PO CKET ENCYCLO PED IA‘

O R A

D I C T I O N A R Y

ARTS,SCIENCES

,

P O L I T E L I T E R A T U R E

COMPILED FROM THE BEST 4 171 30m

EDWARD AUGUSTUS KENDAL .

Embt llishcd with Copper Plates design ed and engraved by

0 h

SECOND ED ITION—Corrected andmuch enlarged.

INmun VOLUMES.

VO L. I”.

LONDON

DRINTDD FOR LONGMAN , avasr,mans , onu s , AND cm,J.mums , scxrcnmn AND u srrmm,

pmcocxAND BAMPTON

,wn xmAND RO BINSON, AND a.

BAID WIN.

POCKET ENCYCLO PED IA.

GENIUS.

GEN IUS , in antien t superstition, a spirit who pres ided over the affairs of nations ~ or individuals . Itappears that, primitively , only one geniu s was

spoken of, and this was cal led the Son of God, and

to himwas attribu ted the product ion of all things,and the administration of events the genius , there .

fore , represen ted the creative power and the

vidence of the Deity. In time , each nation pretended to have aGod orprovidence attentive to itspecu liar prosperity, and hostile to the pretens ionsof others . Here we eas ily see one great oto polythe ism. Anotherwas , that each individualbegun to '

have his separate providence . It has everbeen aprevailing ideawith the professors of variousreligions , that the Deity transects all the affairs of

this world , and even created it,by commission

and the commiss ioners wereGBN

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LBMAN, In law, all above the rank of yeomen , in heraldry, those who were freeman, andtherefore bore arms ; in commonWell bredman .

GBNUS, In natural his tory, asubdivision of anyclass or order of things , whetherof ,theanimal, ye.

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g'

etable , ormineral kingdoms . A l l the spec ies oregenu s agI cc in certai ncharacteI istics .

G EOCENTRIC place ot’

aa planat, is the place inwhiclifit appears to u s onr'the

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earth , supposing

the eye to be fixed there , or it is a point in the.

ecliptic to which a planet seen fromthe earth isreferred .

GEOGRAPHY ,the description of the s urface of the

earth , its natural divis ions , and local characteristics .

The fundamental principles ‘

df geography are the

spherical figure of the earth , its rotation on its

axis , its Us}olution I ound the sun,and the position

of the axis or line rou nd which it revolves,with

regard to the celestial umiriar whence it followsthat astronomy is the key 01 a! geographicalknow.

led

lge See EARTH .

n general teims , the earth Is teImed a perfectsphere , in which case , the diameter fromnorth tosou th would be precisely equal to the diameter fromeas t to west ; bu t it having been found that thelatter exceeds

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the former by thirty- sixmiles , theshape of the earth is more tru ly denominatedan oblate spheroid : by which is to be u nderstooda globe, the upper and lower parts of which areflattened .

‘When any portions orethe heavens are called

-the

right or left, the expression is to be understood s ecording to the profess ion of

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the person by Whomitis u sed because , according to that, his face is supposed to be turned toward a certain quarter. A

geographeris conce ived to stand with his face tothe north, because the northern part of the earth isbest

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known an astronomer looks toward themath, to observe the celestial bodies as they ap

GEO 3

proach themeridian ; the antient. augurs , in Oh

serving the flight of birds , looked toward the east ,while the poets -turned to the Fortunate I sles in

books of geography, therefore , by the right handwemust understand the east : in those of astronomy ,the west in such as relate to augury , the southand

, in the writings of the poets , the north .

~Agreeably w ith these observat ions, the u pperpart of amap is the north ; the lower, the sou ththe I ight hand the east ; and the left the west.See GLOBE.GEOLOGY, has forits object the structure and formation of

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this ’

globe :'

it,of course , embraces the

consideration of -thematerials of which it is cpmposed, and the circumstances pecu liar to its origi nalformation , as wel l as the different states underwhichit has existed, and the vaI ious changes which it hasundergone .

GEOMETRY, the art of measuring quantity ofevery kind whether length , breadth , heighth , or;depth .

The parts of geometry are,1 . Longimetry .

”or the art of .measuring l ines

2 . PlanImetIy , O I the art ofmeasuring sur1

3. Stereometry , or the art ofmeas uring $03hds ;4.

“ TI igonometry, or the art ofmeasuringnot Only surfaces , bu t heights and upk

nown dIs

tances .

The instruments u sed In geometry are the scaleand the compass : the scale to draw andmeasurelines , the compass to desenhe circles , of which the

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GEOM’

ETRY.

use’

is themeasurement of angles . Thesehle is :u sually ditrided into feet, inches, and lines { thecircle is divided into 360 parts

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Or degrees andwhen an angle of 10, 20, or any other number of

ntioned,'

10, 20, orthe specific numa circle ‘div ided into 860 degrees is

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intended .

”The Origin of this science is always attributed toEgypt, where it is said to have been produced bythe necess ity of ascertaining the boundaries '

of

land property, which are every year efi‘

aced ‘bythe inundations of the Nile.

l

Fromthe time of Euclid, who died three hundred years before the Chri stian era, to that of Pur~

back andMuller, who died in the fifteenth century,geometry was neglected . Since its revival, it hasbenefited by the illus trious labours ofNeper, D escartes , Newton, and Leibnitz .

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G'

eometry is of the u tmost value as a branch of

general knowledge, s ince it induces precisiono fthinking by admitting nothing bu t evident and hi s

dubitable demonstration. Geometry is distingu ishedinto theoreticaland practical. Theoretical or speculatitie geometry treats of the various properties andrelations inmagnitudes , demonstrating theorems :and practical geometry is that which applies thosespeculations to the u se s of l ife in the solu tion of

problems . The sc ience of geometry depends“

wholly on definitions and axioms .

The defin itions in geometry are clear, plain and

universal , su ch as these : A point has

parts normagnitu de A line is lengt h withou tbreadth orthickness .

” A surface has length and

,GEOMETRY . 5

breadth only. A solid is any thing ' that has

length , breadth and thickness . An angle is theOpening or inclination of two linesmeeting in one

point .” If one l ine standing on anothermakesthe angles on both s ides equalg those angles are

right angles , and the line standing on the other is aperpendicu lar to that on which it stands .

” Atriangle is

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a plain figure , bounded by three lines orsides .

” A c ircle is a plane figure , bou ndal by acurveline cal led the circumference , every part ofwhich is equal ly distant

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froma point within calledthe centre .

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An axiomis amanifest truth not requ iring ademonstration The fol lowing are examples of axioms ,Things equal to the same th ing are equal to one

another The whole is greater than any of its

parts , antl equal to all its parts .

” If equal thingsbe taken fromequal things the remainders will beequal .” Magnitu des which coincide with one

another, or which exactly fi ll the same space , areequal to one another.

”

A propos ition -is something proposed e ither to bedone or to thedemonstrated , and is eithera problemora theorem.A problemis something proposed to be done , of

which the follow ing are examples . Ex. 1 . To divide a given line, as A B, into two equal partsPlate GEOMETRY

,Fig. 1 .

Fromythe points A and B as centres , and withany opening of the compasses greater than half theg iven line A B , describe the arcs cu tting each otherin c c, and draw the line 0 c : the point x, where theline 0 c cuts A B, is themiddle point requ ired.

B 2

s o

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GEOMETRY.

Ex. 9. To raise a perpendicular’

to agiven lineC D

,fig. 2 , at A .

Takeany two equal distances A b, A d, and fromthe points 6 and d with any open ing of the compasses greater than b A , describe the arcs cuttingeach other in c

,and draw the line A c

, which isperpendicular to C D .

Ex. 3. To bisect the angle B,or

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to divide itinto two equal angles . Fig. 3.

Fromthe point B , with any radiu s,describe the

arc A C , and fromthe points A and C with the

same radius describe the arcs cutting one anotherat b, and draw b B,

which will bisect the angle,A B C .

Ex. 4. To describe an equ ilateral triangle,A B C , that is , a triangle whose three s idesare each equal to agiven line. Fig. 4.

Let A B be the given line : fromthe points Aahd

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B ,with an opening of the compasses equal to

A B ,describe the arcs , cu tting each otherrin C , and

fromthe point of intersection drawA C and C B,

and the thing is done.

Ex’

. 5 . To describe a triangle whose sides shallbe

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equal to three given lines , fig. 5. Let the

lines be A , B, C .

Take B as thebase A B , then from*A,with an

the compasses equal to C ,and fromB ,

fGEOMETRY. 7

Ex. 6 . Through a given point C to draw aline

parallel to agiven line ,A D , Fig. 6

Take any pointp, in A D : u pon p and C , with«the dis tance 1) C, descxi be two arcs C c andp q,cu tting the line A D in p and 0. Make p 9

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equal to C c, and through the points q and C draw‘

a l ine which will be parallel to A D .

Ex. 7 . To describe a square on agiven line , A B .

Fig . 7

Raise a perpendicular at each end of the l ineA B equal to its length, and draw C D , and the

thing is done .

Ex. 8 . To find the centre C of any circle .

Fig. 8 .

Draw a chord,A B

,at pleasu re , bisect it in d,

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with the diame terD E,whic h diameter be ing bi

s ected gives C as the centre .

A theoremis something preposed to be demon,s trated.

A corollary IS aconsequent tru th , deduced from«some preceding tru th or demonstration .

[We shall give an example or-two of

It is found bymathematical demonstration ,( 1 ) That one l ine s tan ding u pon anothermakes

with it two angles , equal to two right angles .

(2 . That if one s ide of a triangle be produced ,the external angle will be equal to both the in

ternal and opposite angles .

(3. That the three anglee in everye

plain triangle

ffi GEOMETRY.0

[See Ex. may be '

considered as introductory tothe famous theorem, commonly known as the ponsassinorum

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”orasses bridge , so denominated from

its difficulty in the common Elements of Euclidthis is ,TheoremI . The angles of the base of an isos

c eles triangle , ‘A B C , (that is, of a triangle whosetwo legs A B and B C are equal)are equal to eachother. Fig. 9.

Demonstration . Bisect the angle A B C bythe line B D , then the triangle A B D and B D Chaving the s ide A B B C , B D common , and theangle A B D C B D , will also have the angle Aequal to the angle C . For if the triangle B C Dwere to turn on B D as on a hinge, it wou l d befound that it exactly coincided with the triangleA B D in all its parts .

The corollaries to this theoremare : ( 1 Thatthe line which bisects the vertical angle of an isosceles triangle , bisects the base, and is perpendicular to it. That every equ ilateral triangle islikewise equ iangu lar. If the s ides of an isosceles triangle be produced to E and F, the anglesu nder the base are equal , that is , E A D F C D ;becau se the l ine D A falling upon B Emakes twoangles ,B AD E A D two rightangles : forthe same

reason,B C D F C D two right angles .

Taking away therefore B A D z B C D ,and the

remainders E A D and F C D are equal .TheoremI I . In any right angled tiiangle , AB C ,

the squares u pon the s ides A B and B C , fig. 10.

taken together, are equal to the square onW hy

GEO 9

pothenuse'

A C . This is called the Pythagoreantheorem, because Pythagoras is said to have of‘

lemon to the gods 100 oxen in sacrifice, in gratitude for the discovery.

The geome trical proof of this theoremis too difficult fora work of th is kind , we shal l thereforesubstitute an arithmetical solution suppose the

s ide A C : 5 , BC : 4, A B=3, theh52=4J+S2 ,or 25 z : 16 9, and so it is shewn in the adjoiningfigure .

Corollary. Hence the square upon either'

of the

sides A B , or B C,including the right angle, is

equal to the differenceof the squares of the hypothenuse and the other s ide : or equal to arectangl

contained under the sumand difference of the hypothenmand the other s ide : thus

—32 01‘ —9

+3x 5— s= e x s 16 .

GEORGE of Cappadocia, orSt. George, a saint orhero, whose name is famous throughou tall the east,and by which several orders , bothmil itary and re

ligious , have been distingu ished . St. George isu sually represented on horseback ; his sanctity ises tablished in the Latin as well as

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the Greekchurch and England and Portugal have chosenhimfor the ir patron saint : yet who he was , or

why he deserves these honours , is aprofoundmystery . Some deny his very existence , and reducehis efiig to asymbol of V1ctory, while others haveafaint imps e of himin the person of an Arianbishop of Alexandria, who flourished between the

re igns of Constantiu s and of Julian , and who waskilled in apopular insurrection of the pagan inha

1 0 GIA

Gmnr’s cw sswar, amagnificent production of

nature, extending twomiles in length along the

coast ofiAntrim, in Ireland , and probably runningunder the seaas faras the coast of Scotland

,s ince

something of the same kind ismet with there, andknown by the name of Fingal

’s cave . It cons ists

ofmany hundred thousands of columns of a blackkind of rock hard asmarble, of abou t twenty feetin, ,height, and a pentagonal, or five sided figure .

Each column stands by itself, not joining anotherin‘

any part whatever and yet so compactly arethe whole arranged that scarcely aknife can be 1n

troduced between them. What still farther fillsthe spectatorwith an amazement that increases bylength j of .examii1ation , is the c ircumstance thatthough almost

‘every pillar is pentagonal in its

form, and therefore presents an apparently ge;neral l ikenes s , no two in twenty thousand havetheir d s ides equalamong themselves or toeachThe figure of these columns , as has ju st been

said, is almost universally pentagonal : some few,

however, are of three , tour, six, and evens ides ; but these are so rare that they wil l seldombe discovered , except by themost scru tin iz ing eye .

The construction of the pillars 1s equally curiou s .

They are not composed of single stones , but of

j oints , uni ted to each other, notwith flat surfaces ,but by articu lations ,mthemanner of bones , theone length having a ball which 18 received into thesocket of the other. Thismode of u nion is onlydiscoverable by forcing one of the stones ou t of 1ts

place; but thejoinings , together with themu ltitude of columns , give to this stupendous produc

GIANT’S-CAUSEWAY . 1 1

tion of nature'

somewhat of the effect of gothic architecture , or of somany trunks of palmtrees .

The stone is a kind of basaltes , of a c lose grit,dusky hue

,and uncommon gravity . It cl inks like

iron ,me lts in a forge , and is impenetrable by tools .The scene is composed of various parts

,thrown

togetherwith that irregu larity which distingu ishesand graces the works of nature, and almost cons tantly s tamps themw ith a character not to be cc

pied . The descriptions , therefore , that have been

given by several travellers necessarily differ widelyfromeach other

,as being the resu lt of observations

on separate parts of a vast and broken assemblageof objec ts . The principal cau seway runs out in

one continued range of columns , and is fromtwentyto thirty, and for afew yards forty , feet in breadth .

Its Ioftiest part, which has been stated at abou ttwenty feet

,is the narrowest, ten or fifteen fee t

being there its u tmost breadth . The columns of

this narrow part incline froma perpendicu lar, a

little to the westward , and by the very unequalheight of those on the two s ides , forma s lope on

the ir t0ps , which affords a graduated ascent fromthe foot of the chfi to the s ummit of the whole . Atthe dis tance of six yards fromthe c liff, the structurerecovers its perpendicu larity, lowers its generalheight, spreads to aw idth varying between twentyand thirty feet, and extends , at all times of the tide ,to the length of one hundred yards secure fromthewater, and supported on columns nearly of an equalheight. As faras the high watermark, this grandand extraordinary parade , though it has some inclination toward the water,may be walked on withgafety but beyond this, where it is wornwith the

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su rges of every tide, its declivity is so consideralfle,surface so uneven, that the foot is not to be

tru sted without the ass istance of perpetual atten '.

tion. At the distance of ahundred and fifty yards,it turns a l ittle to the east , and running twenty orthirty yards in th is direction , buries itself at lengthin the sea. At low-water, the whole vis ible W ent

of the causewaymeasures nearly two hundredyards : howmuch farther it continues is not cert

tainly known ; but fromits declining appearance ,it is tho ught to lose itself in the earth a l ittle spacebeyond the spot at which it disappears . See Pu re.

G ILDING,the art 'of covering a thing wi th gold,

e ither in a foliated or liqu id state. The beau ty of

gold has inducedmany attempts to imitate its appearance , and hence severalmethods of gildinghave been invented . A coarse golden colou r issometimes given by , painting,

or by varnishing,without employing gold bu t this is a false kind of

gliding . In themanner al luded to , such a colouris given to bras s and to silver

,by applying upon

theseme tals agold-coloured varnish , which , beingtransparent, s hows all the bril liancy of themetalsbeneath .

,Many ornaments of brass are varnished

with this gold- la u ering, so cal led to distingu ishthemfromthose which are really gilt. Silverleaves thus varnished are put upon leather, whichis then cal led gilt- leather. Among the false gildings ,may also be reckoned that which is performedwith thin leaves of copper or brass , called D atele

In the trueg ilding, gold is applied to the surface

o f the bodies . The gold intended for this purpose

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GIN‘

48

very fine fi rts . {When it is to be applied tu aKhOdythat is . efmetal, the surface is previouslycoeeped

with Some gluey substance or size ; and when thebody is to be exposed to the injuries of the Weather,anotnposition of drying oil and yellow ochre isused in place of the water-size .

Inthe'

process of gildingmetals , the surface is

first cleansed , and then the leaves applied , which,bymeans of rubbing with a polis hed blood -stone,mid a '

certain degree of heat, aremade toadhere inthemannerdesired. Gold is also sometimes fixed onmetals , by previous ly redu cing i t into an amalgamorpaste ,

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withmercury. With this amalgam, themetal to be gi lded is covered ; and, on the application of heat su fficient to evaporate themercury,nothing

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is left'

bu t the gold , which is afterwardburnished with a blood-stone . Anothermethod ofgildingmetal, is by the application ofgold dissolved

in aqua regia.

Gold is also applied to glass , porcelain , and othervitrified substances , of which the surfaces , beingvery smooth , are capable of perfect contact withthe gold ~ leaves . This gild ing is somu ch themereexce llentas the gold ismore exactly applied , whichdone, the articles are exposed to a’

certain degreeof heat, and afterward slightly burn ished ,

or a‘

more su bstantial gilding 18 fixed upon glass by theuse of powder of goldmixed with a solu tion oi

gum-arahic, orwith some essential oil , and a smd lGIN. See GENEVA. a

Gm, inmechanics (aword c3oa fromm

gins), amachine for driving piles ; ora trap.VOL. HI.

14 GLA‘

Calicut and on the Caribbee Islands : The plant isa species of amomum, and resembles arush. Theknotty roo

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t spreads itse lf near the surface . Whilegreen , it is ate by the Indians as a sallad , or comfited with sugar and honey, after having beensteeped 1n water for some time . 1

Gmcmas , aname given to some extens ive fieldsof ice among the Alps .

GLAcxs , in fortification , the glacis is thatmass ofearth wh ich serves as aparapet to the covered.way,s loping easily toward the champ '

aign or fields . 1

GLAD tA'

rons , persons who fought for the amuswment of the public 1n the amphitheatres 1n the cityof Rome , and at other places u nderthe domin ion ofGLAND , in anatomy , a composition of various

kinds of vessels , as the artery, vein,andnerve, andappearing to the eye a. white ,membraneousmass ,the u se of which , in the an imal economy, is consiedered to be that of separating by filtration the vitalflu ids , and thus promoting the ir distribution accord»ing to their several ends . The latest authors uponthis subject, which is one that has been variou s lyexplained

,describe the glands as s ieves , whose per.

forations being of different s izes , though of the

same figure , only separate those partic les whosediameters are smaller than their own .

GLASS, atransparent brittle substance , cons ideredas the formwhich bodies assume , when reduced byheat to the last state previou s to evaporation. If

exposed to excess ive heat, glass wi ll pass off in va

pour. All solid bodiesmay be vitrified by fire .

Themost perfect glasses are those producednatural crystallization, andwhich are known

GLASS . 15

the name of preciou s stones . Artificial glass is oneof themost beautiful and useful su bstances inventedbyman .

Thematerials of which glass is .made are salt

and sand , or stones . The salt is procured frompotass brought fromthe Le vant, and called painen

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ne, or rochetta. These ashes are those of a spe

c ies of aquatic plant , called kali. Common kelpM ia, and various other vegetables, also yield thesaltmqu ired, 1

1 The sand or stone , which is called tarso by themanu facturers , 13the ingredient which gives bodyand firmness Flints are admirablyadapted to thepurpose , but the expense of preparation occas ionsthemto be sparingly u sed and, where properstones cannot be conveniently had, a white , small ,shining sand is employed .Glass is said to rece ive its name fromthe plant

glastum, or weed, which was cal led vitreumby theRomans , andwhich supplies ablu e colour that, insome degree , is also observable in glass . O thersare of Opinion, that both glass and glastumare derived fromthe British word glas, signifying blu e.

Themethod ofmanufacturing glass was discovered , according to Pliny , by acc ident . Certainmerchants , he re lates , were driven into themouthof the Belus , ariver 1n Syria, by stress of weather;and be ing obliged to continue there , and ,dress their

vic tuals near the shore,where they u sed kali

bfor

fu el, the ashes of the herbmixed with the sanfior

stones , and produced glass : a phenomenon which,being known , indu ced the people of Sidon to pursuethe hint it afforded : and, eventually, to establish

16

h uman arts ; The production of the substance at

glamis simply that ofmelting silicaand vegetablesalt together.Inmaking white and crys tal glass , £50011) o f the

whitest terse , pounded small , and searsed, or passedthrough afine hair s ieve, ismixed with 130th. oofthe salt of polverine , or of pearl-ashes , and put intoa fimmeo distinguished by the name of colour-1

Af ter expos ingahis composinon to amoderate heat'during an hour, in which space the two W addleincorporate , the fire is 1ncreased for tfive hoursmore . Thematter, now nailed f rit, being suméciently

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caloined, is taken out,and kept in a dry

place tbr three orfourmonths . When the glass or;crystal is to bemade , a quantity of this c rys tal-A

frit, otherwise called bollito, with the addition of adue quantity ofmagnesia, er ofmanganese , is setin pots in the glass orworking furnace andwhenthe substances are fluxed, the fluor is cast intopurewater, to free it fromthe salt called sandiver, thatwou ld otherwise render it obscure and -cloudy.

Wh en the crystal is , by arepetition of this operation, and aprepermixture oimanganese, broughtto a clear and shining subs tance , it is fit to be

blown, or formed into vessels at pleasure.

In working or blowing round-glass, as phialsand drinking ves sels, thematter being sufficientlyvinified, in pots of tobacco-pipe c lay, the workman'

dips his blowing-pipe into themelting-pot, and, by

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tnfhing the pipe abou t, causes themetal to stick toitmore firmly than even such a subs tance as turpentine . This he repeats four times , always rolling

“betmetal , thus attached to the endof hlS 1nstrumeat, on a piece of plate-iron, over which is aves

GLASS. 1?

G el of waterwhich helps to cool it, and,‘

so, to con

s olidate and dispose it to bindmore intimatelywithW hat is to be taken next ou t of theme lting-pot.

(After dipping for the fourth time , the workman applies hismo u th to the other end of his pipe , andzblows gently till theme tal swe lls into abladder of

abou t a foot in length . This bladder he rolls onmarble to pol ish it ; and, blowing a second time ,forms it into a globe of abou t 18 or 20 inches diameter. Immediately after every

‘

time of blowing,he removes the pipe fromhismou th , lest , by often

blowing, he should draw the flame thither. The

globe is now flattened by re turning it to the fire ,and then impressed with any form, bymeans of

s tamping- irons .

The fee t or otherappendages of vessels aremadeseparate ly , and joined by the help of hotmetal ;and when the whole is thu s far complete , the subs tance of the glass is brought to its true hardnessby pass ing through the lear, or annealing -oven.

See ANNEALING .

In blowing window or table-glass , the workman,while blowing, somanag es themetal that it extendstwo or three feet in the formof acylinder. Thiscylinder is put into the fire again , and blown a second time ; and both these processes are repeatedtill it has extended to the dimensions requ ired .

When the cylinder is complete , it is heated on an

-earthern table , by which process , be ing previouslycut, it is caused to Open in lengt h , and in the end

falls like a sheet of paper, into the flat formrequ is ite for use ; and in which it is preserved by heatingitagain , cooling it on a table of copper, and hard

, eningi t, during twenty -four hours, in the annealc 2

ing furnace, to which it is carried on forks ; afier'Which, it is ground and polished .

The bes t window ,or crown glass , ismade of

Gfilb. of white sand , SOlb. of purified pearl -ashes ,l slb . of salt -petre , 1 lb . of borax, and i ll) of arse

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c Glass is coloured by the admixture of various.met'als .

Gu zmo, in themanufacture of pottery , the enc ru station of vessels with a vitreous substance , thebas is of which is lead . The u sual composition is ,40 lb. of white sand , 20 lb . of red- lead

,and 12 lb.

of pearl ashes . After these ingredients are groundtogether, they are calcined with amederate heatand

,when cold , reduced to powder. When wanted ,

the powder 1s tempered with water, and laid on thew ere bymeans of a bru sh

‘. Placed in a furnace,

the violent heat soon transforms th is coating into aperfect glass .

GLO BE, in geometry, a round orSpherical body,- .more usually calleda sphere. Globe , in aparticular sense , an artificial sphere ofmetal , plaster, paper, or othermatter, on the convex surface of

which is drawn amap, e ither of the earth or of theheavens , with the several circles conceived thereonf or the assistance cf science . Globes, as is here“

sugges ted , are of twokinds , terrestrial and celest ial,each of considerable use

,the one in geography,

and the other in astronomy;Amapof the world , accurately delineated on a

spherical ball , will tru ly represent its surface ; fort he highest hills are so incons iderable with respectto the bu lk of the whole body, that they

take off

nomore fromits ro undness than do grains of sandf romthe roundness of acommon globe; The fdia

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90 GLO BE.

hemispheres ; and every point of that circle willbe equally dis tant fromthe poles

,or ends of the

axis in the sphere : that pole which is in themiddle of the northern hemisphere wil l be called thenorth pole of the sphere ; and that which is in themiddle of the sou thern hemisphere the south pole .

If another grand circle be drawn u pon the

sphere in such amanner as to cut the equ inoctialat an angle of in two Oppos ite points , it will represent the ecliptic, or circle of the sun

’s apparent

annualmotion ; one half of which is on the norths ide of the equ inoctial , and the other half on the

sou th . If a large stud bemade tomove eastward inthis ecliptic , in s uch amanneras to go qu ite rou ndit in the time that the Sphere is turned round wes tward 366 times u pon its axis , this stud W i ll represent the sun, changing his place every 365th partof the ecl iptic, and going round westward the sameway as the stars do ; but with amotion somuchs lower than the s tars , that they willmake 366 re

volu tions abou t the axis of the sphere in the timethat the sunmakes only 365 . During one half ofthese revolutions , the sun will be on the norths ide of the equ inoctial ; during the other half onthe sou th and, at the end of each half, in the equi ~noctial.

If the terrestrial globe in thismachine were

about one inch in diameter, and the diameter of thes tarry sphere to be abou t five or s ix feet, a small ihsect on the globe would see on ly a very smal l partof the su rface of that body

,but it wou ld command

a view of one half of the starry sphere , while the

convexity of the globe hid the other. l f the spherewere turned westward toward. the globe, and the

8 1

insect couldjudge of the appearances which arosefromthatmotion , it wou ld see someits view in the eastern s ide of the sphere, whileothers were on the western . Now, as allthe s are fixed to the sphere, the same starswould alway s rise in the samepoints of View on the

east s ide, and set in the same points of view on the'West s ide : bu twith the sun it would be otherwise ,because that luminary 18 not fixed to any point ofthe sphere , butmoves slowly an oblique circlewithin it ; and should our 1nsect looktowand the

south, and call that point of the globe , in which theequ inoctial seems to cut it on the left s ide, the eastpomt, and that in which it cuts the globe , on the'right s ide, the wes t point ; the little animal wouldsee the sun rise north of the east, and set north ofthe west, for 182

‘revolutions after which , he

would see it rise sou th of the east, and set sou th ofthe west, for asmanymore ; and, in the whale

365 revolutions , the sun would rise in the east

print, and set in the west, only twice . All wou ld bethe same , if the starry sphere stood still (the sun

onlymoving in the ecliptic,) and the earthly globe

were turned round the axis of the Sphere eas twardforas the insectwould be carried roundwith tht

globe , itsmotion would be imperceptible to his

senses , and the sun and stars wou ld appear tommwes tward . Such are the principles upon

whiskastronomy teaches us to construct the globes,aad thatmore comprehens ivemachine , the armilla»

BIS .

GLUE, among artificers , a viscidmatter, whieh

£ 2 GNOmade of the skins of animals , and the older thecreature , the better is the gluemade of its hide .

W hole skins are very rarely u sed,though these are

the be st for the purpose . Parings , or scraps , andeven the s inews of the feet, wh ich last are the

worst ofmaterials , commonly supply their place .

Inmaking glu e of parings , these are boiled to theconsis tence of a jelly, then strained bymeans ofos ier-baskets , poured into flat frames ormou lds

,

c u t into square pieces , and dried in the wind .

GLUTEN,avegetable substance

,found in great

abundance in wheat, amounting to the twelfthpart of the whole substance . i t is obtained bykneading the flourinto paste , which is to be washedvery cau tiou sly , by kneading it u nder a jet ofwater

,till the water carries off nothingmore , but

ru ns off colou rles s , what remains is glu ten : it is‘

du ctile and elastic . It has some resemblance to

animal tendon ormembrane , is very tenacious , andmay be used as,a cement for broken porcelain

vessels . It is the glu ten that renders wheat sous eful in the art of breadomaking.

GNOMES, spirits with which the imagination of

certain philosophers has peopled the interior partsof the earth . See the poetical

o works of the lateD r. Darwin .

GNOMON, in dialling, the style, pin, or cook of a

dial , which by its shadow shows the hour of the

day . The word is Greek, and literally signifiessomething thatmakes a thing known : thu s the

stylemakes the hour known .

Gnosrlcs , the name of a sect of Christians whowere known in the east fromthe time of the firstrise of Christianity . The first gnostics (or know~

GO D ising, or enlightened

” Christians) were Pytha‘

goreau orPlatonic philosophers , who fancied theydiscovered deepermys teries in the Scriptures

’

than

were perce ived by those whomthey cons idered assimple and ignorant . I n proces s of time , the namedes ignated sectarians of variou s descriptions , butwho all agreed in certain opinions and the tenetwh ich seemsmos t particu larly to distingu ish thegnostic name , was the existence of two first princ iples

,or de ities ; the one the authorof good , and the

other of evil .Jesu s Chris t they cons idered as the Son of God

,

and therefore inferior to the Father. H e came intothe world , they said

,for the rescue and happiness

ofmiserablemortals , Oppressed w ithmatter and

evil be ings . H ismanhood they denied , on the principle, that every thing corporeal is intrinsically cvil.GOBELINS, or Hotel-Royal dc Gobelins , a cele

brated academy for tapestry- drawing, andmanufactory of tapestry, erected in the s uburb of St.

Marcel , atParis , by Lewis XIV. in the year 1666 .

The place was previously famous on account of thedyeingmanu factory established there by Giles andJohn Gobe l ins , in the reign of Francis 1 . Theseeminent dyers discovered amethod of producing abeautifu l scarlet

,which has ever since been known

by their name and so extens ive has been the irfame

, that not only the colour, but the house inwhich their bu s iness was carried on , and the rivertheymade u se of, are called Gobelins.G O D , the supreme be ing,

the first cau se , or

creator of the U niverse , andthe only tru e object ofreligious worship . God , says sir Isaac Newton , isarelative term, and has respect to servants . It

8

94 GOL

denotes an eternal,infinite, absolutely perfect

be ing : bu t such abeingw ithout dominion wodhltibtbe Gad The word God frequently s ignifies lord;bu t everylord 15 not God . The dominion ofla

ritual being, or lord, constitutes God ; true dbniinion, tru e God . Fromsuch true dominion itzthjlows that the true God is living, intelligent

“andpowerfu l and fromhis other perfections , that heis s upreme , or s upremely perfect . H e is eternal;and infinite , omnipoten t, and omnis cie nt

,

'

that is ,he endures f1ometei nity“

to etern ity , and is presentfi ominfinity to infinity. He gov erns all thingsthat exis t

,and knows all things that are to

be known . H e is not eternity or infinity, but

eternal and infinite . He is notd uration and Space;but he endures and 18 present ; he endures W ays,and is present every where , and by existingalwaysand every where , constitu tes the very thingwe callduration and space, eternity and infinity .

GOLD,ametal which , when pure , is ofa bright

yellow colour ; but if alloyed with othermetals , 0?a white ,more 01 less perfect, according to the

alloy . It is the heavies t of all known bodies, pla»tina only excepted ; and remarkable for peculiarductility andmalleability. O ne grain of gaid , it issaid

,may be so stretched out as to cover 98 Swed¢ish el ls , or English yardS

'

of s ilver Wire.O thersmake the calcu lation stillmore extract

diuary. . S ixteen ounces of gold are supposed to besu fficient to gild asilverwire equal in length to thewhole c ircumference of the earth . W ith respectto itsmalleability, it is said that a book of twenty~

five leaves of gold , contains littlemore than four

grains of themetal.

'

GO L as

Foliated geld, held between the eyes"

and the

light, says sirr Isaac Newton, looks of a green ishblue colour and thereforemassy gold lets intoits bodythe blue rays to be refracted to and frowithin i t, til l they be stopped and stifled ; while 1t

'

reflects the yellow ou tward,“

and therefore looksyellow ,

Gold is found in solidmasses in Hungary, Tramsylvania, and Peru in grains , in the Span ishWes t Indies ;

'mavegetable form, like the branchesor twigs of plants ; in a drusimfign re , as if compoSedof groups or c lusters of smal l particles unitedtogether, in Hungary ; in plates or pe l licles, 00-4veriug bver

'

bodies, inS iberia ; add, in a cryswl

line f orm, in Hu ngary. It is hsually extractedfromquartz andotherspecies of stone , orfromsand .

Gold exists in almos t all parts of the world the

places that are celebrated for it are those in whichit has been found in sufficient quantity to renderthe labour necessary, in collecting it, profitable .

The heat of the s trongest furnace does not changethemetal lic properties of gold b ut by a longme

tinned application of the v iolent power of the stay

beams , coflected in the focus of a burning -

glass,and instantaneou s ly bymeans of '

the electric flu iditmay be calcined , and even reduced to glass .

GOLDJae},beaten gold, the thickuess of whichhas been caniputed atmg of an in .ch The

thickness , however, variesaccording to the purposeforwhich it 1s designed : that intended for goldw ire ismuch thicker than that for the frames h fpictures .

hammers of polished 1ron . 1t IS first reducedfi'om

the ingot to the thicknesslpf paper then cut hm

VO L.m.

1 6 GONpieces of about an inch square ; placed betweenskins ; beaten th inner ; and divided into squares ;and again beaten .

GOLD- thread or spu n-

gold, fiatted gold twis tedover a thread

'

of s ilk.

GOLD -wire, a cyl indrical ingot of s il ver, su perficially gilt, and afterward drawn through upwardsof one hundred and forty holes o

'

f'

difl'

erent bores

(according to the process of w ire-drawing) in orderto bring it to the requis ite fineness

,which is some

times equal to that of an hair. Before each time ofdrawing, it is covered with wax, to save the goldfrombeing worn away.

GOLD -wire flatted, the wire already describedflatted between rollers of polished steel , and used inspinn ing, weaving, lace-making, and embroidery.

GOLDEN number, see Cnnos omcr.

GOLF, a game among the Scots , commonlyplayed on rugged

‘

ground, covered with short grass ,in the neighbourhood of the sea-shore . A fieldof this sort is called , in Scotland , links. The gameis generally played in parties of one or two on eachs ide. Each party has an exceedingly hard ball,somewhat larger than a hen’

s egg this is struckwith a s lender and elastic c lub, crooked in the head ,and filled with lead . The bal l w ill fly to the distance of two hundred yards , and the game is gainedby the person who pu ts his ball into the hole withthe fewes t strokes .

GONDOLA a little aflat boat, very longand narrow, ,

chiefly u sed on the canals at Ven ice .

Themediumdimens ions of agondola are upwardsof thirty feet in length , and four broad . Each e

nd

terminates in avery sharp point, raised '

perpendt'

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flfi

perig tual employment tomany thousand at“ ourcountrymen.

Gorme As sam/acros s, astyle of building whichs tands opposed to the ( h ack andmedern, andwhich obtained 1n England fromthemiddle of theWelfth to the beginning of the s ixteenth century .

The origin of this spec ies of architectureis ablypointed out by sir James Hall , in the fourth volumeof the Edinburgh Transactions .

”He supposes

a set of round posts driven firmly into the groundin .two opposite rows, the intervals between the

several postsbeing equal to that between the rows ,and the height of each post being equal to threeintervals. Long and flexible 1 0115 of willow beingafierward applied to each post, let thembe thru stinto the ground at its base , and bound to it by twotyings , one near the ground , and another at twothirds of its height and let the rods be left loosefromth is point upward , and free to bemoved inany direction. Let three rods be connected witheachoutsidecorner-post, and five with each of the

others ; and let the irpos ition be su ch asmay enablethemtg cover themain -post, so thatwhen s een

frombetween the rows , the lower part pf eachpost shall be concealed fromthe view,

and presentthe appearance of a bundle of rods .

O f the loos e ends of the rods , the skeleton of a

thatched roofmay be readily formed . A rod fromone of the pos ts be ing so bent as tomeet as imilarone fromthe pos t immediately oppos ite to it , inthemiddle of the space between them, and the tworods beingmade to cross each other, and bou ndtogether at their cross ing, the completefigure of a

W archwill be Obtainefil See l’LATE

GRA 29

Gow n-1mm, in politics , themanagement of theconcerns of anation, with respect to its external sec urity and internal order. Pol itics are to government , what theory is to practice . For the severalforms of government, see MONARCHY ,GRACE

, in objects of taste , a certain species of

beau ty, which appears to consist in the union of

elegance and dignity .

Pertness , says HoraceWalpole,is themis

taken afl'

ectation of grace , as pedantry produces erroneou s dign ity : the famil iarity of the one , and

_

thec lums iness of the other, distort or pervert grace .

Nature , that furnishes samples of allqual ities , andfinthe scale of gradation exhibits all poss ible shades ,affords u s types that aremore apposite than words :the eagle is sublime , the lionmajestic , the swan

graceful, themonkey pert, the bear ridiculouslyaukward.

In general , I believe , what I cal l grace, is denominated e legance ; but by grace 1mean somethinghigher, 1 wil l explainmyself by instances : Apollois gracefu l ; Mercury is e legant .

”

GRACULA, the grakle , a genus of birds of theorder Picze , of which there are thirteen species , ofthe Paradiaea tristis inhabits the Phil ippine theseis lands . It is exceedingly voracious , and has beenknown to swallow a young rat nearly two incheslong , after heating it against the wires of its cage

t o soften it . These birds are remarkably fond ofgrasshoppers , and are said to have been importedinto the is le of Bourbon to extirpate these insects ,which they very effectual ly accomplished .

GRADUATE , a person who has taken a degree ina univers ity. See DEGREE.

D 2

80 GBA

GRADUATION, ofmathematical instruments, is theprocess by which the arcs of quadrants, theodohtes ,c ircular instruments , &c . are divided intodegrees,minutes ,&c.

GRAFTING , or ENGRArruvo , in horticultu re or

garden ing, the taking a cyon or shoot fromonetree and inserting jt into another, in such amannerthat bothmay u nite closely and become one tree .

The use of grafting is to prOpagate any curiou ssorts of fru its , so as to be certain of their kinds . All

good fru its have been obtained accidentally fromSeeds and of the seeds of these it is wholly u ncertain whe ther they w ill produce fruit worthy of cul

tivation but when shoots are taken fromsuchtrees as bear good fru it, no alteration need be apprehended , let the stock or tree on which it isgrafted be of what kind itmay .

The reas on of the advantages obtained by grafting is differently explained ; bu t it seems probablethat they shou ld be attribu ted to the greater fac ility with which the tender cyon can as s imilatethe ju ices already prepared by the stock, thanthose which itmu st draw immediately fromtheearth , if planted : asmany young animals are

provided withmilk, which is a s ubstance that bearsto ordinary food , exactly the same relation thatthe sap of atroe does to the cru de ju 1cos on which

GRA IN , the name of a small weight, the twenftieth part of a scruple in apothecaries weight, andthe twenty-fourth part of a penny Weight troy.

