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Journal of Archaeological Science 38 (2011) 1621e1633

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Journal of Archaeological Science

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Seeds/fruits, pollen and parasite remains as evidence of site function: piazzaGaribaldi e Parma (N Italy) in Roman and Mediaeval times

Giovanna Bosi, Marta Bandini Mazzanti, Assunta Florenzano, Isabella Massamba N’siala,Aurora Pederzoli, Rossella Rinaldi, Paola Torri, Anna Maria Mercuri*

Laboratorio di Palinologia e Paleobotanica, Dipartimento di Biologia, Università di Modena e Reggio Emilia e Viale Caduti in Guerra 127, 41121 Modena, Italy

a r t i c l e i n f o

Article history:Received 11 October 2010Received in revised form18 February 2011Accepted 24 February 2011

Keywords:ArchaeobotanyCereal pollenParasite remainsSite functionalityNorthern Italy

* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ39 059 2056016; faxE-mail addresses: giovanna.bosi@unimore.it (

unimore.it (M.B. Mazzanti), aurora.pederzoli@unimtorri@unimore.it (P. Torri), annamaria.mercuri@unimo

0305-4403/$ e see front matter � 2011 Elsevier Ltd.doi:10.1016/j.jas.2011.02.027

a b s t r a c t

Archaeobotanical analyses were carried out on layers from the site of Piazza Garibaldi in Parma, a townlocated in the plain of Emilia Romagna, in northern Italy. The layers dated to the 3rde2nd centuries BC,around the time of the foundation of the Roman town, and to the 10the11th centuries AD. According toarchaeological data, the site was a sacred area in Roman times, while it was a market square in Mediaevaltimes. Data from pollen and seeds/fruits were useful for both palaeoenvironmental and palae-oethnobotanical reconstructions, and together with NPPs including parasite remains contributed to adddetails on the function of the site in the different chronological phases.

Since Roman times, woods have grown far from the site, and human activities highly influenced thelandscape. Cereals, legumes and hemp were cultivated together with figs, grapevines, and a number ofmedicinal, vegetables and spice plants. Altogether, data confirmed the presence of votive offerings, andparticularly the association of opium poppy and cereals suggested that they were mainly offered to Ceres,the goddess of crops and soil fertility.

In the Middle Ages, cereal fields, together with legumes, grapevines and fruit trees continued to begrown in the area, but olive trees and Prunoideae revealed a different arboricultural economy. Theanalyses of plant and parasite remains in four pits and one latrine suggested that their infillings consistedof waste, human and animal excrements, deteriorated vegetable food and marcs. Human parasite eggs ofAscaris and Trichuris were found in the latrine, while parasites of animals were found also in the pits.

The interpretation of archaeobotanical data was so tightly linked to the archaeological context thatsimilar spectra must be differently interpreted in the two chronological phases.

� 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

Archaeobotany is intrinsically an interdisciplinary disciplinegiving scientists a high capability to reconstruct both the palae-oenvironment surrounding the sites, and the economy, social statusand ethnobotany of past cultures (Dincauze, 2000; Pearsall, 2008;Wright, 2010; and, e.g., Bosi et al., 2009a; Mercuri et al., 2010a;Palmer and van der Veen, 2002). As for palaeoethnobotany, theevidence is based on the assumption that plant remains mainlyentered the layers by human transport, and therefore if some plantsare represented in high amounts in specific contexts, theyconvincinglymirror human behaviours (Mercuri, 2008a).Moreover,the spatial distribution and recovery of high amounts of specific

þ39 059 2056005.G. Bosi), marta.mazzanti@ore.it (A. Pederzoli), paola.re.it (A.M. Mercuri).

All rights reserved.

plant remains can help to understand how structures and placeswere used (Brinkkemper et al., 1999; van der Veen, 2007).

While, commonly, seeds and fruits give clear evidence of thepresence of granaries and other storage facilities as well as latrinesor rubbish pits in general (Bandini Mazzanti et al., 2005), there arefew but interesting examples of pollen signals that shed light on theuse of particular structures/places (Mariotti Lippi et al., 2009).Amongst micro-remains, many interesting inferences can arise alsofrom Non Pollen Palynomorphs (NPPs) which include fungi, algae,various plant and animal remains, helping for example to detect,the presence of human and animal faeces in contexts subject tohuman influence (Bouchet et al., 2003; Miras et al., in press; vanGeel et al., 2003). The multiproxy approach involving plant macroand micro-remains re-enforces the potential of information andcontrol in palaeoethnobotanical studies, and also offers details oninterpreting the function of the site (López-Merino et al., 2010;Mercuri et al., 2006a, b; Sadori et al., 2010a).

In this paper, research carried out on an archaeological siteexcavated in the centre of amodern town is reported as a case study

G. Bosi et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 38 (2011) 1621e16331622

of multidisciplinary analyses involving seeds/fruits, pollen andNPPs, which have revealed unsuspected details about plant use,religious activities, and site function in an urban area during twohistorical periods.

Archaeological data show that the site was located in a sacredarea at the time of the foundation of the town, i.e., during the RomanRepublic, while it was a market square in early Mediaeval times.

The preliminary seed/fruit and pollen analyses results, inde-pendently discussed per phase, were generally in accordance withthe archaeological hypotheses (Bosi et al., in press; Mercuri et al., inpress). To deepen the archaeobotanical reconstructions and obtainhints on the evolution of the main environmental features andhuman activities in the area, we decided to compare and contrastdata from the two different chronological contexts. The aim was to

Fig. 1. (1) Location of Parma in Northern Italy (a), Piazza Garibaldi (b) and planimetry of the ethe top, 260-cm deep): pottery and biological remains were only found in L320 and L325. (3about 330-cm wide) discussed in this paper (c, 2. and 3., courtesy by Soprintendenza per i

independently investigate the site function, and to examine thesimilarities and dissimilarities of the carpological and palynologicalspectra obtained from the diverse contexts. For the Roman layers,plant records were examined to identify to which divinity thesacred area was dedicated. For the Mediaeval layers, the nature ofthe deposits accumulated in the market square were investigatedwith the help of NPPs.

1.1. Site description

The site is located in the underground of Piazza Garibaldi inParma town (55 m asl; Lat. 44�480 N e Long. 10�200 E), in EmiliaRomagna, (northern Italy) (Fig. 1.1a). The province of Parma

xcavation (c). (2) Stratigraphy of the Roman depression (approximately 270-cmwide at) Stratigraphy of Medieval pits showing L217 (max. about 270-cmwide) and L218 (max.Beni Archeologici dell’Emilia Romagna).

G. Bosi et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 38 (2011) 1621e1633 1623

includes the Po plain (25%) and the Tusco-Emilian Apennines (44%of its southern territory).

