shakespeare and translation: an introduction - concentric

Concentric: Literary and Cultural Studies 47.2 September 2021: 3-13 DOI: 10.6240/concentric.lit.202109_47(2).0001

Shakespeare and Translation: An Introduction

Jonathan Locke Hart

School of Translation Studies

Shandong University, China

The translation of Shakespeare goes back centuries. In the year of George

Bernard Shaw’s birth—1856—Albert Lacroix could write about the history of the

influence of Shakespeare on the French theatre to when Lacroix was writing in

Histoire de l’influence de Shakespeare sur le théâtre français jusqu’à nos jours

(Lacroix; Delabastita “Language” 227). In the same year, Ernest Lafond translated

Shakespeare’s poems and 47 sonnets with the English text at the bottom of the page,

and by 1865, François-Victor Hugo, who lived in exile in Guernsey and whose

translation of Shakespeare’s poems and plays was published between 1859 and 1866,

had translated all of the sonnets (Lafond; F-V Hugo; Cheesman; “Shakespeare Text”).

Although Shakespeare and translation has received increasing attention in fields such

as comparative literature, world literature and Translation Studies, the subject

deserves more attention and that is one reason for this special issue, which is focused

on the translation of Romeo and Juliet and the Sonnets (Eoyang et al.; Damrosch,

What Is World Literature?, How to Read; Hart and Xie; Miller; Saussy; Conley;

Butterfield; Porter; Hart, “Poetry”; Bermann and Porter; Gambier and Van Doorslaer;

Malmkjæ r and Windle).

Furthermore, the issue is part of a movement in which literary and cultural

studies and Shakespeare studies meet in considering comparative and world (global)

Shakespeare, the translation of Shakespeare in language, time and space, within and

between cultures (see Bennett and Carson). Even if the matter of translating

I-Chun Wang and I would like to thank the editors, board, and anonymous readers for their

work and for improving this issue. This Introduction takes into consideration and shows the influence of the anonymous reviewers when discussing the contribution of each of the four articles. Moreover, our thanks to the editors for their encouragement and expertise. Additionally, I would like to thank and remember J. Hillis Miller for his kindness and the encouragement he gave me in this and other work. Thanks to Daniel Gallimore and all those who advised me, contributed or reviewed my project on Shakespeare and Translation. It has been a great honor and privilege to work once again with my old friend and accomplished colleague, I-Chun Wang, whose work on this special issue was exemplary.

4 Concentric 47.2 September 2021

Shakespeare is not new, as can be seen in France, for instance, in the comments of

Voltaire and of Victor Hugo, Shakespeare and translation became more and more a

matter of interest after the Second World War. In the 1960s, for example, Laura

Bohannan discussed Shakespeare in the bush (Bohannan). In the 1990s, for instance,

the work of Dirk Delabastita and Lieven D’hulst, Dennis Kennedy and Inga-Stina

Ewbank embodied the meetings of academic fields in the study of Shakespeare and

translation (Delabastita and D’hulst, Kennedy, Ewbank). The editorial and scholarly

work of Ton Hoenselaars has also been important to Shakespeare and translation after

the turn of the twenty-first century (Hoenselaars, “Shakespeare and Translation,”

Shakespeare and the Language, “Shakespeare and the Cultures”). Alexander C. Y.

Huang has examined creativity involved in translating Shakespeare’s plays into

various media, discussed three adaptations of King Lear in monolingual, bilingual

and multilingual forms, and noted, as others have, that Shakespeare transformed

sources and was translated into many languages and genres (see Huang,

“Shakespeare and Translation.”). In recent years, other studies of Shakespeare and

translation or multilingualism have appeared (viz. Saenger; Delabastita;

Hoenselaars).

Shakespeare and Translation, edited by Jonathan Locke Hart and I-Chun Wang,

a special issue of Concentric: Literary and Cultural Studies, contributes to

Shakespeare and translation in terms of literature, theatre and culture, and brings

together innovative scholars from Asia and globally to explore matters of translating

Shakespeare in East-West and global contexts then and now. Shakespeare’s poetic

dramas were first performed in an English capital inhabited by a considerable number

of people from other countries and there was much movement not just to and from

England but in Europe, Asia, and globally (see Greenblatt; Huang et al.; Wang; Hart,

“Translation”). Shakespeare’s poetry and plays (scripts and performances) involved

the crossing of boundaries and have come to be more conspicuous because of the

translations—in multiple senses—that these texts have undergone in print, on the

stage and in film and other media. The German Romantic translations by A. W.