GRAMMAR, the philosophy ot language , as express ive of.thought or the rules of any particularlanguage . Grammar of the firstkindis sometimes

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32 GRAif I say Charles loves Emma Charles is the subjectspoken of? loves the attribute or the action affirmed ,and Emma the object, or person affected by the

action . In every sentence theremu st be an objectof which we affirmsomething thus Gold isheavy ,

” here Gold is the object, is denotes existence , and the word heavy is themode of

'

existence .

Fromthe variousmodes u sed by different nationsto expres s the property affirmed of any object ,great dispu tes have arisen not only on the differentsorts of

'

words necessary to constitu te a lang uage ,bu t on the sorts of words actual ly existing in a

given language . The learned au thor of the

Emn‘

kpozflamaintains that two sorts of words onlyare neces sary , viz . the noun and the verb ; otherslay down eight or even ten parts of Speech . The

theory on grammar, advanced by Mr. Tooke, in thework referred to, has been generally approved bythe ablest grammarians ; it has , however, been veryrudelyattacked in the article GRAMMAR, in D r.Rees

’s

New Cyclopedia, to which the reader is referred .

GRAMME , in French weights , answer to rathermore than 1 5 grains , and the kilogramme is equalto athousand grammes or troy -ounces .

GRANAD IER, asoldierarmed w ith a sword , a fire ;lock, a bayonet , and a pouch fu ll of hand -gran it e

does . Granadiers are distingu ished by high capsand they take the lead in attacks .

GRANADO , or GRANADE , in the art of war, a hol lowbal l or she ll, of iron

,or othermetal , of' abou t two

inches and a half iu diameter,wh ich be ing fil led

w ith fine powder, is set on fire bymeans of a smallfuse driven into the fu se -hole . Granadoes are

thrown by the grauadiers into those‘

places where

G34themen stgnd thick particu larly theother

‘

lodgments‘madeb the enemyas the

'

composition wit in the fu se

powder in the granado, the:wholethose by whomit is surroundcu ts were inven ted about the

s derived fromthe grains of the powdethey are fi lled ; or froma fancifulcom

parisonwith’

the pomegranate .

GRAND -JURY. See JURY .

GRAN ITE, in natural history , agenus of stones ,

composed of separate and'

very large boneretionsrude ly compacted together, of great hardness,givingfire w ith stee l, not fermenting with acids , and

imperfectly calcinable in a great fire .

us belong the commonmoor-stone, u sedbu ildings in London the hard red gra

and Arabia; and the pale whitishhich the streets of the before -menpaved . Granite is also the name of

"

stones of the order of petrm, of whicheht parts are felt- Spar,mica, and quartz ;

found in Finland, Lapland, and

GRANULiu '

ION, the process by which ametal isreduced into grains , this is effected byme lting.

themetal, ‘andthen pguring i t ‘in avery thin stream

into cold water. As soon as themetal comes incontact w ith water it divides into drOps , which havea tendency to a spherical shape

,and aremore or

less perfect, aqcerding to the th inness of the stream,the he ight fromwhich it

\falls , and the temperature

of themetal . Some of themore fusiblemetalsmaybe reduced tomuch finer grains , by pouring it, in

94 CRAitsmelting state , into awooden box, rubbed overw ith chalk, and shaking i t violently before it hastime to become solid .

GRASS,in botany : the t 1 ibe of grasses is one of

the families into which all vegetables are distribute dby Linnaeu s . They al e defined to be plants whichhave s imple leaves , a jointed s tem, a husky calyxnamed aglume , and a s ingle seed . This descripo

tion inc ludes corn as We l l as the grasses .

GRATITUDE , a pleasant affection'

excited by a

live ly sense of benefi ts rece ived or intended , or evenby a desire of being beneficial . It is the powerfulre -action of awell dis posedmind , upon whombe -lnevolence has conferred some important good .

W hen the affection operates according to the na

tural course of infiuence , it will be correspondent tothe importance of the good obtained , the distancein station between the recipient and his benefactor;the smallness of his claims

,perhaps the conscious

nes s of deserving y ery opposite treatment . l 'Thesec ircumstances unite to warmthe heart into raptures:The gratefu lmind is impatient of a silent and passive reception of the bless ing . It cannot be re

s t1ained fromacknowledging its obligations , eitherby exmession or acts . It considers every returnin its power as an act of the strictest j ustice ; nor isit deten ed by difficulties or dangers frommakingthe attempt .GRAV ITATION

,the tendency of bodies toward the

centre of the earth , the phenomena of wh ich havebeen attempted to be explained by the action of a

v ery s ubtile etherial flu id : a theory to which s ir

Isaac Newton,mthe latter part of his life, incline d '

GRA 35

v rrv , weight, or heaviness : that is , the g ent

of gravitation .

GRAVITY, specific, the weight spec ifically belonging to every different s ubstance : thu s if the weightof a cubic inch of distilled water, at agiven tern .

perature , bemade the standard , the comparativeweight of acu bic inch of gold is the specg

'

fic gravityof thatmetal . We find inmos t books , treating on

this subjec t, tables shewing the specific gravities ofdifferent bodies , compared with water, which iscons idered as 1 as a specimen the following shorttable is given

TABLE of Sps cmc GRAVIT IES of Booms.

Water Iron (cast)Antimony

,

LeadMercuryPlatinaSilver

re) 1 9 25‘

ShillingGu inea Tin

Portland stone AlcoholNow it is known that a cubical foot of water

weighs exactly 1000 ounces , which is the case

with pure waterall over the world . Knowing this,we can

,with the help of a table such as the forego~

ing, find the weight of any body whatever, th us acubical foot of copper wiil weigh x

'

1000 or

7780 ounces of gold X 1000

ounces , and so of the rest.Suppose it be required to find the weight of ablock of Portland stone that is fiv e feet long, threefeet wide , and two fee t thick : find the solid con

tents by‘multiplying the three dimensions into one

as 613thanother, as 5 52 8 X 2 30: here the stdnemeasmes 30 cubical feet , bu t one cubicalW bythe table weighs Q490 ounces , therefme this blockWill We igh 30 74700, equal tosomething More than two tons . See HYDRO STA

‘H CS .

GREEK CHURCH (also cal led the Eastern chu rch;with reference to that of Rome), 21 Christian establishment, existing in Greece , sev eral other parts ofthe Turkish dominions , andmRuss ia. This systemagrees with the Roman ln encouragingmonachism,in praying to saints ,whose pictures are preservedin its churches , asmediators in the observatidn of

'

fasts andmthe doctrine of transubstantiation . Itdisagrees with the Roman, in denying the supremacy of the pope ; in admitting, under certain re

strictions , themarriage of its priests in theuse of

leavened bread atmas s ; in granting the cup to thela

’

ity,as well women andchildren asmen ; in omit

t ing all_ process ion , prostration , and adoration of thesacrament,when carried to the s ick, andall feas tsmhonour thereof ; in condemn ing the wo1 ship of

images in non admission of the doctrine ’

of pur

gatory and in disbe lief that the Holy-Ghost'

pro

ceeds fromthe Son .

The head of the Greek church is the patriarchof Constantinople , whose income is said to be onehundred and twenty thousand gu ilders . The otherpatriarchs are those of Jerusalem, Antioch, andAlexandria. All the principal dignitaries are chosenfromamong themonks : the secu larclergy are sub

ject asbut fewru les , and can neverattain greawi‘

rank than that of high -priest.GREEN

, one of the original prismatic colours , exhibited by the refrac tion of the rays of light. The

GHQ 87

green colour of plants has been shown to dependu pon the absorption of carbonic acid, and it is supposed that the leaves of plants have the power ofdecompos ing the c arbonic acid and water also 3they emit the oxygen, while the carbon and hydroge n enter into the compos ition of the inflammable parts of the plant.5 GREEN-CLOTH, in British polity , aboard or courtofjustice he ld in the counting- house of the king

’s

household , and composed of the lord -steward andinferior officers , who s it daily . To this court iscommitted the'

charge and superv ision of the royalhou se- hold inmatters of j u s t ice and government,with power to correct all offenders , and tomaintainthe peace of the verge . W ithou t awarrant firs t ohtained fromthis court , no servant of the house «

hold can be arrested for debt . -It takes its namefroma green-cloth spread over the board at whichit is held .

Gaeooanm‘

rm,in

'

chron'

ology, a correction ofthe Ju lian year. In the latter, every secu lar or,

hundredth year is bissextile : in the former everyone in four. This reformation, which wasmade bypope Gregory XIII . A . D . 1582 , ,

is als o called the

Gas -110mm, a species of dog used in pursu ingthe bare . The lightest coloured are said to be always the best.

Gnorro, a large deepcavern in amountain or

rock. Among the natural grottos of this

V0L. III.

as 'GRY

about with rocks,and has near it aprecipitate de

scent of near twelve fathoms deep , at the bottomofwhich there continually issu es fromthe rocke t!

considerable current of water. This cavern’

is

abou t 200 yards in length , and at the farthest partof it there is agood streamof water, large enou ghto drive amill . At certain seasons there are in itmu l titudes of frogs and bats . Elden-hole is a

huge profound perpendicu lar chasm, threemilesfromBuxton, ranked'arnong the natural wonders of

the Peak. Its depth is unknown . Peak’s hole,

and Pool’s hole , are two remarkable horizontal osvitice undermountains , the one near Castleton , theother just by Buxton . They seemto have hadtheir origin fromthe springs , wh ich have their current through them. The Grotto del Can i is a littlecavern four: leagues fromNaples , the air containedin ’ ité is chiefly carbonic -ac id -gag . which , by fitswe ight, is found near the bottomof the cavern , sothat amanmay pass through it with safety , but toadog, cat , &c . it will be fatal.GRYLLUS, the locust, grass pper and cricket, in

'

natural history , agenu s of insects belonging to theorder hemiptera. Th ere are sixty-one spe cies , ofwhich themost numerou s is the gryllus ~migra,

torius , or common locust, which of all insects ismost capable of injuringmankind . Legions of theseanimals are fromtime to time observed in variousparts of the world, where the havoc they commitis almost incredible : whole provinces have beendesolated by themin the space of a few days , .and

the air is darkened by the ir numbers when theyare -dead , they are sti ll terrible fromthe pu trefaction

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40 GU I

Per ”awkward kept du ly, by sending her guardboats roundthemevery night ; and to receiveseasmen

'who are impressed in time of war.

GUIPON, a_

sort of flag or s tandard , borne by. the

king’s life -

guard, and which is the flag or ensign

of a troop of horse . It is broad next,

the s taff, andpointed and divided at the opposite extremity”,Gum) , a company , fraternity , or corporatign, pf

whiche verymemberwas to pay something towardthe nommon charge .

Gt orms , an instrument of pub]adapted in France during the period oftion, as affording theleast barbarousmeans of putating criminals to death . This name

y as was re.

ported at the time of its introduction there, was derived fromthat of theman who brought it forward,Under the denomination of themaiden, it was usedin Scotland, before the u nion, when persons ofmilk new to be beheaded . It has also been employed , in at least one jurisdiction of England . Atthe first erection of the woollenmanufactories , inthe neighbourhood of Halifax, the cloths were frequentlys tolen off the tenters in the night. In con,’

s equence a law wasmade , by which themagisgtrates of that town were empowered to pass sentence on , and execute all offenders , if they7 weretaken in the fact, or owned it, orif the stolen clothwas found upon themprovided also the crimewas committed , and the criminalwas apprehended ,within the foi est of Hardwic . Those found guilty ,

were executed in the followingmanner.1 an

axewas drawn by a pu lley to the topof a woodenengine, and fastened by apin, which being pu l led;out, theaxe fell downman instant,anddid itswork.

I f they hadstolen an oir,

’

horSe,or any

it was led with themto the scaffold , andened by acord to the pin that he ld upthe axe ; andwhen the signal was given by the jurors , whowerethe first burghers

'

W ithin the several towns of

the‘

forest , the beast was driven away , and the pinplucked ou t

,u pon which the axe fell and did its

oflicé.

GU ITTAR,amusical instrument of the stringed

kind , With double rows of strings , of which thosethat are brass are in themiddle , except it befor the burden, are an octave lower than the

fourth .

GULES,in heraldry, the red colou r.

GULF,or GULPH , in geography, a broad capa

ciou s'

bay, which, when very extensive , takes the

name of a sea ; as the gulph of Ven ice , also calledthe Adriatic sea.

GUM,aconcrete vegetable j u ice , of no particu

lar smell or taste,becoming viciou s or tenac iou s

when dissolv ed ormoistened with water ; totallydissoluble into a liqu id by water ; not dissolving inv inou s spirits or oils burning to ablack coal , with ;outmelting or catch ing flame ; and suffering no

diss ipation in the heat of boil ing water. The puregums are such as gum-arabic , tragacanth, senega,and the gumof cherry and plum-trees .

GUM-arabic is the produce of a spec ies of acacia.

GUM-resin , see Resin .

GUN, in themilitary art, an ins trument bymeansof which the explosion of gunpowder forc ibly drivesa bal l or solid body. to acons iderable distance . Gun

is analmost general name for fire -arms , including

GYMto have been used in Asiaata verybu t it was not invented 1n Europe he ?rteenth century . Roger Bacon, about

,suggested the possibility pf applyingn since called gunpowder to the pur:burthaideaof blowmgabody toadis?

its power was prod uced by its accidenstally doing so

,in the laboratory of Bartholomew

Schwartz, aGermanmonk. Guns were original lymade of ironbars , soldered together, and strength ,enedw ith iron h00ps an example of which is stillpreserved1n the Towerof London .

GUNNERY, the art of charging, directing and ex:

ploding nre arms to the best advantage. It dependspponmathematical knowledge .

Gunpownen , a composition of saltpetre ornitre,sulphur, and charcoal ,

'mixed tog ether, and usuallygranu lated . It is on this powder that every thingiii themodern art of wardepends . A white gunowder has been talked of, the powderof which

1s describ ed as equal to that of the black, while itsexplos ionmakes no noise ; bu t no powderanswer:ing thi s description has ever been seen . It is s up

posed that its whiteness 18 produced by themixtureof touchwood 01 camphor, instead of coal .GYMNOSOPH ISTS, a sect of philosophers of India,

of'

which the greater part were highly respectablemen ; bu t who were thus termed (naked philosophers)because the heat of the climate obliged them

clothing as possible . Their philoto that which has

in Indiathroughout . Itat the antients called him

GYR 43loose robe ord oke overthe tunic, which theGreeksdenominated imation thus , David is'

saitlt o havedu pednaked before the ark.merely because hethrewas ide his claim,

GW OTUS, agenus offishes , including nine sper

gies, of which themos t remarkable is the Gymnotuselectricus , towhich we have alluded in the articleElectricity . Thisfitish is found in the. hot climatesofAfrica and America, particularly in the rivers ofSurinamand Senegal . ~ i t has the powerof givingan e lectrical shock toany person, or toany numberof persons who join hands together. See Pl.Nat,Hist. fig . 2 1 .

Gypsms , or EGYP’

l‘

iANS , an unc ivilized nation of

people, who are dis persed over Europe, As ia, andAfrica. Theymade the ir first appearance in Germany, abou t the beginn ing of the s ixteenth century. It appears that they are asmuch thre le’

tr;part of the worldu

'

iToriginis wholly obscure. Some suppos e themtefugees fromHindostan . 4 11 .countries where theyare greatly discountenan

’

ced , they are extremelyindolent

,and consequentlyc

ompelled to subs ist dishonestly . In proportion as they are encouragedthey are industrious.

“This is the case in Turkey .

A liberal policy would probably des troy tlieir cor

porate existence in all nations . At present, theyare chiefly known in Europe as pe tty thieves , andpretenders to skil l in that universal supers tition ,the prediction of things to come .

Grmcs, the

‘

water-flea, agenus of insects nf theordercoleoptera: they are fou nd on the su rface of

waters, on which they run with incredible velocitywhen attempted to be taken, they plungemthe

themaHubble very 15.1ailver.

’ The Gyrinu s nata'

torspec ies : th is has a su rface

nu . The

gu laraspec‘

fihaving a lengthwithmany lateral appendages

down the body . It is ahighly curit object forthemicr

oscope . When its change arrives it forms

for itself asmall oval cell or case on a leaf of somewater plant

,andafter casting its skin it becomes

achrysalis ; these animals , ‘

like other beetles,fly

only by night .GYPSUM, See Pri sms of Paris.

H , the eighth 1amin t he alphabet, is said bysome grammarians to be only a hard breath ing .

H , u sed as anumeral, denotes 200, andwith adashover it

"

H , 200,000.

HABAKKUK, one the twelve lesserprophets ,whose

pmphecies are taken into the canon of the O ld Testament. H e is supposedto have prophesied beforeZ edekiah orabou t the time ofManasseh. His styleis grand and beautifu l .HABEAS-CORPUS, 1n law,

awrit which 18 the gloryof B i itishj urispru dence , as the bu lwark of perse nalfreedom. In cases of private oppres sion, whereone individual u nlawfu lly confines another, thisu nit directed to such detainer, commands himtoproduce the body of the prisoner, with the date andcause of h1s caption and detention,to do, submit to,

HABEAS-GO RPUS. 45

and receive , whatsoever tbejudge or court, awardiing suchwrit, shall considerin that behalf.This is ahigh prerogative-writ, and thereforeby

the common-law issuing outof theGoun of King’s

bench, not only in term-time, butalso (luring the

vacation, by aflat fromthe chief-justice, oranyether of the judges , andrunning into all parts of

the king’s dominions ; for the king is atall times

en titled tohave an accoun t why the liberty of anyof his subjects is restrained , whereverthat restraintmay be inflicted .

By the action of this Writ, of which an seven !

kinds adapted to different occas ions , relief fromallunj ust impris onmentmay be obtained, canses xcmoved fromone court to another, for the promoftion of jus tice , and prose cu tors compelled to bringthe prosecu ted to open trial, instead of prolonginghis imprisonment .In cases of sedition, however, this prerogative of

the crownmay operate to the destruction of theconstitution. The administrators of governmentmay kb ow, or (which is the same)th ink they know,that aman, who has yet committed no punishableoffence , is actually labouring to subvert the fabrieof the state . In such a case, there are but twomodes of proceeding at their choice : theymu steither pretend ignorance of hismachination , plotagainst his plot, andwait till themischief be done 3

using their power, while they possess it, arre stthe course of his treason , and obtain secan

’

tyi, byconfining hits as long as itmay be necessary soto dO That they whn have themeans of presenting it, shouldsufi

'

eran insurrection to break ou t,

as means-CORPUS"?be said to be consistent with their duty : it will he

'

determined , therefore, that they ought to secure a‘

dangerous“individual . When secured , however,

this individual has the privilege of compelling themeither to prove his gu ilt, or to submit to his re lease ;and thus sets their precau tions at defiance .

It 18 to remedy this important 1nconvenience , thatthe guardians of the l iberty of the realmoccas ionally consent to atemporary suspension of the habeasé '

corpus ; : the effect of which is , that , so long as it ispermitted to last, a supposed offendermay be con

fined withou t be ing brought tetrial .This is

'

o ne feature of that pecu liar character ofthe Britis h constitu tion by which it is rendered ca-rpahle ofmeeh'ng all exigencies : a character whichforms one '

of its principalmerits .4U nlimited power

being lodged in the u nited will of the three estates,

the government [S capable of every poss ible variation , without any changemthe establishment. In

peac’

eable times a consi derable degree of libertymay be left in the hands ot the people, but in troublesome ones the executive powershould have everyposs ible strength ; and, in conformity withexperimental truths ; the British parliamentmay, in'

the hour of danger, by temporary su spension of

every Oppos ing statu te,confide even abs olute corr

trol in the hands of the admin istration;withou t permanently giving up one iota of freedom.If, on s uch an occas ion, the high authority in

question were to repeal any statute by which liw‘

herty is preserved , or enact any new one by whichitmight be destroyed or endangered , the case,though not hopeless , would be infinitelymorealarming ; ’

inot hopeless, because the same authority"

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46 HAI

years afte1 the foundation of it had been laid . The

people had applied themselves to the bu i lding of

by the earnes t expostuen they accornplished it

in a fewyears .

HA IL , 1nmeteorology, ameteor consisting of va

pourmore intensely frozen than when it appears inthe formof snow. Be

‘

ccariasupposes it to be formedin the higher regions of the atmosphere , where thecold is extreme, and where the e lectricmatter isvery copious . In these circumstances , a greatnumber of particles of water are brought near to

gether, where they are frozen , and in their descentcollect other partic les , so that the density of the

‘

su bs tance of the hail-stone grows less and less fromthecentre ! this being formed first in the higherregions , and the surface be ing collected in the

lower.

'

Agreeably to this , it is observed that , on’

mountains , hai l-stones , as we ll as drops of rain,

are very small , there be ing bu t little space throughwhich they can fall and increase their bu lk. D r0ps

of rain and oi hail also agree in this , that themomintense the electn

'

cio

ty, that forms them, the largerthey are . Motion is known . to promote h eezing,and so the rapidmotion of the electri cal clouds

that effect. Amore intense electrithi

'

nks, Unites“the partic les of hail

than themoremoderate does thoseof snow. In a similarmanner, we see thundercloudsmore denserain ; and the drops of

fi omw

HAL 4B\

and theouterpart 5t as if the intenseregioli was in the

'

highest regions, and partfrozenhad been attracted to it in the course of itsdweent 2 in particular instances , the fact 13exactly

“

the reverse .

HAIR the hairs (if the human body are thin,’

elastic, dry filaments aris ing fromthe skin . Theycons istof the bulb s ituated under the skin, whichis alter-vans veScicle , and a trunk, which perforatesthe Skin and cuticle , and 15 covered with a peculiarvagina or sheath . The (wh at of the hair dependsonthemedu llaryJu ice .

HALBsnT, 1nmilitary economy , aweapon carriedby the serjeants of foot and dragoons . It is

'

a sortof spear Lfltt besides the sharp pointwhich is in al ine with the shaft, there is a cross flat piece of

steel , sometimes pointed at one endand broad at theother, sometimes forming a hook at one of its ends ,and sometimes terminating in aknob at both . In

its original cons truction ,it is a union of the spear

and the an y andintended , like themodern pike, toanswer the three purpos es of thrus ting, chop

ping,

and hooking.

l Hu ds on-days, inahtiqmty'

,atitle given to seven

days beforehand asmany after

VO L. “I.

50 HAMdwell ing-hou ses. A considerable partlace was burnt during the reign of Hbut what remains is stil l reserved for the courts of

king’s bench, chancery, common pleas , and

chequ er. Adjoining apartments are allotted touseo f t he Lords of pafl iament, and :St. Stephen’

s

chape l to that of the Commons . The great hallwas

.bu ilt by W il liamI I . orRichard I . or II . It .

is three hundred feet long, and one hundred broadand these dimens ionsme said to be greater, than .

those of any other roomin Europe.

HALLELU IAH aword s ignifying, Praise the Lord,to bemet w ith either at the beg inning or end of

some psalms : such is psalmcxlv . and those that?follow

,to the end. Hallelu iah was sung u pon sow

lenin days of 1 ejoicing, Tobit, chap . xiii . v . 1 2 It

was atterwards transferred fromthe synagogue to ;the church ; and somuch energy has been oh~

served in this term,that the ancient church thought

preper to preserve it, without translating it eitherinto

.

Greek or Latin , for fear of impairing the ge e

nine and softness of it . The fourth council ofToledo prohibited the u se of it in times of Lent, _

or,

other days of fasting, and in the ceremonies ofmourning .

HALO , 111 natural history, a coloured c ircle apwpearing round the body of the sun hmoonh orany oilHALYMO TE, in the city of London; a pourtheldbefore the lord -mayor and sheriffs forthe bakers . It was anciently held on

HAN 5 1

Saxons, a place of dwelling, Village; or'

1617115whenceNotfingkam, &c . A field close to the houseis also, in particu lar places , cal led aham. ‘ Hamletis a little dwelling-

‘placeHANAPER, or 1111 114151111 , Clerk of the, sometimes

s tyled warden of the hanaper, an’

ofi cer in chani

cery, who rece ives allmon ies due to the crown ,and has the custody of the charters , and other

~

ia

struments u pon which suchmonies accrue , whichat present he depos its in bags , bu t formerly, it iss upposed, in hampers, whence the name of the

ofiice .

HAND,in anatomy, an importantmember of the

human body, which , fromthe facilities it affords 111

all operations , and accuracy in ascertaining the”magnit ude ,&c ..of extraneou s objects , is justly conside1 ed as contribu ting very essential ly to all thatis either ingeniou s or scientific 1n the human cha

reeter.

HAND,ms king of horses , ameasure of fourinches , or t at '

of a clenched fist.Hanss , HANS , or amen/me Towns , certaincemmercial c ities which , at a '

very early period of European history; as sociated for themu tual protectionof their commerce . In the year 1 200, this leaguecons isted of no less than seventy-two cities particularly Bremen , Amsterdam, Antwerp , RotterdamfD art, Bruges , O stend , Dunkirk, Middleburg ,Calais , Rouen , Bourdeaux, St . Malo, Bayonne ,Bilboa, Lisbon , Seville, Cadiz , Carthagena, Bareelnua, Marseilles , Leghorn ,Naples , Mess ina, London,Lubec ,Rostoc, Stralsund , Stetin ,Wiemar,K0nigsburg, Dantzic, Elbing, andMarienburg. In the

plenitude of then power,which lasted fromthe four

so BAR

teenth to the sixteenth centuries , these cities an d

the sovereigns ot’

Euroye. In the end, the latterthreatenedastrong con federacy against them. andcompe lled the c ities under their j urisdiction to se .

parate themselves ; on which , the principal onesremaining, exc ludedmany others ,andfound shel terpnder theprotection of the German empires Theywere nowreducedmf em', Lubec . Bremen , ,Hamyburg, andDantaiq and even th1s u nion has sincebeen wholly dissolved . The word bansc, accord ,

ing to some,means alliance , Orconfedeflwy 1 and,in the Opin ion of others, on the sea-shore , ormemimeHappiness , according to D r. Paley, does not

cons ist, In the pleasures of sense : nor, 11a

an exemption fromevils , which are withou t ; nor;on. It is toofmankind,

which cons is ts in the exercise of the socialafiections —In the exerc iseof the facu lties of the bodyormind in some pursu it - In a prudent constitu q

tionof habits, and inhealth of body and good spi

rits . Hence it appears that’

happiness is prettyequally distributed ; and also that vice has no ad .

vantage over virtue with res pect to this world’s

hap iness , a

Iihan. See Leeus . 5

Haemonma, amusical instrument, in which thesound is produced fromglasses, Themethed ofextracting exquis ite tones , by rubbing the finger onthe brimof drinking-

glasses , fi lled with, water indiflérentproportions, wasan old discovery ; but itrenamed fer Dr Franklin to construct theMore?

HARMONICA . 53

nice , of which}hmong others , he describes the lol.The glasses are blown as nearly as poss ible iii

the formof hemispheres , having each an open neck’

or socket in themiddle . The largest glass is n ineinches in diametén, and the smal lest three . Be

tween these , there are twenty-three different s izes ,differing fromeach other a quarter of an inch indiameter.

” The glas ses be ing tuned , which is

done by grinding themto the requ is ite thickness , acase is to be provide d for them. This contains aspindle

,u pon which the glasses are vertically ar

ranged , and which commun icates by a string w iththemoveable s tep that gives itmotion.

’

The case

s tands on aneat frame with four legs .

o This ins trument is played u pon by s itting before themiddle of the s et of glasses , as before thekeys of a harpsichord , turning themwith the foot‘and wetting themn ow and ‘then, with a spu ngeand clean water. The fingers should be first a little soaked in water, and quite free fromall greasiness ; a little fine chalk upon themis soinetimesu seful, tomake themtouch the glass , and bring outthe tonemore read ily . Both hands are used , bywhichmeans different parts are played together.

O bserve that the tones are best drawn ou twhen the

glasses turnf romthe ends of the fingers, not whenthey turn to them.

4‘The advantages of this instrument are, that itstones are incomparably sweet beyond any other ,

that theymay he swelled and softened at pleasure,by stronger orweaker pressures of the finger, andcontinued to any length ; and that the instrument,oncewell tuned, neveragain wants tuning.

F 2

M"

BAR

Its disadvantages are the difficulty of adjthe tones by grinding the extreme skilfulness n esces sary in the player ; and the impracticahility of

performing upon itmany of the ordinary opal-admitof themusical art.HARMO NICAL proportion, is that in wh ich the

first termis to the third , as the difi’erence of the

first and second , is to the difference of the secondand third : thus 2 , 8 , 6 are in harmon ica] proportiombecause fi 6 In four terms the l stis to the 4th as the difference of the l st and find is

to the difi'

erence of the 3rd and eth that is 9, i e,16 , 24 are in harmon ica] proportion becau se 924 : To find a harmonica]mean pro

portion between two terms . Divide double theirproduct by their sum.

h To find a 3rd termin‘

harmonica] proportion to two given terms Di

Yide their product bythe difi'

erence between doublethe hi t termand the and term. To find a 4th

termin harmonica] proportion to three termsgiven .

” Divide the produ ct of the l st and 8rd termby the difference between double of the l st and thoand term. »iExamplg 1 . If aand b are the two terms : the

2 a6

a+bI.

2 . The 3rdharmonica]mean 15

harmonica]mean isa b

aa—l b’

8 . If a, b, a he the three terms, then the 4tha e

HARP, amu s ical instrument of the stringed kind ,and which

,in various fhrms , appems to rank

among “themost antient inventions. The harp,

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56 HATmen "

of the western parts of Europe ,‘

and said to

have been firstmade about the year 1400 ; though ,according to others , the Ec cles ias tics of Brittanywore themin the twelfth centu ry . When, in the '

fifteenth century, they became general among thelaity, it was thought a great abu se that they shoul dbe adopted by the clergy and several regu lationswere published , prohibiting the scandal .H AT-making . The finest hats aremade of thepure hair of the castor, or beaver. The skin of thisanimal is covered with two kinds of hair the onelong ,

s tiff,and glos sy, and the other short, thick,

and soft. The latter alone is u sed in hat-making .

To tear off the one of these, and cu t the other,

women are employed , who , with kn ives adapted toeach pu rpose, performthis part of the process .

To one third of dry castor, is added two thirds ofold-coat

,or hair which has been long worn by the

North -Americans , fromW homboth artic les are procu red . The whole is then carded , in amannersomewhat finer than in the woollenmanut’actories ;and

,this done, a quantity su fficient for a hat is

taken by weight . The stu ff 18 now laid upon thehurdle

,which i s a square table, parallel to the ho

1 izon , having longitudinal chinks cu t through it ;and on this hu rdle

s

it is at once c leansed ,mixed, and'worked into amass

,bymeans of an instmment

called a bow, and whichmuch resembles in formthe how of a violin . In lieu of how, some battersemploy a searse or s ieve. The substance beingthu s formed , it is next hardened , andmade into akind of cap, at the boson, which is a sort of bench,with an iron-plate fitted thereon, with a little the

HAU 57

underneath, and filled with water. It is alter-wardplaced on amou ld, and dyed .

HATCHING, thematu ration of the eggs of b irds,and pioduction of the young ones alive . This . is .

accon'

tplished either by the natural warmth of thebody of the parent bird, or by artificial heat. Theart of hatching chickeiis , bymeans of ovens, haslong been practised in Egypt , but it is the re onlyknown to the inhabitants of as ingle v illage, namedBenme , and to those who live in its neighbourhood.

Toward the beginning of autumn, these peoplescatter themselves over all the cou ntry ; and eachis ready to undertake themanagement of an oven .

The ovens are of difl'

erent s izes ; being capable of

containing fromforty to eighty thousand eggs .

The number of the ovens thus employed is compu tedat three hundred and eighty-six ; and theyare usually worked forsixmonths in each year. Abrood takes upin an oven , as underahen, twenty-1one days so that it is easy for each oven to produce eight broods . O n the calculation that twothirds of the eggs are hatched , t hirty thousandehickens have been compu ted to be brought intolife in each brood

, of every oven ; and the annual

number of the whole,throughout the country, at

leastHATCHMENT

,in heraldry , a popu lar name for

achievement. By these funeral escu tcheons, itmay be known after a person’s decease what rank

either he or she held when living, and if it ha a

gentleman ’s habehment, whether he was abachelor,marriedman ,

.or widower,with the l ike distinctions

e nor, amus ical instrument of the wind kind,

58 HEA

resembling aflu te in shape , only that it spreads andwidens toward the bottom, and is blown into througha reedfl The treble is two fe et long ;

'

its tenor goesa fifth lower when blown open and it has only eight»

t the bass,which is 'five

'

feetdlong, has :

HAWKER, antiently , a fraudu lent person, whowent fromplace to place , buying and selling oldmetals

,and other ’

goods , which ought to he sold 111openmarket , at present, the termis us ed synony~

mously with pedlar, signifyi1ig one Who travelsabout, selling wares . Every hawkermust takeout an annual l icence, forwhich he pays £ 4 ; and

if he u ses one ormore horses , or other beas t or‘beasts of bu rden, he pays £ 8 additionally for each.

HAWKlNG,a species of sportsmanship , formerlymuch practised in Europe ; yet said to be

'

nommore '

followed in Tartary and Pers ia, than ever itwas in th is quarter of the world .

HEAD , in anatomy, the u ppermost or foremost;part of the body of an animal; and one of the >prinme ipe l seats of life. I

Hmme , is a sensation by which we hear the fsound of sonorous bodies . The curious structu resof the labyrinth and cochleaof the ear tend tomakethe weakest sounds audible . When aperson , exa

ercises great attention in hearing,themembrana

tympani is stretched so as to render . itmore 8 115-1c eptible of sounds

, and be tter prepared to catcheven themos t feeble vibrations of the ail .

HEART, in anatomy, amu scu lous part of the

animal body , s ituated in the thorax,on .the . eu

terior part of the diaphragm, Whereiii~all. the yein8terminate, and fromwhich all the arteries arise 5,

'

HEA 59

and which , by its alternate contraction and dilatation ,

is the chief instrument of the circu lationof the blood , and a principal seat of l ife .

HEAT is su pposed to be a subs tance by the actionof which flu ids are evaporated , and sol ids are eitherdiss ipated in vapour

,or rendered flu id , or

'

converted

into glass . The following observationsmay convey some idea of the nature and properties of thissubstance. An intimate connection subs is ts betwixtl ight and heat, though it has not been h ithertodiscovere d on what this connection depends . Bothare emitted fromthe sun with the “

same velocitynearly both are refracted fromtransparent bodies ,and refracted by polished su rfaces in both

,thematter seems exceeding ly rare, and consequently

the addition,or abs traction of either

, cannot sensibly affect the weight of bodies , into which they areintroduced their parts never cohere, butmu tual lyrepel each other, and when forcibly accumu latedthey fly off fromone another in all directions .

Heat, however, differs froml ight in this particu lar,viz . the latter produces in u s the sensation ci

’

vis ion, whereas the former excites a sensation whichwe call by the name of the substance itself. Heatattracts other bodies , and is attracted by them. In

consequence of th ismutual attraction, it entersinto other substances , combines with them, and cc

CaSions changes in them. For ins tance, it produces expans ion in bodies

,and increases their bu lk .

This property of bodies has furnished u s with an

ins trument, called a THERMOMETER , (which see)formeasu ring their relative temperatures .

h er; that all contiguous bodies assume the same

£0 HEAT.

temperature" . Thu s , abar of hot iron, exposed tothe air, gradual ly cools , till it acqu ires the temperaatu re of the bodies with which it is su rrounded ;

other hand, a bar, cooled by ice , whenroom, becomes gradually h otter,

the temperature of the room. 1 .

tes all terrestrial bodies. In pass

ing through air and several transparent substances,its

“motion is almost instantaneous bu t through

e, it is remarkably slow8 said to be transmitted,

andin the latter to be conducted .

The greater number of solid bodies , when combined with heat

,may be converted into flu ids : andby the abstraction of heat the flu id again be

comesasol id . Liqu ids, by the application of heat,maybe conve1t ed into flu ids , elastic fl uids, invis ible likeair5 thu s , water by boiling , is converted into steam,

water combined with acertain proportionIn general , whenever a body changes

its s tate,‘It either combines with heat, { or separatesfromit .Every body contains a certain quantity of heat,

becau se’mo body . is so cold that it cannot bemade

co lder : but what quantity: ci'

beet exists in M4368has never be

'

enascertained.

ion,or rubbing pieces of certain

exposed to the light of the their temperatu re israised in proportion our;so that dark bodie

HEA 6 1

heat, and reflect less of it, than those that are of abrighte r colou r.The sensat ion of heat is produced by particles

of heat

, pass ing into our bodies , and that of cold byheat pass ing out of them. We cal l any thing hot,when it commun icates heat to bodies , imits vicinity,and cold when it absorbs heat fromthem. Thestrength of the sensation depends on the rapiditywith which the heat enters or leaves our bodies ;and this rapidity is proportional to the difference between our bodies . and the hot or cold subs tance ,and to the conducting power of that subs tance.HEAVEN, literal ly the sky bymetaphor, the

abode of the Deity,and the seat of the sou ls of the

just in the life to come . In these latter senses , itis sometimes called the empyrean , fromthe splendor by which it is characterized . It is also sometimes cal led the firmament. The Word which , inthe first chapter of Genesis , is translatedfirmament,was corru pted, it is said

,by the LXX ; and shou ld

be rendered expanse or extension. St. Pau l speaksof the third heaven and the orientals always describe sevmi heavens , ormore. The highest is always supposed to be the dwell ing of the Deity .

. The fou ndation of the doctrine of several hea~

vens was th is : the an tient as tronomers ass umedasmany different heavens as they saw. bodies in

cause the philosophers cou ld not conceive that

nets , and an eighth the fixed star'

s. PtolemyVO L.m.

62 HEI

Alphonsus , the king, added two ehrystalline heapvens , to account for certain i rregu larities in themotion of the other heavens and

, lastly, an empyrean heaven was drawn over the whole , for thedwelling of the Deity ,making the whole numbertwe lve . Eu doxu s supposed twenty three, Calip

pu s thirty , Regiomontanus thirty- three,A ristotle

forty-seven , andFracastor seventy.

’

H sshsws , a canon ical book of ' the New Testament,

'

written to the Jewish bel ievers at Jeru salemand in Judea. It is generally believed

'

that St.

Pau l‘

was the author of this epistle; and that he“

wrote it soon after his imprisonment, 'or abou t theyear 68 . Itsmanifest des ign is to confirmtheJewish Christians ’

in the faith and pracfice of the

gospel of Christ, which theymight be in dangerof deserting through the ill treatment of their persecutors : with this view the au thor obviates theobjections of the Jews to the gospel of Christ , asinferior to their Mosaic dispensation , andat the sametime pointing ou t its transcendent excellence overit in every particu lar.HEGIRA , in chronology , the epoch fromwhichthe Mohammedans reckon their years. The wordmeans flight, or voluntary exile, and

' alludes’

to

the flight o f Mohammed fromMecca That larva

giver having preached the doctrine of the unity of

God , became an object of persecu tion to the idolatersrand was compelled to fly fromMecca, on theevening

'

of the 1sth or l 6th .of July, 5A . D .‘ 61 4,

Here , in law, one who succeeds to property or

honours by inheritance l 1 r r:

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6-15 HEL

wheel conveys and increases the power of the handin giv ingmotion .

Heparin ,ln armou ry, acovering for the head ,

antiently worn by the mil itary . It sec ures bothhead and face, leaving an aperture only in the

front, and this secu red by bars .

HELMET,in heraldry , a representation of themy

tient helmet,placed beneath the crest

,in imitation

of themanner in which the cres t was wornf Auv

helmet of any kind is abadge of chivalry and thepeculiar kind of helmet, and themanner inwhichit is placed, denotes the spec ific rank of the bearer :thus, the helmet of an esqu ire (which is the lowest,forayeoman has none)is c lose and in profile ; thatof aknight or baronet, Open and fu l l -faced thoseof the higher ranks of nobility, are distinguished bythe number of the bars on their vizors , .and theView in which they are placed ; and that of the

king, by the greatest number of bars , and a £11111faced pos ition . At present , the helmet, like thetitle of esqu ire, is assumed at random. See

Hammer.HELMINTHOLOGY, the docm'ac ornatural study of

worms , as ornithology is that of birds , and entornology that of insects . This science embraces thefive following orders , viz . 1 . 1ntestina, con

s isting of worms of themost s imple formation,some at?which live within other animals some in

the waters , and a few in the earth . The use ofmany at themis obvious to us : thus the gordiusperforates clay to give a pas sage to springs andwater ; the lumbricus pierces the earth that itmay be benefited by the action of the air andmoisture : i tha teredo penetrates wood , to son»

‘

HEM 65

tribute towards its destruction, so that its elementsmay promo te the growth of vegetables :' the

phloas and mytillus , in l ike manner, penetrate rocks to M t their diss olu tion . 2 . Mollusca

, naked worms, for themos t part inhabitantsof the sea, illuminating by their phos phoreouspower the dark abyss of the waters . 3. Tes

tacea, ormolluscou s worms with calcareous habitations , or shells which they carry abou t withthem. 4. Z oophyta, compos ite an imals , holding amediumbetween an imals and vegetables . 5 .