The origin of Parma name comes from the round shield of theinfantry of ancient Rome, was built when a few thousand Romanssettled at the joint point of Parma and Baganza rivers. Duringthe Middle Ages, especially in the 12the14th centuries, manyswamplands in the Po plainwere reclaimed.Water canalization andthe irrigation of fields further enhanced the fertility of soils(Kleinhenz, 2004).

The potential vegetation of the Po plain is a mixed oak woodwith Quercus robur and Carpinus betulus, mixed with Acer cam-pestris, Fraxinus excelsior, Ostrya carpinifolia, Ulmus minor and Tiliacordata (Bertolani Marchetti, 1969/70). As has occurred elsewherein the region, today the human environment has completelyreplaced the natural vegetation. Urban flora grows in parks andgardens of the town, while orchards and cultivated fields havespread in the province.

Over the course of the restructuring works of a bank, thearchaeological site of Piazza Garibaldi (Fig. 1.1b) was discovered inthe centre of the town, and excavated by the Soprintendenza per iBeni Archeologici of Emilia Romagna (Fig. 1.1c).

From Roman times, many pits surrounded by animal bones,charcoals and partially undecomposed woods, mixed with votiveofferings were discovered. In the vicinity of the pits, an isolateddepression in the soil, filled with artefacts, wood and silt,belonged to an earlier phase of utilization of the site. It wasclearly recognisable as a worship place. The depression consistedof subsequent layers, but pottery and biological remains wereconcentrated in two layers (Fig. 1.2). Archaeozoological finds fromits infilling consisted of an exceptional concentration of butcheredbones of domestic (two dogs, and poultry, bovids, ovines,caprines) and wild animals (deers, roes). Bones of the two dogswere found partially burned, and this was index that they werepropitiatory offerings (Tortorella, 2000). Altogether, bones andartefacts suggested that the site was used to perform rituals forthe foundation of the town. Vitruvius (De architectura, I,7 e 1stcentury BC) wrote that extispici, which produced large quantitiesof butchered bones, were rituals performed to ascertain thehealthiness of a place before the foundation of a town. Moreover,Latenian pottery was found in association with Roman-periodpottery suggesting that mixed Celtic-Roman rituals could havebeen performed at this site. According to similarities with Celticvotive sites in central European lakes or peat bogs (Moscati, 1991),the depression was probably located near marshes or dampenvironments, and has continued to be visited as sacred area forhundreds of years, before and after the foundation of Parma(Marini Calvani, in press.).

In Medieval times, in the same place, there were severalgroups of pits (e.g., Fig. 1.3) filled with fragments of pottery,woods, charcoals, animal remains, bird eggs, seeds and fruitsimmersed in a peaty-silty dark layer together with other organicmaterials and artefacts. The assemblage of different materials

Table 1List of samples of Piazza Garibaldi, Parma.

Chronology (datings e cent.) Layer Archaeological structu

Mediaeval age (10the11th AD) L117 Cesspit (pit 13), near tL165 Pit 11, part of the 4thL217 Pit 4, part of the 2nd gL218 Pit 3, part of the 2nd gL252 Pit 1, part of the earlie

Roman age (second half3rdebeginning 2nd BC)

L320 Layer sealing the depr

L325 Depression of the soil

suggested that they were rubbish pits used in a marketplace,a hypothesis also supported by documentary sources (Micheli,1913). The stratigraphy shows that subsequent layers sealed thepits. These more recent layers show traces of repeated use,including fireplaces and pole holes that were probably linked toimpermanent facilities of the market. Then, layers were cut byother pits filled again in a similar way. In total, four groups ofsucceeding pits were found. Near the later group, there wasa cesspit covered by planks of oak. Pit infillings were fairlyhomogenous thus suggesting that these pits had been used fora short period of time. Probably, each pit was used for the disposalof the rubbish of one single or a few events such as, according tothe archaeological hypothesis, the cleaning of a market square. Asthey all were found sealed, these pits correspond to a phase ofabandonment of the area.

2. Materials and methods

The archaeobotanical samples were collected from seven layersbelonging to the depression and the pits, and two chronologicalphases (Table 1). Based on archaeological data, the layers dated tothe second half 3rd e beginning 2nd centuries BC (Roman Period),and to the 10the11th centuries AD (Mediaeval Period). Two 14Cdatings were obtained from Vitis pips and cereal fruits found in Pit4 e L217 (Geochron Laboratories; calibration was performed usingOxCal3.9, Bronk Ramsey, 2001): (a) 890e1040 AD (GX-25345-AMS; 95.4%, 2 s; non cal.: 1040� 40 years BP); (b) 990e1160 AD(GX-25344-AMS; 95.4%, 2 s; non cal.: 980� 30 years BP),respectively.

Five samples from two Roman layers, and nine samples from theMediaeval pits and the cesspit were taken in a way that both seeds/fruits and pollen/NPPs were observed in the same layer.

2.1. Seeds and fruits

Seven ‘C’ carpological samples, from 1 to 4 l each, were floatedand water-sieved through a three sieve bank of 10, 0.5 and 0.2 mm.Seeds and fruits from each fraction were sorted and counted undera Wild M10 stereomicroscope. The identification was made at 80�magnifications with both the reference collection, atlases and keys.

Concentration was expressed as seeds/fruits found in litres ofinitial volume (sf/l).

2.2. Pollen and NPPs

Seven ‘P’ pollen samples, of about 5 g each, were prepared usingtetra-Na-pyrophosphate, HCl 10%, acetolysis, separation with Na-metatungstate hydrate, HF 40% and ethanol. Pollen slides weremounted on glycerol jelly. Lycopodium spores were added tocalculate concentrations, which were expressed as pollen, orparasite eggs, or<coprophilous> fungi per gram (¼p/g, pe/g,<c>f/g, respectively). Pollen identification was made at 1000� light

re Seeds/fruits Pollen/NPPs

he 4th group of pits C1 P1group C2 P2roup C3 P3roup C4 P4r phase, and 1st group of pits C5ession, at its top C6 P5 (top),

P6 (bottom), at ca. 7 m depth C7 P7

Table 2Seeds and fruits from the Roman and Mediaeval samples of Piazza Garibaldi, Parma.