Schlegel and Ludwig Tieck, the Japanese filmmaker Akira Kurosawa’s twentieth-

century adaptations of Shakespearean tragedy (as well as Japanese translations), the

Congo-Brazzaville writer-director Sony Labou Tansi’s La Résurrection rouge et

blanche de Roméo et Juliette (1990) are instances of Shakespeare and cultural

translation (Shakespeare, Dramatische Werke Kurosawa; Tansi; Darriet-Féréol,

Kawachi; Sanchez). In many other responses and varied cultural and linguistic

situations, Shakespeare has been in flux or—to use a term from one of his favourite

poets, Ovid—in “metamorphosis.”

Jonathan Locke Hart 5

The linguistic afterlife of Shakespeare’s writing across the world and across

time and cultures has been the subject of work by Gary Taylor and Jonathan Bate and

the field has been enriched by the multiauthor volume of essays edited by Alexander

C. Y. Huang and Charles S. Ross, Shakespeare in Hollywood, Asia, and Cyberspace

(2009), and by Dirk Delabastita’s chapter on language and translation for The

Cambridge Companion to Shakespeare’s Language (2019) (Taylor; Bate; Huang and

Ross; Delabastita). Shakespeare and Asia (2019), edited by Jonathan Hart, brought

together fifteen authors from Asia to explore Shakespeare in East-West and global

contexts.

For this special issue of Concentric, we have included contributions that

address various aspects of Shakespeare in translation. Diverse theoretical and

practical modes of criticism appear here. The issue stresses the importance of

Shakespeare’s translation and/or adaptation for an understanding of local and global

culture; Shakespeare translated via performance; poetic Shakespeares; multilingual

Shakespeares; and non-European Shakespeares, notably an Asian Shakespeare here.

The issue explores Shakespeare from the perspective of translation and through

non-Anglophone perspectives by scholars of both Eastern and Western backgrounds

and how that contribution is changing our understanding of the importance and value

of Shakespeare’s plays in ways that should help readers, artists, and scholars globally

to understand an aspect of changing global culture. The issue is rich, ranging and

innovative and contributes to Shakespeare Studies, Shakespeare and performance

(theatre, media and film), Shakespeare and translation and global Shakespeare. The

question of Shakespeare and translation is not only a matter of Shakespeare studies,

but also of world literature and culture. The special issue attempts to go beyond a

western-centric concentration on universal Shakespeare and to appeal worldwide to

the significance of Shakespeare to their local contexts and cultures. This is one of the

conceptual foundations of this issue.

Moreover, the special issue includes articles that explore Shakespeare’s impact

and influence in the world, particularly through being translated into different

languages and how Shakespeare is also an indispensable perspective from which to

illuminate Western, Eastern and other cultures. Shakespeare is recontextualized

through translation and recontextualizes the cultures that translate him. This issue

builds on earlier scholarship and theoretical and practical discussions of Shakespeare

and translation in the theatre, text, film and other forms. The special issue differs

from other work on the subject and makes the following contribution: it focuses on

the relations between Shakespeare and translation and its global reach to the East,

beyond the Western hemisphere; it provides an in-depth exploration of context,


themes, connections, appropriations and adaptations; it highlights the importance of

Asia and Asian scholars and offers an emphasis on diversity of background and

location. Finally, contributors explore a number of additional aspects of this topic,

such the areas related to the transnational movement of texts, which are often studied

in world and comparative literature. Another current element is the global growth of

Translation Studies. The study of Shakespeare is part of comparative literature, world

literature and Translation Studies, and this special issue has implications of these

connections.

This special issue is about Shakespeare and translation in two senses: the

articles are about Eastern and Western translations of Shakespeare and contribute to

an underdeveloped field in Shakespeare Studies and Translation Studies. The

contributors are from Taiwan, Canada, France, and Finland. The main themes and

objectives are Shakespeare not simply in his contemporary England but also in the

wider world and in subsequent times. The objectives are to show readers the

importance of Shakespeare and translation by discussing key relations of his works

in the translation and adaptation into Asian and European languages (Chinese, French

and Finnish) and to expose readers in Asia, Europe, the Americas and indeed,

worldwide, to East and West in the areas of Shakespeare and translation. The issue

discusses Chinese, French and Finnish Shakespeare, focusing on Romeo and Juliet

and the Sonnets, and examines the translation of the poems and plays while also

discussing the drama and the sonnets in connection with books and readers and

performance (theatre, television and film) and audience and showing the innovation

of Shakespeare and translation globally while balancing the Eastern and Western

translations (see Delabastita).