Int'

u soria, which are extremelyminu te animal

cu les , generally invis ible without the aid of glasses .

H ELVETH ,a people of Belgica, in the neighbour

hood ot'

the Al lobroges , and the Provinc iaRomana,ce lebrated for theirmartial spirit. Their countrywas cal led Civitas Helvetia, and divided into four

pagi orcantons . It lay to the sou th andwest of theRhine, by which it was divided fromGermany ;and extended toward Gau l , fromwhich it was se

parated bymou nt Jura and by the Rhodanus andLaons Lamanos on the sou th . The neighbou rhood of the Helvetii to the Gauls , occasioned themto be cal led aGall ic nation ; and they were actuallyreckoned apart of the Celtic Ganls, till Augus tusun ited their c ountry with Belgica.

H em, aGreek word used in the compos ition of

several terms borrowed fromthat language. I tsignifies the same with semi, demi , and half thus ,bemiplegiais apalsy of one half of the body ; ,

heati$

tioli, half a verse ; hemicycle, a semi-c ircle.HEMISPHERB, in astronomy , one half of the Sphere.

The equator'

divides the sphere into two parts , cal ledthe northern and the

'

sou thern hemispheres . TheG 2

66 HEMhorizon also divides the sphere into two parts ,called the u pper and lower hemispheres . H emisphere is also u sed for amap or project ion of

half the terrestrial globe , or half the celestial sphere,on a plane . . Hemispheres are frequ ently called

planisplwres .

HEMP,or cannabis, a plant. of the dimoiaclass ,

well known forits use in themanu factu re of cordageand c loths . The u sual height of the plant is fromfive to six feet ; bu t that which is cu ltivated nearBrischwiller in Alsace , is sometimesmore thantwelve its c ircumference three inches . Itmay beplanted u pon any land the poore r produc ing thatwhich is fine in qual ity, though smal l in quantity ;and the richer and stronger, that which is abundant in the former , b u t coarse in the latter. Besidesits u ses inmanufactu res , hemp is said to recommend itself to the agricu ltu rist, by driving awayalmos t all the insects that feed upon other ve etables . Hence, in some parts of E u rope, abel of

th is plant is sown round gardens , or other spots , topreserve them. Hemp is known to be ripe, by theinc lination of its stems to ayellow colou r. This isabout thirteen weeks after its sowing. After beingboiled, and ifree fromits leaves , seeds; and lateralbranches , which is done by dressing with aripple orwooden sword , it ismade -up into bundles to besteepedin water. The s teeping, or water retting,

is to promote the separation of the bank, which isproperly the hemp, fromthe reed , or liglieou s part ‘

of the plant. The same end 15 sometimes attainedby déw rotting, or expos ing the stalks to the airbut the formermethod is generally thought pre e 'Enable.

HEMP. 67

When the hemp is thoroughly rotted, which is

usually at the end of four , f ive , or s ix

n of f eeding, or completing the disengagement of the bark and woody part of the plant , commences . This is done in one of two ways ; eitherdye ing and breaking the plant, or pu lling out thereed fromevery s talk with the hand .

When reeded , the hempmu st be cleans ed of the

glu tinousmatter with which it is its nature toabound . Th is is done by pou ring water throughit, and press ing out the water after afi

'

u sion carebe ing taken not to let the threads twist or entangleeach other , which they are apt to do . Hemp isbroken bymachinery after which , it is heat .This labour was formerly performed entirely byhand ; bu t, at present, awater-mil l , which raisesthree heavy heaters that fall alternately, is almostuniversally u sed . While themill is at work, a boyturns the hemp , that all parts of itmay receive theW kes . The finer it is requ ired tomake the tow

,

themore heating is necessary.

The tow,being first drwsed or combed , is sold'

to

the spinners , who reel the yarn as follows

a rdsmake 1 thread - 2 yards .

40 threads 1 lea 80

1 skain 1 600

Fromthe spinners it passes to the bleachers ,who rece ive twenty or twe nty-one clues for everyone hundred and twenty bleached .

Only the coarser kinds of hemp are employed in .making cordage the fin er being u sed for cloth,

which though incapable of \receiving the de licacy

68

ceptible of bleaching, and possessed of the picparty of improving its colour by wear. The Bug ?

l ish hemp ismu ch superior in strength to thatwhich grows in any othercountry. Next to thisls thexRussian , fromwhich sacking lS u suallymade,A large quantity of Ru ssia-sheeting, coarser at theprice than any other foreign c loth , is imported intoEngland on account of its s trength .

The great importance of 1 hemp to themaritimcinteres ts of the United Kingdom, occas ions it toforma cons iderable article of commerce . The

cordage and sails of a first -rate ship of war are

said to consume 1 80,0001b . of rough hemp . In

the year 1788 , the quantity imported into Englandwas tons : which at 201. per ton , amountedto and which at an average product ofone fifth of a ton per acre, requ ired acres ’

for its growth and to this prodigious import,Which is chiefly obtained

,fromRu ss ia, is ' to be

‘

added the home-crop, raised in Sussexand Su ffolk;In the year 1787 , attempts were began to bemade 1at increas ing the cu ltivation at home, by giving '

a

bounty of three-pence per s tone, at the same timed iscou raging the u se of foreign hemp, by the im

pos ition of duties .

HEMP, Chinese ,a species of-hemp superior to the

common but which has not yet been cultivated inEngland otherwise than in the way of experiment.

'

HEPATIC A IR, the old name of the su lphu rated

hydrogen gas,” which is

'

obtained fromthe std-9"

plane t of potass,” formerly called kcpar stil

pharis , .or“ liver By

water with this air, Bergman fo

ofimitating the hot or su lphureousmineral waters.”

HEP 69

Barn s” ,in geometry , a figure c onsis ting of

seven sides , andasmany angles .

Hspms omr. numbers , s ee those in which theMasses of the terms of themending an thmeal progress ion 15 5 , as Aritht cals , 1 , 6 , 1 1 ,

Heptagonals 1 , 8 1 , &c .

where the heptagonals are formed by adding con

tinually the terms of the arithmeticals above them,whose common difference is 5 . O ne prepei

'

ty of

these numbers is , that il’any one of themhemu ] .tiplied by 40, and to the product 9 be added, thesumwill be asquare number : thus 1 8 x 46439:

The series of the squares will be 1a,

272 , 873,

the common (inference of whoseroots is 10.

HEPTARCHY, a government exercised by seven

persons ; or, a nation divided into seven governments .

Saxon heptarchy, the seven kingdoms exis ting inEng land , between the fifth and ninth centuries.These kingdoms were severally named ,

1 . Kent, 5 . Northumberland,

2 . Su ssex , 6 . East-Angleland,8 . Wessex, 7 . Mercia.

4. Essex,The heptarchy was fonned by deg

re es ; but itmay be said to have oommeneed in 449,

when Hengist arrived on the island . In A . I) . 8 27

Egbert was enabled , by a combination of c ircumstances , to assume the title of king of England ;bu t

,in reality

,three of the kingdoms , Northumber

land , East Angleland, and Mercia, were still gow erned by their own kings , though those b agswere his vessels and tributaries . The kingdoms

70 HER

he actually governed were Kent, Sussex,Wessex,and Essex .

HERALD; the title of an officer, whose duty it antiently was , to denounce war,

”to challenge 1n battle'

and combat, to proclaimpeace, and to executemartialmessages ; but who is , at present, to conductroyal processions and ceremonies , creations of no ~

bility , and dubbings of knights to publish declarations of War, not to the enemy, but at hometo proc laimpeace to record and blazon armorial bearings and to regu late abuses in arms ;u nder the au thority of the earl -marshal

,by whom

he is created .

The heralds were formed into ‘

f

’

a'

college b yR ichard the Third .

HERALDRY, the sc ience of things pertaining to

heralds ; andmore particularlv of the laws of arms “

;or armorial bearings .

Arms, in a‘

primitive point of view; are badgesof distinction in an historical one , ‘badges .of

'

ho

nour : every thing connec ted with themhas spru ngfromcustomand it is only by observing the ru lesthe same “

au thority has es tablished , that their valu ecan be preserved . A display of these ru les , then,is the subject of heraldry.

Armsmay be cons idered u nder four heads y. theescu tcheon , the tinctu1e s, the charges , and the ornaments .

I . The escu tcheon , or shield, is the field or groundUpon which the tinctu res andcharges are displayed .

The shape of the escu tcheon , though ofmuch importance in the eye of a herald , ismade to varyconsiderably

, according to the caprice of the artistor thc 'wearerv See P late 1 : HERALDRY . ’ an

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rm HERALDRY.

Tenné by diagonal lines , .fromthe sinisterchief tothe dexter base points , traversed by horizontall ines : 7L.

Sangu ine, by lines crossing each other diagonal ly :Fu rs , as ermine and coir

, frequently supply theplace of co lou rs .

Escutcheons are fiequently ofmore than enecolou r, and when this happens they are divided byl ines drawn in variou s directions . When an est

cutcheon 1s partedperperk , aperpendicular litre divides it into tWo equal parts 1 when perf ess,aherizontal line when per bend, dexter or s inister,by a diagonal line or when per cross, byboth a perpendicu lar line and an horizontal oneand whenper crass saltier, by two, both of whichare diagonal .An esc

u tcheon , divided per cross, or per cross

saltier, 18 said to be quartered .Heralds have contrived severalmarks , by which

the bearers of the same coat of arms are distingu ished, according to their nearness to the head (ifthe family . To the eldest son , they have given thelabel ; to the second , the

'crescent ; to the third , themul let ; to the tburth, themartlet ; to the_fiflh , the

annu let ; to the sixth , the deu r de lis ; to the seventh , the rose ; its the eighth ; themoss emoline ;to the ninth , the double quateri

’oil. The children

of these sons superadd the same differences ; thu s,the eldest son of the second son bears alabel upon

111 .'A charge is any thing containedmthean.

nations ; honourable ordinaries, sub-M ics, and

HERALDRY. 73

cesarean charges—The sub-ordinaries , and common

charges, are so numerous , that to follow themisimposs ible ; but of the honou rable ordinaries abriefcatalogue follows 1

Honourabk ordinaries

1 . Chief 4. Bend s in is ter 7 . Chevron2 . Pale 5 . Fess 8 . Cross3. Bend 6 . Q uarte r 9 . Sal tier .IV . Ornaments , or exterior decorations of escut

chaons,are of ten princ ipal kinds

1 . Crowns 4. Helmets 7 . Wreaths2 . Coronets 5 . Mantlings 8 . Crests8 . Mitres 6 . Chapeaux 9 . Scrolls

10. Supporters .

1 . Crowns are of two general kinds ; as themural,naval, and other crowns ofmerit, given as honourable augmentations ; and kingly crowns , deudtlngthe sovereign rank of the bearer.The first crowns of kings were only diade1h s or

fillets ' bu t , uniting themodems , the forms are varied and complex . The crown of themore recentkings of Great Britain , and which is dist inguishedhy t he name of St. Edward

’s crown , consists of a

crimson cap, lined and faced with ermine, and su rroun ded by a c irc le of gold , whic h circle is eh

riched with prec ious stones , and heightened up, oradorned on its u pper rim, with four n oises-Wee,

and asmany fleu rs de lis ,* alternately ; and from

VO L. Ill.

74.HERALDRY .

which arise two arched diadems , beset with pearls,and intersecting each other in the centre, wherethey are su rmou nted by amound, itself surmount- 1

ed with acroise-patee . Plate II .Themound herementioned is aglobe . The word

is acoiruption ofmonde, world ; and themound ,with its cros s , an emblemof Christendom, or thedominion of the cross : by which domin ion was perhaps orig inally intended , the supremacy of the p0pe .

The place of this emblem, which , on all the crownsof Europe, i s above the ens igns of temporal government, is suSpicious ;. bu t, though itmight be ass igned by the ambition of the church , it is as easyto ascribe it to the piety of the throne . The fleur

de lis , or lily, dou btless ly took place of the strawberry - leaves , at the time that aclaimon the kingdomof France wasmade .

The qu een’s crown, though smaller, resembles ;

the king’s .

The coronet of the prince ofWales res embles the .

king’s crown, excepting that it has but one diadem.

To this dignity there also belongs a badge, con

s isting of a plume of three ostrich feathers , set in

the ancient coronet of the heir-appart ofEnglandwith themotto , Ich D ian, written upon a scro ll.Themotto, which , in the Saxon language , signifiesI serve,

” was assumed byEdward, the first princeof Wales , commonly called the Black-

prince, who,after the battle of Cressy, in which he had killedJohn, king of Bohemia, took fromthe head of thatmonarch the plume, the 1 epresentation of which

has been described, and place d it on his own .

The coronets of the immediate sons and brothersof the king have no diadem. l A

HERALDRY. 75

The coronets of the immediate daughters ands isters of the king differ fromthose of the princes;in having strawberry leaves between the crosses ,instead of deu r de lis .

A duke’s coronet is acircle of gold , enriched with

preciou s stones and pearls , and set round with‘

eight

large s trawberry- leaves .

A duke’s coronet and a ducal coronet are verydifferent things . The latter, which is borne bymany commoners of no distin ction ,

is a c ircle of

gold , enriched with precious stones , but set roundwithonly fou r strawbe rry - leaves .

Amarqu is’s coronet is a circ le of gold , enrichedwith prec ious stones and pearls , and set roundw ithfou r strawberry- leaves , and asmany pearls , raisedon pyrami dical points ; an earl’s , ac ircle of gold,enriched as before, fromwhich issue eight points,or rays

, upon the top of each of which is a largepearl aviscount’s

,is acircle alsoenriched , round ,

and close to,the rimof which , are set an u nlimited

number‘of pearls ; a baron

’s, aplain gold circle ,

set rou nd with six pearls . See Pu re .

The gold and other jewel -work here described ,are the essential parts ofc rowns and coronets b ut

it is usual , in England , to represent themwith theaddition of the crimson cap, described as belongingto the crown of the king,

and to which it real lydoes belong, though not essentially . Richard I II .is generallydrawn with this cap, unaccompaniedby the crown.

With respect to the number of crosses, strawberry - leaves , &c . it is to be remembered that in theprofiles exhibited in pic tures and engravings, onlyhalf of themare seen.

79 HERALDRY,

According tosome, the leaves , calledof the streathe parsley .mitre is acleft andpointed cap. An arch ~

who ranks at the head of the dukes , has acoronet s imilar to theirs , through which themitreissues ; while a bishop, who ranks at the head ofthe barons , has also a baronial coronet, withou t its

pearls , which s urrounds hismitre.Mitres are never worn by Protestant bishops .

4. The helmet is placed .above the shield, and

under the crest.5 . Mantles andMantlings,are derived fromth e

cloths which antientlymade part of themilitarydress. Mantles are plain in their ou tline, butu sually

'

paintedas if lined with fur. Mantlings belong to

the helmet. Au antient helmet andmantling is stillto be seen in the church of St. Margaret, inWest.

6 : A chapeau is an antient cap of dignity, and

probably the same w ith that already spoken of as

pan of acrown and coronet . At present, it is aecoration onlymore honou rable than the wreathl ike which , it u sual ly supports the crest.7 . The romantic is afilletmade of two skains of

silk , of the colou rs of the principalmetal ‘andcolour in the arms .

8 . .The crest , as its name impl ies , was a badgeworn upon the head. It is placed above a shield?but unde r a coronet.9. The scroll is that which contains themotto

,

“

eithe r: placed above the crest, or below the arms .

Mottosarésmhject to no rules .1 c

I 10. The supporters are figures standing on thescroll, and seeming to support the shield.

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78 HERALDRY.

bear the‘ hereditary coats of father andmb therquarterly. at

A charged escu tcheon , placed on the centre of ashield , is borne upon other occasions than that ofshewing the alliance between amarried heiress and

Q uartering,” is the divis ion of the shield by .

‘

a

perpendicu lar and horizontal l ine cross ing eachOther, as in plate and denotes the alliance between existent and extinct famil ies (or branches offamilies) or, in other words , .it dec lares the Un ionof Families . Thu s, the son ot

'

an he iress does not

hearhismaternal arms upon an escu tcheon of pretence over his paternal coat, but quarters the formerwith the latter for in himnot only the estates

, but

the arms of the two families become united : I f hismaternal coathas previous ly received in likemannerthe arms of pre existent families (or branches of

families), he quarters theme“all his paternal coatfalling into the general conflux. The family of

Percy, and that of De Ferrars , are remarkableins tances of the conflux of fami lies : The latterquarters not less than one hu ndred and s ixty coats !whilst other ancient families remain withou t as inglequart ering u pon their escu tcheons . When quarzterings become numerous , they are admiss ible imlyu pon banners , or

'

other funeral trophies the bearerhaving it . in choice to use any one

,two, four, or

other number, upon his seals, his carriages; or his

{l‘bachelor , whilst h e : remains such ,may

quarter his paternal coat‘

married .

HERALDRY'

. 7 9

Maid .

” The arms of amaid is to be placed inalozenge ; and if her father bore any difi

'

enenemrahis coat, the same is to be continued . for themarkof cadency of herfather’

s,will denote what branch

she is from.

Widow .

” The arms of aw idow is to be irmpaled with the arms of her late husband, his on thedexter s ide, and her

’s on the sin ister side; u pon a

lozenge, as the example;Knight,

” 850 . When aknight of the Garter ismarried, his wife’s armsmu st be placed in a dis ,

t inct shield , because his -arms are surrou nded .with

the ensign of that order ; fox: though the hu sbandmay give his equal share of the shiekl and becedi4tary honou r, yet he cannot share his temporaryorder of knighthood with her.Commoner andhis lady . A commonermar

ried to a lady of qual—ity is not to impale her arms

With his own ; they aré t o be set aside of one ano

ther in separate shields ,as the lady sti ll retains hertitle and rank . Plate I I .The Arms of Ulster, or, as they are familiarly cal led , the Bloody Hand, is the badge of Ba;ronetage . This device was granted by James I . atthe institu tion of that order, inmemory of the ex.

pedient, or the pretence , u nder whic h it wass insti

fitted name ly,the protection of the province of

Ulster in Ireland . Thes e arms are blazoned , '

ar. 3

sinis ter hand couped and erect, gu . By the ru lesof heraldry, they ought to be home on an escu tch

eon placed on athe centre, or in chief, of the pantennal coat of the bearer.

ment, usual ly placed over the door oflaperson of

so HERALDRY.

dis tinction deceased, points ou t the sex, and'

oon

jugal connection , as well as the dignity andmi nrial distin ctions of the defunct . See Pl . 11 . .Thesecircumstances are denoted by the formand aecompaniments of the field, and the colour of the groundof the

“

hatchment th us ,“ For abachelor,

”— the paternal arms are paint 3ed upon a shield , and accompanied with Helmet,Cres t, and Motto, and with the groun d of batchment (namely , the vacant canvass on each s ide of

the shield)all black.

For a s ingle woman , -the paternal arms arepainted u pon a lozenge, with no other accompaniment, or ornament, than agold-cord , loosely knotted, encompass ing the .field : the ground , in thiscase, is also all black.

For awidow,

”— the paternal arms of the defunct are impaled with those of herlate hu sband

,

in a lozenge, with a fancy gold-ornament roundit ; but with no accompaniment ; the grou nd allblack .

For amarried woman leaving a hu sband ,”her paternal arms impaled with those of her b us l'band , are painted u pon a shield , withou t the armorial accompaniment ; the s ides of the shield beingonly ornamentedi In this case the s inister s idecf the ground is black, to denote the death of thewife ; the dexter Slde white, to shew that the bus ,band is living.

For amarriedman leavmg a widow,”— the

arms as before , u pon a shie ld,with the accompa

niments of helmet, cres t, andmotto : the d exter.

HER‘

atFor amanwho dies , leavinga second wife,”

his shield of arms (not impaled) together with theaccompaniments , are painted upon a black ground .

O n the dexter side of the shield is placed a smallfuneral escu tcheon , bearing his patemal '

coat impaled with that of his first wife

,the s in ister; s ide

.O f this esc u tcheon being black, to denote her deathand on the s in ister s ide of the shield is placed another escutcheon , bearing his arms impaled withthose of his second wife ; the dexter side of thisescutcheon , being painted black , to denote his

death the sinister, white, to shew that his secondwife is still living.

‘6 The peer,” is distingu ished by his coronet

and supportersThe baronet,

” by his badgeThe knight compan ion ,” by themotto of his

order ;And the bishop ,

” by hismitre . In this case itis observable, that as , by the ru les of heraldry , thearms of the office take precedency of those of theholder, the arms of the diocese are always impaledon the dexter s ide, those of the bishop on the si~nister s ide, of the escu tcheon : consequently on the

hatchment for a bishop . the s in is ter , and not the

dexter side of the ground is painted black.

Bmuor, in feodal customs , a triliu te of goodsand chattels , payable to the lord of themanor,upon the decease of a Copy -holder.Hannnrtcu . SEALING; 1n chemistry, amanner of

c los ing glass vesse ls in so accurate amanner, thateven themost subti le spirits cannot escape; Thikis usually performed by heating the neck of thevessels in the flame of a lamp, ti ll it be ready to

82 HER

melt, and then with pincers , twisting it close ’to ~

gether.Heamrr, '

(a corru ption of eremit, which is

derived . froma Greek word s ignifying a wilderness ,

” or a name given to a person who passes his life at adistance fromthe ordinary abodes ofmen . There is nothing in theetymology of the word, it is obvious , nor is there,in the early history of hermits , that renders perfeet solitude essential to the denomination . Itwas common with the antient hermits

,as in the

erminple of St . Anthony,to have anumber of as

s ociates.

HERON, in natural h istory, a bird wh ich feedsu pon fish

,and commonly builds in cliffs on the

sea-shore, though sometimes in lofty trees . Thisbird, which is very voracious , is extremely hostil eto the interes ts of those who have fish-

pondSu It‘is said that it will eat fifty dace and

'

roaches , of amoderate s ize, in a day ; and one thousand store ncarp in a years It is sometimes caught by abait,.Whic h should be fastened, by a strong l ine, to a

s tone of sufficient weight. The heron was formerlymu ch esteemed as a food. It is a long livedbird. Individuals have been known to l ivemorethan s ixty years .

HERRING, in natural history, afish o well knownas a food . The name herring is derived fromtheGerman here, an army ; in al lu s ion to the countless numbers which compose the shoals or bodiesin which they swim. For the herring-fishery, see

FISHERY.

H eascnsn, the name. by which astronomers ingeneral cal l the planet discovered’ by Dr. Herschel

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84 H IE

HESBER1mastronomy, the evening star3an appel lationgiven to the plane t Venus , when i t setsafterthe sun.

HEXAGO N, in geometry, afigure of six s ides andanewHEXAEDRO ’N, i n geothetry, one of the five regular

sohds, being nearly acube. SeeBODr

-e us , properly s ignifies an open ing or. gap,and in that sense is used for the defects ofmanu isc ripts ; but it is also applied to that Opening of themou th and consequ ent harshness of . sound, whichoccu rs when one word ends , and the next begins,with a vowel .HIDE, a word formerly used in land~measure,

for s uch .a space as’might be ploughed with one .

plough or, asmuch as wouldmaintain the family

of an hide, ormansion-hou se ; According to some ,a hide was s ixty acres , othersmake it eighty, andothers a hu ndred . The quantity, very probably,was always determined by local usage on ly.

H IERARCHY,a termliterally s ignifying holy go

vernment, and appl ied sometimes, to the su ppos edpolity; or social constitution, among angels , andsometimes to chu rch government.Hmnoov mcs , in Egyptian h istory , symbols or

characters by which the earlier philosophers expressed their doctrines ,

1 and w hich , when anti

quated, and no longer unde rs tood by the people atlarge, were accounted sacred .

-Hieroglyphics differfromletters , inasmuchas theformer represent thingsby likenesses , real or

‘

fancifu l . Fromsymbols ofthis kind

, all letters have been formed . An in

s cription on the temple of Mine rva, at SaiS, afi‘

tmlsa spec imen of aAn infant, an 01d

HIP 85man, a hawk, afish, and a river- horse , expressedthismoral -sentence You who come in to theworld , and you who go out of it, know this that the

gods hate impu dence .”HumADMIRAL, see Amman “

B renma son, see Treas on .

Hmnmsss , aquality , or title of honou r, given toprinces . The kings of England , before James I .

were not saluted with the title of maj es ty,” butthat of highness on ly.

Hmponnonn, 1n an tiqu ity, a cou rse for chariotand horse races. There are in England samevestiges of s imilar cou rses , themost remarkable ofwhich is that near Stonehenge . This hippodromeoccu pies a tract of grou nd extending abou t twohundred .

dru idical cubits , or three hundred and

fifty feet, in breadth , and six thou sand dru idicalwhite, ormore than amile and three quarters , 1ninlength . It runs dirwfly east and wes t, and i s completely inclosed with a bank of earth The goaland careerare at the east end. The goal is ahigh

bank of earth , raised~Withas lope inwards , on which

the judgesmsupposed to have sat. There is oneabou t half amile to the sou thward of Le ices ter ;another near D orchester ; a third on the banks ofthe Lomthtn'

,near Pe nrith in Cumberland ; and a

fourth in the Valley without Royston, in Su i-ry .

H rraiorormtm, river horse, i s found onlyofAhe rivers Nile, Niger, Gamfia, and Zaire . Itis '

somaitnes seen tinmalt -water. In Gu inea, thet imers , dams; andmarshy grounds afibrd numbersof them, and insome patts ef flafi aria they are stillVOL. 11r.

86 H IR'

waters , the hippopotamus IS well known to breatheair like land animals . O n land he finds the chief

part of his food , though he occasionally feeds onaquatic plants ; but he not unfrequently leaves the

’

water, and commits wide dev'astations through allthe adjacent fields . H is depredations are usuallycarried on in the night : He descends to the bottomof the deepes t river, and walks along it with the

'

same slow and stately pace,as if he were on the

land . He cannot however continu e u nder water'

more than a certain length of time, wheii he l ascends to

"

discharge the water from’

his lungs and7

draw in fresh air. He is never offens ive nhless'

when acc identally provoked or wounded,but when

his anger is rou sed, revenge is ful ly within his

power,for he can dash a boat to pieces with his

teeth , or if the river be not deep he will raise one s

on his back and overset it. The Egyptians are'said to destroy the an imal with the following artifice ; they scatter avast quantity of peas in his tract ,

‘

which he eagerly swal lows whole, the dryness of

the food disposes himto drink , the peas swell inhis stomach and kill him. See pl .Nat. Hist . fig. 22 .

Hmunno, the swallow in natu ral history,agenus

of birds of the order passeres , of which there are38 ‘

8pecies . O f all the feathered tribes , that of theswal low kind ismost on the wing. Flight seems .

its natu ral , and almost necessary attitude. In thats tate it feeds , and bathes itself, and sometimes promcreates and nou rishes its young. Their wings

‘

are '

long and adapted for continu ed fl ight, and theirtails are large and forked , to enable themto '

tu rn '

with agility, and to bemasters of their flight evenin its greatest velocity” .The

'

nidification of this

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33 HISTORY.

With regard to h uman affairs , also, the applicatiohof the termhistory is still farther restricted to thenarrative of political occu rrences only . To entitlethe account of the transactions of the government,the wars and the negotiations of a nation , its political history , wou ld be thought ape dantic refinement ; and to call that of its ecclesiastical occurrences

,or domes ticmanners , by the general term

history , would be cemsured as wanting in precis ion.

If the reader, asmay probably happen , is indififerent to this literary qu estion , the subject is never!theless of importance to him, in another point ofview. It is incalculable to what an extent the ideasofmankind aremis led, by the s imple circumstanceof takirig that which is political history , in the samesense with general history . Readers frequentlycomplain that history 1s fu ll of nothing but warsand politicalmachinations but they shou ld reflectthese are the very subjects of which history (commonlys ocal led)pmposes to treat : years of peacearebut somany blanks , over which the hisrorian passeswith a dash cl his pen , and often a sneer of contempt while asingle day of trouble, or aplot, ora rumou r of a plot, is atheme formany a volume.I I . His tory 15 natu rally interesting in the highestdegree we cannot bu t take themost lively concernin the transactions of our fellow creatu res rand, iftime bemeasmed by the su ccession of ideas , thisstudy certainly antedates our lives , andmakes u s

live through the ages that have preceded o urbirth.

Nor is the immrtance of his tory in ferior to itscination s it is the sou rce

,immediate ormediate;

of almost all our ideas. Nomah who IS acquaintedwith facts , can forma theory vs1thout taking these

HISTO RYI'

89

info theaccount ; we seldomspeak or think of human nature, without some reference to the act ionswhich we believemankind to have performed ; and;are not the attributes , nay , the very conduct, of theDeity himself , daily argued on his torical grou nd ?I II I . To those who are des irous of studying history with advantage , it is always recommended tomake geography a correlative pursu it ; and farther,to have at hand , amapof the country

,the history

of which they are reading . The learner cannotbe too sedu lous , also , to reduce themedley of

events into order ; and to form, in hismind , anaccurate abridgment of the narrative. It

'

is not

here recommended to commit any su ch abridgmentto paper (for, in that case , it wil l presen tly be for

gotten , and the stu dent’s knowledge he to be found ,

not in his head , but in his escritoir nor, ought historical reading to be confined to that of the abridgments of others these have their use bu t we cannot know toomany particulars : it will often happen , that some unnoticed circumstance overtu rns

,

in themind of aman who thinks for himself, all thespec ious fabric that partial historians have set up.

lv . The latter cons ideration will properly introduce a few remarks , of the justice of which , and ofmany others of a s imilar nature, it is infinitely demhle that the historical inqu irer shou ld be con

vmced. Historians are commonly partizansshou ld be said , both ; and the geare written with nearly all the

licence of romance. Their readers , therefore, s hou ld

90 HISTORY .

perplexing, concern , two ru les of judgment, thatcan seldombe useles s , present themselves : firstly,i t will be well to analyse the particu lars rec ited ina smooth compos ition ,

and observe wlwther theyare all of that nature which admit of complete evidence ? whether, no hrtificial turn be given by a

presumptuou s use of epithets , or barefaced interpolations ?and, whether the who le is; or is not, at themercy of awriter , who obtrudes his Own notionsat every step, and talks of weak kings ,

‘

and wickedministers , or stu bborn princes and servile cou rtiers ,instead of detailing facts fromwhich the readermay judge for himself ?Secondly , if the student be young in the research,he cannot too strongly bear inmind the uncertaintyof all historical information . Neither un de rstanding nor hones ty are always secmities for the verac ity of the writer. x lt were endless to recount theforms in which error forces itself upon himwhoserecord is bu ilt Upon the au thority of

‘ others ; andthere aremany occas ions, O n which even the personal evidence of the historian ought to commandbut little of implicrt belief.Among the numerous causes of historical—{hisshood , of . which it wou ld beus efu l to take themostscrutinizing: view, there is one which appears emlwneatly deserviiag of remark and this is , the extraordinary care “

that, in public as wel ll ife, inust frequ entlyb e employed , by thOs e Whoknow it best, to prevent the publication. of the truthsAdd, that the heroes of history depend, forthe initerpretation of their conduct, upOn circums tanceswholly independent on th

Protestantismhadnotbe'en

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92 HO B

respect io‘the several revolutions that have ccf-f

c urred in the world,and in particu lar empires ;

kingdoms , and states . Such is Priestley’s chart

which embraces general history ; such .is the an

nexed PLATE as it relates to the several changesthat have taken place in the government, and irithe success ion ofmonarchs of England . The rea.

der will see in one view,and will, with a little at

tention , remember every revolu tion that has oc

curred in Britain , fromthe time ‘

when the islandwas in the posses s ion of the original inhabitants tothe present period .

Hrs’ri uomc ART, that of acting in dramatic re

presentations . H istrio, in antient Rome , s ignifiedan actoror comedian bu tmore espec ially apantomime, whose talents were exerted in ges ticulationsand dancing.

H O B-NOB,or hob-nab, a cant phrase , derived

fromImp ne Imp, or happen whatmay.

”

H OBSON’S CHOI CE , a proverbial express ion, usedto denote

,no choice at all. This proverb ori

ginated at Cambridge where , in the beginning of

the seventeenth century, one Thomas Hobson,a

carrier, was aecustomed to let saddle -horses to thescholars ; andwho, des irous that everyhorses hou ldhave its proper share of res t, wou ld neverallow one

to be hired out of its turn . H is inflexibility oftenclashed with the whims of his customers ; but hewas pos itive ; theymust e ither take the horse hewas will ing to let , or go withou t any whence thesaying, Hobson

’s choice : this or none . Hob

son’s conduct, in this branch of his profession, evi

dentlymarked , a degree of character; bu t his ce‘

lebrity does not rest here“ At his sole expence, he

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as HO L

zriver Mouse and Brabant. In the year 1795, theU nited Provinces were invaded by the French and

theirgovernment andconstitu t lon were overthrownabou t the year 1802, the Provinces were denome ted the Batavian Republic , aname which gaveplace to that of the Kingdomof Holland , whichwas divided into the follow ing departments : viz.

Chief Towns.1 .

'

Gronmg‘en Groningen .

2 . Friesland Leewarden .

O ver Issel'

Zwol.

4. Gu elderland Arnheim.5 . U trecht.6 . Hagu e .

7 . Bois le du e .

8 . Middleburg.

It 18 also divided into fourmil itary divis ions : thefirst cornprizes the department of H olland , Bra)ham, and U trecht : head quarters the Hague .The second

,the province of Z ealand : head quarters

at Middleburg. . The third, the departments of

Friesland andGroningen , head -quarters Groningen .

The f ourth, the departments of Guelderland andO ver- Issel

,head quarters at Deventer. Buona-s

parte,

placed his brother Lou is on the throne'

of

Holland , but in 18 10 he disapproved of the era

peror’smeasures , res igned his crown and left the

c ou ntry , setting forth his reasons for this conductin awe l l drawn declaration . Since then Buonapartehas u nited Holland to the French empire , in whichthe Oppressed . inhabitants have been obliged to

.H O LLAND , in commerce , a fine and close-wove

HON 95

imen-d oth , so called fromits having been firstmaunfactored inHolland ;

H oaiac s , in law, the submiss ion, , loyalty, amls erv ice which a twant promised to the lord of thefee, .npon his first admission . to the land . In the

general, it s ignifies any profess ion of submission,loyalty , and service .

Homcms , in law, the killing aman . Threekinds of homicide are distingu ished I . justifiable ,l l . excusable, III . fe lonious .

I . Ju stifiable homicidemay take place in various-ways as

,where an officer puts aman todeath by

c ommand of the law,or

, through neces s ity; in performing partof his du ty ; or where an individualk ills another, in se lf-defence , or for the

'

preventionof any capital crime , which that otherwas abou t tocommit .I I . Excusable homicidemay be through,misfor

tune , or for self-preservation ; by chancemedley .

In e ither of these cases” the penalty is tbrteiture of

g oods ; bu t th is is saved by the king’s pardon s

I II . Felonious homicide is the killing a humanc reature , w ithou t any excu sable cau se as well the

.killing aman ’s self, as the killing another. The

killing anothermay be 1 . manslaughter, '

or 2 :

fl ow n, in divinity, originally

'

signified a dis-1

cou rse u pon some point of religion,more fami liarthan a sermon . Latterly, it seems to . denote an

estawshed discourse , in oppos ition to the temporaryHome, afine kind of W he tstone, u sed for sett ing

orgiv ing an edge to sharp instruments of steel . I t

so HONcontinued immers ion in water. In O xfordshire,this wood is said to be petrified in apeculiarly short

HONEY, asaccharine substance, collected by beenfromthe fl owers of various plan ts , and depos itedin their comb. The honey is extracte d either byexpress ion , or by plac ing the comb in awarmSi?tuation , when it liqu ifies and comes away in a purestate . The best honey is oil a thick cons is tence;and awhitish colour, inclining to yellow

,and cd

'

an agreeable smeli and taste bu t both the colourand flavOur are said to difl

'

er,.according to the plans

fromwhich it has been c'

ollected . Honey. appearsto cons ist of vegetable juices , e ither oozing, with ;portion of their essen tial oil, fromflowers , orW E

onely collected fromthe leaves and branches sof

trees , by vine fretters , and then known by the nameo£ honey dew. These juices , the bees transportbymeans of the ir probosces ; and, after givingthemacertain preparation , probably in .their stdmacbs, depos it themin their cells . That the ju icesdo undergo s ome preparation, appears almost umdeniable , s ince the honey wrought by young beesis white, andmore pure than that produced by old.

The former 18 called oirgmhoney.

HONEY comb, a waxen structure , full of cells,cons tructed by the bees , to deposit their honey andeggs in. The structure of the lroney comb s eemsone of themost surprizing parts of the .works if

insects , and thematerials of w hich it is Weomposedwhich though evidently collected from. fl owe rs:yet do exist in themmthat form

,a cinctnnsta

'

nce

which has given great cause of speculation to thecurious ” The regular s tructure ef the comb is'

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$98HON

however, it is lessmquantity , the Bees prefer thisto the honey of the flowers thenmseason . It is ,indeed, their chief resource for subsistence after thespringzfl o

'

wers , . and transpiratoryfhoney

-dew, are

gone; and, as the trees , though pierced to the sapinathou sand places , do not seemto suffer in the

least, the husbandman who des troys the insect ,phobablymistakes his interest .

g aH ONI sorr omMAL y PENSE, themotto of the

order of the garter. In ' the chivalrou s .spiri t, it.contains adefiance ° Sha

’me to himthat thinklse vil hereof li.’

Towhat the allusion 18made , admits of aquestion . Itmaymean the cau se of the Cross ; or

that of Edward in his warwith France ormerelythe garter itself ; or the incident of the fall of thatof the countess of Salisbury . See Garter, O rder

HONOUR , inmoralphilosophy, denotes wort/cfHos oua, amongmen of the world , is the same

thing with virtue, among philosophers; and r ighteousness, among religionists . That u prightness ,which ,the las t incu lcates on the

’

ground of avoidiqthe wrath , and obtaining the favour, of heaven , thesecond teaches on the principle of self approbation ,and the first on that of ou tward repu tation .

Hens on, in high l ife , and among those whowou ld aflect to rank among the fashionable world,has ameaning which it is eas ier to illustrate thandefine . t It is subject to a systemof :rules , calledthe law of honour, constructed by people O f fashiorr,

their intercourse with one

er. purpose . Co nsequently

“

HON ”

99

but what .tends to incommode this intercourse.

Hence profaneness , neglec t of the du ties of reli

gion , cru elty t o servants and rigorous treatment ofdependants , wan t of charity to the poor, injmiesdone to tradesmen by insolvency or delay of payment, with numberless examples of a similar kind

,

are accounted no breaches of honour,because aman is not a less agreeable companion for the se

vices , nor the worse to deal with in those concernswhich are u sually transacted between one gent leman and another.

HONOUR,mlaw,a

’

superior seigniory , towhich

other lordships and inanors owe s u it and M ice ,

and which , itself, holds of the king on ly.

HONOUR,ln polity , the same with nobility . As

the origin of hereditary nobility was terri torial , thepreceding article will show why a title shou ldbecalled an honour.

HONOUR, Cou rt g"

, a court antiently held by theearl -marshal of England , for inquiring into qu estions of honour.

H ONOURS or WAR,marks of respect allowe d bythe bes iegers to agarrison that is able to hold l ou t ifthese he refused and which consist in itsmarching ou t with shouldered arms

,drums beat ing ,

colours flying, and all its baggage . Its arms ,however, are us ually laid down ,

before it qu its the

HONOURABLE,a title of quality attribu ted to the

younger children of earls , and the children of vis

trus t and honou r ; and,‘

collective ly, to the hou seof commons , and to the East -Indiacompany.

a H ONORABLE, zAmendefi in the ancien t polity of

300 B O O

France, a.disgraceful sort of pu nishment. The deg

fondantwas delivered up to the common hangman,who stripped himto his shirt, put arope about hisneck, andawax taperin his hand ; andbeing led inthis condition, to the court, be therebegged pardonof God, the king , and the court.