Sample C7 C6 C5 C4 C3 C2 C1

Layer 325 320 252 218 217 165 117

Deposit type Place of cult(depression)

Waste pit (pit 1) Waste pit (pit 3) Waste pit (pit 4) Waste pit (pit 11) Cesspit (pit 13)

Age Roman Mediaeval

Litres of sediment sieved 1 1 2 2 4 2.5 2

Fruit and nuts (uncharred) e 26 taxa 12 Taxa e 74.1%records

26 Taxa e 95.2% Records

Celtis australis L. Endocarp 3Cornus mas L. Endocarp 1 3 6 1 3Corylus avellana L. Nut 1 2 1Cucumis melo L. Seed 4 2 2 1Ficus carica L. Achene 138 1139 48 80 3940 33 4957Fragaria vesca L. Achene 65 1040 152 33 398 2 102Juglans regia L. Endocarp 1 2 6Malus domestica (Borkh.) Borkh. Seed 3 4 6Prunus avium L. Endocarp 89 263 750 153 107Prunus avium/cerasus Endocarp 8 36 8 31Prunus cerasus L. Endocarp 2 5 7 3 17Prunus domestica L. subsp. domestica Endocarp 5 6Prunus domestica L. subsp. insititia Endocarp 8 204 131 12 1Prunus mahaleb L. Endocarp 2 1Prunus persica (L.) Batsch Endocarp 1 6 4 33Prunus spinosa L. Endocarp 42 98 83 25 51Pyrus communis L. Seed 9 10 1Pyrus/Malus Seed 4 1 1Rubus caesius L. Endocarp 2Rubus fruticosus group Endocarp 1 18 69 39 422 3 230Rubus idaeus L. Endocarp 2 12Sambucus nigra L. Endocarp 1 1 1Sorbus domestica L. Seed 5Sorbus cf. torminalis (L.) Crantz Seed 24 2 30Sorbus sp. (wild) Seed 4 3 1 1Vitis vinifera L. subsp. vinifera Pip 179 618 469 336 25,265 402 358Cereals (charred) e 7 taxa 3 taxa e 0.1%

records7 taxa e 1.2% records

Cereals undiff. Caryopsis 1 1 2 5 1Hordeum vulgare L. Caryopsis 4 30 5Panicum miliaceum L. Caryopsis 1 1 1 35Secale cereale L. Caryopsis 3 51Triticum aestivum/durum/compactum Caryopsis 1 2 211 5Triticum dicoccum Schubl. Caryopsis 40Triticum monococcum L. Caryopsis 1 3 111Pulses (charred) e 2 taxa 0 taxa e 0.0%

records2 taxa e 0.1% records

Pisum sativum L. Seed 1 2Vicia faba L. var. minor Seed 20Vegetables, herbs and spices

(uncharred) e 12 taxa5 taxa e 4.2%records

8 taxa e 2.3% records

Anethum graveolens L. Mericarp 4Apium graveolens L. Mericarp 4Brassica/Sinapis Seed 5 1Brassica rapa L. subsp. rapa/subsp. campestris Seed 6Coriandrum sativum L. Mericarp 2 11Eruca vesicaria (L.) Cav. Seed 2Foeniculum vulgare Mill. Mericarp 1 1

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Papaver somniferum L. Seed 64 103Petroselinum crispum (Mill.) Fuss Mericarp 1Portulaca oleracea L. Seed 32 121 630 28 119Salvia cf. officinalis L Mericarp 4Satureja hortensis L. Mericarp 1Wet ground plants (uncharred) e 27 taxa 19 Taxa e 3.8%

records18 Taxa e 0.3% records

Berula cf. erecta (Huds.) Coville Mericarp 1Callitriche sp. Mericarp 1Carex cf. distans L. Achene 1Carex cf. divulsa Stokes Achene 1Carex hirta L. Achene 78 2 10 11 1 3Carex cf. pallescens L. Achene 3 1Carex cf. punctata Gaudin Achene 6Carex cf. vesicaria L. Achene 1 9 5 12Carex cf. viridula Michx Achene 3 10Carex sp. Achene 27 1 8 1 1Cyperus sp. Achene 1Eleocharis multicaulis type Achene 1Eleocharis palustris/uniglumis Achene 3 1 5 24 2Lycopus europaeus L. Mericarp 1 6Mentha aquatica L. Mericarp 6Persicaria hydropiper (L.) Delarbre Achene 3 2Ranunculus acris L. Achene 3 1 10 1Ranunculus repens L. Achene 6 1 4 1Ranunculus subgen. Batrachium Achene 2Rumex hydrolapathum Huds. Achene 1Rumex sanguineus/conglomeratus Achene 3 1Salix sp. Seed 1Schoenoplectus cf. lacustris (L.) Palla Achene 4Scirpus sp. Achene 4Silene nutans L. Seed 1Solanum dulcamara L. Seed 1 4Thalictrum sp. Achene 1Ruderals and arable weeds (uncharred) e 37 taxa 26 taxa e 17.3%

records26 taxa e 0.8% records

Agrostemma githago L. Seed 1 1Anagallis arvensis L. Seed 2 3Aphanes arvensis L. Achene 1Atriplex sp. Achene 99 212 5 1 81 2 11Calystegia sepium (L.) R. Br. Seed 1Chenopodium album L. Achene 2 15 12 1Chenopodium polyspermum L. Achene 2 6 2 16 4 1Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. Caryopsis 2Dianthus cf. superbus L. Seed 1Echinochloa crusgalli (L.) P. Beauv. Caryopsis 4 1 1Echium vulgare L. Mericarp 1 10Euphorbia helioscopia L. Seed 8 1 10 2Fallopia convolvulus (L.) A. Love Achene 3 1 1 1Fallopia dumetorum (L.) Holub Achene 6Galeopsis tetrahit/speciosa Mericarp 2 1 6 1Heliotropium europaeum L. Mericarp 3 3Hypericum perforatum L. Seed 1Lamium purpureum/album Mericarp 2Lithospermum officinale L. Mericarp 1Mentha arvensis L. Mericarp 9 1 5 2 1Mentha suaveolens/longifolia Mericarp 36 2Mercurialis annua L. Seed 1Papaver rhoeas/dubium Seed 2

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Table 2 (continued ).