A dual perspective or emphasis of the special issue on Shakespeare and

Translation may be seen from the perspective of translation and through non-

Anglophone perspectives by scholars of both Eastern and Western backgrounds.

Such an approach helps to transform how we understand the importance and value

of Shakespeare’s plays and serves as a fulcrum for readers, artists, and scholars

globally to treat of contemporary questions and for reshaping the connection between

East and West in the global culture. There are two principal assumptions of this

special issue. First, Shakespeare can be interpreted through its impact and influence

in the world, particularly through being translated into diverse languages. Second,

Shakespeare is also a productive perspective from which to shed light on Eastern and

Western cultures. Translation recontextualizes Shakespeare and recontextualizes the

cultures that translate him.


The special issue examines Romeo and Juliet and the Sonnets in particular. In

“Issues of Transcultural Mobility in Three Recent French Balcony Scenes,”

Stephanie Mercier discusses recent translations and/or productions of Romeo and

Juliet by Olivier Py (2011), Pascal and Antoine Collin and David Bobee (2012), and

Éric Ruf, who staged François-Victor Hugo’s version of the play (2016-2017), and

she argues that they are especially notable for their well-considered

translations/adaptations into French of the Balcony Scene. Mercier chooses one of

the best-known scenes in Shakespeare as an emblem of cultural mobility in the

French theatre as a result of the French contextual elements that are caused to

circulate by the practitioners mentioned above. In this way, Mercier’s article

contributes to an understanding of Shakespearean adaptations and staging. The

discussion of “tradaption” is suggestive, taking into account the vocal performance

in which these French “tradaptions” (translations/adaptations) occur and well as the

intertextual relations of the later works and Hugo’s nineteenth-century translation.

Integration or hybridization are not mutually exclusive but can contribute together to

the cultural components of tradaption, inspiring textual translation or theatrical

creativity. Mercier highlights the positive elements of Shakespeare in French

translation but discusses these matters in terms of the non-verbal translation like

props, costume, gesture, posture, and the body. She sees the three instances of

cultural mobility involving the Balcony Scene as illustrating heterogeneity and

simultaneity in “the French cultural space.”

In “On Modernizing the Language of Romeo and Juliet for Finnish Teenagers,”

Nely Keinänen analyzes a recent production of Julia & Romeo at the Finnish National

Theater (2018) as an instance of innovative linguistic adaptation through variations

in style and some rewriting. Keinänen says that whereas most of the FNT Finnish

text is based on Marja-Leena Mikkola’s poetic translation, the dramaturg Anna

Viitala also worked closely with the director and actors, and added some colloquial

language that teenagers use. The article brings the Finnish experience to the

discussion of Shakespeare and translation as well as raising issues about modernizing

translations and appealing to teen audiences, issues that appeal to scholars, directors,

and others in literary and theatre studies and in the theatre itself. The case study in

this article tells us a good deal about the translation of Shakespeare and about the

reception, adaptation, interpretation of Shakespeare, not only in Finnish but also in

English. Keinänen calls attention to a more extended example of rewriting, that is

Romeo’s and Juliet’s shared sonnet, which becomes a humourous love poem that

Romeo is writing. Keinänen observes that the juxtapositions of colloquial language

are comic and help teenage viewers to relate to the characters but can also be tragic,


for instance in the repetition of hei, a Finnish word for hello and goodbye that Romeo

and Juliet say to each other when they first meet. The author shows the significance

of the repetition of this word three more times in the play at key moments, especially

at the end. Moreover, as the author says, an interview with the dramaturg presents

the reasons behind the choices. According to Keinänen, these types of variations in

register, involving colloquial text mixed with modern poetic text, were effective.

Young people seem, as Keinänen argues, to have liked this translation and production

while also enjoying Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet and the beauty of his poetic

language.