I

H O O KAH, a smoking u tensil of peculiar con

stru ction, in use among the nations of the East .The hookah cons ists of a small vessel containingwater, and two tubes , orone tube divided in the.mid-1dle where it joins , and opens into the water vessel.The one tube , or part of the tube , s tandsman erectposition, and on the tapof this is placed the tobacco ;the other projects obliquely, and is that to the endof which the smoker applies hismouth . The use

of the hookah is , its cooling the smoke, which ishere drawn through water. Themore luxuriouscinploy rose-water ; and, with these , the wholeu tens il is frequently of themost costly construc

tion ; the water-vessel being of silver, set withprecious stones . The smoking-tube , which is ofextraordinary length , and pliantmaterials , is forthese reasons called the snake .

HOOKER, inmarine arch itecture, aDu tch vessel,bu ilt like apink, but rigged like aboy. Thehookeris fromfifty to two hundred tons burden with afew hands , it wi ll go to

'

the East Indies ; and is

esteemedfor its quality of lying nearer to the windthan is

“

poss ible to a vesse l with cross - sou ls .

.H oon, apiece of pliant wood , or iron , bent into‘

a circular form, and commonly used for securingcooks, and s imilar vessels Driving a Hoop,

boyish exercise, highly se1 viceahle for inducing afree use of the limbs , and giving tenets the nerves .

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102 HOR

prospect. The rational horizon is agreat circle ofthe apparent celestial sphere , dividing f it into two

hard s ubstance growheads of several animals , and serving

themas weapons of defence The horn of an ani~mal is of the same nature as its gelatinousmatter 5and is only thatmatter charged with a lesser quantity of water, and a larger one of earth , and suffici

ently condensed to be of a solid cons istence . Horndiges ted with water, in Pepin

’s diges ter, is redu

c ible to a perfect jelly . Horn is a cons iderablearticle in commerce , as be ing thematerial ofmany manufactures as lanthorns , ink-horns,combs

,and knife-hafts . Artificers in horn

, are

called homers.

HORNPIPE , amusical instrument, common in

Wales . It is a pipe of wood , with holesat stateddistances , anda horn at each end ; the one , to collec t the wind blown into it by themou th , and theother, to disperse themodu lated sounds .

HOROLOGY, is that branch of s ciencewhich ena

b les us tomeasu re the portions of time as they pass .

WeJudge of the lapse of time by the s uccess ion of

sens ible events , and themost convenient and accuratemeasures O f its quantity are derived frommotions ; which are e ither uniform, or repeated at

equal intervals . O t'

thef ormer kind the rotation of

the earth On its axis is themost exact, and the s i

tuation of the earth with respect to t he fixed stars,

or sun, constitutes themeans for determhdng flacparts O f time as they follow each othieru See DIAL:O f the latter kind the rotation Ofmachincny con

HO ROLO GY. 103s is ting of wheel-work,moved by a weightyorspring, and regu lated by apendulumor balance,affords instruments of which the u tility

'mwellknown . The termhorology is at present confined .

to the princ iples on which the art O fmaking clocksand watches is es tabl ished . In this article will begiven an account of the struc ture of a commone ight day clock, and under the head WATCH , themachinery of thatmost common and us efu l articlewill be given .

Clocks were invented tomeasure time and allits subdivisions with great exactness ; these cons is t of acombination of whee ls , and they are us uallyregu lated by the un iformmotion of ape ndulum.

The English word clock is derived fromthe

German, or fromthe French la clocke, a bell,against which it u su ally strikes the hour indicated .Clocks andwatches usually divide the hours intominu tes , one hand , or index, pointing out the hour,

the other themin u tes . Some , however, carry thedivis ions, bymeans of a third index, to seconds .

Inmany cases the pendulumcannot, on accountof its length and otherc ircumstances , bemade use

of ; hence the invention of watches , or as they wereformerly called, pocketrcloeks .

O ne was invented byMr. George Graham, whichdivided the second into s ixteen parts , which wasintended tomeas ure small portions of time in astronomical observations , the time spent in the (19?scent of falli ng bodies , the velocity of runn ingwaters, 8m,In plateMiscellanies, Fig. 20, is such aregresen

sf atbe skleW ain orderto l

£04 HO ROLO GY .

SS , T.T, is the frame tbr the s upport of the wheels8m. «P is aweight su spended by arcpe that windsabout the cylinder, or barrel C ,

which is fixed on‘anelitismthemotion of D D communicated by theweight P, turning the barrel C , is transferred to the’

sniaikwheel or pinion D , which turns the wheelsE E, N , N, g, g, these tu rn the wheels 6 O p. The

pinion 6 turns the wheel F F,which turns f, and

trhnsfiars themotion to G H , the balance wheel , andhence to the palettes, I , K , and bymeans of the forkX U riveted on the bar r smotion is given to thependu lumA B , which is suspended on ah ook A .

Thus the weight P givesmotion to every part of themachinery, and wou ld run down with acce leratedmotion , were it not for aracket wheel fastened to

the inner part of the wheel D , which renders themotion uniform. The whee l E E revolve s in anhour, the pivot c of this whee l passes the plate andis continued to r u pon the pivot is a whee l N Nwith a socket fastened in the centre, and u pon theextremity of this socket r theminu te hand is fixed .

The wheel 9 9 turns once in twelve hours only, andon this , at z the hou r-hand is fixed . Thus you perceive that though to ou tward appearance , bothhands of a clock and watch seemto be fas tened onone axis , they are in tru th on different axes , the“minute-hand being carried round by the axis towhich it is fastened , and the hour-hand by theaxis to which 9 q is fastened .

To shew how the whee l E, to which theminu tehand is fixed ,makes bu t one revolu tion in an hour,itmus t be observed , that it depends on the length ofthe pendu lum, and on the number of vibrations it

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106 HOROLOGY.

the pnnon goes just as fastas thewheel E,by which

theminu te- hand is“moved

,of course the hou r-hand

revolves as it ought, only once, while theminu tehand revolves 1 2 times .

The weight P 18 not a necessary part of a c lock,

becau se small clocks , as those which stand on tablesorb r

,ackets do not admit of awe ight to run down

theseythen , aremoved w ith a spring, contained inthe barrel , instead of aweight, andcord to be wound

lu’

Fig. 2 1, we have a different view of the ' in »

side of a clock; Here are two sets of wheels 3thes et connectedwvith the barre l A is that which wehave already described ; the other set, connectedwith 43, is thestriking part . 1Tbese sets , or trainsof wheels , are independent of one another, and eachhas its firstmover A andB the train A A is con

stantly going, to indicate the time by the hands onthe dial plate but the train B B , is only put inmotion every hour, and strikes ahell to tell the

‘hour.

0 is the ban el of the going part, having a catgu t'

or

card .r, wound round it, su spending the we ight w,

which ke eps the c lock going, in the way describedabove . The firstmover is the barrel B , having ac lick,such as has been described withregard to Fig.

20. 1To this barrel is attached a whee l b, calledthe count-wheel

,having 78 teeth , it turns apinion

of 8 teeth, which is connected w ith the pin or

striking-whee l x, of 64 teeth, acting also u pon apinion of 8 teeth , belonging to the detent or prepwhee l 0, of 48 teeth this turns a pini on of 6 , on

the same arbor with athin vane ofmetal, cal led afly, intended, by its resistance to the air, to regulatethev elocity of the wheels.

HO R 107

The wheel x, has eight pin s projecting fromit,these , as they pass by the taiLof the hammer n ,

raise it up the hammer is returned violentlywhen the pins leave its tail , by a springm, pres s

on the end of apin pu t through its arbor, and

es the bell. There is another spring, I, whichlifts the hammerof the be ll the instant it has struck,that itmay stop the sound . The eighth pin ,

in the

whee l .r, passes by the hammer 78 times in s trik

ing the 1 2 hours , becau seand as its pinion has

e ight leaves , each leaf of the pinion answers to a

pin in the whee l .r . As the great W heel has 78

teeth it will turn once in 1 2 hours . The whee l x,

having 64 teeth , e ight of themcorrespond to oneof the pins for the hammer, and as the pinion of

the next wheel 0, has eight teeth , the wheel itselfwill turn once for each stroke of the hammer. As

0 turns once for 6 revolu tions of its pinion and as

P turns once for 8 revolutions of its pinion of 6

leaves,the flyf , will fix times for one revo

lation of the wheel 0, which is equal to one strokeof the hammer.

Bes ides the wheels , in the striking train , belongseveral other parts ; as the ratchet, a whee l withtwelve large fangs , running concentrical to the

dial-wheel, serving to litt upthe detents every hour,andmake the clock strike ; the hammer whichstrikes the bell and the bell itself.Hous e

,we have referred fromthe generic term

Eauus , to the present article , foran account of this’

mos t usefu l and interes ting animal ,meaning ’

at the

same time to notice some other of the species , of

108 HO RSE.

horse , or as he is te rmed in the Linnaean systemthe Equus Caballus , is found

,

inmost,

parts of the

world . In Africa horses stillmaintain their ori

ginal independence, and range at pleasure in herdsof se veral hundreds, having always one ormore asan advanced guard to g ive an alarmagainst theapproach of danger. The notice is expressed b ya su dden snorting, at which themain body gallopsoff with themost surprizing swiftness .

J

In Arabiaalmost everyman posses ses his horse , which livesin the same apartment with himself and familyand is considered as cons tituting an important partof it. It is fed with themost regu lar attention, iscleaned with an incessant ass idu ity , and ,

is never;on any account, ill treated . An Arab occas ionallyappears ,

to carry on a conversational intercoursewith his horse , and his attachment to the animalexcites in return a corresponding affection. The

horses of Barbary are in high repu tation , for.their

speed and elegance of form, and in some parts ofIndiaand China there is a breed of horses scarcelylarger than themastifi-dog. In no country. of tthe

globe has the breed of horses beenmore attended tothan inGreatBritain , and the horses of this coun .

try are in somu ch estimation that, in periods of

national tranqu illity, t hey constitu te an importantarticle of exportation. The race of England is notexcelled in swiftness or beau ty by the coursers ofBarbary or Arabia

,and in supporting fatigue ismu ch superior to either The famou s Bay Melton ,

which belonged formerly to themarquis of Roekingham, ran fourmiles i n les s than eightminutesand the celebrated Childers, supposed to havebeen

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1 10 HO RSEwhomthatof the cow is reckoned too heavy.

'

Ehnsluggishness of the ass has frequently exc ited ludierou s feelings , and it is said of Crassu s , that theonlyoccas ion on which he was everknown to laugh ,was at an ass eating thistles . The habits of theass , it has been observed , do not appearamore ferti le salacot of ridicule than those of that philosopher.

Themu le is a hybrid animal between the homeand the ass, and is amos t serviceable an imalmmountainou s countries , where it wil l carry the

ride1 with the gi eatest safety , amidst themostdangemu s tracts . Themanner of themu le on

particu lar occas ions of steep and perilous descentdeserves to hementioned . Where the path

, per

haps , is scarcely four feet wide , having on one

s ide a perpendic ular ascent, and on the other a vas t

abyss, .

and presenting declivities of two or three orfour h undred yards , themu le will, on arriving atone of these

,halt

,and no effort of the rider can

u rge himforward . H e appears alarmed at thecontemplation of the danger ; in a fewmoments ,however, he places himself in a proper attitude forthe bu siness , and then glide s down w ith as tonishing rapidity , yet amidst all his speed , retains thatdegree of self government which enables himto follow ,

with themost perfect prec ision, all the windings ofmad, and to avoid every impediment to hisp1 ogress and secmity .

The Z ebra is larger than the as s , but farmoree legant in its form. See fig . 25 . It is e ither ofmilk white , on creamcolour, or adorned on every

part with stripes arranged in exquis ite order, andattended with extreme brilliancy and beau ty. The

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1 12 HUD

The hourof the Hindus is the s ixtieth part of thenycthemeron ; each hour contain ing twenty -fourminu tes , and eachminu te , twenty-four seconds ,according to European compu tation . The divisionof the nycthemeron into twenty-four hours , wasnot known to the Romans before the first Runicwar. Till that epoch , they divided the day andn ight into four hours each .

.

The length of,these

hou rs flepended upon that of the -space duringwhich the sun was above the horizon ; for whichreason, s uch hours are called unequal

, or teamsrarya See D AY.

HOUR-glass, apopu larkind of chronometer, serving tomeasure time by the des cent or running of

sand, water, &c . out of one glass vesse l into ano

H ousn cf Commons . See COMMONS.

5 House of Lords . See PEERS .

H own‘

zsa,akind of greatgu n ormortar,mounts

cd on a carriage for trave ll ing. See CAa'

roucns .

Hov,in naval architecture , asmal l vessel, chmfly

u sed in coasting, or in carrying goods to or fromaship , in a road or bay, where the ordinary lighterscannot bemanaged with safety or convenience. In

England , aboy is u sually rigged as a sleep ; bu t

it doe s not appear that the precise characteristics ofthis spemes of vessel are in any degree fixed .

H unson’s BAY COMPANY, a trading company,

established for conducting a commerce betweenBritain and the natives of that part of America

,which hes contiguous to the great bay, or M ?

.terraneaa isea, wh ich , fromits discoverer, has been

.called Hudson’szbay. .The articles obtained from

HUL 1 18

thispartM the world are chiefly furs , copper, andfish ; and trtmks of fir- trees , formas ts .

re l ives , aname given to certain fountains in Icelam} ef -amos t extraordinary nature , forming att imes j ets d’eau of scalding water of n ine ty feet inheight and thirty in diameter, creating one of themostmagnificent sights that can be conce ived .

Theplaying.of these s tu pendous spou ts is foretold

hynoises roaring l ike the cataract of Niagara. Thelargest is called Geyser; it is situated '

in a plainrising into small bilis , i in themids t of an amphitheatre bounded by themostmagnificent and various shaped icymountains , among which Heclas oars pee -eminent. Hu ers are not confined to theland : they rise in the very sea, and formscaldingwaters amidst the waves .

H UGUBNOT, or n uoos or, a French word , used inFrance , after the year 1560,

as an appellation for_a

Protes tant. Its origin, and of consequence its literalmeaning , has rece ived five or six different explanations . Amassacre of the Huguenots took place onSt. Bartholomew’

s-day , 1 572 . Henry IV, ,1 598

,

protected themby the edict of Nantz . LewisXIV,

revoked th is edict,in consequence of which

ditty thou sand persons left France .

HULK , in naval architecture , the body of avessel,or that part which is , in tru th , the s vess el itself ;themasts , sails , and c ordage , compos ing only the

apparatus for its navigation . Hulk 18 also .an old

ship so ealled beeause such ship being no longerintended for navigation, themasts are takenraising sand or ballas t ; and the criminals that ,are

L 2

1 14 HUNc ondemned to thiswork 1n the way of

'

punishment,are said to becondemned to the hu lks.HULL

,acontraction of bu lk. The word is used,

however, in a different sense . Itmeans=thebulk of a ship bu t

'

does not imply that she dswithoutmasts .

H umans socmrr, in London, a charitablemtution, the es tablishment of which is to “

be attri

hated to D r. Hawes . I ts ohjects are , to d iscoverand s upply themeans of recoveringM ons tromas tate of s uspended animation . We have

,

'nnder ara

ticle D aownmc , as amore conven ient place ,”given~themethods adopted by this society for restoringto animation persons apparently drowned. o

'i Sce’

SUSPENDED AN IMATION;means of restoring it

H UMANH'ms, adenomination which , in somen niis given to the belles- lettres, r or politeTbe professors of humanities, in atlfi

innive i sities of Scotland , are called humanists . .mHUMILI

’

I‘

Y IS a v irtue cons is ting in themoderateavalue which aperson puts upon himse lf; and everything relating to him. O n it cons is ts in not sirrichu ting to ourse lves any exce llence or good which1we have not in not over rating any thing whichWe have or do in not taking an immoderate delight in one

’s self ; in not assumingmore of the

{ praise of a quality or action than belongs to u s

and 1 11 a lowly sense and acknowledgment ofm

cd er1ors . u

a d ivision of a shire, se'

e Salsa.

sensation in the stomach caused byj uice, inducing

'

adesireow e:

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‘

1 HUS

sails are carried aWay, yards and all, andnsome.

times themasts themselves wreathed round like anosier.

HUSBANDRY, the bu siness of cultivating the earth,and rearing animals . Husbandry is ” the propertermforthat which is commonly called farming“;and, accordingly,mlaw, aman of thisM ore 18

not to he styled a farmer, bu t a husbandman. u Thcword farmerhas amore general sense . Husbandryincludes agricu lture , breeding, grazing, dainying ,

and every other occupation by which richesmaybe drawn fromthe superficial products of the earth .

Hu sbandrymay also be considered as the science ,of which agricu lture and the rest are the parts ofpractice . It was perhaps , the au thor of Telemachusthat first retrieved , in the eyes ot

’

Enrope, that repu tation for importance to which husbandry has soju st a claim. Fromhis age , it has been progres .

s ively rising in estimation and the present beholds,

not only the children of feodal chieftains seekinghonourable renown in that pursu it which was onceabandoned to themeanest of their fathers’ vassals ,hukwith a spirit that, to the disgrace of later times ,must be called antique , the state and the plough

gu ided by the same hands .

While the patriotism, however, of the great isthus laudably directed , there are not wanting thosewho call in qu estion the u tility of the ir exertions,and even attribute to thema diminution of the

quantity, or, what is tantamoun t, an increase of the

cost, of the products of the earth .

The qu estion lies in a small compass it iheludes only one point, namely, whether thos eertions have diminished the quantity of othe pra

HUSBANDRY . f 17

ducts of the earth ? for, if they have not done this ,the restmus t he the work of other cau ses .

Now,w il l anyman say, that agiven number of

acres in tilth , yields less grain under the new has ;

bandry than under the old , or, in pasture , . feeds

fewer fanimals The reverse is certainly true and

if the several products are greater than they werebefore or even equal, it wil l necessarily follow ,

that the increase of costmust resu lt fromc ircumstances wholly unconnected with the improvements , or the experiments , in husbandry .

The circumstances , probably, fromwhich theu se ln the value of provisions proceeds , and whicht he exertions in question actually tend to counteract, are these : the growth of population ; the

growth of commerce ; and the growth of wealth ,and consequ ent falling off of the relative worth ofmoney.

If we will pursue commerce,wemust not be

s uch children as to suppose , that this, of all humanconcerns , can be withou t its evils. Instead ot

'

saying, that the improvements raise the price of pro

V isions , we ought to inqu ire how far such wellaimed , though inadequate , efforts , have, on the

contrary ,moderated that rise ? The fair question

is , what wou ld have been the prices , other thingsthe same , had not these improvements taken placeW hat are the objects of 1mprovements in agriculture . The lessen ing the quantity of labou r, bymeans of 1mplements ,machines, andmethodicalarrangements ,

and the ascertaining the principlesof vegetation , and of the O peration .ofmanures .

Now, can it be supposed that the reduction of ex

1 18 HUSBANDRY:use ofmanures , less at randomthan formerly, haveany tendency tomu ltiply the price of the products ?What are the objects of improvements in breed

ing ? The rearing su ch animals -as , fromtheirconformation; contain the greatest proportion ofmeat with in a given we ight of carcase and su chas , fromthe economy of their organs , wil l acqu irethe greate st quantity of flesh'w ithin a given time ,and fromagiven quantity of pasture . Now

,it-is a

fac t, that by res orting to the improved breeds , instead of the common , a greater weight ofmeatmay be obtained froma smaller consumption of

grass ; and need any other he cited,

~ to justify a

preference , and prove that, that preference tends toenlarge the supply, and, of consequence , to reducethe price, of themarket P Amistake se ems to beprevalent, with respect to the u tility of raising suchanimals as the emu lation excited by prizes hasbrought forward . The truth is , it is not ih

tended that themarkets shou l d be fil led with onlys uch as these bu t, if, in agiven time , and u ponfixed principles, such can be produced , then, u ponthe same princ iples , and in proportionate spaces of

time, other animals , not so large , but equal lyprofitable ,may also -he produced . In aword , thewhole subject of controversymight be said to be ,whether, in agricu lture , it is better to have principles of conduct, or to proceed at hazard .

Improvements alwaysmeet with Opposition fromthose who are attached to formermethods and it

is des irable that, by this struggle , .they shouldobe

s eparated frominnovations so far, theargument i srational » ; bu twhen it is taken u pon foreign grounds ,when that which ismerely amatter for examiw

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1 20 HYD

W inches ter, and York, by the principal officers oftheir respective corporations . Here, deedsmay be"inrolled, ou tlawries sued ou t, and replevins , andwrits of error, determined . Here , als o, the elec

tions of officers,and parliamentary representatives ,

take place .

H ercumsonmus , the defenders of the philosophy of John Hutchinson, who was born in the year1 674. Hutchinson disapprov ed of Woodward’s thecry of the earth , and of Newton’

s doctrine of gra~

vity . In Oppos ition to thes e, he published thatsystemof phys ics , which he conceived the Bible toincu lcate, and which he denominated Moses’s Prim- 7apza.

B raema, in natural history, agenu s of transparent gems , ’

of ared colour,with an intermixture

of ye llow. The hyacinth is of various s izes , fromthat of a pin’

s head , to the third of an inch in diameter. It is found in the East and West Indies ,and in .Bohemiaand S iles ia.

HYDATlDS, a s ingu lar tribe of an imals of the

genu s taenia, belonging to the class and order of

intestinal worms . They derive their name fromthe circumstance of their being formed l ike a bladder, and distended with an aqueou s flu id. Theyhave been traced inmammalia, serpents and fishes ,but chiefly in the first of these classes , andmoreparticularly in the l iver ofman , and in the liverand brains of sheep

,than in any other animal

tribe or organs. D r. Bail lie says they are foundin the kidneys as well as the liver ofman ; They

enclose each other like nests of epill

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1 22 HYDRAULICS.

contrivances, all,more or less, dependent on lagdraulics .

The foundation of hydraulics , is that princ iple offlu ids , which distingu ishes them$0 1 remarkablyfromsolid bodies , andwhich is, that, if led in pipes,they will always rise to the level, ornearly so, O f

the reservoirwhence they are su pplied. This , inworks

'

simply hydrau lic , is all ; bu t in thosc bothhydrau lic and pneumatic, the force of air is added ,to increase the natu ral velocity of water, and raisei t to extraordinary heights .

Machines , of both these descriptiens , are in

su ch daily and ordinary u se , that the ir nature, andconsequently the general ou tlines of hydrau lics,will be eas ily explained . The first cornprehendthose by which water is brought into the uppers tories even of hou ses, and by which artifiOialfoun tains aremade to rise. Here , nothing?moreis necessary than to have a reservoir, the surface

of which is somewhat above the level to which thestreamis desired to ascend .

‘ The surface of the reservoir is to be somewhat above that level, becau seof the resistance of the air at the opening, forwhich it is necessary to allow a small dedu ction “.

When jets are execu ted in the bestmanner, t heresistance of the air only will cause . themme fallshort of the height of . theirireservoirs, in the fob

lowing proportions a

Feet

Re

Iiie

dhes Fee t. et

l

ie

l

se

gh5

'

1

' Ee Pl

ei

10 lo 4

15 15 8

c l "

35 39'

1

51 9 Q

HYDRAULICS . 123

Fromthese facts, it is determined , that as ofteni s afive-footjet shall be contained in the he ight ofany jet proposed, by somany inches ,mu ltipliedinto themse lves , or squared, the surface of the

water in the reservoir which supplies it, ought toexceed thatjet in he ight.If

, however, there be not anatural reservoir ofthe necessary he ight, such a onemus t be formed ,and the water raised into it, artificially , and here itis that engines, both hydraulic and pneumatic, arerequ ired , so that, by the ass istance of air, the watermay be forced upward . Thus the waterwhich ,fromthe Thames , and . the New-river, supplies theinhabitants of London, is first raised into reservoirs ,the surfaces of which exceed the extreme height ofthe pipes they supply and, this being done , therest tbllovmupon the simple principles already described. The cor

'

nmon pump andwater engines areboth hydrau lic and pneumatic .

The steam-eugine is a compou nd piece ofmachinery, frequently applied to hydrau lic purposes ,but not absolu tely in itse lf hydrau lic . Its action isproduced by the' powerof vapour, or steam, risingfromBoiling water in the samemanner that theaction of asmoke -jack is produced by that of vapouror smoke, rising fromcoals . The power of vapouris immense : one hundred and forty pounds of

gunpowder wil l blow upa weight of thirty thousand-pou nds ; bu t the same weight of water, converted into vapour, will lift up aweight of upwardOf seventy-seven thousand pounds .

The steam-engiue is employed to work variouskinds ofmachinery, in all of which , the specificOperation it performs ,“ is that of lifting. SeeP0111»,STEAM-engine, &c.

1 24’

HYD1

'

HYDROGEN . Hydrogen is .one of the '

constitu

ents of water fifteen parts of hydrogen, and. e ightyfive of oxygen

'

formthis flu id . It is neverfoundof combination . It approaches nearwhen combined with caloric , and i n

the formof gas . W hatever process decomposesWate r, wi l l produce hydrogen gas , provided theoxygen of the water be absorbed by any othersubs tance , as is seen in the following experiments .

i f water he dropped gradually through a gun

barrel,or iron pipe ,made red hot in themiddle,

the water wilLbe decomposed the oxygen willforman oxyde or ru st with . the iron, and the hydrogen gas will come out pure fromthe oppositeend.

Plonge a red-hot iron into water, the hydrogen

gas rises with the vapour, and is known by . its pe

c u liar smell. Hydrogen gas is twelve . timeslighter than common air, henc! it has been applied to the filling of balloons . It is highly ihfl ammable under certain c ircumstances, hence itwas formerly known by the name of imflahmble

'

air. It is incapable of s upporting flame or combustion of itse lf. It burns only in consequenge fif

its strong attraction foroxygen. w

one of the constituents ofbe extracted ; in ,

the formof gas . Hence it has «been u sed for lighting ,

upstreets and houses by what is called gas lights.Ex. 1 . To procure hydrogen gas , provide a

phial with a cork stopper, through which is thrusta piece of tobacco pipe . Into the phial puts few4pieces of zinc, or small ironnails : on,mixture of equal parts of s ulphuric .

s - ir.

‘

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426 HYDRQGEN.

atmospheric air suddenly rushingm, or’.u pou the empty space ]left by the burs

r to produce an imitation of them}

a small quantity of c oal into 3. WE

it into the bowl of a tOhtict30191pe.

Cosegthe .cod c losely overwith c lay ,‘

arid put thethawiot the pipe into the fire. In a few tites asmeamof hydrogen gas will 1ssue froméend of

the tobacco pipe , whichmay be set.

fire to witha candle or piece of lighted pape1 , in the usuglway1 . In this experiment the volatile parts of the

coal,are rarefied and driven off through the tobacco pipe , and hydrogen being one of the con

stituent parts of coal,passes off in the gaseous

fo1m. In this state it holds in solution some ofthe substance cal led carbon . Hence it has heensometimes called carburetted hydrogen gas .

2 . In the production of was lights on a larger'

scale , the coal i s put into an iron cauldron, and

heat applied to it, when the gas ascends , and ISdist i ibu ted bymeans ofmetal pipes into the variousapartments ot a house

,01 through the streets of a

In experiments upon the combustion of hydrogen,gas , a dangerous explos ion takes placenot taken to keep the gas entirely freemixture of comnion ai1 .

Ex . Into a bladder half full of atmosintroduce hydrogen gas in tcribed

, until the bladder is fulatmospheric air, fi ll11g flame to ,

the

HYDRO GEN . 1 27

roentcnts will explode with aloud report , and breakthe phial if it be not very s trong, or guarded by a

it. Some employ a copper

bes ides being combined withalso be combined with su lphur, phoscarbon . It is then called su lphurettedphosphuretted hydrogen, and carbo

retted hydrogen . Sulphuretted hydrogen gas

forms part of the fetid efiluvia which rises fromhouse-drains , and is produced by the decompos itionof animal and vegetable substances , contain ingsulphur and hydrogen. Phosphuretted hydrogen

gas has a fetid pu trid smell , and takes fire whenever it comes in contact w ith the atmospheric air.Ex. 1 . To procure phosphuretted hydrogen gas ,

put a small quantity of phosphoru s , and some potass dissolved in water, into a retort . Apply theflame of a candle or lamp to the bottomof the

retort, u ntil the contents boil . The phosphurettedhydrogen gas w ill then rise andmay be collected inreceivers.

2 . Instead of receiv ing the gas into a jar, let i ts imply ascend into the water of the ' tu b. The

. bubbles of gas will then explode in success ion asthey reach the surface of the wat er, and a beantifu l cloud of «white smoke will be formed, whic hrises s lowly andmajes tically to the ce iling.

If bits of phosphorus are kept some hours inhydrogen gas , phos u rized hydrogen gas is pro

~

duced, which 'has the smell of garl ic . If bubbles of

this gas are thrown up into a rece iver, previehs-lyfilled

'

with oxygen gas , abrilliant blu ish flame -wil l-immediately ti ll the '

jar. I t is th is gasvwhich is

HYD 1

'

s een on the surface of burial grounds andat night , and is known by the name of wille o’

J-the

wisp . .This .gas is also emitted fromfish,’ which

g ives thema shining appearance in the dark. iCarburette d hydro

gen gas is that which is pro-1

duced fromthe distillation of '

coal, and .is i nsed for

HYDhosaaeav , in cosmography, the descriptionof thewatch, of ocean , seas , rivers, &c .as geographyis the descript ion of the earth; or land .

a aomarna, an instrument '

u sed tomeasurewhateverois des ired to be known respecting flu ids ;as theirgravity , dens ity, and velocity. The bydrome ter is the instrument by which the officers ofthe revenu e ascertain the s trength of spirituou sliquors . It cons ists of a small hollow globe of glass

o rmetal , with a stem, or scale,which be ing gra

duated,marks the depth to wh ich the hal l s inks .

Be ing calcu lated Upon the specific gravity of water,

if the hydrometer is put into a flu id l ighter thanthat , it wi ll s ink proport ionably , and, if in a hea

vier, be buoyed up. See Pl. H y drostatics ,Fig. 7 .

HYDROSCOPE, an instrument antiehtly u sed for

themensu ration of time . The hydroscope was 'a

kind of water-clock, consisting of a cylindricaltu be , conical at the bottomthe cylinder was graduated

,ormarked with din sions and as the sur

face of the water,which trickled out at the point of

the cone, su ccess ive ly su nk to,these several divi

s ions , it pointed ou t the hour.

H i’naosrmrics , the sc ience which treats of theweight, of the nature and properties of flu ids andwhich teaches the arts of assayingmetals , of asoertaining

'

the strength of spirituous liquors, of deter

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f ife HYDRO STAT'

ICS.

hy'

the perpendicular pressure . But a bottle filledwith water; wine , &c .may be let do n j o

depth w ithou t damage, becau se ininternal pressure is equal to’ the external . Thehorizontal bottomof avessel sustains the pressureof a column of the flu id

, the base of w hich 18 fife

bottomof the vessel , and the perpendicular heightis equal to the depth of the flu id.

. In the ves sel A B , Fig. the ‘ bottomC Bdoes not su stain a pressure equal to the quantity ofthe whole flu id , bu t on ly of a/column whose base isC B, and height C E.

. Inthe vessel F G , Fig. 3, the bottomsustains‘

a pressure equal to what it wou ld be if the‘vesselwere as wide at the top as at the bottom.The pressure of aflu id upon any given part (if

the bottomor sides of avessel is equal to the weightof a column of that flu id , having a base equal tothat part of the‘ bottomor s ide , and an aititudeequal to the perpendicular height of theflu id aboveit. Hencemay be calcu lated the pressure u pon,and the strength requ ired fordams , cisterns. pipes,dcc. And thus we are led to what is called the

hydrostatical paradox,which is of vast importance

in this science : viz. That any quan tity of fl u idhoweversmal lmay bemade to balance any otherquantity however large .

6 . lf to the wide vessel A 4, a tube C Dbe attached , and water be into either ( if

them,it wi l l stand at the same height in both‘,

consequ ently the smal l quantity iii 0 B balancmthe hu ge quan tity in AB , and tliis would be the

case it the part 'AB contained a‘

hogshéfi l ; and

the small tube only apint oragill. ‘

8

HYDROSTATICS. 131

The u pperpressure of flu ids isshewn by the hydrostatical be llows , which consists of two circular

or oval boards, Fig . 5 , covered with leather,to rise

and fall like common be llows , but witho u t valvesA pipeA B abou t “

a 01 4 feet long is fixed to theunder board . If alittle water run into the bellowsto separate the boards , then weights to the amountof two or three hundred poundsmay be pu t on theupper board after which , if the p ipe be su ppliedwith water

,it will by the upper pressure raise the

we ights and su stain them.The hydrostatic balance , u sed for finding the

ecific gravities of bodies , difl'

ers bu t l ittle fromt e common balance, see Fig. 6 , only it has ahookat the bottomof one of the scales

,on which dif

feren t substances that are to be examinedmay behung by horse hairs , so as to be immersed in a

vess el of water withou t wetting the scale . If, for

instance , a body .r su spended under the scale be

first counterpoised in air bywe ights in the Oppos itescale

,and then immersed in water, the equ ilibrium

will be des troyed then if aweight be pu t into thes cale fromwhich the body hangs to restore the

equ ilibrium, that weight will be equal to the we ightof aportion of wateras large as the immeis edbody .

If ;~

represent agu inea, then in air it we ighs 129

grains , and by be ing immersed in water it loses 7grains , which shews that aquantity of waterequal ,in bulk, to aguinea, we ighs 7 71 giains , thereforeaccording to the ru le , given in the article GRAV ITY“

specific, div ide 1 99 by 7 or 516 by Q9, and the

qu otient will be 1 7 .793; which proves that the‘

gu inea is 1 7 .793, or almost ;8 t imes heavier thani ts bulk of water.

139

Hvononsrsn, an instrument formeasuring themoisture of the atmosphere , as the barometermeast . The plan upon which such an

is dry . The degrees of this swelling or shrinking,wil l determine the de

grees ofmoisture or dryness .

The hygrometer hasb

not yet been brought to thedesired perfection . It has been constructed uponthree principles 1 . The lengthening and shortening ot

’

strings , or their twisting and untwisting, byreas on ofmoisture and dryness 2 . The swellingand shrinking of solid substances , fromthe samecau ses ; and, 3.

'

The increase or decrease of the

weight of particu lar bodies , whose nature it is to“

absorb the humidity of the atmosphere .

H venoscops,the same with hygrometer. In

all names of instruments to which , there are thesetwo several terminations

,as thermometer and titer-1mosCOpe, the only difference is , that the first ex

presses something whichmeasures, and the latter,which shows, or exhibits to view.

HYMENOPTERA,see ENTYMO LO GY.

HYPERBOLE,see Come Section .

HYPERBOLE,in rhetoric

, a figure whichmagn ifies or diminishes in an excess ive degree . The by

perbole is subject to this law,that the proper occa

s ion for its appearan ce , is that in which an object ismentioned , which in itself exceeds , or falls below,

the commonmeasu re .

H rpns np in g1amma1 , implying that twowordsare to be joined together, or compounded ; as postborse, cou rt-yard. Hyphens are also used, to con

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HYS 133

nect the syllables of words which are divided at theterminations of lines .

Hrmx, agenus ofMammaliaof the orderGlires ,of which there are only two species , viz . the hyraxCapens is , or Cape-hyrax,

and the hyrax Syriacus,

or bristly hyrax, to be' met with in Ethiopia

and Abyssinia, particularly u nder the rocks of themountains of the s un . The animals of this genu s '

are gregarious , andmay be seen in companies ofseveral scores together before the clefts of the

rocks , basking in the Open su nshine . They live on

grain, fru its , and roots , and when kept in'

confinement wil l l ive upon bread andmilk . See pl . Nat.Hist . Fig . 27 .

HYSTRIX, porcu pine , agenu s of animals of theclass Mammalia ; and of the orderGlires . Thereare five species , of which the H vsrmx cristata orcommon porcupinemay be noticed . It is found

‘

in

Africa, India, and the warmcl imates of Bumpe .

The u pper part of its body is covered with varie

gated spines or qu ills,which are long and sharp ,

and which , when the animal is irritated , it has the '

power of darting out against an adversary. Its

principal food cons ists of the bark of trees , roots andvarious kinds of fru it, wh ich it col lects in the night .In the day it l ies retired , sleeping in a

"

s ubterraneou s habitation , which it is said to construct withparticu lar ingenu ity, div iding it into several apart»moms . See pl . Nat. Hist . Fig . 28 .

TQ L. I‘l l .

134, ICE

1 .

1 01° 3, the ninth le tter in the alphabet, and the

third vowel. Its sound varies ; in some words i tis long, as high,mind in some it is short, asbid, kid, and in others it is pronounced like y , ascollier, onion, &c . in a few words its sou nd approaches to the double c e, as inmachine . I

, u sed asanumeral, s ign ifies nomore than one , and it standsfor asmany units as it is repeate d times , thu s IIaI II stands for 2 and3. When pu t be fore a highernumeral it s ubtracts itself, as IV,

fou r, and whens et after it, the efi

'

ect ls addition , XII , twelve . See.

Aarrnmnrxc .

IACINTH,see HYAC INTH .

Ice , water in a solid s tate. When water is exposed to a temperature below 32° of Fahrenheit

,

(see THERMOMETER,) it assumes a solid s tate byshooting into crystals , which cross each other inangles of 60 degrees . Ice is always found at thesame temperatu re or

,it is lighter than water,

of cou rse its bulk is larger than that of water of

which it is formed , and this increase of dimens ionsis acqu ired with prodigious force , sufficient to burstthe strongest vesse ls . There is agrotto in France ,abou t seven leagu es fromBesancon , dis tingu ishedfromall others by a very s ingu lar phenomenon . in

summer, ice is constantly formed in it, in largequantities , and this ice diminishes at the approachof winter. The rock forming the roof of this cavernis lower than the neighbouring plains , and the

grotto itself is covered with bu shy trees, fromthe

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ICH 133

leaves of which , evaporation is constantly going on.

In consequence of this evaporation, the ground is sofar cooled in the summer as to occas ion freezing inthe cavern , in the samemanneras water in porousJars 1s cooled in hot Countries , by evaporation fromthe o‘uts ides : when by the fal l of the leaves, evapotation is checked , the temperature of the cavernrises

,and the quantity of ice is diminished .

ICE-BERGS,large bodies of ice , filling the valleys

between highmountains , in northern latitu des ;amongthemos t remarkable are those on the coas t offipitzbergen . Their appearan ce is inmany respectslike that of ers in Switzerland. They arethe gradual creation of ages , and receive annuallyadditional height by tbe

a

falling of snows and of

rain , whichmore than repairs the loss occas ionedby the influence of themelting sun .

ICH -D I BN,themotto of the Prince of Wales ’

s

arms,s ignifying in the High Dutch , I serve . It

was first u sed by Edward the -BlackPrince, to‘

shewhis subjection to his father, king Edward II I .I CHNEUMON,agenu s cf insedts of theHymenoptera

order. There are said to be 500 species inclu ded inthis genus , separated into families; The Wholegenu s has been denominated paras itical, on accountof the very extraordinarymanner in wh ich the

provide for the future support of their offspring.

The fly feeds on the huney of flowers,and when

abou t to lay eggs , perforates the body of some

other insec ts , or its larvae, with its sting 01 1mmment at the end of the ab domen , and there depositsthem. These eggs , in afewdays , are hatched , andthe you ng nourish themselves with theju ices of theirfoster-parent, which , however, continues tomove

1 36 IC II

abou t and feed till near the time of its change to ac when the larvae of the ichneumon creepo the skin in va1 1011 s places , andeach spmnmg up in a small oval s ilken case

,

changes irito a chrysalis , and after a ce1 taiu pe1 iod

they emerge in the state of complete ichneumons .

The caterpillar of the common white cabbage bu tterflymay be g iven as an example .

ICOSAHEDRON,see Bonv .