Sample C7 C6 C5 C4 C3 C2 C1

Persicaria maculosa (L.) Gray Achene 2 34Polygonum aviculare group Achene 10 162 5 2Potentilla reptans L. Achene 3 6 2 2Rumex crispus/obtusifolius Achene 1 6 3 1 7 1Sambucus ebulus L. Endocarp 27 1 4Setaria pumila (Poir.) Roem & Schult. Caryopsis 2 5 5 2Setaria viridis/verticillata Caryopsis 1 4 1Solanum nigrum L. Seed 3 3 1 4 1Thymelaea passerina (L.) Coss. & Germ. Seed 1 1Trifolium cf. arvense L. Legume 4Urtica dioica L. Achene 1 2Urtica urens L. Achene 1 3Valerianella dentata (L.) Pollich Achene 15 1 4Verbena officinalis L. Mericarp 13 89 3 1 10 1 1Other plants (uncharred) e 15 taxa 11 taxa e 0.6%

records8 taxa e 0.2% records

Apiaceae undiff. Mericarp 1 2 1 8 5 1Galium cf. sylvaticum L. Mericarp 4Galium sp. Mericarp 1Geranium sp. Mericarp 3 2Mentha sp. Mericarp 3Poa sp. Caryopsis 3Poaceae (wild) undiff. Caryopsis 3 5 1Potentilla sp. Achene 6Quercus cf. robur L. Cupule 1Quercus sp. Cotyledon 1 7

Scar 1 3Pericarp 4 6

Ranunculus sp. Achene 1 10Rosa sp. Achene 1Salvia sp. Mericarp 1Sideritis sp. cf. Mericarp 2Stachys sp. Mericarp 1Total records 631 3762 964 1263 32,593 793 6032Total records/1 l 631 3762 482 632 8148 317 2907Total records (excl. Ficus and Vitis) 314 2005 447 847 3388 358 717Total taxa e 126 (44 taxa in both ages) 76 taxa 93 taxa

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microscope, with the reference collection, atlases and keys. Theidentification of cereals pollen was based mainly on the criteria inAndersen (1979), Beug (1961) and Bottema (1992) with thecorrection factor for glycerol jelly (Faegri et al., 1989).

Algal cysts including dinoflagellates and Pseudoschizaea, fungalspores (van Geel et al., 2003) and parasite remains (Bouchet et al.,2003) were observed. Main implications of parasitological anal-yses (Jones, 1982), and morphological details of these records arereported elsewhere (Florenzano et al., in press).

The pollen sum includes all identified pollen grains excludingspores and undeterminable pollen. Diagrams were drawnwith Tiliaand TGView (Grimm, 1991).

3. Results

The interpretation of data for archaeobotanical inferences wasessentially based on several assumptions (Bandini Mazzanti et al.,2005; Faegri et al., 1989; Mercuri, 2008b): (a) in open sites (bothon-site and off-site) the deposits formed under natural and humantransport, but we must take in consideration that in archaeologicalcontexts (on-site), as in the study case, human transport prevails onnatural seed/fruit and pollen rains and therefore environmentalreconstructions can only partially be possible; (b) the plant land-scape can be inferred by the floristic list and the assemblage of taxarather than by their quantities, i.e., environmental reconstructionsare mainly based on qualitative data; palaeo- and archaeobotanicaldata from other sites of the region are reference points to completethe interpretations; (c) the exploitation and uses of plants can bemainly inferred by seeds/fruits and pollen accumulated in highquantities at the site, which are indicators of human activities;therefore, paleoethnobotanical observations are mainly hypoth-esised on the basis of quantitative data. In addition, the state ofpreservation and the comparison between micro- and macro-remains greatly improve the knowledge on the relationshipsbetween humans and plants.

In general, the archaeobotanical remains were found in a goodstate of preservation and in high amounts, and they werecomparatively better-preserved and more diversified in the Medi-aeval layers than in the Roman ones.

Fig. 2. Main groups of seeds and fruits in the Roman

3.1. Seeds and fruits

In the Roman samples (Table 2; Fig. 2), the majority of remainswas waterlogged. In a few cases, and especially in the case of seedsof Papaver somniferum, traces of light burning were observed.Cereals were wholly charred, a condition that assured their pres-ervation. In the Mediaeval samples, again records were water-logged, while all cereals and legumes were charred. Concentrationsranged from about 300 sf/1l (C2 e Pit 11) to about 8200 sf/1l (C3 e

Pit 4), both in Mediaeval samples.The floristic diversity is lower in Roman than in Mediaeval

samples (in total, there are 75 versus 93 taxa, respectively). About35% of the taxa was common to the two chronological phases.

In general, in all spectra the cultivated plants prevailed, andparticularly achenes of Ficus carica (from about 13 to 2500 sf/1l)and pips of Vitis vinifera subsp. vinifera (160e6300 sf/1l). Besidesthese, records of the other fruit plants Fragaria vesca (1e1040 sf/1l)and Rubus fruticosus s.l. (1e115 sf/1l), together with the ruderalsAtriplex sp. (1e212 sf/1l) and Verbena officinalis (1e89 sf/1l), werefound in all samples. Vegetables and medicinal/spices from kitchengardens, together with fruit species that could have been collectedin the wild, were common.

Significantly, only in the Roman samples were thereP. somniferum (64e103 sf/1l) and traces of Coriandrum sativum.

In contrast, Prunoideae were only present in the Mediaevalsamples: Prunus spinosa, Prunus avium/cerasus, P. cerasus andPrunus domestica subsp. insititiawere found in all samples totallingfrom about 70 to 300 sf/1l, while other three Prunus species wereless frequent. Portulaca oleracea (11e158 sf/1l) represents anotherplant that, though absent from Roman samples, is present in all theMediaeval ones.

Plants fromwet environments werewell represented in the twophases (about 20 taxa each), but their sum is higher in Roman thanin Mediaeval samples (17.3% of records in Roman samples versus0.8% in Mediaeval ones).

Among the Mediaeval deposits, a peculiar spectrum wasobserved in C3-Pit 4. This was based on two features: (a) the mostdiversified (7 taxa) and highest amount of cereal grains of thedeposit (about 121 sf/1l), together with legumes (11sf/1l), Pisum

and Mediaeval phases of Piazza Garibaldi, Parma.

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sativum and Vicia faba; (b) the high amount of pips (>6300/1l).Finally, a very high amount of fig achenes is notable (about 2500 sf/1l) in the cesspit-C1.

3.2. Pollen

Pollen (Fig. 3) was found in all samples in a good state of pres-ervation. Some folded pollen, as a result of post-depositionaldisturbance, and rare pollen clusters were sometimes observed.Clusters of wild grasses, an indication of the presence locally offlowers or excrements, were found inMediaeval samples (excludingthe latrine). Some thinned and broken exines of Liliaceae, Iris, andother large pollen grainswere observed in P1, theMediaeval cesspit.Concentrations were high both in Roman (5500e200,000 p/g) andin Mediaeval samples (52,000e520,000 p/g), constituting evidenceof plant accumulations (Mercuri, 2008a). Therefore, the amount ofpollen observed in sample P5 (L320 top, Roman), which is about 35times lower than that in sample P6 (L320 bottom, immediatelybelow) maybe due to minor amounts of human transport anda longer time of exposure to the airborne pollen rain at the top of thedepression compared to its infilling.

Over a total of 164 pollen taxa, 51% was common to the twochronological phases. The list was 14% shorter in Roman than inMediaeval samples, being less variable as already observed for themacroremains. The list of woody plants is similarly long (34 taxa-Roman, 36 taxa-Mediaeval), and therefore pollen fromnon arborealplants made the Roman diversity lower.