The articles on the translation of Shakespeare’s sonnets concentrate on France

and China and the Hugo translation comes up again. In “The Hugos and the

Translation of Shakespeare into French, Texts and Cultural and Historical Contexts,”

Jonathan Locke Hart explores the political aspect of a translation process in the

reception of a foreign author within a national literature and examines the impact of

Victor Hugo and François-Victor Hugo to literary and cultural translation of

Shakespeare’s work in France. Moreover, the article highlights the shift in public

opinion when the Hugos suggest that translation be considered as an enrichment of

national literature and not a threat and something beyond classical principles. Hart

traces the reception of Shakespeare’s work in France and compares Voltaire’s

translation and critical views of Shakespeare with those of the Hugos. The article

examines how the rhetoric and argument of these French figures help to enact the

drama of meaning and also English reluctance to embrace Shakespeare in the neo-

classical era as can be seen in John Dryden and Alexander Pope. For Hart, translation

is a matter of culture and politics affected by changes in genre and taste. Voltaire

lived in exile in England from 1726 to 1729. Two later French political exiles—the

Hugos—contributed to introduction of a foreign author to French culture, revealing

the betweenness of the position of the translator, including of Hart himself who

translates while also discussing the practice and theory of translation. The article

considers Victor Hugo’s Introduction as a part of cultural translation, thereby

widening the frame and scope of Translation Studies, while also analyzing a text

within its historical context and in the “co-text,” as one of the anonymous reviewers

says.

Min-Hua Wu, in “Rhyme and Reason: Rethinking Gu Zhengkun’s Practice of

Translating Shakespeare’s Sonnets,” interprets the translation of .with an analysis of the

form of the sonnets and of the rhyming tradition of classical Chinese poetry and concentrates

on the final couplet of a sonnet and its aesthetic value. Wu notes Shakespeare’s lexica,

wording, phrasing, simile, metaphor, structure, cadence, sonority, diction and the like.


Furthermore, Wu asserts that, among Chinese translators, Gu Zhengkun stands out

with his experimental rhyming scheme that uses a single rhyme throughout the sonnet

in the target language, thereby crafting a musical rhyming to the ears of Chinese

readers versed in ancient Chinese poetry, although the single rhyme does not

represent the aesthetics or the poetics of the original couplet. Wu employs a

comparative poetics amongst English literature, Chinese literature, and Taiwanese

folk literature to uncover the issues in Gu’s “creative domestication” of the sonnets.

Wu argues that Gu’s Chinese sonnets, although masterful, lack the deviation,

variation, twist, musing, and the final power of the couplets of Shakespeare’s sonnets.

This article combines a detailed knowledge of Chinese and English, the mainland

and Taiwan as well as their literature and English literature. Shakespeare is poised

between East and West and we come to see him in a new light. Bilingual or

multilingual readers experience this richness most, but Wu also shows how, through

translation, Shakespeare enriches Asian and Chinese culture and literature as they

enrich our understanding of Shakespeare. Asian and Chinese Shakespeare enhance

Shakespeare in English as well as global or world Shakespeare. Shakespeare benefits

from comparison. Translation improves our interpretation of Shakespeare, literature,

and culture. We come to understand poetry, drama, theatre, and the world, not to

mention ourselves.

I-Chun Wang and I hope that this special issue on Shakespeare and Translation

encourages more contributors in this field to appear in subsequent issues of

Concentric and, more generally, to pursue research in the area of translation and

Shakespeare in terms of Shakespeare Studies, Translation Studies, world literature,

and comparative literature. This journal of literary and cultural studies is a forum for

innovative research. Shakespeare and translation is a topic that is hundreds of years

old, and interest in the subject has grown since the Second World War and has

intensified in recent decades. It is our hope that, building on that analysis and research,

we have presented thoughtful and original work that prompts others to move the

conversation forward and to make important contributions in the years to come.

Works Cited Bate, Jonathan. Soul of the Age: A Biography of the Mind of William Shakespeare.

Random House, 2010.

Bennett, Susan, and Christie Carson, editors. Shakespeare beyond English: A Global

Experiment. Cambridge UP, 2013.


Bermann, Sandra, and Catherine Porter, editors. A Companion to Translation Studies.

Wiley Blackwell, 2014.

Bohannan, Laura. “Shakespeare in the Bush.” Natural History, vol. 75, no. 7, Aug.-

Sept. 1966, pp. 28-33.

Butterfield, Ardis. “Medieval Lyric: A Translatable or Untranslatable Zone?”