‘

-

‘ ICOSANDRIA,see BOTANY. The icosandria class

-furnishes the pu lpy fruits that aremos tly esteemed ,,such as apples

,plumbs , peaches , cherries , 8m.

whereas the polyandriaai emostly poisonou s, as theaconite , columbine , larkspur, hellebo1 e , and others .

Icaruvonocv, in zoology, a systemof natural

h istory of fishes . In the Linnaean systemof zoology ,fishes compose the fourth c las s , and are distributedinto four 01ders distingu ished by the conformation ,orwant, of.fins .

O rders. Exam1 , Apodos . Eel. 3.

\

Thoracici. Perch .

2 . Jugu lares . 00d. 4. Abdominales . Salmon .

Fromthis arrangement, the whale , dolphin, &c.

areaomitted ; these being comprehended in the c lassofmammalia.

are to be added the Cartilaginou s fish,separated into two 01 ders, viz the

ou s or

’

fishes that have gills withou t,hony rays and the chondropterigious or thosethat have cartilaginous gi lls the sucker belongs tothe former, and the squalus or shark to the latter.

Pennant has given another'

system. This na

.

_

turalistmakes three divis ions, each of which com

.prehends several genera

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JSB Jl

101051 , ingrammar, isatermappliedtosuchwords,or combinat ions of words

,as have apecu liar sense

inan one language , but which, if transferred intoanot er, would have nomeaning, orawhol ly different one. Idioms , then , can neverbe literally trans lated , and themerit of a translator, in this re .

,spect, cons ists in substitu ting the correspondingidiomof the language - into which he is translat

ring. Thu s , in England, it is said to get by heart ,meaning ,by memory . T

’

l1is the Latins impressthymandai ememories, to commit tomemory , and,recitarememorie , to recite bymemory. q

1 IGNITION , is that emiss ion of l ight produced in bod ies by exposing themto a high temperature, andwh ich is not accompan ied by any other chemicalchange in them. Itmay be distingu ished fromcombus tion, aprocess in which there is also theemiss ion of light and heat. Combustion is the

result of the chemical action of the air, or of a

principle which the air contains , hence combustiblebodies are alone s usceptible of it, and when the

. process has ceased , the body is no longer com-bu st1ble. Ignition is an e ffect of the Operation of

caloric alone,wholly independent of the air.

ILBX, the holly , in botany, of which there are 16s pecies . The l lex acquifolium, or common hol ly ,is usually from20 to 30 feet in height, though itsometimes grows to double that s ize . Mr. Millerdiscovered the difference of sexes in the flowers of

the common holly . The wood of this tree is thewhites t of all hard woods

,and u sed for inlaying ,

especially with ivory . Themillwright , turner, andengraver prefer it to any other. It is used withbox

, yew, and white th01n, in the small trinkets

I LL 139and otherworks carried on abou t Tunbridge , com

Tunbridge w .a1e Birds eat the berriesand the bark, fermented and clearedof

the woody fibres ,makes the common bird l ime .

ILLicwM,agenus of plants , cons is ting of two

species , viz . the illiciumanisatum: and: illiciumfioridanum. The whole of the firstmentionedplant, especially the fru it, has a pleasant aromaticsme ll, and a sweetish acrid taste . It is u sed foroning dishes , and in Japan they place bundles

and garlands of the aniseed tree in theirtemples before the idols . The bark, finely powdered

, is usedby the public watchmen tomake chronometersformeasuring the time , by s lowly sparkling at

certain spaces in the box, in order to direct themwhen the public bells are to sou nd .

ILLUMINANTS,ILLUMINATI

,inmodern history

, a

denomination by which , at different periods , several sects of religi on andphilosophy , in Eumpe , havebeen known . If a comprehens ive view of the s tateofmoral philosophy, at thismoment, be taken , itw il l be found that one great controversy divides allthe writers of th is part of the world . The questionis , whether the powers of the humanmind , and thecondition of human society

,be capable of improvement? Those philosophers of the continent, who

contend for the affirmative of this question, affectthe name of aukfl arer, illuminants , orenl ightenerswhile on their adversaries , they bes tow the name

,

finsterlmge, obscurants , 01,beda1kene 1 s and re

present themas , it not actual jesu its, still pursuing the Jesumcal plan . It 13 scarcely necessary toremark, that the philosophy of the illuminant:leads themto propose innovations , and to str‘

uggleincessantly for the d1fi

'

us1on of science ; while that

140

of their apposers induces to labouratmamtaininthe piesent o1 der of things . The revolu tion inFrance has been attribu ted to zllumin ismorj aLO bln ism; but, apparently, w ith want of consideration.

It was the state of its finances that hi ought on the

destruction of the old government : when that Wasaccomplished, then, indeed , jacob inismstruggledfor the ascendancy .

ILLUMINATING , akind ofminiature painting, formerly practised for i llu strating and adorn ing books .

The writers of books firs t finished their part, and

the il luminators embe llished themwith ornamentedletters and paintings .

IMAGE , in Optics , is'

the appearance of an objectmade e ither by reflection or refraction . In planemirrms , the image is of the samemagnitude asthe object, and appears as far behind themirror asthe object is before it. In convexmirrors , theimage is less than the object, and farther distantfromthe centre of the convexity, than fromt hepoint of reflexion . See O p'

rxcs .

IMAGINATION, inmetaphys ics , that action of themind by which it combines ideas , and bodies forth

the forms and images of things .

”

IMMERSlON, in as tronomy , iswhen astaror planetis so near the sun with rega1 d to our observations

,

that we cannot see it,being as it were hidden in

the rays of that luminary .

8i

l t also denotes the be

ginn ing of an eclipse of themoon, and of the satellites of Jupiter. The eclipses of the first satelliteof Jupiteraremuch u sed ford1scove1mg the longi ~'

tude . The immersion of that satel lite is themo.ment in which it appears to enter the disc‘

dfJupiter, and its emersion themoment when it appears to come out,

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142 INDThe total value of the imports to England in the

year 1354, was under39 thou sand pounds ; but inthe year 1 800, it amounted tomore than 30millions of pounds sterling. Fromthat time to thelast year, it varied each year, from28 to 33millions . Itmust be observed that these are theofficial values , which are very different fromthereal value ; thus the official value of the importsfhr 1807 , is 29 ,556 ,330L; bu t the real value wasupwards of 58millions .

INCIDENCE , denotes the direction in which onebody strikes on

‘

another. See MECHAN ICS and Oi)TICS . It is demonstrated that the angle of inc idence is equal to the angle of reflection , and thatthey both lie in the same plane.

INCLINED plane. See MECHAN ICS .

INDEPENDENTS,a sect -of Protestant Christians,

distingu ished , not by doctrine , bu t discipline . Theyregard every congregation of Christians ,meetingin one bu ilding for the purpose of publ ic worship

,

as aComplete church , independent on any otherreligious government ; they reject the u se of allcreeds , as impiou s substitu tes for the letter of the

Scripture and they hold that the rite of ordination does not confer any apostolic virtue u pon the

receiver. The irministers , therefore , only undergoan examination

,before they are permitted to speak

in public. The direction of each church is‘

vested

in its elders. The Independehts arose du ring that

period of re ligious disqu iet, at which the church pfEngland was established . They thought the re

formation not sufficiently complete. Robert B rownwas their first leader, h

'

omwhomthey were denominuted Bro'

wnists but th isman, whose violence

IND 143

of conduct, and rigour of doctrine, was extreme,abandoned his party, which had followed himintothe Low Countries , and returning to England , tookorders in the established church , and obtained abenefice . O n this defection , John Robinson, amanofmoremoderation , u ndertook to newmode l thesoc iety , in behalf of which he published an apology .

After this, the adherents of the cau se , were cal led

I ndependen ts ; and Robinson became considered astheir founder.

INDIA , or the East-Indies : u nder this head iscomprehended all that tract of countr which iss ituated sou th of Tartary , be tween gers ie and

China, as wel l as the islands in the eastern Indiansea. It was formerly cons idered in allgeographicalworks u nder the divis ions of India beyond the

Gauges, and Indiawi thin the Ganges . The country is now generally denominated H indostan v

Strictly speaking the name Hindos tan should onlybe applied to the part that l ies north of the zl st

and 22 11d degree s of latitude the riverNerbu’

ddabeing the southern extremity, as far as it goes,while Bengal and Bahar bound the s outh e lsewhere . The country on the south s ide of th is lineis cal led by the general name of Deccan this divis ion is not now general ly followed, and . the termHindostan is applied to

'

the whole region , as well

as to Hindos tan proper. The cou ntry is extreme lypopu lous : it abounds in diamonds and other pre scious stones and its chiefmanu factures aremuselin , cabec , and s ilk.

IND IA s-RUBBER , CACUTCHCUC, or ELASTIC-RES IN, asubstance produced fromthe syringa

-trecof Cay-r

enne , and other parts of Sou th America It oozes“

,

144 INDin amilky form, frominc is ionsmade in the treeand is chiefly gathered in time of rain ,

becau se itthen flows in pecu liar abu ndance . It is said toacqu ire the

'

consistence in which it is seen in fol

reign cou ntries , bymere exposure to the air. The

Americans use it tomake boots, which are impene ~

trable to water ; and bottles , which they fas ten to

the ends of reeds . They also convert it into flambeaux, an inch and an half In diameter, and two

feet long, which afford a bril liant light, and bum’

twelve hou rs. A kind of cloth Is farther preparedfromit , which suppl ies , to the inhabitants of Q u ito, ‘

the place of the oiled or tarred c loths of Europe .

Bymeans ofmou lds of clay, it ismade into varioususefu l and ornamental fi

gures . This process is

commenced by spreading it, while yet in a clammy

s tate, over themou lds , in success ive layers , till thedes ired thickness is attained . The figure is then exposed to the smoke of burning vegetables ,

which

g ives it a blackness of colour. Before i t is per

fectly hardened , it is also capab le of receiv ing thoseimpress ions on the outers ide, which are commonlys een .

INDIAN INK.

‘

See INK .

INDICTMENT , is a written accusation’ '

of one ormore persons , of acrime ormisdemeanor, preferredto

,and presented on oath by aGRAND JURY, wh ich

s ee .

INDIGO,a drug, of a dark-blue colour, used ~ in

dyeing,‘

and prepared from» the leaves and smal l ’

branches of a low shrub , indigenou s in the warmerparts of As ia and Africa, and now cu ltivated inthose of America. The indigo is out when in

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no

h arm, ofmatter, is that passive principleb ywhich bodies persist in astate ofmotion orresti os

a power implantedjn allmatter, by wh ich it res istsany change endeavoured to bemade in its state.

to all .the sons and daughters of the kings of Spainand Portugal, except the eldest. The dignity ofthe title cons ists in the pie -eminence impliedbystyling the children of the king, the children,Thismode of speech has obtained in other couu-i

tries ; as , the son of France. i

INFANTRY , Inmi litary. economy, the whole, bodyof foot-soldiers . It is so calledmman 63tSpanish history , An infanta of Spain, learningthat the army commanded by her fatherhad beatdefeated by

.the Moors , assembled a body of fem

soldiers , and, with these, ,engaged , and . tomlly

rou ted, the enemy, This success raised the feats oldiers into adegree of estimation in whichhad never betbre been held, and cause d themto bethenceforward , distingu ished by the name of thecharacterunderwhomthis . estimation.was gained;The light infantry have no camp equ ipage to carry,Theii aims are peculiarly light . They should be

ac customed to the pace of fourmiles an hour,mthe ir usualmarches ; and capable of exceeding

this by onemile, .on QW dimj occasions . The

British army was long without light-inti ntryn; but,at present every regiment has a company of thihkind , the station of which Is on its left.INi‘Ie '

rIvs , in grammar, the name of one of themoods, ormodes of conj ugation .

INFUI OBIA, the fifth orderof the class venues, in

I

INK ”

147

the Linnaean system. They are s implemicroscopic animalcnles . This order is scarcely distingu ished fromthe IntestmaandMollusca, but bytheminu teness of the individuals belonging to it,and their Spontaneous appearance in animal andvegetable infns ions . The process by which theirnumbers are increased is no less astonishing thantheir first production . Several of the generaoftenseemto divide themselves , into two ormore parts ,and become new and dis tinct animals . The volvoxand others are remarkable ihr their continnal rota

torymotion , supposed to be intended for the pubpose of straining the ir food out of the water.

INK, a l iqu id used tomark letters upon paper.

B lack writing- ink is usuallymade of galls, cup

paras , gumb arabic, andwater. The bas is o f the

c ommon writing ink, is the fine black, or'

darkblue precipitate formed by the soluble part of the

gall-nut, and asolution of the su lphate of iron, or

copperas . This precipitate is kept'

saspended bymeans of gum-arabic. The following are goodrecipes formaking ink.

1 . Put into astone'

orglass bottle, three ounces offinely powdered galls , one ounce of copperas, or

green vitriol, one ounce of logwood finely rasped orbru ised , one ounce of gum-arabic and

'

a quart ofsofi water. The bottle is to stand for ten days in 'a

warmplace and is to be frequently shaken. Inkmay be kept frommoulding by the addition of

2 . To one quart of soft wateraddfourounces ofgalls, one ot

'

copperas roughly bru ised : andvtwo of

gumarabic .

148 INKr

e ight ounces of Aleppo galls , and four ounces oflogwood to be boiled 111 twelve pounds of water, tillthequantity is reduced to one half ; whenthe liqu or

, shou ldf be strained through a linen or hair’

sieve

into xa proper vessel . Four ounces of sulphate ofiron , (green vitriol)three ounces of gumambic ; oneounce of sulphate of copper (blue vitriol) and a si

imilai quantity of sugarcandy , are now to be added‘

the liqu id shou ld be frequently shaken , to fac i litatethé solu tion of the salts .

"

As soon as these iingre

dients are perfectly dissolved , the compofition issufl

‘

ered to subside for twenty four ”haunts whenthe inkmay be decanted fromthe gross sediment,and preserved for u se in glass or stone bottles , wellstopped . This ink

“

exhibits a purplish blackcolour in the bottles ; but the Writing performedw ith it is said to be of a beau tifu l black cas t, whichitretains u naltered, for 'a considerable length of

3: 1'

Red writing ink : a quarter of a .

poundmfBrazil-w ood , boiled in a quart of water, to which isto be added two ounces of gumand asmuch alum.B lue inkmay be‘

'made by difl'

using“-P1'uss ian

blu e or indigo in gum-water.

Ye llow ink is noth ingmore than a solu tion of

gamboge in gum-water.— O ther coloursmay bemade than a strong decoction of the ingredients

u sed 1n dying,mixed w ith 4al ittle alumand gumni

'

shio 1 i f

Sugarmixedinink prevents it fromdrying thisproperty renders it easy

“

to take e bfi’

an impress ionof any Writing,and in

‘

copied in merchant’s counting-hou sew n fl‘

hie~ n rmng 1s to bemade with ink containing sugar,

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{ 1550 INQ T

fluted, andused te‘write with

, become . visiblebytheatingbeforeithc fire , which concentrates them,,and‘assists their action on the paper. 5 . Diluted

potash affords blue letters when wettedlution of su lphate of iron . 6 . T he sof

lation of cobalt in aquaregia when dilu ted , cflfm‘dsan i

‘

nkwhich becomes green when held tathefire,b ut disappears again when sull

'

ered to cool : and.7s.’The oxide of , cobalt dissolved in acetou s aci d,andai little

’

nitre added, wi l l exhibit a pale ; rosemlourwhen heated, ~which disappears when cold .

INQ U ISITION , in‘modern history an eccles iastical

court,“founded by Innocentl l l . who, in the twelfth

century , sent father Dominic and others , to excitethe Catholic princes and peO ple to extirpate heretics , to inqu ire into their numberand quality , and totransmit a faithful account of these particu lars .

.Fromthe nature of their ofi ce , these agents were(called inquisitors and thu s arose a tribunal whichwas received in all Italy, and throughou t the dominions of Spain, excepting the kingdomof Naples ,and the provinces of the Netherlands . The principle of jurisprudence upon which the Inqu is ition

proceeds , is that of taking no other proof of‘

ade

linquent’

s gu ilt than his own confess ion . H e iscdgfined

'

,and sometimes tortured, til l be tells t he

cau se of his imprisonment .

“

He is accus ed of noSpecific charge but told that his g u il t is known ,

, and requ ired to acknowledge it. ,The ignorance

f such 1811 institu te cannot (need s to

INS 1 51'

to which in tellect alone has themisfortune to be

subject. It IS not among the least advantages of

the present turbulent times , that the Inqu is ition us

almost wholly abolished fromEurope . We trustthis infernal court will ,

in a short time be onlyknown by report and tradition .

INSECT, in natural history , a clas s of animals distingu ished, among themodems , by having six ormore feet . In zoology, that branch which treatsof insects , is dehominated entomology . See Enromo wer .

The name insect, acontraction of the Latin wordi nseam, is derived froma different characteristic .

Itmeans .

insected, ,or cu t in and alludes to that

division of the body which prevails inmany of the

,

species , and which strikes the eye of the least attentive observer.

INSOLATION , a termsometimesmade use of todenote that exposure to the su n, which ismade 111

order to promotethe chemical action of one s ub

stance u pon another. O ne of the most s trikingexperiments of this kind is that of the exposu re of

vegetables, as fresh -gathered cabbage leaves , in a

glass jar of water to the rays of the s un,by the

action of which a large quantity of pure oxygen

gas is obtained .

INSTRUMENTS,mathematical a common case ofthese contains , 1 . A pair of plain compasses . 2 .

,4.

'A protractor. 5 A parallel ru ler. 6 . .A '

plaiu

s cale . 7 A sector,

152 INSURANCE.

tract with one who 1s willing to give assurance ;good suc h passable

loss, uphn the centingency of its occurrence . In

chis c etrtract, the chances of benefit are equal , tod the assurei'. The firStactually pays

a certain sum, and the latter undertakes 1to pay alarger, if an accident should 1happen. The f one,therefore

, renders his the Otherreceivesmoney, with the at it is clear

The words insurance and assurance are ordinarily confounded ; insomuch that an insurance 18said to be, a contract; whereby a party engagesto pay the loss of another, &>c. but, properly, anins urance is notacontract, insurance be ing the actof the person

'insuriug, and sssnranCe that cf him

with whomhe insures .

The word ‘sure,

’ isaconti’action‘of secure.

’ Tomake sure , is tomake seem. Now, if A Wishestomake his property to B, Withwhomhe insdres it

deration , forWhich B a-Surés it,‘Ormakes it secure

to him. B is the assureur;~a~ surer, ormfi e’r

secure ;‘

,A the assurée , av sur'

ed, ormade secure '

and fromthese French Words , are derived theEnglish ones , assurer and assures . A , now,

say'

s,

that his house'

i s a-sured, and that,With respect tothe contingencies of that house, he is as shred ; andwhy? Because he has inh snred by contract

{with

B . The insurance,meanwhile, is no contratit, be:

cause that cons isted, not in engaging to do‘

0

thing,2but in zlay

‘lng down a censiderafion, for

Whichfihthe engagement, of assis tance,W ren. A

has insured ; B, assured .

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1 54 INTEREST.

certain time, according to a fixed rate. The Sumlent is cal led the principal . the sumper cent .

11n on as interest, is called the rate, and the

principaland interest added together is called theamount. Interest is distinguished into siniplcand

t ampound.

INTEREST, Simple, is that wh ich is reckoned on

the principal only, at a certain rate for a year, andat a proportionately greater or less sum, for a

or less term. thus , if 51. is the rate O f ih

weren t of 1001. throne year, 101. is the interest fortwo years

, 201. for foui years , &c,. Themles

for finding the interest ofmoney are the folloWing :

Multiply the principal by the rate, and divide the

product by 100, the quotient in the interest form«

year : thus the interest of 3001. at as perc ent. for5 1500

ayear, IS 300 X 100 100151.

“Mult

iplythe interest forone yearby the number

of years , and the‘

product is the interest for thesame.

’ The interest of 5001. for seven years, ats pércent, is

'

251. x 1751.

The 36 5th art of the yeany interest is alwaysconsidered as he proper interest thr a day, and itsmultiples 'as the interest flit anymannerof daysthus , at 5 per cent. the legal Pate, ’tlie

finterest for

322: .0001359 ; andthe interest foi 1 :

days ,at the same rate , 18 .0001369 x i sHence, bymeans of the following table, all calculations areper cent. s imple interes t areperformed , tin anyhumberof '

days.

aday 1s

Amount.

,01191

,00958

,00630

47

48 ,00657

00328 49 ,0067 1

50 ,00684

Themethodof usingtheforegoingthe ;shin : thus , if the interest of

752 11» 6 1 days be required : oppos ite to 6 1 is thenumber .QQSfié , which,multipl.62625 of apound,

.

Wbieh reduced , bymby 20, 1 2, and 4, gives 1 28. 6 -d.

M r, Cmizpoahu, or intere st u pon interest, isthat which 1s paid not only for the use of themoney lent, but also for the use of the interest as it

156 INTEREST:becomes due. Almost all qu estions relating to

compound interestmay be worked bymeans of thefollowing tables

4

Shewing the Sumto which 1 1. Principal wil l increase at5 per cent . Compound I nterest, in any number of

years hot exceeding a hu ndred .

Amount . Amount.

9 1

as

,2394

25

To find bymeans of the table what any sumwillamount to in agiven number of years .

—Multiplythe number in the table

,oppos ite to the termof

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INTEREST.

TABLE II.

Showing the Sumto, which 1 1. perAnnumwil l increaseat 5 per cent. Compound Interest, inany number ofYears not exceeding ahundred;

Amount.

I . To find in what time a given annu ity willamou nt to a gi ven sumat compound interest sDivide the given sumby the given annu ity, andthe number in the table nearest to the qu otient willhe theanswer.

INTEREST.

‘

1 59

EL I. A penson owes 1 and resolves toappropriate 201.5perannum, to be accumulatedat 5 per cent. per an

'

n . compound interest, inhowmany years will .the debt be paid ?

1

230

The nearest number in the table‘to 501s andLthe numberanswering to this 1326, so that in less than 26 years adebt of 1 ,0001jwouldbe extinguished by laying by, andaccumu:lati11g at compound interest, annually 201.'If the rate of interdst had been 6 percent . 24years

have paid the debt, but at 4per cent . it

Would have taken between 28 sud 29 years .

I I. To find howmuch a en annu ity willt 5 per cent. come

be given annu ity ' bystanding opposite

'

to the

g iven termof years.

Ex. I by 501. per annumWith itsinterest ,

l‘

can appropriate 501. ayearto be accumulatedat 5 percent . compound 1nterest, how.iuuch shall I have saved if I live111 years i’

apposite to 2 1 years 1 find whichm11l~tiplied by 50, gives Answer, 17851.

III .

“

The PRESENT VALUE of an annuityi s thatSum‘which, z if improved at compound interest,would be sufficient to pay the annu ity. For this

I t

( 460

TABLE I I I .

Shewing the’

present Value o f an Annuity‘

pf 11.M anynumberof Years not exceedmg,

IQO, at 5 per centperannum, Compound Interest.

11111 ;3

7

1

6

3334

3536

3940

41

42

43

44

45

46

47

48

Value .

1

3)

19,349

19,403

1

77

78

96

97

19,8 15

19,82319,832

MP1) find the prese nt value of an annu iWfinite

1 term101'yearn—Multiply the

opposite to the given termof years ,and the product is the answer.

Ex. 1 . What is the present value of anannuityof 1 261. 101 2 1 years ?

In the table , oppos ite 2 1 18 12 821 , thismultiplied by 1 26 , gives 16 15 .465 16 151.

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1 68'IRO

and, if perfectly pu re , wou ld be as imple substance,composed ot'nothing but iron .

1 11 1181

While tbe cast- iron is in a state of fusion ,vit ismmstantly stirred by aworkman , that every part ofitmay be equally exposed to the air. In about anhour, the . hottes t

'part of themass zbegins to heave.and -swell,a

‘

nd to emit ablu e ; lambent flame . Th iscontinu es nearly an hou rmore ; and, by that time,the conversion is completed. The heaving is evisdently produced by the

'

action of an elastic flu id, or

gas , struggl ing to escape .

Cast-ironmay also be brought into amalleablestate

,by pass ing it, while heated , through rollers .

Thismethod was discovered by Henry Cort, of

Gosport, who obtained , by letters-patent , the exl

elus ive right of u s ing it . Wrou ght Engl ish iron,wrought in th ismanner, is said ~ to be equal

, and

even sometimes superior, to .the best Swedish iron-but, Cort

’s invention apart, the Swedish is con

sidered as the finest sort,and best for working

‘

;

;and the Engl ish , as‘ bes t adapted for bars of stoves ,

,and s imilar u ses while the Spanis h , otherwiseequal to Swedish , is found to crack and the

.

vGerrnan is too coarse for other than ordinary oc

cas1ons .

1 IRONY , in rhe toric,afigure which cons ists in theuse ot

'

expressions contrary to themeaning they areintended to convey. Irony frequently fails in effect,

.andmore especially in writing : The reason is , thatit is seldomsu fficiently direct : now, it

’

this happenin speaking , the defic iency of the phrase

ology is

easilymade amends for,by themanner in wh ich

i t is delive1ed : bu t, 111 writing, to which none of the

ISI 163

d efic iency in the expression will wholly destroy thed ig

-umA great cons ideration , therefore , it issthat

fi nenysbe extremely apparent : it is understood, thatt Swifi was actually thougit, bymany persons , to beu serious , .when he proposed that the poor of Ire land, shou ldaeat their .children, in order to lower the

1 price'

of provis ions . It should be arule that, the

ailing said ironically be such as ismanifestly '

un

tru e .

” Thu s , Raynal, in speaking of the religionof the Mexicans , describes one of tits l rites , which

r cohsisted- ih eating part of a‘ figure 01'

the ir god,made of dough , and -baked for the occas ion , and

which they believed to be the real subs tance of ther

'

god. 3°This account, he pref'

aces w ith an obser

vation , that they have one ceremony,

of the re

s emblance of which there are no . traces in any( o ther part of the world a stroke of irony so palapa‘hle, that his reader cannot but be alive to hismeaning .

~IS INGLASS , in commerce , a s ubs tance which isfound to be composed of the sounds , or air-b lad ~

ders , of those fish fromwhich thismembranemaybe separated w ith suflicient ease . The sounds of

freshwater fish are to he preferred, because'

theseare themost transparent, flexible, and delicate but

those ot:the cod and ling are collected by the fish

ermen of Newfou ndland and Iceland . The coarser.serts of

,isinglass aremade of the intes tines of the

fish.

‘

The preparation of isinglass , fromsalt-waterfish, ismerely that of free ing the sou nd fromthe

.1 64 FITAnot need the whole of this process. .The terrific

cedar tbrmin which is inglass is usually isomericsupposed to have been g1ven to it by l tsmanufacturers , the Russ ians, ratheressence, than with any other view. In order tosheet it, themembranes are '

roldedround each other,xto the thickness of a fin

'

gen; and the rollskep'

t in

. the srequi’

red rformtill dry, by fi steni'rig themm'ldthIsarrs . Se

'

e .Wom.

l su n,the true faith,an appellation apphedb

the Mohammedans to theirreligion . SeeMomu snsmsm.ITAHY, one of the finest countries in Europe,

”

3'

s

bounded o n the north , north « t est and northwestby France, Switzerland , the Grisons ; and Germany on the east by the gulf of Venice ; and onthe sou th and west by the Mediterranean .

(Itwas

formerly the seat of the Roman empire,and afterwards of the Spiritual dominion of the

'pope . Italytill very lately was divided into agreat nuhiber bfs tates which differedmuch «in extent and importance . The governments of several of its princ i

palities , duchim, republics , &c .' have undergone

various changes since the French revolntitm, butat the presentmoment ‘the Whole of Italy is akingdom, on the throne ofWhich the infant son ot

'

Buo

nanane is supposed to sit, ando n whomis alreadyconferred the title of kiug of Rome . It is eavidendy,therefore, the intention of the Emperor of Franceto (make Rome, once themistress of the wofldg thesecond c ity '

on the continent. The pink is3109’s

uded toamere Cyphen dein-ived of

all secular dominion, and can no longer lotdit over

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‘

156'

JAG

in‘which the weight is the powerapplied to overcome the friction of the parts , and the weight withwhich the spit is charged ; and inand u n iformmotion is obtainedJACOB‘

US,an English gold rcoin

, worthfive shillings , first struck i n the reign ot Jamof England , whence the name:Jaconm, in church history, the

‘

samewiah DdMmrcas ,which see.Jscouts , in c ivil history,aname given ia rance,

“during the Revolution, to the Lmore rigid friends oflisted

‘

in “the circumstance, that themeetings of

t hat party were held in a bu ilding antiently ho

longing to the Jacosmmonks . See 11mm1 Jsconrrn, in church h istory, the name of Mo

s eats of Christians, inSyria,and the adjacent countries . O f these , the One adheres to the cmJacemin civ il history, an English partisan,

whose tenets stand opposed to those who approve

of the revolution inf 1688. A jacobitemaintains1the

'

right'

oi'

. James l I .

’

andhis fami ly, to the throne ;and

,of consequence , is supposed to defend abso

lutemonarchy, founded u pon the Jure divine ,divine right

”of kings, and

ance of subjects .

JAGH IRE , in East- India,

affairs ;means a grant

df land froma '

sovereignto a su bject, revokable at

pleasure, but generally a life rent. TheJaghifre ef

the Carnatic 1s a large tract of land in i adestan

squaremiles, *

and producing?“ eu

167i

cies of convolmlus, orbind-weed, indigenous in theprevinceof Xalapa, inNew .Spain. In some dis

.Jmsasms , feet soldiers in the Turkish armyThe n-pfd is said to signi fie s new handwrmilitary body. Itwas O sman, O ttoman, oronmine s» omens , Ammath the Conqnemr,WhitM immted this order. It is cf rank

'

supe-P;

rise tothat sf the stints". dimof theatmy. It:

janimies terry: either fire arms, or amm‘

acn

cording “! the, part of the empire in which they.

JAssess es asect of Ch who follow, or

who followed , the opinions bishop of

Ypres, inFrance, These epinions respected graceandpredesnnation .

JANQABY, the name of the firstmonth of the year,eenowgenerally. used 111 Bumpe . Its name wasgiven by the Romans , fromJanus , the divinitywho pres ided over the new year, andall new nu

dertakings . See YEAR .

.malarge engine in themos t eastern part ofAsia.

'

It is M W of several islands , the chiefof which; called Niphon, was discovered in 1542

by some Portuguese who were cast on shore in atempest. The Whole empire is divided in sevenprincipal countries , which are subdivided into 70mmxlt is the richest country in . the world

18 8 JAS

wine . To this 13added the colourrequ ired. Figuresorflowers , upon the japan , shou ld be executed withcoloured varnish ; but oil, which cannot be lasting,is frequently substituted. A l l bodies , thesubstanceof winch is firm,may be W ed, Paper istoo flexible , u nless under the formof papiermacbé .

The French coat the surface of the body to be '

japanned ; and this 18 convenient 1n the instenceofWood , because the priming substance fills up.

the

inequalities of the surface . but the japan; exebhtedin thismanner, cracks , andtherefore , the productions of themanufacthrersu ’

of

B irmingham, who work onmetal, and who neverhave adepted this plan, are greatly preferable t othose of France .

JARGON,Z 1RCON, inmineralogy, a semi-transpa

rent, preciou s- stone , of the nature“

of t he diamond,bu t softer, and found in the

'

island of CeylonJ Its

olour is various ; there being grey, greenish-7

white , ye llowish , reddish -brown, and violet . . It

us ual ly possesses considerable lustre, at least, * i1i

temally .

‘

’

t

'

JARGONIA, in geology, a

'

species of earth,

‘foundin the gemjargon . In one hundred parts of jargon, ~

Klaproth has found : sixty-e ight of' this

'

earth ,which possesses pecu liar properties . It is

'

of a.

white colonrf The particu lars are yet scarcelyknown.

L lJasPsn, inmineralogy , agenus of stones ,'

of the

s iliceou s '

class . It includes the bloodw’

stom', s o

called '

fromits be ing su pposed efficacious in *st0p

Pins blood

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170 JETv

des ign, the vision of ardent goodness , the aspirationof philanthropic zeal ? and who does not equally .

see , aperfect unacquaintance with the cau ses fromwhich the phenomenaof human s ocietyresu lt 1

’ A .manwho forms a des ign like that of Loyola andhis Sltccessors, shou ld reflect, that a systemof despotism, however strong its foundation be laid invirtue , wil l infallibly decline into oppress ion .

jesuits succeeded 1n their plan, theymus t have become the scourge ofmankind ; as ithappened , they w

ere checked, by those withwhoseinteress they interfered , while their colossal growthwas yet in a state ofmfancyThe order was expelled England in 1604 Ve

nice , 1 606 ; Portugal, 1759 ; France , 1764 ;

andSicily,, 1767 ; andabolished, by Clement1773. When the jesu its were ejected ti om

Spain, such wasthe relativemagnitude of the powerwhich the government had to overcome ! they wereseized by an armed force , atthe sameminu te of thesame day, ’

111 every townwhere they hadres idence,monarchy and hurried away towere waiting to can y themto another

country .

Js surr’s bark, see 0111101101111 .

natural history , a bituminous substance ,to be similar to amber,

difl'

ering only 111 its colour, which 13black. Great;

quantities of it have been dug up 1n the Pyi ennees,

and it is also fooled 111.parts of Portugal, Spain

Italy, Germany.Prussia Sweden, and In land» I t

JO B'

171

i nd, whenmixed with lime, it is an extremely durable c ement.JET, d

’eau , in hydraulics , see HYDRAUI JCS . Ar

tificial Je ts or fountm'ns ”

aremade bymeans of

cofirpressed air. The air is forced into a vesselforrhed for the purpose bymeans of

'a syringe .

Fig . 8 ,Pl. Hrnnosm‘n cs

,the stop cock is turned ,

andajet of any kind be ing fixed where the syringewas

, the foun tain will ,when the cock is turned , playto acons iderable height, according asmore or 1953air is forced into the vessel. A { buntain of this

kind properlyplaced , in the sun’s rays ,will exhibit

a beau tifu l artificial rainbow.

Jaws, see JUD‘A ISM.

Jon ,orthe

'

book of Job , acanon ical book of theO ldTestament, containing the narrat ive of aserieso fmis fortu nes which happened to aman named”Job, as a trial-ot 'his patience and fortitude toge

therwith conferences which he held withhis severalfriends on the SubjeCt

'

of hismisfortunes , and f themanner in w hich he was restored to happiness.Marry of the Jewish Robbins pretend that this relationis purely a fiction : others think it a simplenarrative of amatter of fact , just Eas it really hap'pened while a third class of critics

'

ackflW ledgethat the ground

“

work of the story is true, bnt‘that

it is writtenin a poetical sty le , and decorated Withpecu liar circumstanCes , to render the narrationmore profitable and interesting. Such also is theopinion of Grotius ,

_

who supposed that the agentsrecorded in

'

it happened in Arab ia, While the Hebrews wander

'

ed in the desert. It was probablywritten byMoses , as it evidently was theWork ofaHebrew, of one who had been 111 arena,

“

and of

;172 JUD

one who wrote before the promulgation ‘

of t theMosaic law. These circumstances all attach tpMoses, and to no one else .

Jcuss , prophecy of, a canonical book of the O ldTestament,mwhich it is related that Jonah abou t

,the year 77 1 , B. C . was ordered to go and prophesythe destru ction of the Ninevites , on account of theirwickedness . But instead of obeying the divinecommand , he embarked forTarshish, when a

rtem

pest aris ing themariners threw himin to the sea

he was swallowed bye great fish, which after threedays threw himon the shore . Afl er this he boldlypreached to the people of Nineveh , and predictedtheir destruction, which on account of the ir repentance was averted . Jonah, dreading the snspicion

whichmight attach to himas a false prophet, netired to amountain at adistance f1cmthe city, wherehe lea1at the folly and unreasonablenes of his own

discontent.JOSHUA , acanonical book of the O ldTestament,

containing a hist01y of the wars and transactions ofthe person whose name it bears . This book 1s div is ible into three parts , the firs t of which is a his

tory of the conquest of Canaan the second,which

begins with the 1 2th chapter, is a description of thatcountry

,and the divis ion of it among the tribes

and the third , comprised ;in the last two chapte rs,contains the renewal of, the covenant wh ich hecaused the Israelites tomake , and the death of the1rv ictorious leader.

JUDAISM, the religious doctrines and rites of the

Jews, 3. people of Judah,or Judea These doc

trines and rites are detailed in the five books of’

,Mos es , hence called, the law. Thaw c‘ars itss,

se

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$ 174: 3JUR

maintains thelaw, he pu ts the evidenceandpleadings in a compendiou s point of View “

5b ut he submits the question ofj udgment to ‘

thej ury1 ~

JUDGES, book of, acanonical book[of the O ld Tes

tament,so called fromits relating’

the state of the

Israelites under "the administration ofmany i llu s

trions persons who were called judges , fromtthecircumstance of their being both the civil andmilitary governors of the people , andwho were raised

.up by God u pon special occas ions after the deathof Joshuatill the time of the irmaking ‘

aking. Bythis book we

‘

learn that g ross impiety sprung upafter the death of Joshua,

‘

andwe aremade acquainted with the dispensatio

'

ns of heaven towardsthis people .

JUDGMENT, inmetaphys ics , afacu l ty of the soul,

whereby it compares ideas ,andperce ives the iragreement cO l' disagreement ; thus , ‘

the understandingcompares the two . ideas of the sun and themoonand, finding the idea of the sun greater than that of

a themoon, the judgment decides , andthe will acquiesces in that dec is ion .

JUL IAN year, see Yeas .

JULY,the seventhmonth of the year. It is de

prived fromthe Latin Ju lius, the s urname of C .

1 Ce sar, the dictator, who was born in thismonthandwas given byMark Antony .

1 JUNE, the sixthmonth of the year, in which isthe summer sols tice . The word is derived fromtheLatin Jum'us which some imagine to come fromJuno, and others fromjunioribus thismonthheingfor young people, as May was for old . 1 2

1 Jumspnunsncs , the science of LAW ,which sees

J 111103, in law,one

'

ot'

themen who composé a'

j ury .

I 175

J un , in law,

‘

acertain number of persons , swornto dec ide jus tly on ; thematter before them. The

constitu tion of‘

England , in committing the administration of j ustice to the hands of ju ries , has sub

jected themto no restraint that can prevent the freedischarge of their duty . They are to decide , not

only u pon the fact, but u pon the criminal ity of the

fact. It is also an estabhshedmaxim, that ajuror,ing iv ing his verdict, is to be governed by nothingb ut .his own Opin ion. Chief-justice Hales has thefollowing passage , in his History of the CommonLaw of England, chap 1 2 . 1 1 .

In this recess of the jury , they are to cons iderthe ir ev idence , to weigh the credibility of the Wit

nesses , and the force and efi cacy of their tes timonies wherein, as I before said . theyare not prec ise lybound to the rules of the c iv il law, v iz. to have twowimesmto prove every fact, unless it be in cases of

treason nor to reject one witness,because he is

Single ; oralways to be lieve two witnesses , if the prohahility of the fact does u pon otherc ircumstan ces reasonably encounterthem; forthe trial is not here simply by w itnesses ,

bu t byj ury ; nay , itmay so fal l ou t,that aj ury u pon their own knowledgemay know a

thing to be false , that awitness swore to-be tru e , ormayknow awitness to be incompetent or incredible ,though nothing he objected against him—andmaygive the ir verdict accordingly .

”

It is a striking and pleas ing observation of De

Lolme , that the consequence of the institu tion of

J uries is , that noman in England , evermeets theman of whomhe can say , thatman has a powerto dec ide u pon

_

my deathseveral kinds among these , there are, in the po

i 21276 d RY.

lity of Britain, grand andpetty juries, in criminalcases ; and command special in civil.