The spectra showed low treesþ shrubs (19% on average; 25% inRoman,15% inMediaeval samples) andhighanthropogenic indicators(sensu Behre, 1986), i.e., pollen from cultivations or human activities(22% on average; 19% in Roman, 24% in Mediaeval samples).

The prevalent treeswere Castanea (4% on average) and deciduousQuercus (3%),with Juniperus type (2%),Carpinus betulus and Pinus (1%each). Otherwoodyplants, common to the two phases,were presentin traces, and are representative of different vegetational contexts:mixed oak woods (Acer campestre type, Carpinus, Corylus, Ostrya/Carpinus orientalis type, Fraxinus, Ulmus), hygrophilous woods(Alnus, Populus, Salix), mixed evergreen/broadleaved woods distrib-uted in the hills and higher altitudinal belts (Abies, Betula, Fagus, andPinus, Taxus), and Mediterranean trees (Quercus ilex type, Olea).

Fig. 3. Percentage pollen diagram of the Roman (R) and

Moreover, the tracesofFicus, Juglans,PrunusandVitis complete thelistof trees that, togetherwith thechestnutandolive treesmentionedabove, are cultivated plants with edible fruits. In particular, pollenfrom fig trees and grapevines, which are so abundant in the carpo-logical spectra, totalled 0.5% on average across all spectra.

Amongst the herbs, Poaceae (44% on average, including 15% ofcereal pollen), Cichorioideae (9%) and Cyperaceae (3%) prevailed.Overall, wet environment plants, together with the hygrophiloustrees, totalled 5% on average (5.4% in Roman, 4.7% in Mediaevalsamples).

Cereals included four types: (i) the Avena/Triticum groupwhich includes most wheats (Triticum ssp.), the cultivated oat(Avena sativa) and a few wild grasses. This was the best rep-resented, with means of 11 and 12% in Roman and Mediaevalsamples, respectively; (ii) the Hordeum group which includesbarley (Hordeum vulgare), einkorn (Triticum monococcum) andsome wild grasses. This group showed means of 3 and 5% inRoman and Mediaeval samples, respectively; (iii) the Panicumcf. which includes common millet (Panicum miliaceum) andsome wild grasses. This group showed means of 0.1 and 0.7% inRoman and Mediaeval samples, respectively; iv) the Secalecereale which is rye and found only in the Mediaeval samples(0.7%).

Interestingly, in amongst the pollen remains there are traces oftextile/oil plants, which were absent from the carpological record:(a) Cannabis cf. (0.3%) was found in P7, the Roman votive depres-sion; (b) Linum usitatissimum type (0.2%), including the cultivatedflax, was found in P3 from a Mediaeval pit.

A number of pollen grains of entomophilous plants with beau-tiful flowers were observed. In particular, in P7, high percentages ofSilene dioica type (7%), Sinapis type (7%) and Centaurea nigra type(5%) characterised the spectrum. Sporadic pollen from plants withflowers such as Liliaceae, Valeriana and Viola were also found.

In P1, from the Mediaeval cesspit, again, Sinapis type (9%),Centaurea nigra type (5%), Mentha type (5%) Stachys type (3)together with Iris and Papaver rhoeas type (1% each), traces ofLiliaceae and the only presence of Capparis made the spectrumfairly peculiar. Moreover, the low- pollen-producing Portulacaoleracea was found in samples P2, P3 and P4 from the Mediaevalpits.

Mediaeval (M) samples of Piazza Garibaldi, Parma.

G. Bosi et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 38 (2011) 1621e1633 1629

3.3. NPPs

Algae including dinoflagellates (Table 3) and Pseudoschizaeawere observed in the Roman samples (7% on average), and wereespecially abundant in P5 and P6, where reworked pollen (1.4%)was also observed. Pseudoschizaea, being part of silty soils,may reflect the presence of fresh water or anthropogenic soilerosion.

Spores of fungi were abundant (about 21,100 f/g on average, ofwhich 70% are coprophilous fungi). They were identified as Glomus,Chaetonium, and coprophilous fungi belonging to Sordaria-type andSporormiella-type. The two latter types had a concentration morethan double higher in the Mediaeval than in the Roman samples.Their assemblage is a strong indicator of the presence of herbivores(van Geel et al., 2003). Altogether, fungi show less variability anda concentration of about 2000 f/g in P2-Pit 11, but were always�13,000 f/g in the other samples.

Low concentrations of Trichuris sp. were found in Romansamples, while diversified and abundant eggs of parasite remainswere found in Mediaeval samples where they reach about48,000 pe/g on average. The maximum was observed in P3-Pit 4(98,800 pe/g), and the minimum in P2-Pit 11 (8500 pe/g). Differentassemblages of these eggswere observed in the pits and the cesspit.The following taxa were identified (Florenzano et al., in press):Trichuris and Ascaris,with abundant eggs in all samples, and Taenia/Echinococcus, Capillaria, Dicrocoelium and Diphyllobothrium. Theeggs of Capillaria, Dicrocoelium and Diphyllobothrium were foundonly in P2 and P3.

4. Discussion

The recurrent taxa found in the archaeobotanical record are themost indicative of both the plant cover and the plants that wereknown and have had cultural significance for a long time in thearea.

The abundance of records of cultivated and synanthropic plantsshow that the landscape of Parma has largely been a culturallandscape shaped by agricultural activities as early as the founda-tion of the town.

Table 3NPPs concentrations from the Mediaeval samples: parasite remains, spores of coprophiloet al., in press).

Sample P1 P2Age Mediaeval

Deposit type Cesspit (pit 13) Pit 11

Layer 117 165

AlgaePseudoschizaea (Concentricystes) 1949 442

FungiChaetomium sp. 325GlomusSporormiella-type 2274 147Sordaria-type 10,395 2011

Parasite eggsAscaris 12,344 1717Capillaria 49Dicrocoelium 98Diphyllobothrium 196Taenia/Echinococccus 325 98Trichuris 26,312 6378

ProtozoaArcella sp. 325

4.1. The natural and cultural landscapes around Parma

The general environmental picture emerging from the pollenspectra of Parma is in accordance with the Subboreal/Subatlanticclimate of Emilia Romagna, with deciduous Quercus and Carpinusbetulus prevailing in mixed oak woods, also including Corylus,Fraxinus, Ulmus. This plant landscape is known to have changedfrom a forested to an open landscape during the Holocene (Accorsiet al., 1999). In Parma, mixed woods with conifers and broadleavedtrees (Abies, Pinus, Betula, Fagus) were distributed in the hills andmountains, towards the Apennines, but some of them grew scat-tered in the plain. Hygrophilous woods (Alnus, Populus) and wetenvironments with sedges and hydrophytes (Lemna, Nymphaea)were widespread in the plain, as fresh water was an importantsupport for the cultivations that are so clearly represented in thepollen and seed/fruit records.