University of Toronto Quarterly, vol. 88, no. 2, 2019, pp. 142-59.

Cheesman, Tom. “Reading Originals by the Light of Translations.” Shakespeare,

Origins and Originality, edited by Peter Holland, special issue of Shakespeare

Survey, vol. 68, 2015, pp. 87-98

Conley, Tom. “A Pulmonary Machinery: Béroalde de Verville, Les Soupirs

amoureux (1583).” University of Toronto Quarterly, vol. 88, no. 2, 2019, pp.

160-76.

Damrosch, David. How to Read World Literature. Wiley-Blackwell, 2009.

—. What Is World Literature? Princeton UP, 2003.

Darriet-Féréol, Virginie. “De la parole poétique à la parole politique dans les oeuvres

théâtrales d’Aimé Césaire et de Sony Labou Tansi.” Écritures dramatiques,

special issue of Présence Francophone: Revue internationale de langue et de

littérature, vol. 73, no. 1, Dec. 2009, pp. 67-75.

Delabastita, Dirk. “‘He Shall Signify from Time to Time’: Romeo and Juliet in

Modern English.” Perspectives: Studies in Translation Theory and Practice, vol.

25, no. 2, 2017 pp. 189-213.

—. “Language and Translation.” The Cambridge Companion to Shakespeare’s

Language, edited by Lynne Magnusson and David Schalkwyk, Cambridge UP,

2019, pp. 226-43.

Delabastita, Dirk, and Lieven D’hulst, editors. European Shakespeares: Translating

Shakespeare in the Romantic Age. John Benjamins, 1990.

Delabastita, Dirk, and Ton Hoenselaars, editors. Multilingualism in the Drama of

Shakespeare and His Contemporaries. John Benjamins, 2015.

Eoyang, Eugene Chen, et al., editors. Comparative Literature around the World:

Global Practice. Honoré Champion éditeur, 2021.

Ewbank, Inga- Stina. “Shakespeare Translation as Cultural Exchange.” Shakespeare

and Cultural Exchange, edited by Stanley Wells, special issue of Shakespeare

Survey, vol. 48,1996, pp. 1-12.

Gambier, Yves, and Luc Van Doorslaer, editors. Handbook of Translation Studies,

John Benjamins, 2010-13. 4 vols.

Greenblatt, Stephen. “Racial Memory and Literary History.” PMLA, vol. 116, no. 1,

2001, pp. 48-63.


Hart, Jonathan Locke. “Poetry in English as Comparative and World Literature.”


—, editor. Shakespeare and Asia. Routledge, 2019.

—. “Translation and History.” Shakespeare, the Renaissance and Empire: Volume I:

Geography and Language. Routledge, 2021, pp. 134-52.

Hart, Jonathan Locke, and Ming Xie. “World Poetics and Comparative Poetics.”


Hoenselaars, Ton. “Shakespeare and the Cultures of Translation.” Working with

Shakespeare, edited by Peter Holland, special issue of Shakespeare Survey, vol.

66, 2013, pp. 206-19.

—, editor. Shakespeare and the Language of Translation. The Arden Shakespeare,

2004; revised ed., 2012.

—. “Shakespeare and Translation.” Shakespeare: An Oxford Guide, edited by

Stanley Wells and Lena Cowen Orlin, Oxford UP, 2003, pp. 645-57.

Huang, Alexander C. Y. “Shakespeare and Translation.” The Edinburgh Companion

to Shakespeare and the Arts, edited by Mark Thornton Burnett, Adrian Streete,

and Ramona Wray, Edinburgh UP, 2011, pp. 68-87.

Huang, Alexander C. Y., and Charles Stanley Ross, editors. Shakespeare in

Hollywood, Asia, and Cyberspace. Purdue UP, 2009.

Huang, Alexander C. Y., Mary Elizabeth Theis, and I-Chun Wang, editors. Class,

Boundary and Social Discourse in the Renaissance. Center for Humanities and

Social Sciences and College of Liberal Arts, National Sun Yat-sen U, 2007.

Hugo, François-Victor. Introduction. Oeuvres complètes de W. Shakespeare, T. 15 /

François-Victor Hugo trad. 2nd ed., Libraire-Éditeurs, 1865.

Hugo, Victor. Préface. Oeuvres complètes de W. Shakespeare, T. 1 / François-Victor

Hugo trad. Deuxième Édition. Pagnerre, Libraire-Éditeurs, 1865, pp. 6-31.