'Jonv,zGraud, abody ofmen of '

some considerationi’n theitficoun ty, summoned'by the sherifi

‘

for efiverysession of the

'peace , every commission of 'oyerandterminer, and of general gaol delivery and to whomall indictments are preferred. The s ummons of a

grand juror requires him, in general terms , to,attend

,and inqu ire , present, do, and execute all

those things , which, on the .part of our olord the

king, shall be then and there requ ired of him.” Thegrand-jurymust consist bf twelve persons at leas tand notmore than twenty -three ; that twelvemaybe amajority . Themembers a’

re instructed in thearticles of the ir inqu iry , by f the justice who pre

s ides on the bench . They then w ithdraw, to sitand '

receive indictments , which -are preferred tothemin ‘

the name of the king, bu t‘

at the

s uit of any private prosecutor ; and they are

only to hear evidence on the part of the prose

c ation : for, the

‘finding an indictment ismenély«in -the nature of an inquiry or accusation, which isafterv

'

vard to be tried and determined ; 'and the

grand{ jury are only to i nquire , whether there bes ufficient cause to call upon the pasty to arisWer it.Formetly, the grand-jury used lto indorse ‘their

decis ion upon the indictment , in the Latin tongu e ,but now,

they write u pon an indictment which theyreject, e ither the words , Nat a tru e bili,

’

or, Not

f ound , and u pon one, of the truth of Which they

are satisfied, A true B ill.

JUfiv , Petty , the panel beforeWhichi tho 'matter

containedman indictment, fiuforniation,Sorrecord,

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1 78 JUS

these are frequently eclipsed in the shadow of the irprimary , or hidden behind his body, and the greats ubserviency of these e clipses to geography and

navigation has occas ioned the‘motions of the satel

lites to ‘be very carefu lly observed . See'

LONGrrUDE :

SOLAR SYSTEM, and SATELLITES .

r

Jos ricia, in law,the equitable ‘decis ion of su its

and prosecutions . The laws of England have froquently beenmade the subject of severe animadVers ion and it is not to bewondered at , if asystemformed of somany broken parts, of ordinancespromulgated at somany t difl

’

erent periods, adapted tos omany different stages -Of society, ~ and indeed ,made up, in great part , of usage and precedents ,‘

and, in itivil cases , l iable to be changed by even ew decision, shou ld appear to those, who loo

for precision and order, con fused and faulty : butwhatever c ensuremay be passed

v 'npon the nil b

iweildy volumes of this code , Cahfm'ny herself cannot utter abreath against

‘

its administration. Thelevir. lot”Englandmay be irreg u lar ; but its justiceis sacré

'

dly correct. Its decis ionsmay sometimesbe erroneous , though i t

'neVer'

errs intentionally,

but it is not here that the eyes of thereader, at this“moment, shou ld ‘

befixed: he should look on the

contras t, if he canpicture it to hismind , betweenthis co‘untry , and one , where, notmerely themistakes ofjuries ,

'

the peijuries ofwitnesses , the errors

of attorneys, of the expenses of proceedings, im'‘

pede the course of justice; but’

where the inferiorinstationcan ’

n'

ever hope t o gain acau se against theThe follovVing testimony of an acute'

a native , not’

of amonarchy , but of’once cons idered as the retreat and

JUSTICE. 179fastness of continental freedom, will serve to'

set

thismatterin avery conspicuou s point of viewA little

‘

after I came to England for the firs ttime (if the reader,

”says D e Lolme , will giveme leave tomakemention ofmyself in th is case),

an actionwas brought in a court of justice, agains taPrince very nearly related to the crown ; and a

Noble. Lord.

~ was also,much about at that time,engaged in a law-su it, for the property of somevaluable lea¢mines, in Yorkshire . 1 could not

but observe, that, in both these cases , a decisionwas given against the twomost powerful parties;though I wondered but little at this , becau se I hadheardmuch of the impartial ity ot

'

law-proceedingsin England, andwas prepared to see instances ofthat kind : but what I wasmuch surprised at was,that nobody appeared to be in the least so (not evenat the strictness with which the ordinary course of

the law had, particularly in the former case, beenadhered to), and that those Profieedings which Iwas disposed to consider as great instances ofpi g .

tice, to the production of which some c ircum. ,stances peculiar to the times , at least some 1111?qmon virtue or spirit on the part of the judges ,musthavemore or less cc-operated , were looked u ponby all those whomI heard speak about them, asbeing nothingmore than the . common expectedname of things l—This circumstance became a

strong inducement tome to inqu ire into the natureof agovermnent by which su ch sheets were pro

180 KAL

1

K

K , the tenth letter of the alphabet !and Whi t iscalled a double consonant. It has tbe

’

hard sound df

c before 6 and i, where according to"the English

analogy, 1: would be soft, as in the words kept aridking : it 15 seldomat the end of words‘exeept 11imonosyllables , as clock, back, fire. It i s generallyomitted

,where it was formerly u sed

,as inmimic,

pz'

lblic, It IS also used betvveen awe vvel andthe silent e final

, as cloke, broke, 8m.

l

is silent‘he

fore n : it is borrowed fromtheG kappa”

,hnd

was bu t little used among the Latins , perhapsnevér but in words borrowed fromthe Greek language . As anumeral Kwas put for 250, andWitliastroke at the trip K stood forKALENDAR

,a table of the distribution of tithe

,

otherwise called , fromthe Arabic, ‘

en almanac.

“i n

almanac,‘indeed, though for no etymologi calreason,‘is u nderstood to containmore than a kalendar fithelatter being s imply chronological; while

’we the

former is added various tables ; as of tides , tefl ns ;interest , and sovereigns . Almanac strictly Jmeansa

'

diary ; but, according to its iniséellzineods cdmpos ition

,it is ratheramanual .

There is nothing ofmystery, or of extraordinary'

difliculty,ln the construction of akalendar, tables

of the ce les tialmotions being at hand . The ope

rations are these . 1 . The compu tation of the s t‘m’sandmoon’

s places , for each day of the year ; alabour thatmay be avoided by taking themfmman ephemeris 2 . The finding the dominical letter,

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1 89 KEE

alkal ine , oralkalescent.~ Themixture of analkali

w ith an unctu ous substanceis soap . The ’mixtureof an alkal i with s iliceous earthg

‘

is glass .) See

1 .'

u s a n i f a at Qf n u'

KAMUL,‘fl0r ”CAM

animal te tthe‘machine , appears to be , that bath inceive their loads inarewmbents t’ate

,and frise /when

l f fl ANf in antient?andmederri‘historyflthé words! says stemmed: same 1‘s o

'

variously’

s overeign lordt iof“

Tartaryf 1s neither'ihe clam, ’

as

our traviellers Icall him, ner’ the »?ban ,ias' l tiire

w ill have it ;b ut the lclzén or‘cén ,

‘with ahaspirateon the first letter.

” 'Tbis Wor'

deis sometimes writs;ten caw

’

n,orman , with the intention of

’ imitatingits native sound : thu s , we read

‘

of ’AliCaam' ; thatis , the lord , or k han

, A ll! 1 Ali , also; is *soineti'mes

written A lly , 111 c ider to express the broad soundatthe a : bu twemu st distingu ish between the orientalwords Ali or 1121115, the latter s ignifying ,

iThe aMagnificent; and in

‘

that sense assumed by the'

EdEdt

India company in Hindos tan ; and by the coinmande1 of i the French nimy in Egypt ; While theformer}as the name of the 'founder ot a division ofthe Mohammedan faith , is odious everywhede but

in Persia'I“ em"1 1 h t f :

KaoLiN, an earth , which , withpetunseg‘ ismade’

Into pO i‘

celav 4; i 1 t o” $55 5 i ."3n

a ship , and thatwith twhich’

its construction usually

w ith that of an animal , the keel will be « CODSidei‘ed

KEE 183

as the haele bene, andthe timbers as '

the,ribs . The

keel/ therefore , supports and unites the who le fa1m; sinces the stemand stern ane continu ations ,which serve to connect and inclose the extremitiescl the sides ; by s transoms , as the keel forms andunites ) thee bottomby timbers 1 Kee l, in navalarchitecture, the name ofa low, flat bottomed boat,needle s the riverTyne, to b ring down coals to thecoll iers . The boatsmwhich the Saxons invadEngland , were called heels . A keel 18 also any ho]

lowfl essel s o that the keel of a ship, does not, byits 'name ,wry the nice of asharp tunber, by whichthe water is cut, but of a vesse l itself.uKBEPliIL O F smeans“ S EAL, inmodernW in the British government, who keeps andaffixes the greet-seal of the kingdomThis officeh asnally held by the high chancellor. It IS conferw by the act of de livery of the great-seal , bythemof the ,

sovereign. It is the great-sealwhichalone , g;ives authority to public acts of thecrown. The crown , therefore, can do no wrongit is the lord -k eeperwho is res pons ible .

O n the au thority ef Coke , it has been represented ,in «the article Chancellor, that the power ot 101111091ling or destroying the king

’8 proclamation , if , con

traryute law,is the origin of that title. No etymo

logy , however, can be .more absurd A chancellor

is a judge at civil law ; so denominated fromthelatticed chamber, or chamberwith alatticed screen,in whichj t was u sual forajudge to sit. The samescreen, ,

of which some spec imens sti ll remain, has .

Qpcasioned the east end of a chu rch to be called thechancel. If other arg ument were ,necessary , it ismanifest that it is not the chancellor, guatenux

1 84 Km,chaficeiliifi,

“Who‘may! Bancela, dotacts ofimampbmW h ammi nmm‘

wais i, areme beds ofwhich 1 is ’

c u t, tial-tied té ‘

tlié fib each,

Mime is dug iswhé groans , thré‘éf ow’

fourlffifeef

wiiié agi round its i nd-gin}are laid are'

w of stonés, 6h’

which the sehLWeEdHEs placed . this isms!) fii‘e,

‘

Md? continually i‘epledished

l; a

'

nd‘f rmfl «the M e ,

(3001, it’honsolidatés ihefi y,

fifikaliné substafiéé'

fi wais substfi iw

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486 Bi!NG.

W t6“king

‘s

”ivhe reallylpossess

'but ‘ little‘

of

.

tliiit'

description of f au thority. Thismatey-of

a ents'

are of thatmiserable ‘

c‘le ssfl he erisa

toifratic: Paw,indeed , are the searchingmonarchs

welders n‘

ot gum-ned by the stability or the i

priei ta

flood“; za'thraldcmequally injhriou s to ’the

'

princesndt cy the people ,

» ahafisr'which the only remedyis , fiifi a

’fimiss iofl of the 'latter into the legislature .

The true friends of the' prince are the people ;

the tr'

ne fi iend‘

of the people ,=the prince . Aryanlig‘htefiéd prince will always wish to promote, to aproper extent, the power of the '

petiple ;r‘and an

enlightened .people , in the samemeasure, that ofthe prince. A kingdhmw ithout aa

i'

dérnots acy'

without a king, will always be an

aristocracy . China, perhaps ,may afford an ex.

hi npde exception to the first of these positions ; endAttica to the second ; bu t

, these sihghlar statesthe ir tru th has every claimto be allowed.

'

true , that'withou t ' an aristocracy ; abe abs olu te; and ademocracy licenv

"i . It is to the advantage, the } , as well'of ' the

prince as of the people , that the pmrogatiVEs ois’ thecrown should be lirhflfeds i ‘ It folls vi s ,

'thatWee sh,

KING. 1 8!

sause laxvs should he thunded orrthe’

nmrersal inteewts of the eommunityi; intere sts which aking, ifindeed red ly absolute ,mightmistake, and whichif, as ismore commonly the ease with unch aking,only the chief of an aristocracy , hemight not darete c onsult : thé second, because the adminittratorsof the laws ought to be respons ible , while

'

the kingought to be respons ible tanoman .

K ING. (f armBritain cmd Ireland, the title of alimited sovere ignty, of high rank in Europe, andfirst vestedin the person of H is present Majesty,Ge orge the -Third. This title is differently ex

pwssed in the Latin Gnoacws Tamus, D ef. Gmttfa, BritanniarumRer; O n vccasion of the Unionof Ireland with Great Britain, the armorial beau .

ings of the crown were ramshalled, in the following order . Q uarterly, first eud fourth , gu les , threelions passant, or, for England ; second , or, withinadouble tressure -flory, gules, alion rampant of thesame, for Scotland s -third, az ure , a harp, or, forIreland : the whole su rmoun ted by an escutcheonof pretence , containing the paternal coat of BrunsWic ; viz . perpale , gnles , two lions , peasant, guardant, or, forBrunswie ; or, semée ot hearts , proper,a l ion rampant, azure , for Lu nenbu rg ; with,graftedin base, gu les , ahorse, courant, argent, foranc ient Saxony ; and, in a shie ld su rtou t, gates;the crown of Charlemagne, or, for the arch- trea-fsurership of the holy Roman empire.

of the King otGreat Britain andIreland,” ere thus enumerated“ i l . {fi re first prerogative of the kieg, inh is caps.city

oof Su preme Magistrate, has thr its ohjeet the

1 88 KING .

1 .

“

He 18 the source of allJUl‘

lal power hezis’

the chief of all the courts of law, andthe jndgesonly his substitutes ; every?thing

'os transacted

in his name the judgmentsmust be withzhis sealsandexecuted by his ofiicers sm(ms 0

'

11 .'rm.

M 9 . By afiction'cf cthe law,

'drezis b ekednrpomasthe universal proprietor of the .rehole ikingdomghe is , in consequence , deemed concernedmail offences , and, for

' that reason, prosecutionsmcar

ried on in his name .

' Prosecutions are carried-

on

in his shame , because : the ofienees zare rlofiences

agains t i that'

peace,'

which he u ndertakes W e

serve ; or, in general terms ;because he isshe commompatron of . all his . subjects , .and avengers“

3. He can pardon ofl ences s jhat v is, remit thepu nishment that has been awarded in "

consequence

II . The second prerogative of the king, is ,ato bethe f ountain of honour that 18 , .the dis tributorof

titles and dign ities ; he creates the peers of the

realm. as well as bes tows the d ifferent degrees ofinferior nobility . H e ,moreover, dispos es of uthe

different offices , either in the courts of law, or else

II I . The king is the s uperintendant of? commerce ”the has the prerogative of regu latingweights .andmeasures , be alone can coinmoney ,and can give acurrency to fore ign coin .

IV. He 18 the supreme head of the church. In

this capacity, he appoints the bishops , and the twoarchbishops and he alone can convene the assembly of the cle

rgy.3

V. He 1s, in right of his crown, the generalis

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1190 KING.

W hat does he do } Habegs permission toresign ;andleaves his sovereign wholly unablmtc ipeobure

the accomplishment of his purposeh tillshe can, findaministerwilling tomommies it. He .

allies .find

one . Thisman, perhapsfl secs nothing dishonestin thedesign, relies : upon 1 the innocencq flf hiscease, orthe strength of his friends , and has no :engagements tabe violated , or, having,” dispenseswith the consideration. .He perfornis the act“ fit,is regarded as unlawful. He is impeachfl lw eon »

,

demned, a11d beheaded. 1 Has notfull vengeance forthe past, fullfuture ? and has -not the punishment fallcmupomthe true delinqu ent 7’ Has he notgiven substanee$18an evilwhich, while in the .king

’

s breast, was bodiless Admitting that the act was an 3: 11mthe king i smorally wrong but he has no politicalgu ilt , and forthis plain reason , -it was out ct his,

pow r,to commit acrime . 1 1 1 4 1 111 03161

C ange the , c ircums tances , and suppose thet a it:was theminister.who projected thismeasure

,,and;

wbgmerely obtained the king’s approbation . is he ;

not“still t heman u pon whomthe consequences

should fal l 1’ O r, go farther, and say, that he hasreceived ageneral commission to act inname ; ought he not to be the responsiblemanBut, is itwhol ly imposs ible that the king candh,

wrong? lVe pe1ce1ve that it is his du ty to act

through hisministers , and that theseministe igsbeing ,

as free agents , responsible for themactions ehejeannot, while 1n his proper sphere, he Chewwith any crime . “ gramme a

Toreturn to the king’5 prerogativesumgpmn

plete our viewof his situation. In reading thetore

KING. 191

goihg enumeratibn of

lawsof“?Etiglafl

since he chills op; and

gislafivé hbdiész‘ We find

firfi ‘sifrhfi’inves ted with hl

which“

th'

é

Enghsh'

s’

eem"so confiden tof t he ple still have;

and that is saying enough , theyisti ll have, in theirbards , nowthat the constitution is fu lly estahlished,the same powerful weapon which has enabled theirances tors to establish it. It iss tilt fromtheir lilierality alone , that 'the liing

‘

can bhtain subsidies ;'af1d

in these days , when every thingis rated by' peoli

niary e stimation, when gold is become the greatmoving“spring of affairs , itmay be safelyaffirmed

thathe who depends on the wi ll of othermen , withregard to

’

so important an article, is , whatever hispowér

‘may be 10 other respects , in astate of real

“b'

l‘hisM e casewith '

the king ofEngland. H e

grant of his

unset -iCharles‘Jthe second , was annexed to

,the

192 KING“.

crown as an ' indemnification for themiliv ices it gave up, andwhich , nhas been fixed to seven

of two shill ings on everywrecks /of ships of which the

'

owne’

rs'

remain nan ,

known whales andaurgeonsmown on themast ;whole appropriated revenue of the king, and are allthat renn in of the anc ient inheritance of the cram

The king of E ngland , therefore, has the peso

rogative of commeding armies, and equippingfleets - but without the concurrence of his parliaement he eannotmaintain them. He can beamplaces and employments -bu t withemhizkpawliament, ’

he eannot pay the salaries attending“onthem, -He can declare war ; but withou t his perliament, it is innpossihle for himto carry it on .

In a ward the royal prerogative; destitute as it isof the power of t imposing taxes, is like a vestabedjtwhich cannot of itself accomplish itsmotions org

if you please, it is like aship completely equ ippe d,but fromwhich the parliament can at pleas uredraw off the water, and leave it aground, -andalso

set itafloat again , by granting subddies .

”

.KING at arms , in heraldry , anofiicerof grantee -g

tiqnity, and, once, of great au thority . His busirness is , to direct the heralds , and pres ide at theirchapters ; and he has the ju risdiction of

k

armoury.

In'England, there are three kingsof arms ; Garte r;

Claw ieux, and Norroy :,in Scotland, one ; done-rminated lion .

court of law,r This rconrt was, W zflwauty ene in Westminste r-hall ; it is themmfrom

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”194: KNIall the subjects o f the realm. It is in

'

the{

dis

eretionrof‘

» this aenrr, to inflict fineaandghfi prih

movemete d! epfersonsdt imprisehs : but this courtmay? grant an babeuf corfitts 'wrelieve persons imby

f imy other amhotityt ormeans "Ehiscont : can try all cau ses capable of coming beiiimajury

,inmany of w hich

'

the king is plaintiff , ibutthe common-

pleas, only those between su bject/

had

K IRK, in e cclesiastical history; a Saxon Word,fromwhich

,by a difference of pronu nc iation endor

thography,’

is derived themodern Englishyckarelt .

The ‘kirk of ’ Scotland , however, is“distingu ished

fromthe church“of E ngland , by particu larsmore

importan t than the pronunc iation of its name. Thisestablishment l s Presbyterian .

KNlGHT,among the Romans , the title of ' the

second order of nobility, immediately below that ofsenator.

“

cKNIGHT, i nmedern history , amofessedlwarrim"according to the constitutions of chivalry.

KNtGHT of St: Andrew; or, of tire Thistle;an ordern the kingdomof Qicotland

,The

dgo of Scotland , as the Ros e is ofEngland, and the Shami ockt of Ireland ; and St.Andrew is its patron or tu telar saint .

-A "tutiel‘arsaint

,is one which a nation chases to consideras its

protector answering to the national gods of fthe

anemia; as Min erva, the tu telar deity of Am1 Krame r ti the Bath. See BATH .

KNI 195

Rsmas -cis'aat, on vmndorihg Knight, one who,inithe generous enthus iasmof chivalry, set out, ;attendeddny his esqniremnshield-bea'rer,w ith the designol exposing his i iq vbereverwrongzwas to be

which t his profession wastaken sip, demanded (such exertions " . .Poetry

'has

givenganf aireffiotion to the adventures of knights

ermt, but they are finmded '

ou tru th . See Gilt-a

Kamila-marshal, an officerin the royal householdof rfireatuBritain 15 nd i reland, who has j urisdictionand cogn izance of?offences committed Within the

householdmil verge , and of all contractsmadetherein; amemberof 'i the ohousehdd being one of

1a t 5

KNlolmof St. Pu t e an orderof knighthood ostablished in the kingdom, “ Ireland ,The ceremony of installation is performed in the

cathedral church of St. Patrick, in thou cityzofDublimThe knights : of this order are twelve

“in

numbers” lKroner-service, a tenure of lands , instituted on

the decline of the feodal spirit, w ith the v iewe f reviving political vigour. It originally consisted ininvestitnre of lands , 1rpon express Condition, that theperson s o invested shou ld serve in the wars of his

lord . This duty was subsequently compounded

for, bye the payment of sums of’money , on variou s06 66 810113 and, at length , by s tatu te 1 2 Car 1 ]

thfi whole was aholished. . 1 tmKMEHT if the Shire,amemberof nafl iament, re d

who represents axeorporation .1A kn ight.0£ the

shire is so called, because, as the j ermsmf the iv‘rit

1596

for el‘

ection still require,"

it .was formerly newssérythat. he should be aknight. This res triction wascommon the tenure efi knightas ervice}

'whenEef erymanwho receivedsaknigdn’

s fee immediately .

at the c roiyniww omsnainedmbe fs f kn ight. At

present , ah esqu iremay be chosen to fi ll thisA ffinig

iht of the s hiremass bommsf ‘

soos ,trending landedai noome, t wrthinzi tantrums

law;‘

the shire is to defray hisi

-expenees inhab i ts;

electors ot’

knighfi of shires smustfbo'

forty s hillings?out'of

'

thein'

laideekz incomnhinmeow l t r t-r 1. 1 5 , t'v s sw i imt cfih 'Kmoaraooo; the state or condieien ot nigmThe origin of knighthood will be seen in tibe articlew ww ? 'Phis institutionhas givemfisc lmth ee

others, teach fl Whihh is enlya devmron fron d“1 IsTheMmitiveolfiects ot‘c hivalr'

y, indoeedmenthe several orders of knighthood. Fromthe degeneraoy

lnecessarfly befalling all establishments

, are derived the orders still subsisting inrrnoc

M EHI'TOPB' i 1 1

“ “

1 11" V e no 3am: seq "

at!

nighthood “wa shro omltdwdrai’y of ~ these

,the firstje ompmhendswfllkm

still adhere to their constituti ons, as k iw i;vows ot celibacy

,etc . and the s econd, tthose wh ich

are nierely titu lar. The Teutonic order is an ex

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too LAB

10 f re ts .3e n l o f ins

"

. 1“f l

t tr i ’m‘

n w’

t xgn s l “

L'

Q , rq ié i éw Auc t é

a t 65“

” i i

is called a semi voweh, liinmed imthe Voice by intereepting' the breath between thetip ofithertongne and the ; tore—ymof the painteiw ith themou th open . There is sortiething

‘ of eas é

piration in its sound, zhnd « therefore the *Welshusually double it, oradd an 11 to it, as in

‘

llan ,‘or‘

lean; a temple . i n EngliSh wards of one syllablm:it is usually dou liled, as in well, wall, but 111 wordsof?more than one syllable it is only single

‘

at the

end, as f ors tel, label . As a numeral L stauds fo

’

n

50 ; L with a‘ dash over it thus, LLABEL,

'ln heraldry, afillet usually placed in themiddle along the chief of the coat withou t touch :

ing its extremities .

“ It is -adforned with pendants t!and 'when there

“

are above three of t hese , the

numbermust be specified in blazoning. This is ,an addition to thehrms of a' second brother; and isesteemed themost honourableof all differences? ww LA

'

BoR'

ATO RY.

” A laboratory propeily fitted upis essentially necessary to

“’a cheaects lead himtomake researches,

experiments, andprocesses , upon all the differentSettles of O peration . j it iii

ons can only be

IABGRA’

PO RY’

. 199

are eithernot seen, or requ ire uncommon d'mcermMout on pereeh e themin the contracted space , andduring the shnnt . time employed in the perfumance of a philosophical experiment . But it is noM

'

true that experiments upon a small scale dolikewisepessess theirexchmive advantages . Duringthe ihgioaand combinatinn nfi substances , in the

whalemlargerthan apeppeh com, before the blow.mesme efi cas take placem‘ith rapidity,andmany“than, s uch ias the

‘

escnpe of gas by efferve scence, the changes of. colour and transparency bydifi

‘

etences ‘in the heat applied , themannerof acqu iring the solid state , & c . which cannot be seen

inxhe furnaee, are in the course of a few secondsremarked and ascertained . The sav ing of time isalsoanobject of leadmg importance . The . sameconsideration s are likewise apphcable to. processesof fus ion, e r. other applieaxlons of heatin asmn llW 1, snob as a tohaceo -

pipe , placed in acommonm; urged ~ liy the b ellows it necessary" . .Humidoperationsmay also be very advantageous ly comducted by s ingle drops of liqu id, and smal l particlesof s olid bodie s laid u pon aglass plate , or in themetal l ic spoon ; and the lamp, for distdlations andother n orks eve n Upon a scale of some ‘mag‘

nimde ,has long been afavourite instrument with chemists ;Forthemechanical divis ioii of bodies it is réluis it ’

e

the chemist shou ld have the u sual instruments forcu tting , breaking, rasping, filing or shaving,mora

tans forl

pmmdsing 1 rollers tin"lamihating'

.metals ;

200 LABO RATORY.we have .already given an account under the ar~

ticle CHEMICAL apparatu s.

4 W e shall now describea fu rnace or two whichmust be found in laborato-l11 8 8 . p

l a

.Fig . 1 . Airfurnace . This is asection of thecommon furnace, u sed by chemists formelting infusing subs tances . A is t he ash -pit, Where the

air enters . C is the fire-place , containing acovered crucible, resting on the grate , .in themidstof the fu el . D is the passage into E , the claimney . F is a flat stone or ti le,removed in s upplying fuel, orwhenmatter under experiment . When a pair of bellowsis fitted into a furnace of this kind , it is sometimescalled a blast fu rnace .

Fig . 2 . In the application of heat to bodies , inchemical Operations , furnaces of difi

'

erent formsare employed . A B C D is a kind of hollow cylindrical tower, sometimes wider at the top, withnotchesmm, to give a passage ,

to the air. Thisfurnace has two apertures ; the upper one F, is

the door of the fire-bole H I , and the lower oneG, is the door

‘

of tbe ash-hole C D . Betwe endoors . there is a horizontal grate , on

The space occu piedby the l ine drawn from

is intended to receive ironthe purposes of distillation,

g furnace .

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209 LABO RATO RY .

this rodibeing so graduated , as to express the comtents of rthe inner vesSel Fmcubic‘thetz This irt-J

Bitumen! 1 s~ likewise applied ‘tofi‘

the.pew of

h a llw ay of the gas es by applying a‘Jmouthpmeeste the’

icock D w e ? N " H ! ( “W e

f fiFlgd fif“u .

is passhig fl iroughat

'

urnace Fw. fl

‘

aoue extremity o f it is adaptedthe

,bent tube A ,

and to the other extremity isfixefithe tube B,

which ‘

enters under the rec‘

eiver 0.

,When the apparatus is thus disposed, s and the

s everal parts are luted together, the gun barrelismade red hot, and water is poured in idropbyglropat A . Themo of the gun barreb seizes on

the oxygen of the wateras it passes , and the hydrogen escap

esthrough B, into

the re

ceiver

-in the

5mO f gas .1

“ Fig . 6 . Is a self-acting blow pipe .HE is

hollow globe of copper, which contains spiritswine, and it rests on the frame g : the tube G riscontinued within the globe E almomto the“

top,anaserves for conveying the spirits in the formofnapour, or gas , to the flame O of the las ip D F15 avsafevy valve, occas ional ly forced up by the

vapour, whwhwou ld otherwise bu rst theapparatus;x is the stopper, bymeans of whiohithe Spirits areintroduced, The flame of , the lamp boils? the spil

rits of throughithe tube G;in.the formof

‘

gns , and being conveyed throughthem*ihknof $the

‘

h utp, 1iproduces

'

a heat zstrongenough tome lt almos t any substance .

r 1

A varietyiof Tothetiihstmfurnaces ; chemicalTaupe on

‘Argand’sW ye

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204if

,

dmAC 1

; f

,

Lamin a ;a country on the east'

side ’

of'

Hed

M ’s boyi sh North .Amcriea. The silicate l is ess

and in Ju ne themmM W : M OS, el lid theme

romhorealesmmy common-i 145 summer'

there

is agreat varietymf colou rin the skins of animals;niac in; winter .they all change to M éutmgsicats

,&c . carried fromthis country to ,

Hodgon’

s

Bay change the irappearance on the approach of

winter, and are furnished with a softerandmuchthicker coat of hair.than they originally had.

LACCA , LAC , or GUM-LAC , awax of which a spe

c ies of insects , of the eochiueal hind, thrms itscells . Some of the dead insects , remaining in thecombo, give the whole ared colour. That sortoflac which 13 calledM ansion, is the waxadhering to small s ticks orbranches

,and which is u nprepared . This lan,

when separated fromthe sticks, gross ly.powdened,and deprived of its colour, for the sake of the dyfiand other purposes , is calledLAC-SEED when the stick-lae v is freedafromits

impurities bymelting it gover a zgentle rfir'

e, andformed into cakes , it is called Lamp-lac. 1 .

LACE , in commerceraworktoompmd ofithreodsof gold ,

-

silv er,

-s ilk, or linen, i nterwoven i ts one

with the other, and worked 11pma pillow withspindles , accord ing to the pattern designed .

'The

placed and displaced as the spindles aremoved.

Lacs bonn zazlmomade . of ”fine lines t hread ,

‘

LAC 90s

large round pillow and, pins be ing stuck into theholes or openings in the pattern; the threads are

interwoveu f bymeans of a number of bones, or

bobb ins , each of whiche ontains a small ’quantityot

’

fine thread, in su ch azmanner as tomake '

the

lace .

exactly resemble the pattern. There areseveral towns in England , and particularly in

Buckinghamshire , that carry cathismanufacturehut great quantities of the finest laces aremade in

Flanders .

LACERTA , thalizard, agenu s of amphibiaof thereptile order of wh ich there are upward s of eightyspecies . The following claims princ ipal attention.

LacertaCrocoddus , or the crocodile , is anat ive bothin Africaand As ia, bu t ismost frequ ently f ound inthe former, inhabiting its vast rivers , and particu larlythe N igerand the N ile . It has occas ionally beenseenn i

‘

rthe length of even thirty feet, and ins tanc esof its attaining that of twenty are by nomeansuncommon. It pt incipally subs ists on fish, but

s u ch is its veracity , that it seizes almost everything within its reach . The upper part of its bodyis covered with a species of armour, so thick andfirm, as to be scarcely penetrable by amusket hall,and the whole body exhibits the appearance of an

e laborate coveringrofi carveduwork. It is an oviparou s nnimal, and its eggs scarcely exceed in sizethose of a g

floose, These egtgs arc regtarded as

luxuries by the natives of some countries of Africa,

of the Crocodile itself .

You I".

206 LAK

hau nts,a high degree of terror. it lies in Wait

near the banks of ri vers , and with asudden spring,seizes any an imal that approaches within its reach ,swallowing it by an instantanedns efl’oi‘t, anil thenrushmg ‘back into its watery

“recessed;'

“

till refiewetlappetite stimu lates the remained of its"insidious ‘

cii

ertions. See Pl.eNai . Histi fifr . to.

mm 1

Lacnnmn gland‘

; thatwhich secretesiand conveys themto the eye by

lits

there are six or eighti n number.

” 5333”35 "an“

LACK if rupees : in the East?’

Ihiil’

iesT

rupees ,“which are Worth at?We

price 93. 6d. each ,of course the Risk is Worth

,f . sterling .

LACTEALS , these are with in absorbentf't'essels

which originate in the Sniall intestines, and conveythe chyle to the thoracic duct.

"

LACQ UER, aFrench word;natural ized smegma,and formed i’romlacca. Lacca 1s tfi edfin

and Japangas‘

a‘

varnish , whence v arious‘kinds"hf

varnish,~the'basis of which is seed-lac

,“are canes

LACT IC acid , a pecu liaracid foundwhich depends the facility with whichmilk tinder

t: LAKE , in geography , or,more strictlfy, hydfiérdphyf a sea hatingno apparent coininuuication Wi (r 1mi: 7 1s

Jlakes are of two c lasses ; rieillier' tempori rfi tir

v vie s!) s ilt Mm

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sea; the lakeAs phaltites , alse ealled themed sea;the lake ot

'

Geneva, and several others ;t 40 Those which both rece ive and emit rivers, iselude semewarieties , as the quantity they emit «isgreater, equal, or less than they reeeive, If it he

springs at the bottom; if less , the surplus‘

effs the

spent in exhalations ; and if it

Just supply whetie evapo‘

‘ 1 a N‘

W arlords, a‘

eanomcal book eti theO ldgleS~tamenggeaerally sepposed to hmheen written bythat prophet Jeremuh : others 'MWeva zithat she book at Lamentations composed rbn aere

The sed chapter of the Phoeb e f

the calamitiesthe persecua

'

ons which he himself had em{ the fourth treats h f the desolation oil the

v

isit? andtemple s the fifth 18 aprayer forthe Jew:

in theiedispersmniand capt ivity, .and at the chainmfwel'rspeaks d'

the cruelty ze t'

the M ites .

EW Wmtiflgwthe i last chapteri 48 written in !

ametre; and cbgcstedrin the tim

’

LAM 209

LAMMASS, or LAMB -MASS , DAY, the first of Au

gu st ; a fes tival ce lebrated in the Roman church ,

in former times , the tenants of the'

abbey of

YOPk, .were hound , by the ir tenure , to bring intothe church

,a l iving lamb each .

The origin of this cu stomdoes not appear; butits existeace clearly accounts for the name of theday .

LAMP-black, in painting, a pigment formed of

the soot aris ing fromhuming -.oil In its original

state , its extreme greasiness wou ld prevent its 1drying ;)but this defect 1s remedied , by burning it ii] aLAMPYRIS, in en tomology, thefirefly .

There are e ighteen species of this genus , themost remarkable of which is the noctiéuca. The1male of this insect is less than the female, which iscommonly known by the name of glow-

”

worm.n The glow-wormis seen abou t themeaths of June

,

July , and Augu st. The light which is perceivedtoward the lower extremity of its body , is producedbya phosphoric liquor. The an imal has the powerof varyn the degree of its .brightness, and evermfwholly extingu ishing it ; so that if an observer approacht he spot where he has perceived it , it oftenhappens that the creature ren ders itseif wholly ihvis ible . It se ems probable

,that zit does nut emit

light, either whenmoving, or when apprehensiveof danger. The lights , which are perceived alongthe ground , are never seen to ehange sheirpiecesand if the insect be taken ,

and carried in such amatmer that it is itself at test, it willf s hme t durihgthe cwhole journey , yet when

'meyemiu i the

em “

LAP

dank, 'it Will immediately withdraw its lamineu seess . I f, in this base, alight be procuredg itxwfllbe found that it is erawling in search of 1a station »

slight,

of a du l l brown v coloar, and the under ofaWh iti sh , tinged with red. Its luminousness serv es.the double purpose ofmaking '

itcdis coverable to itsown kind , and to the animals of which it is a prey .

1 LAa PBSSAnes , ofi cers in the French army be:tween the s ent ineland corporal .lawman-magic, see Gen es .

Id oqoos , is a celebratedmonument of Greekscu lpture exec uted inmarble by Polydorus , Athenodorus

,andAgesander, the threemos t ce lebrated

artists at Rhodes . ,This fine remain at antiqu ityw

'

as’

found at Rome iti the palace of Titu s,in the

beginn ing of the l eth century, and has Since beendeposited in the Pamase palace . .Ixaoceon , the

priest of Apollo , is here repres ented with his"

two'

sons , w ith twohideous serpents clinging round hisbody, gnawing it ,

‘

and injecting its poison . The

statue exhib its themost ‘

astonishing dignity and

tranqu illity ofmind in themids t of themeet excru a

t him, an artificerwho cuts precious stones .

There are fvariotrsmachines employed in the cu tting» of prec ious smes

r

‘

according to their qualitythe diamond , which is extremely hard , is cu t on a

wheel hf s’ot'

t steel, turned by emili,with diamhnd

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I2 1 1: LAR

be joined 111 one indictment, and the offender foundgrand larceny but th is 18 very seldom

euce value , and by thatmeans reduce the offence to petit larceny, thoughthe offendermay perhaps be indicted thr stealingto the value of thirty orforty shill ings and u pwards .The crime of grand larceny is punishable

’

with

death bu t thato f pe tit larceny , only with corporalpunishment

,as whipping.

Larceny is also d ivided into simple larceny ,the

taking away the goods of another ;mixed, 01‘ complicated larceny , which has a farther degree (if

gu ilt, as in cases of robbery, private larceny,where the feloniou s taking froma person above thevalue of twelve pence , is felony w ithou t benefit ofc lergy, if it be only laid in the indictment that itwas done privately and secretly and, lastly ,’ openlarceny , or such as is committed with the party"8knowledge , as where athief snatches off a person’

s

hat, and runs away with it ; this is within the benefit of the clergy . A personmay commit larceny ,by taking away his own goods 1n the hands of another ;

'

as where the owner del ivers goods to a car

rier,or any other person , and afterwards secretly

s teals them, with an intent tocharge himfor them.”

I f a person employ a child of six or seven years

of age to take goods and bring themto him, andhe carries themaway, the child is not guilty ofthis crime on account of h1s infancy , but it is lar

ceny in the other.

LARVA,mnatural history. The larva state of

h all its

parent ; only these are not disclosed at first, but{hr the greater part of the animal’s life they arecovered w ith a sort of case ormuscu larcoat, inwhich are legs for walking : these only s uit it in

this state, but itsmouth takes ‘ in nourishment,which is conveyed to the included animal ; andafterama time this covering is thrown off , andthe butterfly, which all the whilemight be dis .covered in it by an accurate observer with the helpof amicroscope, appears in its prOper formThe

care of all the bu tterfly tribe to lodge their eggs insafety is surprising Those whose eggs are to behatchedma few weeks

,andwho are to live 1n the

caterpillar s tate du ring part of the remaining summer, always lay themon the leaves of such plantsas will afi

'

ord a preper nourishment ; b ut, on thec ontrary, those whose eggs are to reniain unhatchedtill the following spring,always lay themon the

d shrubs , and usually are on e

aces as ,are least exposed to the

cover

if) [fish-18 11 916013

.

314 LAWcu t their timbers into lengths , cleave each

’

piece with ~wedges , into eight, t or s ixteen ,

according to the s ize ofare

'

called bolts ; this’

which is that grain which 18

ringsat the end of a piece of

are cut ou t for the breadth of the laths , and thiswork 15 called fe lting . Afterwards they c leave thelaths into their proper thic

knes ses with theirchit,by the quarter-grain , which 15 that which t uns in as traight line towards the pith .

LATITUDE , in geography, IS the distance of any ,

place fromthe equato1 ,measured in degrees ,micantes , and seconds , upon themeridian of that placeand 1s either north or sou th , according as the placeis s ituated e ither on the north or sou th s ide of the

equator.

LATTEN , amongmanufactures , 1ron plates, tinnedover. See Tm.LAW, a rule of action ; whether the actionbeperformed by a thing animate or inan1mate : thus ,we say, law of gravity, as well as law of nations .

The fi1s t division , therefore , of the compound ideaof law, is into I .mechanical law, and II .moral lawthe first comprehending the irres istible ordinationsof nature the second , prescriptions , in cases whereseve1almodes of action are equally poss ible .

I .The first class of laws are the obJects of physzcaI I . The second , comprehends what 1s commonly

cal led law that 18 , the ru le ofmoral conduct.Laws are subdii'ided into several orders z, . 1,

ethics , or the law oi nature 2 . divine lawy er the

law of revelation ; 3. law of nations ; 4.municipal

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2 16 LEA'

that: which is ordained by the statutes of the kingparliament . a

8 . The third , the civil law. [See CIVIL ]W ithin these three sections are coinprized the

subdivis ions of crown -law ; eccles iastical, or

nanfl aw forest-law ; the law ofmarque andprisals

t; the law ofmerchants ;mart ial-law ; Sec.

LAWYER,ageneral termfor personS '

conversant

in the law ; including attorneys and soliciters , whoconduc t su its ; counsellors , who give advice ; bar~risters, who plead at the bar ; serjeants , a superiororderof barristers andjudges , who preside on thebench .

harms , in law, every one who is not an eccle

Lsan, inmineralogy , ametal us ually foundcombined with other subs tances, but which has

beenmet with in a native state in Monmou thshire,in Wales, andmmore than one part of France .