In Roman times, the plant landscape was already well charac-terised by human activities that highly shaped the territory. Therewere cereal fields, and possibly less extended fields of legumes, anda number of medicinal/vegetable/spice plants grown in smallgardens. Amongst the woody plants, grapevines and fig trees werecultivated in the plain while chestnut trees were mainly grown inthe hills.

The chestnut tree (Castanea sativa), native of southern Europeincluding northern Italy (Krebs et al., 2004; Lauteri et al., 2004),mayhave spread wild but some woods may also have been grown. Thediffusion of its pollen during the RomanAgewas observed in severalsites of Emilia Romagna (Accorsi et al., 1999), in northern Italy(Paganelli and Miola, 1991), and since the Bronze Age in central-southern Italy (Drescher-Schneider et al., 2007; Magri and Sadori,1999). Though some charcoals were found in the Bronze age site ofSan Michele di Valestra, in Emilia Romagna (Bellodi et al., 1971),mainly, wood remains occurred everywhere only later (e.g., atFilattiera-Sorano in Tuscany, 1ste2nd century AD e Rottoli andNegri, 1998; Di Pasquale et al., 2010). In Piazza Garibaldi, a chestwithwood lathes of chestnut, found in a layer (L618) datedat aroundthe 3rde2nd century BC (Giachi and Lazzeri, in press), is thereforeamongst the earlier records of the use of Castaneawood in Italy.

The hemp pollen, though rare and found only in the votivedepression, maybe an interesting piece of evidence of the presence

us fungi, algae and protozoa identified in pollen samples (modified from Florenzano

P3 P4 P5 P6 P7Roman

Pit 4 Pit 3 Depression top Depression

217 218 320 320 325

10,254 2970 154 13,403

495 449 16,2257921 51 17,635

3729 5941 193 70518,643 30,693 359 19,046 10,482

13,050 16,832186493246611864 297076,435 27,228 231 2822 31,447

1864 7921

G. Bosi et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 38 (2011) 1621e16331630

of Cannabis around the 3th century BC. This plant has actually beendocumented in the region since the Bronze Age (Mercuri et al.,2006a; Ravazzi et al., 2004). Its cultural history probably includesa route throughout East-Central Europe and Northern Italy(Mercuri et al., 2002, and references therein).

In Mediaeval times, the landscape probably became even moreopen with reduced wet environments, possibly subjected to someswamp drainages.

There were cultivated trees (Ficus, Juglans, Prunus species, Vitis)together with wild shrubs producing edible fruits (Cornus mas,Sambucus nigra). These were all present both in the seed/fruit andthe pollen records. In contrast, Castanea and Olea were found onlyas pollen but they should have been important for the economy. InParma particularly, olive trees and Prunoideae distinguished theMediaeval arboriculture from the Roman one.

Fields of Triticum aestivum/durum/turgidum, T. monococcum, Tri-ticum dicoccum and other cereals were grown. Besides cereals, alsoVicia faba and somemedicinal/vegetable plants were represented aspollen and seeds/fruits. Remarkable is the recovery of pollen andseeds of Portulaca oleracea, a multiple-use plant well known in theclassical world. Macroremain findings supported that purslane wasnot only an invasive weed, but was grown in Emilia Romagna fromthe Roman age onwards. During the Late Middle Ages, purslanewascultivated in urban areas, and the abundance of seeds in domesticrubbish dumps supports its importance in human diet (Bosi et al.,2009b). Findings from a mug from a Benedictine monastery nearFerrara also attest to itsmedicinal use (BandiniMazzanti et al., 2006).

Compared with other Mediaeval sites of Emilia Romagna, twomain ‘agro-ethno-botanical’ features of the territory of Parmaemerged: (a) the importance of Prunoideae, especially of Prunusspinosa the fruits of which are still used today; (b) a low consid-eration of Cucumis melo in the economy of this area compared withsimilar contexts (rubbish pits) discovered in other provinces of theregion (Table 4).

4.2. The archaeobotanical evidence of votive offerings in Romantimes

In Parma, cereal grains were scarcely found while pollen grainsof Avena-Triticum and Hordeum groups were abundant suggestingthe deposition of inflorescences. So, the cereal pollen and fruitsfound in the same layers of the sacred area of Parmamost likely hadthe significance of offerings. The custom of throwing cereal grainsinto the fire during feasts and rituals is described in the poem Fastiby Ovid (43 BCe17 AD), and this could explain why, in this context,there were charred cereal grains. Nevertheless, it must be stressedthat the charred status is known to assure preservation of cerealfruits, as well as of pulse seeds, and therefore the charred conditionalone is not an index of the use of these plants in rituals. This issuggested by the whole carpological assemblage. In fact, otherplants, the remains of which were found in the samples, are knownto have been important in rituals during Roman times.

Table 4Comparison of concentrations of significant seeds and fruits found in Piazza Garibaldi w

Sites A B

PARMA e Piazza Garibaldi FERRARA e coPorta Reno/via

Chronology (cent. AD) 10the11th First half 11thNo. of layers 4 7Litres of sediment sieved 10.5 47.0No. seeds of Cucumis melo L. 9 226No. seeds/1 l 1 5

A, This work; B, C, Bosi et al., 2009a; D, Bosi et al., unpublished data.

First of all, fig achenes and grapevine pips, which are theprevalent plant finds, are common records in tombs from Romannecropolis of Emilia Romagna dated to the 1ste3rd centuries AD(Forlani and Bandini Mazzanti, 1984; Marchesini and Marvelli,2007). These plant remains were also found among the offeringsto Lari and to dead persons in Pompeii. Together with cones, pinenuts, dates, barley and legumes, figs were also part of the infilling ofa soil depression similar to that of this study and used for theceremonies for the foundation of the harbour of Lattara, in southernFrance, around the 25e60 AD (Rovira and Chabal, 2008).

Though figs and grapes are also abundant in rubbish pits andlatrines (Bandini Mazzanti et al., 2001), this interpretation does notfit with the general context of this deposit. In fact, some otherrecords suggest that the plant remains from the depression shouldbe considered differently, specifically the high concentrations ofP. somniferum, Coriandrum sativum and Fragaria vesca, togetherwith interesting evidence of flowers.