Kawachi, Yoshiko. “Gender, Class, and Race in Japanese Translation.” Shakespeare

and the Twentieth Century: The Selected Proceedings of the International

Shakespeare Association World Congress, Los Angeles 1996, edited by

Jonathan Bate et al., U of Delaware P, 1998, pp. 390-402.

Kennedy, Dennis, editor. Foreign Shakespeare: Contemporary Performance.

Cambridge UP, 1993.

Kurosawa, Akira. The Seven Samurai: and Other Screenplays. Faber and Faber,

1992.

Lacroix, Albert. Histoire de l’influence de Shakespeare sur le théâtre français

jusqu’à nos jours. Th. Lesigne, 1856.


Lafond, Ernest. Poèmes et sonnets de William Shakespere, traduits en vers, avec le

texte anglais au bas des pages, précédés d’une notice et suivis de notes. Lahure,

1856.

Malmkjæ r, Kirsten, and Kevin Windle, editors. The Oxford Handbook of Translation

Studies. Oxford UP, 2011.

Miller, J. Hillis. “Poetics Today?” University of Toronto Quarterly, vol. 88, no. 2,

2019, pp. 101-11.

Porter, David A. “The Early Modern Lyric: A Literary Wilderness of World

Literature.” University of Toronto Quarterly, vol. 88, no. 2, 2019, pp. 195-209.

Saenger, Michael, editor. Interlinguicity, Internationality, and Shakespeare. McGill-

Queen’s UP, 2014.

Sanchez, Nicolas. “Translating Shakespeare for the Screen.” The Cambridge Guide

to the Worlds of Shakespeare. Vol. 2: The World’s Shakespeare, 1660-Present,

edited by Bruce Smith, Cambridge UP, 2016, pp. 1369-75.

Saussy, Haun. “A Poetics of Global Trolling.” University of Toronto Quarterly, vol.

88, no. 2, 2019, pp. 112-24.

“Shakespeare Text Translated by Victor Hugo’s Son to Be Restored.” BBC News,

BBC, 14 May 2016, www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-guernsey-36284287.

Accessed 9 July 2020.

Shakespeare, William, August Wilhelm von Schlegel, Ludwig Tieck, and Hermann

Ulrici. Dramatische Werke. Nach der Uebersetzung von August Wilhelm

Schlegel und Ludwig Tieck sorgfältig revidirt und theilweise neu bearbeitet, mit

Einleitungen und Noten versehen, under Redaktion von H. Ulrici hrsg. durch

die Deutsche Shakespeare-Gesellschaft. G. Reimer, 1867.

Tansi, Sony Labou. La Résurrection rouge et blanche de Roméo et Juliette. Revue

Acteurs, 1990.

Taylor, Gary. Reinventing Shakespeare: A Cultural History from the Restoration to

the Present. Hogarth P, 1990.

Voltaire. A letter from M. Voltaire to the French Academy: Containing an Appeal to

That Society on the Merits of the English Dramatic Poet Shakespeare: Read

before the Academy on the Day of St. Louis, MDCCLXXVI. Translated from the

original edition, just published at Paris. With a dedication to the Marquis of

Granby, and a preface, by the editor. Printed for J. Bew, no. 28, Paternoster-

Row, 1777.

Wang, I-Chun. “Imperial Landscape of the Mughal Empire in Early Seventeenth-

Century Geographical and Travel Writings.” Landscape, Seascape, and the


Eco-Spatial Imagination, edited by Simon C. Estok, et al., Routledge, 2016, pp.

66-81.

About the Author Jonathan Locke Hart is Chair Professor, the School of Translation Studies, Shandong

University. He is a Fellow of the Royal Society of Canada and Member of the Academia

Europaea; Fellow, Centre for Reformation and Renaissance Studies, University of Toronto;

Associate, Harvard University Herbaria; Life Member, Clare Hall, University of Cambridge.

A winner of many international awards, including two Fulbrights to Harvard, he has held

visiting appointments at Harvard, Cambridge, Princeton, the Sorbonne-Nouvelle, Leiden, UC

Irvine, Peking University, and elsewhere. His books include Theater and World, Representing

the New World, Empires and Colonies, The Poetics of Otherness, and Shakespeare, the

Renaissance and Empire (two volumes).

shakespeare and translation: an introduction - concentric

Documents