Lead, which IS of a du ll white colour, inc liningto blue , 1s verymal leable , but imperfectly ductile ;awire termed of it, the tenth of an inch in diameter, not being able to sustain aweight exceeding

ine pounds and an halt.while i n the earth, enters into the amb

stance of crystal. This 18 frequently the case withthat crystal which is foundabou'

t lead-mines , therenders a cube. It often doe s

g the colour ; but when it tingeses is yellow .

tOpaz , among the gems, owestothismetal ; and, in thet it gives to the composition is always .

3

yellew approaching to that of the tqpazs h

LEA 2 11

Lead ore is readily known to be such , by itsbeing nearly of the colourof lead itse lf, ora littledarker veryhright and glossywhen fresh broken ;and w eed either of ,oubic or paralleIOpiped-rmassed orof smaller granu les , or else of stri fe , or

chemist-ed, or. f urrowed , .pieces : in the firs t ofthese s tates it is commonlycalled porter’

s -ore , or

dicedlcadmre ; in the second, s teel-grained-ore ;andindhe th ird, antimoniatedwore, fromits resem

Black, orplumbago, anatural compositionLew , White oxydof, formerly called o'

eruss , and

whitee lesd, a powder fornied by the union of leadwith oxygen ; as, when themetal ismade to

efi'

ewesce w ith the nitric acid .

Lean, Redmyd of, formerly calledminium, orred-lead, a compos ition of eighty eight parts oflead and twelve of oxygen.

Lam, Yellow ozyd of, formerly calledmamcot .

When lead is exposed to heat, in contact with the

atmosphere, its surface is speedily covered with a

grey pellicle. This pellicle, which 1s composed oflead, and the oxygen it has attracwd fromthe atBiosphere, is adirty-gey powder. If this powderbe heated red-hot, it assumes adeep yellow cc

Lsass ,’mlaw, an ins trument oragreement, by'

which, under certain conditions , and particularlythe payment of arent , lands , tenements , orhereditaments are let, by the lessor, to the lessee, for aspecified time. The timemay be eitherposifiweorVO L. 111 . U

2 18 LEASE.

conditional , that is, forayear or certain number ofyears or for the space of the life of some one per;son

,ormore . Any one of the conditions of a lease

not being compliedwith , the proprietormay reass ume possessmn .

-The pu rchaser of a leasemay be cons idered asthe purchaser of an annu ity equal to the rack-rent,forwhether he possesses the estate himse lf

,or lets

it ou t to another, he has an interest in the sameequal to the annual rent thereof ; therefore , fromthe principles , on which the present value of eu ~

u nities is ascertained , the value of leases is likewisefound. When a certain sumis paid down for thegrant of a lease , itmay be considered as somuchmoney paid in advance for the annual rents as theymay become due ; therefore , in order to ascertainwhat the sumought to be, i t wou ld be necessaryto find

tseparately, the present value of each annual

rent, or the sumwhich , put out to interest at the

given rate , wou ld amou nt: to the rent at the time itbecame due and these separate values of each

year’s rent added togetherwould give the sumto

be paid down as the present value of the lease; Therate of interest at whichmoney is supposed to beimproveable , affects the value of leases , .verymaterially, as .

the higher the current rate of interes tis, the less willany one be disposed to give forpayments,

to be received at fu ture periods : thus'

n'

6

percent. interes t can be readily obtained formoney ,no one will give the same sumfor acertain yearlyrent as if he could onlymake

,4 per cent. interest

of hismoney . The value of leases at 5 per centis found by the table given p . 1 60, in CompoundINTEREST

, thus the value of a lease for 14 years

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220 LEASE.

8 perC. Yrs . 6 perC.

To findthe sumthat ought to be given fora lease .

Ru ie. Look in the table against thenumber ofyears forwhich the lease is to continue , and on the

line even with it, u nder the given rate of interes t,is the number of years purchase that ought to begiven for the same .

Ex. What sumought to be given for the teas eof an estate of 1 7 years , of the clear annual rent of751. allowing the purchaser tomake 6 perc ent.interest of hismoney ? N‘U f

.

LEA 221

An swer, X 75 7851. 153. 6d.

This s umof 7851. 153. 6d. pu t ou t to compoundintm‘est at the rate of 6 per cent ., will produ cea clear income of 75L'

per annumfe r 1 7 years '

consequently , if it be agceed that 6 per cent . is the

pmper interes t, then the landlord has a full equivaTof ind the annual rent corresponding to any

given sumpaid for a lease.

Ru le. Divide the sumpaid for the lease by thenumber of years purchase that are found againstthe given term, and u nder the rate of interest iatended to hemade of the purchasemoney, thequ otient wil l be the annual rent requ ired .

Ex. I amasked 15001. fora 40 years lease , towhat annual rent is that equivalent, allowing 6 percent. formoney ?

133. 1 11 .

To find the number of years purchase given foraW e that cost a certain sumofmoney .

Ru le. Divide the sumpaid for the lease by theclearannual rent of the estate forwhich it is given,and the quotient will be the numberof years purEx . The lease of a house, at the c lear annual

rent of 1 161. was sold for what number ofyears purchase was given for it?

229.1 16

" 14yrs .0mo . 2 weeks , 4 days.

Lumen, the skin of several sorts of. beast!dressed and prepared for the u se of the . variousmanu facturers , whose business it is tomake them

v a

92d LEP

up. The buteher and others , who flay ofi'

. the ir

hides or skin, dispose of themraw or salted to thetenses and tawyer, and they to the shamoy, .mmraces , and other kind of leather-dressers , Who

prepare themaccording to their respective arts , inorder to dispose of themamong the carriers,

glovers, harness-makers , coach-makers , saddlers,breeches rmakers , gilt leather-makers

, chairmalrers , shoe-makers, book-binders, and all in

any Way concerned in the article of leather;Lessons , salt of, u sed to remove ink-stains from

linen , is the native salt of sorrel , the su per-oxalateof potash .

'The effect is produced by the oxalicacid dissolving with facility the oxide of iron inthe ink, on the combination of which with thetannin and gal lic acid the colour depen ds while,at the same time, it can be used withou t any risk

of injury to the cloth , on which it has no effect.LENS , in diOptrics , properly s ignifies a small

roundish glass , of the figure of a lentil , but isextended to any optic glass , not very thick, whiche ither collec ts the rays of light into a point, intheir passage through it, or disperses themfurtherapart, according to the laws of refraction.

LEP IDOPTERA, or scaly-winged , the third order

of insects , according to the Linnaean system. The

general character of this order\is fou r wings ,covered with fine imbricate scales ; tongu e involute, spiral body hairy . It cons ists of the insectscommonly termed butterfl ies andmoths . The

powder on the wings of these insects has beenagenerally described -bymicroscopical writers; asconsisting of small feathers ; bu t they are.morein itha formofminute seales , of varieus shapes

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1 24 LET

LETTER, a character used to express amodulation of the voice. Grammarians distingu ish lettersinto vewelfs; consonants ,motes , liqu ids , dipthongs,and characteristics . They are divided into labial,dental, gu ttural , and palatal, and into capital andsmall letters . They are also denominated fromtheshape and turn of the letters ; and in writing are

distingu ished into different bands , as round-text,German -text, round-hand , Italian , and in

printing into Roman , italic, and fi nds letter. The

termletter, or type , among printers , not only in.

e ludes the CAPITALS ,SMALL CAPITALS , and small

letters , but all the points , figures , and othermarks ,cast and u sed in printing ; andalso the large ornamental letters , cu t in wood ormetal, which tookplace of the illumined letters used inmanu scripts .

The letters used in printing are cas t at the e nds of

small pieces ofmetal, about three quarters of an

inch in length ; and the letter being not indented ,bu t raised , eas ily gives the impress ion ,

when, afterbe ing blacked with aglu tinous ink, papa is closelypressed upon it .Lmi na-j bundery . See Fouunsav .

LETTER, Sunday . See DOMINICAL.LETTER of

’

attorney , in law, is a letter by whichone person authoris es another to do some lawfulact in his stead, as to give seisin of lands , to receivedebts , or to sue a third person . The nature of thisinstrument is , to trans fer to the person to whomi t is g iven, the whole powerof themaker, to enablehimto accomplish the act intended to be performed . It is e i ther general, or special ; andsometimesmade revocable, wh ich 18 , when a bare

s only given and sometimes it is irre

LET 225

rocahk fas where debts , 800. are ass igned fromonepers on to another. It is generally he ld , that the

poirer granted to the at torneymust be strictlypursued ; and thatwhere it ismade to thre e persons , two cannot execute it . Inmos t cases , thepower giVen by a letterof attorney determines , orceases , upon the death of the person who gave it .No letter of attorneymade by any seamen ; or

other person, in any ship of“war

,or vesse l , having

letters ofmarque , or by his execu tors, &c . in"

orderto impower any person to receive any shares of

prizes , or bounty-money, is valid , unless the samebemade revocable ,

‘

and for the u se of such seamen,and be s igned and execu ted before , andattested by;the captain and one other of the sign ing officers ofthe ship , or themayor or chiefmagis trate of someLamas -clause, or close letters, are Opposed to

letters - patent, becau se they are commonly sealedwith the king

’s Sig net , or privy seal, while lottery

patent are left Open .

Lmzas of credit, amongmerchan ts , is aletterwritten by amerchant or banker

,to his cor

-res

pondent abroad , requesting himto credit the‘

béarer

as far as a certain sum.LETTER g

”

licence,an instrument or writing

gri nned by a.

allowing himacertain time for the payment of his debts ; bywh ic hmeans he is enabled to pros ecu te his husmess , withou t fearing an arrest.LE’

I‘i‘ER ofm‘art, ormarque, a letter grante d to

one of the king’s subjec ts , u nder the

M 6 LEV

formerly, taken fromhim,by the s ubjects of

another state, contrary to the law ofmart .Law n s-patent, or overt, are writings sealed

with the great seal of England ; so cal led, be

cause they are open with the seal affixed to themThese are granted to authorise am‘an to (le

,-or

enjoy, what of himself he cou ld not do or enjoy :,LEVANT, a name given to the east part of theMediterranean sea

, bounded by Natolia, or the

lesser Asia, on the north , by Syria and Palestineon

‘the east, by Egypt andBarcaon the south , and

by the is land of,Candia

, and the other part of theMediterranean, on the west. The French wordLevant, alludes to the rising of the sun .

am, or Turkey , Company , a trading company erected in the reign of Elizabeth , ,and the

privileges of which were enlarged and confirmedby James -I . It was invested with an exclu sivetrade to the Levant, or eastern part of the Mediterranean ; but this commerce is now open toallmerchants

,on the payment of asmall cons ideration.

LEVEL,an instrument wherewith to draw a line

paralle l to the horizon, bymeans of which the tru elevel, or the difference of ascent or descent betweenseveral places ,may be found , for conveying water,and other purposes.

LEVELLlNG, the art of ,finding a line parallel tothe horizon at one ormore stations , in order todetermine the height of one place w ith regard to

another.

A tru ly level su rface 18 a segment of a sphericalsurface , which is concentric to the globe of theearth . A

‘

true line of level is an arch of agreat

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gas LIB ~

mind principally contributes . thus, architecture 3alibetalart ; bu ilding, otherwise .

The principal liberal arts, are poetry, painting:music, grammar, rhetoric , and architecture .

Science differs fromart; inasmuch as the fus t isthe work of the,mind , and the second the work of

the bands . In science, the handsmay assist themind ; and in art, themind the hands ; but surelyit is not difficu lt to distinguish between the Operations that severally belong to these two faculties ofman .

LIBERTY, is said to be apowerto do as one thinksfit

, un less restrained by the law of the land : libertyis the gift of God toman in his creation , and it issaid that u pon this account the laws of England

generally favour liberty. Natu ral liberty consists

prOperly'

in a power of acting as one thinks fitW ithout any constraint or controul, unless by the

law of nature . But everyman, when he entersinto society , gives upa part of his natural libertyas the price of so valuable apurchas e ; and in con

sideration of re ceiving the advantages ofmu tualcommerce , obliges himself to conformto those lawswhich the community has thought proper to establish . This species of legal obedience is infinitelymore desirable than that wild savage liberty whichis sacrificed to obtain it . Political or civil liberty,then, is no other than natural liberty, so far re

strained by humane laws , andno fartherthan is necessary and expedient for the general advantage ofthe public . See CHARTA,magna.

Lina/mots , in as tronomy, an apparent imaginarity of themoon’

smotion whereby she seems tolibrate abou t her axis ; so that the parts in the

western limb ormargin of themoon semetimes

Fig Lacerta fiv coddwr O v codzk

Fly 30 Lepu s amulw ‘Male X' l bmalc Hal/wFry 3] Inb ellu ln vazmflmy on, I"?M b kai éy a 17113”

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4230.

LIFwings;

‘

in amarch , a detachment, or a flyingcamp at asiege, or in one of the attacks, aquar-ster, when it is his day of duty .

Lire,is peculiarly u sed to denote the animated

state of liv ing creatures , or the time that the unionof the ir soul and body lasts .

Lira, duration qf. As the property or incomefromwhichmany persons derive their subsistencedepends on the continuance of their life

,or that of

others,cas es will frequently occur in which it will

be desirable to be able to forman estimate of the

duration of l ife . O urknowledge on this headmu stbe referred to probabil ity no ly. According to D e

Moivre the expectation of l ife to persons not veryyoung nor very old 18 found by the following ru le .

Subtract the given age from86 and divide theremainder by Q , the quotient gives the number of

years that s uch a person has an equal chance of

living . thu s aperson 40 years of age has an equal—40

chance of living 23years , becau se86

23.

For it is known by accurate observation , that of 46persons aged 40 years , one will die every year, tillthey are all deadm46 years ; therefore half 46 ,Or 23years , will be the expectation of life of aper

son 40 years of age . That i s , the number of yearsenjoyed by themall, will be ju st the same as if

everyone of themhad lived 23years , and then diedThe same reason ing applies to all other ages .

As this ru le is not equally ju st with rega1 d to allages , tables have been calculated with the nicestaocuracy, shewing at

human life at all ages ;the doctrine and value of life annu ities The fol»

l owing table wil l shew

LIFE. 231

T1113EXPECTATION orHUMAN Ln-"a AT s vsar Ace .

Expectation. ation.

25

26 76

27 77

28 78

29 79

30 55 80

31 56 8 1

32 57 82

33 58 8334 59 84

35 85

36 6 1 86

37 62 87

38 63 88

39 89

40 90

41 91

42 92

43 2 1,54 9344 94

45 95

46 96

47

48

74

To find the expectation of any given life .

RULE . Seek in the table the g iven age , and

O ppos ite to it is the expectation .

Thus , the chance of life to an infant j ust born i s

or rathermore than 25 years ; to a personof 4o years of age 23.08 , as we have found before,and to aperson of 69, jus t 9 years .

LIFE Annu ities, are annual payments to continuelives . These are generally purs

apresent sumofmoney .

232“ The present value of a life annu ity” 5s the

be'

sufi cient (al lowing for thehas been considered

bore no interest, the val

wou ld be equal to the

life ; Thu s by the foregoing table, the valuebf anannu ity fe r a l ife of 20 years of age , ifmoneybore no interes t, wou ld be equal to nearly 83yearsand ahalf pu rchase ; that is , in hand foreach life, would be sufficient to pay to any numberof such lives 1 1. per ann um.

Ifmoney is capable o f be ing improved by be ingput out to interest, the sumj ustmen tioned woii dbemore than the value , becau se it wou ld be extrathan sufficient to pay the annu ity and it wil l beasmuchmore than su fficient as the interes t is

greater. As an example,Ifmoney can be umproved at 5 per cent. oom

pound interes t, the halt of 331. 103. or

w il l, in littlemore than 14 years , produce the

381. 108. requ ired . See INTEREST, Compou nd .

Itmust not however be Su pposed , that 16l. ,153.

is the tru e value of an annuity of I I. during alifeof 20. .The value of an annuity certain fiora termequal to the expectation ,

always exceeds .the truevalu e ,

”

becau se , in a number of life annu ities,many

of the payments wou ld not be to bemade till amu chmore remote period than the termequal tothe eupectation . 1 11

Upon this principle the following table 1scomputad , fromwh ich it appears that the present vfl ueof an annuitymfiu ug

on a life of 20

is equaloto 141. and a

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LIFE .

11.

934

Shewing the Value of an Annu ity during thejointcontinuance ofTwo Lives , according to the probabilities of life at Northampton, reckoning intereseat 5 per cent, beginn ing at

'

the age of 16

and ending with that of 60.

15-80

90-20-25

203520-40

20-45

20-50

20-55

20-60

20-65

20-70

20-75

20-80

25-3025-3525-40

25-45

25-60

25-65

25-70

55-60

55-65

55-75

55 80

0-5 88

LIFE. 235

Table I.

To find the value of anannuity foraperson of anygiven age .

RULE . Multiply the number in the tableagainst the given age, by the sum, and the productis the answer.

”

Ex. What should a person, aged 45, give tomman annu ity of 601. per annumduringlife , interes t be ing reckoned 5 percent .The value in the table against 45 years is

and thismultiplied by 60gives the answer, 666AGs.

Table II .

To find the value of an annu ity on the largest oftwo sin

gle l ives .

Rule . Fromthe sumof the values of the

single lives su btract the value of their joint continuance

,and the remainder will give the value of

the longest of the lives .

”

‘

Ex. What is the value of the longest of twolives aged 10and 15 ?

The value of a life at

Table II . The value of the joint continuance of two lives of 10 8: 1 5Value of the longes t of the

1 7 .4e5

236 LIG

would be worth nearly 17 years and ahalf purchase , ormore accurate ly , 1 "421. 10s .

U pon s imilar principles the value 01 the longest

of three lives ,&c . is fou nd : and all otherquestions,relating to annu ities , are likewise solved . See RE

VERS IONS .

h ear,in phy31cs , that substance , of the presence

of which we are informed by the sensibil ity of the .

visual organs fromwhich bodies rece ive . the ircolours ,

and which is , in some way, connectedwith heat . 1

Light 15 an object of research , both 1n optics andin chemistry ; -the first inqu ires into its formandlaws the second , its essence .

I . O f light, in Optics . Light, according to theNewtonian doctrine

,which no s ubsequent disco

very or theory seems to have discredited , is composed of inconce ivably smal l particles ofmatter, ofdifferentmagnitudes which are emitted or reflected frome very point in the surface of a luminousbody , in right lines , and in all directions , w ith an

u nparalle led velocity and whose power or inten

s ity,

decreases as the squares of the distance 111

light is amaterial substance , appears frompropagated 1n time, and fromits acting

great alterat ions in other bo

its particles are inconcewably smallappears fromthis , that ,

the greatest quantity of

flame is found to have scarce any sens ible gravity( aorweight : also because these particles pervade the

pores of all transparent bodies , however hard or

heavy : yet, small as they are,the rays of light

cons ist of differents orts of theseparticles ; and that

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288 LIGHT:much sooner, andmore eas ily, thanfl

they canmovethose which are larger.

According to some very elaborate experiments ofD r. Bradley , l ightmoves at the rate of one hun

dred and ninety-live thousand two hundred ande ighteenmiles in a second . Anotheraccount statesthe numbemofmiles at one hundred and seventythousand . The veloc ity of light exceeds that ofa cannon-bal l by onemillion five hu ndred andfifty thou sand times . It is calculated to travel fromthe sun to the earth in eightminutes and thirteenseconds .

1 1 . O f light, in chemistry.

” Light is cousidered , bymodern chemists , and apparently withreason

,as a s imple elementary body ; but they

have not yet been able to forma theory on thiss ubject , in which considerable difficu lties are not

involved .

Lightmanifests itse lf to themind through themediums of two senses . To the organs of visionit presents forms andcolours ; and to those of touch ,the phenomenon of heat. It IS observable, that ex

perience so uniformly teaches u s to u nite the ideasof l ight and heat, that none but the philosopher,and he scarcely with intelligibility, wou ld talk of

fire that is not luminou s, or light that is not warmthe firs t step

,therefore

,toward an ,

analytical examination of thismatter, is to separate in ourminds,the warmth and the light of ou r hearths . To assist?this attempt

,wemu st remember that fire certainly

can exist,

'

w1thout the company of light, s ince bothcoals and ironmay frequ ently bemet with in a:

s tate of perfect blackness , combined with violentbeat. 1

LIGHT. 239

To instance the existence of light withoutwarmth, as in the temperature and brightness of a

frosty day, is equally easy ; yet ,afterall, light andheat still recu r to themind as inseparable things ;and even of thos e habituated to abstract cons iderations , numbers are disposed to affirmthat they areone and the same .

That they are not one and the same,has certain ly

never been proved ; but this , of the two,appears

themore probable conclus ion . Heat, as is shownin the article Fire, is one of the attribu tes of caloricbut caloric is not conceived to possess the attribu teof light, also ; and though heat

'

and l ight areu sually found together, this connec tion has beenattributed rather tomu tual antipathy than to homogenuousness .

The question is , Why do combu stible bodies , inthe act of consuming, give ou t light ? It is answered, Becau se there is arepuls ion between light and

Taking for granted the prev ious propos ition, thatall combustible bodies , in greater and less degrees ,contain both caloric and light, it is agreed that, supposing the real ity of the repu ls ion , these two s ub

s tances cannot be accumulated in the same bodybeyond a certain degree . Arrived at that, if thecaloric predominate , it w ill tend to drive off the

light ; if the light, on the contrary , happen to prevail , it will displace the caloric . It is on this principle that light fl ies off , in the formof flame , duringcombu stion .

The present state of this inqu iry w ill not al lowanother conclu s ion than an abrupt one , to this article . The properties of light, and the extent of

Faro LLIGthe subject, have been indicated ; but tol fix theideas of the reader, with respec t to the eXplanation,woidd, probably, be only to fix themin error. 1

Line rs , northern . See AURORA :Lion'

s 11011513, in military economy, Englishtemps , mounted on swif ter horses , and -morelightly accou tred, than the life-guards , or heavyhorse .

LIGHTER,in naval architectme, a large kind of

boat, u sedmthe river Thames for carrying heavygoods , as coals and timber.

LIGHTN ING,mmeteorology, aflash of

dealy appearing in the atmosphere , anddisappearing in the same instant ; sometimes attended with clouds and thunder, and sometimesnot.

Lightn ing is proved , by the experiments of

Franklin , to be produced by the e lectric flu id .

Thun der is the explosion of clou ds charged w iththat flu id . Lightning

‘

is to thunder, what theflashis to the report of gunpowder.

A very rema1kable property of lightning, thezigzag 1 kind espec ially, when near, is its seemiomnipresence . If, when aclap of thu nder, accomponied with this species of lightn ing, occurs , twoperso ns are looking difi

'

erent ways , both wil l perceive the flash ; not only that indistinct illumination of the atmosphere which 18 occasioned by fire

of any kind , but the formof the lightning itself ;and every ang le itmakes 1n its course , will be as

each , as if they had looked,di

cloud whence it proceeded :at thatmoment ’

looking atect, that he held in his hand, he, also ,

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242 LINof

'

. this plant, have been found to possessmedicinalLIMAX, the slug, of which there are s ixteen spe

c ies, the one which we shall notice is the Limaxagrestes

'body whitish , with black feelers : five.varieties , of which some have the power of secreting a large quantity of .mucus fromthe under surfac e , and forming it into a thread like a spider’

s

web ; by thismeans it often s uspends itse lf,and

descends fromthe branches of trees,orany height

it had crawled up to . It is found in gardens , pastu res , and groves , fromMay till December. O ne

of the varieties of this species is that which has beenrecommended to be swallowed by consumptive persons ; it is half an inch long, andwhen tou ched it

”

s ticks , as if dead , to the fingers .

Lune, in chemistry , an earth of a white colour,moderately hard, bu t eas ily reduced to powder.

Lime and l imes tone differ .verymaterially fromeach other. Limestone is tasteless, scarcely solublein water

, and withou t power to act on animal subs tances ; lime is the reverse of all this . D r. Black

has proved , that this difference is owing to the presence of afixed air in limestone , and to the want ofiti n lime . This fixed air has rece ived the denomianation of carbonic acidgas . Lime , upon this foundation, is esteemed to be a s imple substance ; andl imestone, a compos ition of carbonic acid and lithe,with which is joined a quantity of water. Heatseparates the carbonic acid fromthe l ime .

L INEN , in commerce, .a kind of cloth ,made of

flaxi ' In the linemmanufiicture , one set of peopleare employed in ploughing and. preparing the S01]sowing and covering the se

'

ed ,‘

weeding, pulling,9

LIQ . 248

rippling, taking care of new seed, andwatering and

grass ing the flax, till it is lodged at home : other:in the drying , breaking , scru tching, and hecklingthe flax, to fit it for the spinners ; others in spinning and reeling it, to fit it for the weaver ; othersin taking due care of the weaving, bleaching, beet s

ling and fin ishing the cloth for themarket .LINNEAN SYSTEM of ve

getables . See Botany .

LINUM, L INT , or rmx, in natural h istory , a plant,fromthe fibres of which thread , and cloth , aremanu factured.

The L . usitatissimum, or common annual flax,is the spec ies of linumcu ltivated formanufacturesandmedicine . Its s tems are abou t two feet and ahalf high , garnished with narrow spear-shaped , »alternate grey-coloured leaves . and divided, at theirt0p, into peduncles , or foot-stalks, terminated by .

small , blue, , be ll -shaped flowers , appearingin‘

Joneand Ju ly, and succeeded by large round capsules ,each containing one seed .

Lic oomcs , in themateriamedica, the root of aplant, called by botanists glycyrrhizza.

LIQ U ID flu ids have been divided into two classes ,viz . those which are elastic, and the non-elastic,or those which do not sensibly diminish in bulkwhen subjected to press ure . The first class are airsor gases : the second liqu ids : hence we may define aliqu id to be aflu id not sensibly elastic, the partsof which yield to the smalles t press ure, andmoveon each other.

LIQ UOR offl ints. A lkalies have a powerful ac tionon s ilica : they combine in different pro portions 3

two or three parts of potash , wifli one of s ilica,give a compound , which is deliqnisccnt in the air”

£44 Lee

and soluble in water : this was formerly (listen-4

guished by the name of liquor of flints, but it

is now denominate d s ilicated alkali .Lmntcr, a name given to those set ‘

forms of

prayerwhich have been generally u sed in the chrisfinaehnmh. The liturgy of the church of Englandwas composed in the year 1547 , s ince which time .

i t has undergone several altenatiens , the last of

which was in the year 166 1 .

LIVER, in anatomy , avery large viscus , of aredcolou r, serving for the secretion of the bile orgall.Its figune is irregular ; the upper surface beingconvex, smooth and equal , the lower, hollow andunequal. There is also a remarkable eminencecalledthe porta, where the vena porta

'

enters it.Loans '

ronn,the same withmagnet , see Man

M an, in finance ,money borrowed by government for defraying the extraordinary eXpences of

the s tate . See STOCKS .

Loenmrnlu’

s areartificial numbers , invented forthe purpose of facilitating certain tedious arithme -N

If any series of numbers imarithmetical progression beginning w ith 0, be taken ,

and acorresponding series of geometrical numbers beginningwith 1 , the former series w

‘

iil be logarithrns to thecorresponding numbers in the latter; thu s ,0, 1 , Q , 3, 4, 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 logarithms .1 , 2 , 4s, 64, 128 , 256 , 512 nu

a

xmbet‘s

Here e, 8250. are the Pogarithms O f s ,

8m. and it will be seen at once , 1 . That Addition

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246 LO GARITHMS .

hers between I and 10, are greater than 0, end lessthan o ne, i thus the logarithms of 2, 6 , 8 , are

.3010300, 778 15 13 .9030900, See .

The logarithms of the numbers between 10and100, are greater than 1 , and less than 2 ; thus thelogarithmof 15 is and the logarithmof95 is

The logarithms of numbers between 100 and

1000, are greater than 2 , and less than 3; thus thelogarithmof 165 is and of 984 is

The logarithms between 1000 and 10000,mu stbe somewhere be tween 3and4, and so on .

The logarithms in the above series are calledindices

,which are frequently neglected, the decimal

part only being put down thu s , if it be requ ired tofind the logarithmof 248 , it will be suffic ient to pu tdown .39445 1 7 , and the number being b etween 100and 1000, I know the index is 2 . Therefore therule for finding the index is this

The index is always one less than the numberof figures in the whole number : or the figures inthe whole numbermus t be always onemere than

The logarithmof 248 . is

2480

B erat he decimal figures remain the same :mdthe only difference is in the indices , which are ih

£00 241?

creased or diminished by unit for every temfolflincreas e ordeerease of the whole number. Itwill

be observed , that where there is bu t one whhle

number, the index will be 0 ; but if the figures bedecimals , as .248 , the index is oneminus , or 1;by the prefixing 0 to the decimal figure, the

value is diminished in a ten -fold proportion, thenthe index is 2 , orminus two.

We cannot pursue the su bject farther for wantof tables

,which would be incompatible with this

smal l work.

LOGIC,the art of th inking and reasoning justly

or, itmay be defined the science or history of thehumanmind, inasmuch as it traces the progress ofourknow ledge fromour first andmost s imple ideasthrough all the ir different combinations

, conceptions, and all those numerous deductions that resu ltfromvarious ly comparing themone with another.

Lowwoon, in the arts , is derived froma lowprickly tree , which is found in great plenty at Campeachy , in the bay of Honduras

, and is denominated haematoxylon campechianum.

” It comesto Europe indarge logs , c leared fromthe bark, andis very hard , compact, heavy, and of ared colour.

It is in high reques t among dyers , especially indying black . It g1ves out the colou r both to waterand alc oho l ; the

'liquorat first assumes a fine red

colou r W ith a shade of purple . The inlu s1on be

comes gradually deeper, and at las t almost b lack.

To cloth , prev1ously boiled in alumand tartar, itgives a beau tifu l Violet colou r, which , however,will not stand . Alkahes render the colour darker,acids change it to ye llow. Froma.var1e ty ot

'

ex

periments it is found that the colourmgmatterof

248 LONlog

-woodhears , in ,wany respects , astronganalogyto tannin , but in others i t d iffers fromit.LONGITUDE, in geography , the distance of any

given point fromanother, in the direction of east orwes t ; as latitude is that distance , in the direc tion of

n orth or sou th. Latitude is reckoned in degreesfromthe equator ; longitu de , fromameridian (oneof the perpendicu larl ines , onmaps or globes , ora.line parallel to these), which is fixed u pon at pleasure : thu s themeridian that passes overGreenwichis themeridian of Greenw ich and it is fromthispoint that the English reckon the distance of places .

As perpendicu lar lines , drawn fromthe oppositepoles of aglobe , are necessarily wider apart at its

greates t cireumference , than at any other point between that and those poles , it follows that the widthof adegree of longitude , whkh is determined bythose lines , increases , ,

e ither in a sou thwhrd or

northward d1rection , in the ratio that it approachesthe equator. When, therefore , adegree of

' longitu de ismentioned, it is imposs ible to know whatnumber ,

ofmiles it contains , unles s,the degree of

latitude be also ascertained . The following tableshow s howmanymiles answer to a degree of Ion

gitude , at every degree of latitude .

Lat. M iles. Lat. M i les. Lat. Miles.

1 10 1 9

2 1 1 20

3 1 2 2 1

4 22

5 14 23

6'

15 24

7 1 6 25

8 1 7 26

9 18 27

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250 LONGITUDE.

the security of ships within eighty geographidalmiles of the shores , which are places of the greatestdanger and the other half, when a ship by th

‘

éappointment of the said commissioners , or themajor part of them, shal l thereby actually sail ovizrthe ocean , fromGreat Britain to any such port iiitheW est Indies , as those commiss ioners , or themajorpart of them, shall choose for the eXperiment

,without los ing its longitude beyond the

‘

limits before -mentioned . The French , Du tch , Span iards , and other nations , have likewise offered rewards for the same purpose.

In order to find the longitude with the requ ired

precis ion , it is necessary to constructaperfect timepiece for, s ince by themotion of the earth roundits axis , every point upon its surface describes the

'

c ircumference of a c irc le , or in twenty-{burhours time

,it is plain itmu st describe 15

°ih

'

one

hour, becau se the twenty - fourth part of three hu ndred and s ixty is fifteen . H ence the difference of

longit udemay be converted into time , by allowingone hour for every

, fifteen degrees , and proportionally forminu tes so

,also

, difi'

erence of timemay be converted into difference of longitude, byal lowing fifteen degrees for every hour, andprepontionally for agreater or less time . Consequ ently,the one known, the other is easily found .

O urcountryman ,Mr.John Harrison, produced atime -keeperof his own construction which did noterrmore than asecond inamonth . This was in theyear 1 726 , and he receivedmuch encouragementto go on to renderhis time -piece stillmore perfect,and in 1 76 1 his son embarke d inmaica, with awatch of his father’

LONGlTUDE. 251

he found that it haderred in fourmonths , less thantwominutes in time , orabout 2815minu tes of longitude , which was within the exactitude requ iredby the act . he therefore claimed the reward of

Another trial , to Barbadoes , was demanded, and on his return he received 10,000l. ,widi the promise of the remainderwhen he shou ldhave constru cted otherwatches equally accurate inkeeping time . The commissioners l ikewise agreedwith Mr. Kendal , one of the watchmakers appointed by themto rece iveMr. Harrison’

s discoveries , tomake anotherwatch on the same construction withthis , to determine whether such watches could bemade fromthe account which Mr. Harrison had

given, by other persons , as well as himself. ’

The

e vent proved the affirmative. for the watch prodaood by Mr. Kendal, in consequence of thisagreement, went even better than Mr. Harrison’

s

it was sent ou t w ith captain Cook in his secondvoyage towards the south pole , andround the globefromthe year 1772 to the year 1775 : when theonly fau lt found in the watch was that its rate of

going was cons iderably acce lerated , though in thistrial of 3 years and a half, it never amounted to1 45» aday. The consequence was , that the Houseof Commons were pleased to order the other halfof the reward to be given to Mr. Harrison . This gentieman hadalso , at different times , rece ived othersums ofmoney , as encou ragements to himto con tinue his endeavours , fromthe board of longitu de ;fromtbe East Indiacompany , and fromOpu lent 111-7

g’

a star, anarch of the ecli ptic , ll?"tempted, between the first of Aries”, and $ 8 110t

252'

LOT

of the ecliptic cu t by the star’s circle ofr longi

t11 .de

thereare 1am The Loniaeragram. orwere

green honey suckle , IS themos t beautiful : itgrowswithout; any cu llme in North America it has

strong branches , coveredwith,apurple bark, whichare ornamented w ith lucidgreen leaves embracingthe stalks , and continuing theirverdure allthe year.

The flowers have a strong aromatic flavour, theyfirstappear inJune and there is a constant sup,

cession of flowers ti ll the frost puts an end tathem.W ,

inmodern history,atitle of courtesy, girento all British and Irish noblemen, fromthe bas esu pward to the eldest sons of earlsofmarqu ises and dukes ; and to vas themayor of London , the cha

king’s household , and the high chancellor of the

kingdom. Lord is also ageneral term, ecplivalentwith peer wherefore the house q eers is also call.

ed the[191105 1101138

of. See PARL IAMENT , and PEER .

LORD , in law,one who possesses af ee ormason.

This 15 the primitivemeaning of the word and itfenfs , that lords came to sit

e sixthgteat ofl’

cer of thecrown, to whombelongselivery and lodging i n theking

’3court, and fees fromeach archbishop . and

bishop , when ,

he performs homage tomaking, andfromj each peer, at his creation , ordoing h omage:LOTION , is su ch washing as concerns the beam

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msh it lies , andafterwards remaining peifectlyfor the space of amonth divests itself of its

skin and commences pupa. It lies in this'

statethree or fourmonths, and theil gives birth to théperfect insect . The exotic Species of this goaremostly natives of America, but line '

spe'

ciés hasbeen discovered inNew Holland , which differs fromthe rest in being entirely of abeautiful golden-

green

colour, with jaws of abrilliant copper colour. SeePlate, Nat. Hist. Fig. 33.

LUKE , the gospel of , a canonical book of theNew Tes tament . Some say that it was properlySt. Paul’s gospel, andthatwhen thatapostle Speaksof his gospel, hemeanswhat is called St. Luke’s.

This gospel , aswell as‘

the Acts of the Apostles,

written by the same evangelist,are suppos ed tohavebeen two parts of the samevolume, and to havébeen wri tten in the year 63 or 64. St. Lhke is

pure , copious andflowing in his language , and hasawonderful and entertaining variet of select cir

cumstances inhis nairation of ourgaviour’s divineactions . We learn from' this au thoravariety offacts which have not been related by the Other

evangelists , and.

his style iswell adapted to the history which it is employed on.

LUMtNou s appearances . See SEA.

Limbs , in anatomy, an

which is the instrument ion .

are the largest viscus of the thorax ; they are s ituated inits twos ides , with the heart as it werehe

‘

tvgeen them. The lungs of animals are popularlycal led the l ights .

”

Lusras , inmineralogy , is a termu sed inworksofmodern chemistry. The lustre ofminerals is

Lvr es »

of five kinds . 1 . Splendent, that is , when in fullday

- light, the lus tre can be seen at agreat distance .

2 . Shining, when at adistance the reflected light isweak : Glistening, when the lustre is only oh

servablefl

at no greaterdistance thanan arm’s length .

4. Glimmering, when the surface held near the

eye in ful l day-light presents anumber of shiningpoints . 5 . Dull , when the surface has no lustre .

LUTE,amu sical instrument, cons ists of four

parts , viz . the table ; the bod y or bel ly , which hasn ine strings ; the neck, whic h has nine or ten

'

stopsor divisions

,marked with strings , _

and the head orcross, where the screw forrais ingand lowering thestrings to aproper pitch of tone are fixed . In themiddle of the table there is apas sage for the sound ;there is also a bridge that the strings are fastenedto ,andapiece of ivory between the head and neck,towhich the extremities of the strings are fitted .

In playing, the strings are struck with the righthand, andwiththe left the stops are pressed .

LpTRA, the otter, a genus ofmammal ia, of the

order Ferae, of which there are eight species .

The Lutravulgaries , or common otter, lives chieflyon fish, andmay be trained to '

catch fish for itsowner. O ne kept by Mr. James Campbe ll wou ldCatch ten salmon in a day . O tters

, in theirw'

flats , have a propens ity for destru ction , killingmanymore fish than they eat. The Lu traMarina,or sea

-

otter, is very valuable for its skin, a singlefurhasbeen sold among the Russmns for twentyfive pounds . Sea- otters are perfectly inofl

'

ensij p,and the femaleman ifests themost affectionate attaghment to her young . The se animals feed on

“ales, .lobstgf fia99d Otherfihgll-fiSh. The figib O f

256 LUT

the young'

is reckoned like that of lamb, and ishighly valued . See Plate , Nat. Hist. Fig. 34.

LUTHERANS,christians who follow the Opinions

of Martin Lu the1 , a ref01mer of the sixteenth centmy. Leo. X . to

zwhose elegant taste Europe is somuch indebted , e ither found , or created , cons iderable embarrassments in the papal finances . Torepair thes e , and particu larly to procure

'

a sumofmoney adequate to the completion of the church ofSt. Peter, he cau sed indu lgences to be offered tosale in an abundance till then u nknown . They werehawked ahont chi istendomand the ir plenty cc

casmned their p1 ice to be ve 1y low. Whether theAugustines were scandalized at the general indelicacy of the pxocedme ; 01 whether they were displeased at the low estimation into which aprofitablecommod ity was brought ; or

, rather, at the par

tiality w ith 11 h ich the2”

Pope had given the sale to

the Dominicans , 1s uncertain ; but so it happened ,that acontention arose betu een these two orders ofmonks . The vicar-general of the German Augustines fixed u pon Lu ther, one of the body, as aperson qual ified to su pport their cause in the pu lpitthisman hadavehement eloquence , well calcu latedto promu lgate his Opinions , and his col leagu esdiscovered , too late , that those Opinions went greatlybeyond the bou nds they des i1ed. The warwhich

raised , continu ed bu t the parties to theere soon changed : the Augu stines andDorall ied round the same standard , and con

as their common enemy .

cut his book, D e libertate

this work, be groundsonly

, asserts christian liberty

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M 557against the bondage of human traditions, andmoreparticularly of papal 1 osition8

° and 11; a subse

quent remonstrance , he enies theauthority of theRoman church . These proceedings were instantlyfollowed by Leo’

s bull pf1'excommun ication : an

ins trument which Luther threw into afire that hehad cau sed to bemade without the .walls of Wirtemberg.