Since the 3rde2nd century BC, written sources including Catoand Plauto have cited poppy (P. somniferum) as an important spice(Nencini, 2004). Many archaeological pieces of evidence documentthe use of opium poppy as food, medicine and cult activities, as farback as the Bronze Age in the Eastern Mediterranean (Merlin,2003). Seeds are amongst the findings recovered in Pompeii,where a seed cake was also found in a ritual context (House of theWedding of Hercules, Ciaraldi and Richardson, 2000; Jashemski andMeyer, 2002). Seeds of medicinal plants, including P. somniferum,with bones of reptiles and amphibians, were found in an ancientRoman farmhouse (villa rustica) at Villa Vesuvio, near Pompeii,suggesting a medicinal preparation (Ciaraldi, 2000). The Romanrecords of Piazza Garibaldi are the earliest evidence of an accu-mulation of opium poppy seeds in Emilia Romagna.

Coriander (C. sativum) was so important that it is accordinglyconsidered as an archaeobotanical marker of the spread of Romanculture in Europe (e.g., Bakels and Jacomet, 2003; Livarda and vander Veen, 2008; Wiethold, 2003). Quoted by Cato and Pliny, in the‘Ars culinaria’byApicio this ingredient is present in18%of the recipes(Gentilini, 2004). As it was a delicacy and a precious good, it wasfound amongst the plant offerings (e.g., sites from the Mediterra-nean France and from the Reno area, dated to the 1ste2nd centuryAD; Bouby and Marinval, 2004). In Piazza Garibaldi, perhaps itrepresents an early example of those ‘offerings of exotics’ that wereknown to become important in rituals of later contexts. Amongprecious plants, in fact, dates and olives were commonly found insimilar contexts in the subsequent Imperial age (Robinson, 2002).

Cited by Pliny, Ovid and Virgil, the strawberry (F. vesca) waspoorly considered in classic times, and rare in archaeobotanicalroman contexts in the region (Bandini Mazzanti et al., 2001).Therefore its presence is a peculiarity of Parma. Strawberries, andgenerally wild fruits in general, represent the ‘sacred value of thenature’, a concept which was not typical of Roman thinking(Dupont, 2003). Bouby and Marinval (2004) convincinglyemphasized this aspect when they observed an increased interest

ith others collected from similar contexts of Emilia Romagna (Northern Italy).

C D

rsoVaspergolo

FERRARA e Piazza Castello LUGO (RA) Piazza Baracca

End 13thebeginning 15th 15the16th10 3238.9 20.47013 78829 39

G. Bosi et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 38 (2011) 1621e1633 1631

for wild fruits in necropolis during the Imperial age. Theyconcluded that the minor influence of the Romans on the prov-inces of central France resulted in the preservation of the localIron Age traditions. The high amounts of strawberry found inParma, therefore, can be explained by their use in the unusualmixed Celtic and Roman rituals performed in this place (MariniCalvani, in press).

Remarkable is the presence of flowers in the context of Parma.Among themacroremains, Verbena officinaliswas an esoteric plant inthe Latinworld (Virgile Bucoliche,VIII). Its significant presence (89 sf/1l in C6) could be indication of flower offerings, according to ServioDanielino (4the5th centuryAD)whowrote that itwasa ‘sacredherb’.The name of the plant ‘verbena’ actually means a bouquet of variousplants employed in rituals (Bubani, 1870). Vervain was used also inpurifying and scenting rooms (Dalby, 2003). Pollen grains from Silenedioica type and Centaurea nigra type were abundant. Seeds of Silenegallica (a species which has pollen included in the S. dioica type;Moore et al.,1991)were found in the plant offerings to Lari in Pompeiiand interpreted as a votive offering (Robinson, 2002). Other ento-mophilous plants represented in pollen spectra such as Convolvolus,Ranunculus type and Viola are generic indicators of garlands. Thecustom of making garlands with wildflowers is described by Ovid(Fasti, I), and Pliny who list violets (Viola), bindweeds (Convolvolus)and knapweeds (Centaurea) (Naturalis Historia, XXI). Concerningwoody plants, cones and seeds of cypress were found among theofferings to Lari in Pompeii (Robinson, 2002), and leaves of grapevinewere found into a sarcophagus from the 3rd century AD in Milan(Maspero and Rottoli, 2005). The long-term use of the depression ofParmacouldexplain thefindsofflowersand fruitsofdifferent seasonsin the same sample.

4.2.1. To which divinities were the plant votive offerings offered?In Roman traditions and iconography, many divinities were

ideally linked toplants representing important agricultural productsor owing particular symbolism. Therefore, a plant assemblage froma sacred context can reasonably contain the ‘botanical evidence’ ofthe gods towhich the ritualswerededicated. Obviously, it is scarcelypossible to distinguish between what was purely a votive offeringand what was sacrificed or eaten at a ritual banquet. Nevertheless,Vitis, Ficus and Cerealia, and especially P. somniferum, which wereabundant findings in the archaeobotanical record,may be indicativeof the divinities to which the plant offerings were dedicated.

Some data point to Dionisus/Baccus, the creator of the grape; thegrapevine was sacred to him (Rovira and Chabal, 2008). But most ofthe evidence points to Demeter/Ceres. The abundance of cerealpollen points to the symbols of soil fertility sacred to Ceres. Poppywas also associated with her (Cerealia papaver means ‘poppy ofCeres’, Virgilio e Georgiche, I) as documented in art (e.g., at MontePapalucio in Apulia, Ciaraldi, 1997/98). Poppy ‘brings life’ thanks tothe high number of seedswhich are in each capsule (Nencini, 2004).

Moreover, in Greek mythology, Demeter produced the fig tree(Baumann, 1993) even though this plant is amongst the offerings toDionisus/Baccus (Rovira and Chabal, 2008). The fig treewas also theplant under which the She-Wolf nourished Romulus and Remo(Ovide Fasti, II), and it is therefore linked to the foundation of Rome.

In Parma, the association of poppy seeds with cereal pollen earsstrongly points to the cult of Ceres.

4.3. How were pits used in the Mediaeval market?

Rubbish pits of urban and sub-urban areas are very important toimprove the knowledge on plant food and processing, and conse-quently they are particularly suitable for the reconstruction of someaspects of agricultural and cultural traditions (e.g., Bosi et al.,2009b). In Mediaeval samples, high concentrations of food plants

suggested the presence of waste from different actions (BandiniMazzanti et al., 2005): wine-production or preparation of otherfood with grapevine, cooking, preparation of jams and syrups,extraction of colours to dye food (for example from Rubus andFragaria), or, differently, presence of faecal remains (Ballerini andParzen, 2001; Scully, 1998). In the pits of Piazza Garibaldi, foodplants were associated with other organic remains such as animalbones suggesting that some table waste was present.

