Final merged query executed to produceresult:

SELECT s.staffNo AS staffNo, COUNT(*) AS cnt


WHERE s.staffNo = p.staffNo AND

branchNo = ‘B003’


ORDER BY s.staffNo;


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Restrictions on Views

SQL imposes several restrictions on creationand use of views.

(a) If column in view based on aggregate function:– Column may appear only in SELECT and ORDER BY

clauses of queries that access view

– Column may not be used in WHERE nor be an argumentto aggregate function in any query based on view


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• For example, following queries would fail:

SELECT COUNT(cnt)

FROM StaffPropCnt;

SELECT *

FROM StaffPropCnt

WHERE cnt > 2;


153


(b) Grouped view may never be joined withbase table or view

• For example

– StaffPropCnt view is grouped view, anyattempt to join this view with another table orview fails


154

View Updatability

• All updates to base table reflected in allviews that encompass base table

• May expect that if view updated then basetable(s) will reflect change


155

View Updatability

• Consider again view StaffPropCnt• If we tried to insert record showing that at

branch B003, SG5 manages 2 properties:

INSERT INTO StaffPropCntVALUES (‘B003’, ‘SG5’, 2);

• Have to insert 2 records into PropertyForRentshowing which properties SG5 manages.However, do not know which properties theyare; i.e. do not know primary keys!


156

View Updatability

• If change definition of view and replace countwith actual property numbers:

CREATE VIEW StaffPropList (branchNo,

staffNo, propertyNo)

AS SELECT s.branchNo, s.staffNo, p.propertyNo


WHERE s.staffNo = p.staffNo;


157

View Updatability

• Now try to insert the record:

INSERT INTO StaffPropList

VALUES (‘B003’, ‘SG5’, ‘PG19’);

• Still problem - in PropertyForRent all columnsexcept postcode/staffNo are not allowed nulls

• No way of giving remaining non-null columnsvalues


158

View Updatability

• ISO specifies that view is updatable if and onlyif:- DISTINCT is not specified- Every element in SELECT list of defining query is column nameand no column appears more than once- FROM clause specifies only one table

• If source table a view – same conditions apply, excludes any views based onjoin, union, intersection or difference

- No nested SELECT referencing outer table- No GROUP BY or HAVING clause- Every row added through view must not violate integrityconstraints of base table


159

Updatable View

For view to be updatable, DBMS must beable to trace any row or column back to itsrow or column in source table


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WITH CHECK OPTION

• Rows exist in view because they satisfy WHEREcondition of defining query

• If row changes and no longer satisfies condition- disappears from view

• New rows appear within view wheninsert/update on view cause them to satisfyWHERE condition

• Rows that enter or leave view called migratingrows

• WITH CHECK OPTION generally prohibits row migrating out of view


161

WITH CHECK OPTION

• LOCAL/CASCADED apply to view hierarchies

• With LOCAL

– Any row insert/update on view and any view directly orindirectly defined on this view must not cause row todisappear from view unless row also disappears fromderived view/table

• With CASCADED (default)

– Any row insert/ update on view and on any view directly orindirectly defined on this view must not cause row todisappear from the view


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Example 7.6 - WITH CHECK OPTION

CREATE VIEW Manager3Staff

AS SELECT *

FROM Staff

WHERE branchNo = ‘B003’

WITH CHECK OPTION;

• Cannot update branch number of row B003 toB002 - would cause row to migrate from view

• Cannot insert row into view with branch numberthat does not equal B003


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• Consider the following:CREATE VIEW LowSalaryAS SELECT * FROM Staff WHERE salary > 9000;

CREATE VIEW HighSalaryAS SELECT * FROM LowSalary

WHERE salary > 10000WITH LOCAL CHECK OPTION;

CREATE VIEW Manager3StaffAS SELECT * FROM HighSalary



164


UPDATE Manager3StaffSET salary = 9500WHERE staffNo = ‘SG37’;

• This update would fail: although update wouldcause row to disappear from HighSalary, rowwould not disappear from LowSalary

• If update tried to set salary to 8000, updatewould succeed as row would no longer be partof LowSalary


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• If HighSalary had specified WITH CASCADEDCHECK OPTION, setting salary to 9500 or8000 would be rejected because row woulddisappear from HighSalary

• To prevent anomalies like this

– Each view should be created using WITHCASCADED CHECK OPTION


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Advantages of Views

• Data independence

• Currency

• Improved security

• Reduced complexity

• Convenience

• Customization

• Data integrity


167

Disadvantages of Views

• Update restriction

• Structure restriction

• Performance


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View Materialization

• View resolution mechanism may be slow, ifview accessed frequently

• View materialization stores view astemporary table when view first queried

• Queries based on materialized view can befaster than recomputing view each time

• Difficulty in maintaining currency of viewwhile base tables(s) updated


169

View Maintenance

• View maintenance aims to apply only thosechanges necessary to keep view current.