The high quantities of Cerealia pollen (18% on average),including wheat, barley, millet and rye, could depend on the pollentrapped in glumes or leaves (Greig, 1982), and transported to thesite with straw or fodder. Similarly, Cyperaceae may also have beenpart of straw and fodder (Moffet, 1992).

A very high concentration (>6000/1l) of waterlogged pips, up to40 times more than in the other pits, was found in Pit 4. Thissuggests the inclusion of marcs in the waste, as observed in theMirror Pit of Ferrara (Bandini Mazzanti et al., 2005). The pips wereintact suggesting that the wine- making was performed by crush-ing (pigiatura) rather than pressing (torchiatura).

In the cesspit, the ‘indicators of latrine’, including small seedsand fruits (Ficus, Rubus, Fragariae e.g., Hellwig,1996) were lower inpits than in the latrine. Ficus was dominant (about 2500 achenes/1l), while cereals and legumes were fairly absent.

Though cultivated and wild plum varieties were rare, Prunusavium, P. cerasus and P. spinosa, owing to smaller endocarps, werepresent. Some pollen was thin suggesting that the exines wereaffected by the passage through the digestive apparatus in sucha manner that does not destroy the pollen (Bryant and Dean,2006; Carrion et al., 2001). Moreover, parasite eggs andcoprophilous fungi were very abundant (Table 3). These featuressupport the idea that the cesspit was not secondarily reused asa rubbish pit.

One strange feature of this deposit is thehighandvariable amountof entomophilous pollen: mainly Sinapis type (9%),Mentha type (5%),Stachys type (3%), Trifolium type (1.5%), and Scrophulariaceae (1.2%),and Rosa, Iris, Gladiolus, Muscari, Ornithogalum, Liliaceae indiff., Digi-talis and Centaurea nigra type, Papaver rhoeas type, Ruta, Capparis.

Some of these pollen types represent food plants. For example,Sinapis typemay constitute evidence of the consumption of crops ofthe cabbage family, such as Brassica rapa subsp. rapa. Capparis tooindicates the ingestion of flowers. Nevertheless, a number of thesepollen grains belong to ornamental and not food plants, or herbsused for the leaves and roots. Some of them refer to plants visitedfor pollen (e.g., Papaver) or nectar by bees.

Possibly, this means that some honey entered the deposit.Honey was very important as it was eaten as sugar and in severalrecipes, and it was also largely used for food preservation (Ballarini,2007; Bandini, 1992). In the Mediaeval/Renaissance iconography,moreover, beehives and bees were almost always drawn nearorchards and kitchen gardens (Cambornac, 1998; Landsberg, 2005).

In general, the low amount of plant remains from the ‘natural’environment, such as from wet environments, supports the archae-ological hypothesis of a short-term use of these pits compared withother Mediaeval pits located in urban contexts (Fig. 2; Bosi, 2000).

4.3.1. The parasite remains and the different use of the pits and ofthe latrine

In Mediaeval samples, a high concentration of eggs of intestinalparasite was observed. Together with the coprophilous fungi of theSordaria and Sporormiella-types, these NPPs are clear evidence ofthe presence of faecal remains in these deposits.

Some of them are parasites of wild and domestic animals(Ascaris and Taenia/Echinococcus) while others are parasites ofmammals including humans (Diphyllobothrium), though rarely(Capillaria, Dicrocoelium).

G. Bosi et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 38 (2011) 1621e16331632

Trichuris prevalently includes parasites of humans (T. trichiura),besides some of animals. Therefore, especially in association withAscaris, it could be a good indicator of human faeces, even though itwas also found in dog coprolites, possibly because of thecoprophagy of some animals (Allen et al., 2002). Interestingly, themorphometry of eggs suggests that P1, the cesspit, contained onlyT. trichiura. In P2-Pit11 and P3-Pit4, however, the size of the eggswas more variable and partly attributable to T. suis, typical of pigsthus suggesting that the faeces from animals were disposed of withthe waste (Florenzano et al., in press).

5. Conclusions

The archaeobotanical record of Piazza Garibaldi gave very richinformation about the ‘nature and culture’ of Parma around thetime of its foundation and in the following Mediaeval Ages. Therecognition of cultivated and synanthropic plants allowed obtain-ing details on the plant landscape and uses from archaeologicallayers (Mercuri et al., 2010b; Sadori et al., 2010b) and was ofparticular importance to emphasize the value of botanical data asproxy evidence of environmental, behavioural and site functionreconstructions.

On the one hand, open environments with grasses and pasturelands, fields, cultivated trees sparse or concentrated in orchards,kitchen gardens, wet environments and restricted broadleavedwoodswere thegeneral featuresemerging fromthearchaeobotanicalspectra. They show that the landscape of Parma has largely beena cultural landscape as early as the foundation of the town.

On the other hand, the human disturbance of these deposits,visible in micro- and macroremains, actually gives an additionalvalue to the record permitting inferences on human behaviour.There was, for example, an uncommon accumulation of opiumpoppy seeds. Moreover, one of the earlier records of chestnut woodin Italy, was found in layers dated to around the 3rde2nd century BC(Giachi and Lazzeri, in press). These records witness the use of theseplants in Roman times. The finds of flowers and fruits of differentseasons in the Roman depression suggested its long-term use.Contrarily, the low amount of ‘natural’ plant remains supports thearchaeological hypothesis of a short-term use of theMediaeval pits.

Finally, though pollen spectra have fairly similar main traits inRoman and Mediaeval phases, when considered together withNPPs and seeds/fruits, these reveal the very different functions ofthe site. This is independently suggested by the particular assem-blages of plant records. Therefore, the cereal/poppy ensemblesuggested that the sacred area preserved a botanical evidence ofrituals probably dedicated to Ceres. The ensemble of high concen-trations of food plants was evidence of the presence of waste inMediaeval samples, and the significant presence of entomophilousflowers in the cesspit suggested the consume of honey.

The interpretation of archaeobotanical datawas so tightly linkedto the archaeological context that similar spectra must be differ-ently interpreted in the two chronological phases. Therefore, forexample, the cereals from the Roman sacred area associated withopium poppy seeds, strawberry and garland flowers support theevidence of mixed Celtic and Roman rituals. The cereals from theMediaeval pits, associated with waste remains and excrements, aremost likely records of straw and fodder being thrown down into thedischarges.

Acknowledgements

The archaeological research was carried out under the directionofMirella Marini Calvani. We are indebtedwith the SoprintendenzaArcheologica of Emilia Romagna for giving us the study materialand the planimetry of the excavation.

Part of the research was carried out under the financialcontribute of the project PICAR e Cultural landscape and humanimpact in circum-mediterranean countries (Programmi di RicercaScientifica di Rilevante Interesse Nazionale 2008FJCEF4).

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