• Consider following view:CREATE VIEW StaffPropRent(staffNo)

AS SELECT DISTINCT staffNo


WHERE branchNo = ‘B003’ AND

rent > 400;


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View Materialization

• If insert row into PropertyForRent with rent 400 thenview would be unchanged

• If insert row for property PG24 at branch B003 withstaffNo = SG19 and rent = 550, then row would appearin materialized view

• If insert row for property PG54 at branch B003 withstaffNo = SG37 and rent = 450, then no new row wouldneed to be added to materialized view

• If delete property PG24, row should be deleted frommaterialized view

• If delete property PG54, then row for PG37 should notbe deleted (because of existing property PG21)


JOIN TYPES

Six types of JOINs:1. JOIN or INNER JOIN2. OUTER JOIN

2.1 LEFT OUTER JOIN or LEFT JOIN2.2 RIGHT OUTER JOIN or RIGHT JOIN2.3 FULL OUTER JOIN or FULL JOIN

3. NATURAL JOIN4. CROSS JOIN5. SELF JOIN6. JOINs based on Operators

1. JOIN or INNER JOIN• We get all records that match the condition in both the tables• Records in both the tables that do not match are not reported• ONLY the matching entries in BOTH the tables SHOULD be

listed• JOIN without any other JOIN keywords (like OUTER, LEFT, etc)

is an INNER JOIN

Examples:selectdepartment_name, first_name from departments d inner

join employees e on d.department_id = e.department_id;ORselectdepartment_name, first_name from departments d join

employees e on d.department_id = e.department_id;

2. OUTER JOIN• Retrieves either, the matched rows from one table and all

rows in the other table Or, all rows in all tables• There are three kinds:

– 2.1 LEFT OUTER JOIN or LEFT JOIN• Returns all rows from the left table in conjunction with the matching

rows from the right table• If there are no columns matching in the right table, it returns NULL values

– 2.2 RIGHT OUTER JOIN or RIGHT JOIN• Returns all rows from the right table in conjunction with the matching

rows from the left table• If there are no columns matching in the left table, it returns NULL values

– 2.3 FULL OUTER JOIN or FULL JOIN– Combines LEFT OUTER JOIN and RIGHT OUTER JOIN– Returns row from either table when the conditions are met and

returns NULL value when there is no match

EXAMPLES OF OUTER JOIN• OUTER JOIN (full outer join)

Select *

FROM Table1 A FULL OUTER JOIN Table2 B OnA.Pk = B.Fk;

• LEFT JOIN

Select *

FROM Table1 A LEFT OUTER JOIN Table2 B OnA.Pk = B.Fk;

• RIGHT JOIN

Select *

FROM Table1 A RIGHT OUTER JOIN Table2 B OnA.Pk = B.Fk;

3. NATURAL JOIN• A type of Inner join which is based on column having same name

and same datatype present in both the tables to be joined• Based on the two conditions :

– JOIN is made on all the columns with the same name for equality– Removes duplicate columns from the result

• Examples:selectdepartment_name, first_name from departments d natural join employees e ;

SELECT *from table-name1 NATURAL JOIN table-name2;

4. CROSS JOIN

• Cartesian product of the two tables• Result does not make sense in most of the

situations

• Examples:Select *FROM TableA CROSS JOIN TableB;• ORSelect *FROM Table1 A1,Table1 A2;

5. SELF JOIN

• Not a different form of JOIN, rather it is a JOIN of a table to itself

• ExamplesSelect m.first_name manager, w.first_name workerFrom employees m inner join employees wOn m.employee_id = w.manager_id;• ORSelect m.first_name manager, w.first_name workerFrom employees m , employees wwhere m.employee_id = w.manager_id;

6. JOINs based on Operators• Depending on the operator used for a JOIN clause, there

can be two types of JOINs– Equi JOIN

• For whatever JOIN type (INNER, OUTER, etc), if we use ONLY the equality operator (=), then we say that the JOIN is an EQUI JOIN

– Theta or Non-Equi JOIN• Same as EQUI JOIN but allows all other operators like >, <, >= etc

• Examples:• Equi joinselect * from departments d, employees e where

d.department_id = e.department_id;

• Theta or Non-Equi JOINselect * from departments d, employees e where

d.department_id <> e.department_id;

sql: data manipulation

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