That the e was ripe for th is hierarchal rev olution, is evident s ince Lu ther hadthe extraordinary f ortune to see , in the short space of his ownl ife , his tenets 1 eceive national establishment , notonly throughout U pperSaxony , where the electorhad fromthe first pi otected him, but i n the northernprovinces of the empire ; and even set up in Swe

den andDenmark, by a formal league between thetwo crpwns .

LYON,or LION

, king at arms, see _

K1NO at arms.

LYRE,amu s ical instrument of the stringed kind .

Themodern lyre , or W elsh harp, cons isting O f

forty strings , is we l l known , but the structure oi

ancient lyres cannot be ascertained: The 1 re

among poets, painters andstatuaries isattribii toApollo and themuses .

M the twelfth,letter, consonantof theEnglish sippronouncedupper one .

sand ; andWI . A.mag

258 MACMS .manuscript andMSS. manuscripts . In the

prescriptions of phys ic ians M. stands formanipu lns , a handful .MACCABEES , two apocryphal books of Scripture,

containing the history of Judas and his brothers,

and theirwars against the Syrian kings i n defenceof the i1 religion and libeit ies . The first book IS an

exce llent his tory , and comes nearest to the sty le of

the sacred historians . The second book of the

Maccabees begins with two epistles sent fromtheJews of Jeru salem, to the Jews of Egypt and Alexandria to exhort themto Observe the feast of thededication of the new altar erected by Judas on hispurifying the temple .

MACH INE , in general , whatever hath force su ffi

cient to raise or stop themotion of a heavy b‘ody .

Machines are either simple or compound ; the s imple are the sixmechanical powers , viz . the lever,pu lley, wheel and axis , inclined plane, wedge, andscrew. See MECHAN ICS .

MACRO PUs , the kangaroo, 1s agenus ofmammaliaof the orderferae. This is one of themost curiousanimals discovered on the continent of New Sou thWales ,where it was firs t observed in

'

1 770 by Captain Cook’

s sailors . Its general position , when res ting, is that O f standing on its hind feet, on theirwhole extent, to the ham, and its fore feet are freepuantly employed like those of the squ i1

°

,1 el as~

hands . In its rapidmotion, the fore feet are whollyu se less

,

‘

and it proceeds by leaping on its h ind feet,which it Will do to the distance of 15 or 16 feet, and

so rapid'

1n su ccession; that it exceedsthe common

x1 ,dog See Plate Nat.

Ox

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260 MAGeven snrtace. Its structure is firm, hp usually,with some Opens irregu larities Withm, isinmung, and all other places where there areironmines .

MAGNtrr,artificial, asteel~ barhupmgnated withthe virtues of themagnet, was to possessall itsM ales, andbe used instead of thepatural loadtone.

MAONsa‘isat, explains the properties of the na‘

tuna!magnet, and shews by whatmeans artificialones aremade . Allmagnets attract iron, and othersubstancesthat contain irpu 3this i$ called theirattractjveppwer. When amagnet is at liberty tomove

,treely it constantly turns the same part to

wards the northpole of the earth ,andthe opposite

part towards t he south pole . This as been termed

its directive power. The ends of magnet arecalledthe poles, which are denominated north andsouth according as they point to the north or sopth

pole,padwhenamagnet places itself in this direction, it is, said to traverse . When amagnet islet; atliberty , its two poles do not lie in a horizontaldirection , but gne inclines downward, and the ,otlier

is elevatedupwards. This is .called the inclination

49? the dipping of .the needle . Itismagnetbe placed

611 cork, and allowed to float free ly onwater, withno iron near it, it places itself in themag neticdian . This e

,ers it of so

direction Alf fl 10

MAGNETISM. 261

themagnet and iron ismu tual, that is , the iron attracts themagnet asmuch as t hemagnet attractsthe iron . The attraction of everymagnet is strongest at the poles , and in the centre point between thepoles there is no s ign of attraction Whatever : herethe attraction of the two poles seems to balance oneanother. This attraction is not diminished by the

interpos ition of other bodies , except iron . Put a

needle on a pewter plate, and it will follow themagnet which ismoved on the ou ts ide . When aplece of iron is brought within acertain dis tance ofamagnet, it becomes its elf amagnet, that part of itwhich is nearest the south-pole of themagnet is anorth pole of the iron

,and vice versa. An artifi

cialmagnet, or amagnetic needle , 18made by fastening the steel on a piece of board , and drawingmagnets over it several times , fromthe centre tothe ends . The power of amagnet is not diminished by commu nicating its properties to other bodies .

Two ormoremagnets joined togethermay commun icate agreater power to iron or stee l than eitherof thempossesses s ingly .

The Mariner’s Compass cons ists ofabox such as

is represented in fig. 22 . Plate Miscellanies . The

box, which contains the card orfly,is circular, andmade of wood , or brass , or copper, and is suspended

within another box bymeansof concentric circ les,called gimbals , so fixed by cross axes to the two

boxes , that the inner one or compass box shall retain an horizontal pos ition in all themotions of theship, wh ile the outer box is fixed w ith respect tothe ship . The card is a1circu lar piece of stifi

“

paper,.the outer edge of which is divided into 360 parts ,or degrees , and with in the c ircle of these divis ions,

MAGit is again divided into 32 parts called thumbs ,3:points of the compass .

The Azimu thCompass difi'

ers fromthe commonsea compass in this, that the circumference of the

or hex is divided into degrees ; and there isfitte d to the box

an indexwith two sights , whichare upright p ieces of brass, placed O ppos ite eachother, having a s l it down the middle of them,through which the staror sun is viewedat the timeof observation .

MAGNES IA, in chemistry , anwhich exists inabundance, in comsubstances,in nature . It is an ingredient inmany fossils andseveral of the sal ts , which it forms in combinationwith the asids, are found inmineral Springs ,W inthe water of the eceau . Fromthese combinations,magnesiais obtained by differentartificial processes,Take one part of Epsomsalt and let it be dissolvedin twenty parts of water : the solution is tobe fil

tered,and to this is to be added , while hot, asolu tionof pure potash or soda, as long as prec ipitation is

Nomad . The alkal i combines with the su lphuricacid , and themagnes ia is separated , and falls downin white pawder. It is then washed in water til lthe ligi ior comes ofl

‘

tas teless . This earth existsunder the formof awhite powder : i t ismu ch usedinmedicine as avery gent le laxative, and as an ahs orbent to destroy acidity in the stomach . Epsomsalt is compounded of su lphuricacid andmagnesia,the chemical name is of course the sulphate ofmagnes ia, The carbons/( emfmagnesia, ormagnesiacompounded with carbon ic-acid gas, isamongphysicians avery impermmcompound.

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MAL 263

Marinas , inmodern history, an instrument usedformerly in Scotland fin beheading criminals .

This is abroad piece of iron , abou t a foot square,on the lower part, and loaded above

heavy weight of lead . At the time of exeit is pul led up to the topof anarrowwoodenabout ten feet high , and as broad as the eu

gine,withmou ldings on each side for themaiden tos lide in . A convenience ismade about two feetfromthe ground, for the prisoner to lay his neck ;and there is a kind of bar so fastened as to keephimfromstirring. The prisoner being thus secured, and the s ign given, themaiden is let lw se

,

which in amoment separates his head fromhisbody. See GUILLO TINE.

MALIC acid, is discovered in the juices ofmanykinds of fru it, particularly in apples , hence the

termMalic,frommaluman apple . The common

houseleek affords abundance of this acid . It combines with earth s , alkalies , and the compoundsare called MALATES .MALLEABLE

,a property inmetals whereby they

aré capable of being extended under the hammer.

MALT, in commerce , a preparation of barley, andfromwhich ismade apotable liquor, called beer

,

or ale .

The processes ofme lting have for their objects ,first, to excite the vegetative powers of the grain ,

and, then, to s top vegetation . Thus , by the aid ofmoisture , the barley ismade to germinate , that is ,to put forth roots , and almos t its acrospire , or firstsprou t ; andby the aid of fire , the roots are destroed, and the acrospire prevented frombursti e

skin. By germination, all the principles 1 the

264 MAN

grain are put inmotion . The heat which it subse ~

quently undergoes , separates its parts , and the viscidity which it before possessed , is removed by thelooser texture of its oils , and their intimate unionwith the salts ; which alteration is thecause of the

sweetish tas te that distingu ishesmalt frombarley .

MAMALUKES , the name of adynasty that reignedin Egypt. They were originally Turkish andCircass ian s laves .

Mann /11.111, in the Linnaean . systemof zoology,the first class of animals , comprehending such assuckle their young. This class is divided into sevenordersI . Primates, animals that have two canine teeti

and four cu tting teeth . O f this order there are onlythree genera ;man , themonkey , and the bat.I I .

M

Bru ta, animals that have no cu tting teeth ;as the elephant .I I I . Fem,

animals that have fromtwo to ten cutting teeth ; as , the l ion .

IV. Glires, animals that have only two c uttingteeth , and no canine teeth ; as , the bare .

V. Pecudes, animals that have no cutting teethin the u pperjaw as

,the sheep.

VI . Bellue ,animals with cu tting teeth in each

jaw, and which are furnished with hoofs ; as , thehors e .

VI I . Cete, orwhales.

MAN, in natural history,ageneral name for the

human race . As an animal ,man 18 strikingly dist ingu ishable fromthe rest of the creatures of the

earth , on account of the ingenu ity with whichihe

employs the productions of nature for his aecommodation . All animals are diSposed tomake u se

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$66 filAN

vau l ting rou nd a pillar ; acourse, or career, for

running the ring and on each side, pillarsfiics

fiveen which are placed the horses destined f orhigh airs.Madonna“ , inmineralogy, ametalwhich is found

in great abu ndance in Sweden, Germany, France,I taly, and England . Its ore is of service in the

glassmanu factory, where it is us ed to remove thegreen ish hu e fromwhite glass . Themag -anew

of Germany is the best .Manna, a honey -l ike ju ice, brough t fromCa

labriaand Sicily , sometimes i n small granule s, or

drops of an n regular figure , roundish , ob

crooked, and sometimes centerted It shou ld bechosen whiteish, or, at the u tmost, with on ly afaint cast of yellow, not too heavy, in regu lardrygranu les , ormoderately long flakes , of ‘a pleasanttaste

,and dissolving wholly in vthemouth . It is obo

tained fromseveral sorts of trees , especially the ashand the finest kind is that which oozes naturallyoat of the leaves : the coarser is ob tained bywounding the bark of the trunk and branches ofthe tree .

MAs su nsa'rsn

,aspecies of homic ide , b eing the

act of killing aperson withou t premeditatedmalice.

See Homana.

Mamas , agenus of insects of the order learniptera, there are u pwards of sixty species the chiefis Mantis oratoria

, orcan: tel-cricket, which is foundin the southern parts of fEurbpe , and is entirely ofa beau tifu l green colour. It is nearly three‘

iuches

in length , of a slenders hape, and inis observed to hold

MAR 3167

beou regarded asmed, and a notion has pre vrailed, that a trave ller having lost his way wouldbesafely directed by observing the quarter to whichthe animal pointed when taken in the hand . Thisinsect is of a predaeions dispos ition, l iving on

smaller insects , which it watc hes {hr with greatanxiety it is also quarrelsom

o

e, and when keptwithe thers of its own specmin a state of captivity, they W t! attack each other with the u tmostviolence , till one is des troyed . The conqueror devours his antagonist. Mantis precaria is said tohe the idol of the Hottentots .

Has , aplane figure representing the surface of

the earth, or some part of it ; be ing a

of the globu lar surfi ce of the earth , exhibitingcoun tries , seas , rivers ,mountains , (ice . in the ir dueposition or nearly so. Inmaps three things arerequired. 1 . To shew the latitude and longitude of

places, which is done by drawing acertain numberatmeridians and parallels of latit ude.

Shape of the countriesmust be exhibited as acute

n tely as possible . 3. The bearings of places andtheir distances fromeach othermust he shewmThe use ofmaps is obvious fromtheirconstrurm'on .

The‘

degrees of themeridians and paral lels shew th‘

e

latitudes and longitudes of places , and the scales

ofmiles 'annexed, the ir distances ; the s ituationof places

,with regard to each other, as well as to

the cardinal points,appears by inspection ; the

top of themap be ing always north , the bottoms outh , the right hand the east , and the left handthe west ; un less the oemnass , usually 3111131 041,chews the

"

contrary .

0 Manama, in natural h istory , a genus of floss ids ,

$68 MAR.

compris ing bu’

ght and beau tifu l stones, composedof small separate concretions ,moderate ly hard ,notg iving fire with steel, fermenting with and solublein acidmens trua, and calcining in a slight fire .

MARBLES, Arunde l, ancientmarbles with a chronicle of the city of Athens inscribed on them.many years before the birth of Christ, presented tothe Un ivers ity of O xford, by Thomas earl of

A runde l . See ARUNDELIAN.

Manon, the th irdmonth of the year, according.to the common way of compu ting . Among the

Romans,March was the firstmonth , and in some

e ccles iastical compu tations , that '

order is stillpres erved , as particularly reckoning fromthe incarnation O fa our Sav iour, that is fromthe 25th of-March. c The ancients reckoned March and May'as unpropitious to the rites ofmarriage.

i » MARINES,ormarine soldiers,men equipped in

themanner of infantry, but who serve on boardofs hip , where they fight whenever : the enemy iss ufficiently near to allow of small-arms takinge ffect, and where they are a check u pon the

s eamen,in case ofmu tinous dispos ition .

MARK, gospel of, a canonical book of the New

Testament . St. Mark wrote his gospel at Rome ,where he accompanied St. Peter I I] the year 64tor 65. Some have thought that Mark was onlyan amanuensis to St. Peter

,though others imagine

that this gospel was not written til l after the death.of Peter. It appears , fromthe accounts given of it

by the ancients , to contain the substance of Pe ter’3

preach ing Many chcumstances and facts occurin this gospe l that are not to be found in any of

M other three , which prove that the writer wasan original author, and not amere epitomiser.

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1 5270'

MAS

(supposing no secondmarriages), alive togetherwil l be cqual to the whole number ofmarriages .

MARROW , 1nanatomy, asoft oleaginou s subs tance,contained in the cavities of the bones . Marrow isfound to consist of a number of fine , subtile

, fat,oleaginous substances , and ofminu te ves icles of amembranaceou s stru cture, in which the former issecreted fromthe arterial blood , in the samemanner as the fat of the rest of the body . This substance penetrates the fibre s of the bones, and preserves themfromdryness , and fromconsequentbrittleness .

MARS,in astronomy , the planet that revolves

next beyond the earth in our system, is of a fieryor reddish colour. H e is not subjec t to the samelimitation in hismotions as Mercury and Venus

,

but appears sometimes near the sun , and at othersat a great dis tance fromhim, sometimes ris ingwhen the sun sets , or setting when he rises . Marsappears tomove fromwest to east round the earth

,

his periodicalmotion round the sun is in 687 daysnearly . H is apparentmotion is very unequal, andhemoves abou t his axis in littlemore than one of

our days and n ights . See SOLAR System.MARSHAL , in its primary s ignification,means anofficer who has the command or care of horses ;bu t it is now applied to officers who* have verydifferent employments , as earlima‘rshal, '

knightmarshal , ormarshal of theking’s house. See Earlmarshal

,

'

andKnightmarshal .

Masi', in naval architecture , a large timberin aship,non which are su spended the salh . In datgo

MAT 27 1mast is the principal one , standing in themiddle of

the ship ; themizen stands behind, and the fore ,before themain . Themizen is con

shorter than either of the others .

MASTER in Chancery . Themasters in chanare ass istants to the Lord Chancellor andMaster ofthe Rolls , of these there are 1 2 in ordinary ; bes idesextraordinary Masters ; of the former some sit in

court every day during term, who have bus iness ,as it arises , referred to them. TheMasters Extraordinary are appointed to act in the country, in theseveral counties in England , beyond tenmilesdistance fromLondon , by taking affidavits , recognizances , acknowledgments of deeds , &c . for the

case of su itors of the court .MASTER of the Rolls a patent officer, who has

in his cu stody the rolls of parliament, and patentswhich f pass the great seal, records in Chancery

,

commissions , deeds , &c . which be ingmade of rollsa of parchment gave rise to the name. In the ah

sence of the chancellorhe sits as judge in the courtof Chancery .

MASTIC , a solid reson , of a pale, yel low, wh itecolour, principally brought fromthe is land of Chiosin drops or tears , as it naturally forms its elf inexuding f1omthe tree, abou t the bigness , andmuchmthe form, of a pea. I t is to be chosen clear,

pelluc id, andofapale yellowish colou r, wel l scented ,

MATHEMA'

rics, originally,any discipl ine or learning ; at present, that science which teaches , or

contemplates , whateyer is capable 0!

972 I MAUarithmetic ,which has numbers for its object, andgeometry , which treats ofmagnitude .

1

Mathemmic s are commonly distinguished intopure or speciilative , which consider quantity ahstraetedly ; andmixed , which treat ofmagnitudeas snsbsistih g inmaterial hedies , and consequentlyare interwoven e very where with phys ical con

MArHsmTiCAL Instr uments. See INSTRUMENTS .

MATTER, in phys ics , whatever is extended and

.capablemaking resistance : hence , becau se allbodies

,whether solid or fluid, are extended , and do

resis t, it is concluded, that they arematerial, “

ormade upofmatter.

M‘

AUNDAY Tbursday , is the'

I‘hu is day

'in Passionweek, which was calied Mannday er Maedate”Thurs day , fromfile c ommand which Christ gavehis discipies to commemorate himin the Lord ’

s

supper, which he th is day institu ted or from‘

thenew c ommandment which he gave themto loveone anether, after he had washed the ir feet as ’

a

token of'

his love to them. The humfiiby of Jesu sia

'

washing his disciples’ feet was fo rmerly commemomted -oh this day ,bymost christian sove

reigns;who washed the fe et of a certain numberof poor persons , netw ith the ir own hands

, but bythese cf the lord almoneror other depu ty : now

the c eremony is dune away , and instead of thisact of humility they dispense certain charitabledonations among the poor : thu s we are told that

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£374 MEEHANICS.

the powers of fikces are given , how to detachaine

themotiens that are produce d by them; and con-n

versely , when the phenomenaof themgiven hew to trace the powers orfiirces

powens are sample engines

that enablemen to raise heavy we ights , and

overcome res istances which they cou ld not do

with their natural strength . There are six of these ,wh ich have been already referred to, viz. the

lever, the wheel and axis , the pulley, the inclinedplane

,the wedge, and the screw . These we shall

briefly describe , giving, at the same time , someaccount of their properties and application . The

levermay be cons idered as an inflexible bar ofwood or iron, used ch iefly to raise large weightsto small heights , it is su pported by a prop or

fulcrum, on which all the parts turn as the centre

ofmotion . There are three kinds of leve rs , disby the places in which the weight

1power are applied. See Plate Mzcmxcs ,

fis o l

A lever of the first kind is when the weightW 18 applied at one end, and the power P at the

other : the fu lcrumB is some where betweenthe weight and the power. A lever of the secondkind 1s when the fu lcrumA , fig 2 , is at one end,the power at the other

,and the weight between

them. The third kind of leveris when the we ightis at one end ,

and the power between the fulcrumand wveiglrt. If ' the weight and power changeplaces , then flg. 2 represents aleverot

'

the thhfdkind.

A poker in the act of stirring the fire is a lever o fthe first kind : the bar of the grate being the

fulcrum, the coals the weight to be moved,

MECHANICS. 27 5

and the hand the power. Steel yards , fig . 3,scissars , p incers , snufl

'

ers , &c . all act upon the

princ iple of lovers of the firs t kind . Every doo rtaming-on its hinges is a lever of the second kind,the h inges are the fulcrumor centre ofmotion, thedoor is the weight to bemoved , and the hand , inOpen ing it, is the power. An oar applied to themoving ahos t is a lever of th is kind, so is therudder of .avessel , likewise large cu tt ing-kn ives ,used by pattemmakers , tu rners, chaff-cutters , &c .

A ladder to he raised agains ta wal l 18 a goodrepresentah on of a lever of the third kind : the

wall or other obstacles againstwh ich the lower endis pus hedmay be regarded as the fulcrum: the

topof the ladder is the weight, and the power isthe s trengthapplied .

In allthemechanical powers i t is amaximthattheadvantage gained is ia;pr0portion to the spacepas sed ever by themov ing power .The second mechanical power is the wheel

and aim, fig . 4, which consis ts of a wheel sAB ,

tu rning on an axis C D ,and the advantage gained

is in proportion aswe circumfere nce ,of the wheel

n reater than that of the axis. The 13ispokes z bare the d ied of

'moi-eas ing the diame te randeireumterence of the wheel , audaccordingzlyof increas ing the power. Crahesmf all kinds;W indlasses , capstans , and axles tu rned bymeansaxis .

The thirdmechan icalpower is the galley, whichls a small wheel tnre ing c h an axis with fan W

of .as we ight. Such is fig . 53Which gives Jib

c276 MECHANICS .

mechanical advantage, and is cal led a siiigle firedpu lley. A B ,

fig. 6 , is amoveable pulley towhichthe weight W 1s attached , this u ses ahd falls withthe weight , and the advantage gained by the pu lleyis as two to one . That is , the power P of 51h.

wil l balance a weightW of 10111 . for the powermoves through twice asmuch space as the weight, ‘

and the advantage gained is always in pmportion to the space passed over by the movingpower. The advantage gained by pu lleys in ’

general , is estimated bymu ltiplying the numberof pu lleysmthe lower block by 2 ; that is, ifinstead of one

'

pu lley A B ,there be '

two as in‘

fig. 7 or five as in fig. 8 , theremu st be asmanyin the u pper block , and the power gained will be as4 in the one case, and as 10 in the other. The lastfigu re represents the solid block pu l ley inventedby Mr . James White, amost ingeniou smechanic .

’

The fourthmechanical power is the inclinethplane

,which ismade by planks , 8m. laid in amping

direction,such is fig . 9 . on which large and heavy .

bodiesmay bemore eas ily lowered or raised , thanby amere lift. Inclined p lanes are particu larlyu sefu l in rolling casks of sugar, oil , beer, &c . into

'

warehouses above or below the level of the street .”

Here it is evident. power is gained"

in preportion’

as the length A D is greater than the pe rpendicu larB D , thu s if A D be 9 feet and -D B only 3 teet ,’

then aforce exerted equal to 1 CM . will sustainaweight W of 3t .

The wedge, fig . 10,may be regarded as two

inclined planes,and of cou rse the t powet

i

is estimated in proportion as thesides B F F A

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MBA 27?

A B. Chissels, hatchets , and other sharp instruments , which are s loped down to an edge on one

s ide only, are to be referred to the inclined plane,and those instruments that are sloped down on boths ides, act on the principle of the wedge . Thechief u se of the wedge consists in its being u rgedhy the stroke of a hammer, wedge, &c . and not

bymere pressu re . By repeated blows the wedge '

is u sed to split wood , rocks , &c .

The lastmechanical power is the screw, fig .

which is always turned with a handle, «Sec . acting .

like a lever, and which gains advantage in pro- 1

portion as the circumference of the c irclemadeby the lever is greater than the distance between

“

two threads of the screw. The screw is u sed forpress ing l ight bodies cl ose tog ether, as in pressesfor paper-makers , book-binders , packers , &c . A

common cork screw in pass ing through the corkacts u pon this princ iple.We have, under the article Farcrrmt, shown

that one fou rth , or even one third of the supposed

power gainedmust, in practice, he al lowed whenwe calcu late u pon what is really gained b y themechan ical powers . The capital advantages 013

these powers are , that by theirmeans we can

raise andmove fromplace to place large weights ,as blocks of stone, which cou ld not bemoved withou t them: we can give almost any d irec tion to themoving power, and apply its action at a distancefromthe body to bemoved . See MOTION , Powaasmoving .

MEAN, amiddle state between two extremes :

thus we have an arithmeticalmean ; ageometricalmean;mean distal ee ;meanmotion, 8m.2 B

978

An arithmeticalmean , is'

half the sumof t heextremes , thus , if .2 and 1 2 be the es tremtas , themean is equal to 2 "

Z1 9

7

Geometrwal' mean , called,amean proportional,is the squaremat of the pmduct of the

, two extremes : thus amean preponipnal betwm6 and

M is equal V6 x can : V 144 : 12 .

MEDAL, a piece of .me tal 1n the Sonya of coin,tended to convey to posterity the W of s omegreat person , or thememory of atomillus trious

Macmron, amedal of an extmordinmy 's ize,supposed to be antiently stmmk by th e empworsfor their friends , and for foreign princes and emMserrs enss sas , the Mediterranean ,

called bythe Gueeks, Mare Internum, and by the Jews ,Mare Magnum, is a vast gu lf of the AtlanticO cean, with which it has a commu nication by anarrow s trait at the sou thern extremity of Spain;and is bounded on the South by Af rica, awlmbhaNorth by Spain, France, Italy, Ew epean Turkey ,

i ts length fromthe 'strai t of Gibraltar ao -thecoast of Syria, is compu ted to he 3,300miles , and'

its breadth in some places 960, in others not 309

As there is aconstant infiux of water f romthederable rivers , into the Mediterranean , yet noaris ible d ischarge , some philosOphers have supposedthat ritmas a subterrmieons communication withthe ocean; but nos ign f of any such communism

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em 7' M EM

MELEAGRIS, the Turkey , agenus of birds of thisorder Gallium, of which

'

there,are two species .

The Meleagris galipavo, orwild turkey, is anativeof America, and in the northern parts of that continent these birds are found in flocks of severalhundreds , which , during the day time, resort tothe woods , feeding principally on acorns

, returning, at n ight, to some swampy grounds , wherethey roost u pon t he highest trees . In Gamlinathey grow to the weight of 30 or pounds .

MEMBRANE, in anatomy, a pliable texture of iibres t interwoven together in the same plane.

MEMORY artificial. The principal difficu lty inattaining acompetent knowledge of history , cons ists in retaining the dates of the several epochas ,w as , &c. to which the principal facts and occurrences in history belong . This difficu lty is chieflyobviated by memorial lines ,”made up of artifi

cial words , invented, or adopted , by the late D r.

Grey, the u se and application of thesemay be

denominated Artificial Memory,

”or, according

to the inventor, MEMO RIA TECHN ICA .O f all things,

”says a celebrated philosopher

,and scholar, there is the greatest ~ difi cu lty in

retaining numbers. They are like grains of sand ,which

'will not cohere in the order in which we

place them; bu t by transmuting ,the figures intoletters , which eas ily cohere, in every formof combination, we fix and retain numbers in themind

twith the same ease and certainty w ith which werememberwords . Thu s when D r. Grey, in hisMemoriaTechn ica, annexes a chronological dateto the termination of the name , it is only pronouncing jt with his variation, and we instantly

MEMO RY. 28 1“recollect its proper date . For example

, if we

remember that D r.‘Grey calls Rome Rommt,

which the'

oddness of the variation wil lmake u sless l iable to forget, since , as we shall hereaftersee , hemake s p stand for 7 , u for 5, and t for 3,we immediately recollect, that 753 is the dateu sually ass igned to the bu ilding of Rome . If,moreover, we can learn to re peat the names of

the kings of England, in the order in which hehas digested them, we shal l have not only the

years , when each of thembegan to reign ,but als o

the order of their success ion . As thismethod isso easily learn

'

t, andmay be of somuch u se in

recollecting date s , when othermethods are not at

hand , particu larly in conversation and reading history, when dates are often wanted, I think all persons of a lilréral education inexcusable who willnot take the smal l degree of pains that is necessarytomake themselvesmas ters of it, or who thinkany th ingmean or unworthy of the ir notice,which is so useful and convenient . ”

To rememberany date in ,

history , chronology ,Bce . a word is formed

,the beginning of which

being the first syllab le, or syl lables , of the thingsought, and the last syllable , or syHables , give the

i n this art, ietters s tand for numbers : thu s , thes wims ae fi o u , stand for 1 , 2 , 3, 4, 6 these

.comb ined , W e dipihongs, as an , oi, ou , whichrepresent themmbers , 6 , 7 , and 9 : .e i , as the

first ietters of the 'wmrd, stand for eight.have

‘

b, d, se nding $ 1“ d 2, as the‘first W e

282‘MEMO RY.

n ine 1 stands for five, p forseven , k for eight,

andy and z for a cypher or0.

The wholemethod is explained in the followingtable .

a e i o u an oi ci on 3/1 2 fi 4 5 (i 7 13 9 O

b d t f l s p k n 3

Here it is evident that a and b stand for 1 e and

d for2 ; i and t for3; o andf for4 ; u and l for 5 ;and so on . The letters are arbitrarily assigned ,but wemay observe , that a and u stand naturallyfor 6 ; because a stands for one

,and u for five

,

and i 5 6, for a s imilar reason oi stands for7 and ou for 9 ; 1 stands for 5, being, as D r.

Grey observes , the Roman letter for 50, p s tandsfor 7 , as being the emphatic letter in the words eptem, seven ; and for a s imilar reason It standsfor 8

,oi ly the Greek for e ight.

The foregoing table be ing committed tomemory , with the explanations , the next thing to bedone by the learner, is to obtain the habit of forming technical words to any combinations of figures .

Examples .

10,325 399 1 92 1 1 491 680 18 10

as tel tou n aneb°

qf na seiz akbyItmust be remembered that the y is pronounced

broad to distingu ish it fromthe i, and where it canbe done conveniently, it is pronounced like the so,

as said, is pronounced smid, typ, twip, &c .

Suppose I wish to remember the date of the

deatb of Milton, and know that it happened in , theyear 16743} willmake; u se of the first four lettfil

‘

s ofl thc name, andadde toxhemi the teclnn'm

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est MEMORY.

fromthe Deluge to the call of Abrahamthe thirdepochs is the call of Abraham, the f ourth the

Exodu s, ordepartu re of the Israelites fromEgypt ;the fifth, the foundation of Solomon’

s Temple ;the sixth is denominated fromCyru s , or the end ofthe Jewish captiv ity .

These six periods , or epochas , t he expressed bythe following line ,O rotlr, D eletok, Abeneb, Exqfna,Tembybe,Cyru ts.

Before Christ.1 . caeation of the world , ” O r ally

“

. 4004

2 . The general DELuge . D el-etok. 2348

3. The Cal l of ABraham Ah-aneb. i9214. Exodus , or the departure of the Israelites

1491fromEgypt Ex-af nai

foundation of Solomon ’s Temple , 1012 .

16 . Cyrus proclaimed liberty to the Jews, 536 .

Cyr-u ts

Ca, denotes the creation ,0 stands for4 ° tit for

thou sand ; and f fm the de luge , etok,

2348 according to the ru les beforementioned ; anfor Abraham; ax, the “

Exodus ; TEM the Temple ,andare , Cyru s .

The ot her general epochas, doc . are comprisedin the (following lines .

Troyw-abeit, O lym-pois, Roméput, et E rNabo

naS '

POPPhil- isle

,Contrac ~ tad, Diod es-eke, Mahmu

audd, Yez 33d.

7 . The destruction of Troy Troy aheit. 1 183. The

t.

915

MEMO RY.

tM . The 'Pbilippic aara, or death of Alexan 324

der the Great. Phi l - ido i

19 . The (e ra of Contracts . Contrae - tadu 8 12'

13. The D iocles ian sera. Diocles -eko. 284

14. The -mmof the Hegira, or fl ight of

Mahomet fromMecca toMedina. Ma 622

hom-audd.

“

1 5. The ten of Yezdegird, or Persiéin wra.

6352ez aid.

Themark s ignifies the birth of Christ, andalldates after it are reckoned fromthat pei 1cd Thismra is used by Chris tians 111 all parts of the world ,who began to reckon fromit abou t the year360,which , however, was too far distant fromthe age

in which Christ l ived , for chronologers to fix withc ertainty the true time of that important event .An aera, as we have seen , is a date fromwhich

the reckoning begins by years . thus the Greeksreckon fromthe beginning of

,

their O lympiadsthe Romans from

,

the building of Rome: the

Syrians , andmos t of the Eastern nations, from

the conqu est of Babylon by Se leucus . The worde ra i s supposed to owe its origin to the Span iards,it being u sual with themin the time of Augustus ,to write against any occu rrence , the date W ith thefollowing letters , A .ER .A . that is

,Annu s erat

Augus ti . hence aera, e ra.

’

TABLE

‘T he t hree l ines , therefore , which comprise all

the general e pochas , and aeras , eclesiastical and

civil , are as follow .

O ral/y"D eletok, Aboneb, Exqfna,Tem

Troyabcit, O lympm's, Rompu t, et B r

1113111110, 066mm, D iocleseko, 1151011131183,Yessid.

i

We shall nowr give two or three other examples,utility in the study of history , asthe chronological h istory Of states

TheRegalTable of England s ince the Conquest,andsome of themost remarkable Princes before it.

CASIBELanu s chosen chief Commanderby theBritonsagainst the invasion ofJu lius Caesar

[Casibel ud] 52

Aft. Christ.Q ueen BoAnicea, the British heroine, beingabusedby the Romans, raises an army;and

'

kills 7000 [Boardasp]who invited the Saxons to the as

sistance of the Britons against the ScotsandPicts [Vortigf es]

HENGist the Saxon, who erected the kingdomof Kent; the first of the he

ptarchy

Hu i,famous for his powerful re »

and victmies over the Saxons

EGnErt, who redu ced the heptarchy , andwasfirst crowned solemonarch of England

[Egbe leek]Alfrnsd, who founded the U nivers ity of 01°

f ord [Alfre kpe]CANllte the D ane, [Can bau]Edward the

'

CohresSor,[Confesf e]

W lt liamthe Conq. [Wil-con sou]

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288 MEMO RY:Egbe kek Alfre kpc Can bau Confesf cWil-con souRu f koi 85 H en rag.

Steph bildz Hensec brf Ric beie JmmHath do: 8:BdsatypEdter tes Risec taipHefo termHefifadque .

Hensif odEdquarf auzEfi-R okt HensepfoilHeircc lyn .

Edsex 10: Mary lu t Els lukJamsydCampf ire 3d .

Carsec sokJamscg'f W ils eikAn pyoGeo bo—doi-ry .

N. B AfierCanu te inclusive , one thousand 13to

be added to each . It was thought u nnecessary toexpress it, it being a thing in which it is isnpossible

that any one shouldmistake .

As another example we will take the ChronologicalMiscellanies since the Conques t .

Jerusalemregained fromthe Tu rks,'and

Gonfrey‘

of Bu t loignemade king of it

[Godbu lo nou]The INQmsition first‘ erected agains t the v i l

bigenses [Inquis died]The Confirmation ofMagnaCHARTa by kingHenry I II . [Chart eel] 1 225

Wat TYLer’s Rebellion suppressed [Tyl ika] 138 1

Jack CADE’s Rebellion suppressed [Cadefly]

TheMariner’sCompass found out[Corop atze] 1302GuNPowder invented in Germany by amonk 1

[Gunpotfo] aThe Inven tion of Pan ning [Prin cgi

-

i

on]Christopher CoLUMbus , a native of Gomma

discovers Cu ba and Hispaaiola [Columr

boat] 2 0 o d 1493/

MEMO RY . 289

Martin Lernerhgms to preach 111 Germanyagainst Indulgences , and other Errors of

the O burch of Rome, [Mar-lath lap]The Name of Paotestants first began on O c

easion of the Protesmtion of the Lu theransmade against adecree of the chamber of

Spire agains t them[Protalen]The Samaria) League, oragreementmadebetween the Protestants of Germany forthe irmumal defence , at Smalcald [Smalcai

The councilof Tnam'began DEC 13. [Trandec d l -alfu]

The Massacre of Protestants at Paais {Mas

par aloid]The United provinces , underthe protection ofWilliamprince of O range, throw off the

Spanish yoke [Un-

p loin]The Spanish Invas ion [Sp inv ukk]The GunpowDer Treason [Powd syl]The famous Rebellion at Naples , on occas ion

of the grievous Excises , headed byMASSA

NELlO [Masanel sap]O liver Cnomwell u surps the Government ofEngland, u nder the name of Protector

[Cromsli]The I sland JAmAlca in Amerwa taken by theE nglish [Jamaie du ll] 1655

CaomvelliMons [Crom-mor sale] 1 658

GIBRAltar taken‘

by the English [Gihra pao] 1 7041

God -bu ]mu Chart eel Inquis ded Tyl ikaCadefly .

Comp atze Gunpatfo Prin af on atque Opiumbout .Mar- lath lapProtalenSmalcal laxTreno dec at-alfu.

VO L. 111. 2 c

sse MEM BY .

MasJpsralbidl ln plea: fip- ln ink i dsfl Mase

Croniib

lil amaic anfl fi em-msuk capto Gibre‘0

N. .B A thowsand is to he added, as ahove,where it is not expressed .We s hal l give an instance of themethod of applying the MemormTechnéca to O ther sulgjects ,taking as an example, the

D istances of the Planets fiomahe fi un .

Miles .The distanceofMerdnry fromthe Sun is

Venu s

Earth-(Terra)Mars 145.00Q OOO

49343001109—i -Satu rn

HerschelThe words answering tothese

-are,

Met ip, Ven tau , Terranu, Mars (ya, Jupow’

,M armyt et '

Hers 411965.

In the sense Way, Dr. Grey , to whomweare anBehted for this article , has applied the inventinn toGeography for themore readyreceilection of the

divis ions of the world and the variou s countries of

i t : to t he pos ition of the several rivers , rInTreW ise te the knofl edge ofhwén eamc oinsfSec . i tmay also he appl iedt o

fany”

circumsmncewhatever, in which thew ily recollection of ham!ample taken from““the M kar In troduction to

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£552 MENSURATION.

yards, &c . that is , by certain figures whose Sidesare inches , feet, yards , &c . according to the following

144 square‘inchesmake 1 square foot

'

9 feet 1 yardyards 1 pole

poles'

1 chainchains or4sq.rds . 1

'

acre

yards 1 acre v

acres

The areaof aparallelogram, of1

any kind , is foundbymu ltiplying the length by the perpendicu lar“

he ight ; thus the areaof apaved yard, 80feet longby 50 feet wide , is found by

‘multiplying 80 by50, equal feet , the value of which , if the stonebe reckoned at 13. 3d. per foot, is 250l. Again thearea of a triangle is found bymultiplying the 'base

'

by the perpendicu lar height, and div iding theprodu ct by 2 , thus if the triangu lar hip of ahou se he20 feet in height and the base be 80 feet long;then20x30

2

Nowas slaters , tylers , &c’

.measure theirwork bysquares of 100 feet each , aperson w ill have

l

to payfor three squares for s lating such a triangu lar hipof aroof . It IS evident that all right lined figures,of whatever shape ,may be divided either intoparal le lograms or triangles , and when so dividedmay be easilymeasured .

The'

circumfe1ence of a circle 18 foun

300 feet is themeasure of the said hip .

MENSURATIO N. ess

circle will be fou nd bymu ltiplying the square of

the diameter by .7854, thu s the areaof a circ le,whose diameter is 90 feet, is equal to 5202 or

sox sox .7854 314. 1600equal to littlemore than31 4 square feet .A solid is a figu re that has length , breadth , and

thickness , and itsmeasure is called its solidity ,capacity, or contents . Sol ids aremeasured bycubes , whose s ides are yards , feet, inches , 8m. andthe solidity, capac ity or contents is said to be somany c ubical inches , feet, &0 .

Tu na.

1728 cubic inchesmake 1 cubical foot27 feet 1 yard

yards 1 pole64000 poles 1 furlong512

,

furlongs 1 mile .

The solidity ofany cu bic figure is found bymultiplying the area of the base by the height. Thus ,if I enqu ire howmany cubical feet there are inablock ef stone , Whose s ides are 80 inches long, andwhat itweighs , supposing there are 1 6 feet in aton,I say 30x30 900=areaof the hase

QOO XSO x 27000: cubical inches , and

15 .15t feet which will , weigh

nearly aton .

Again to find the contents of a leaden watercistern, in cubical inches

,and likewise in gallons .

Suppose the c istern .to be 5 feet long, 3feet wide,

5x5= 1 5 feet =areaof the base

15X2=30teet==cubie contents in ket2 0 2

294 MENSURATION.

3ox 1728 51840 cubic inches , and 282

inches be ing equal to one gallon , therefore5 1840

282

O n this principle depends the whole bu s iness ( if

gauging ; and by s imilarmeans we can find the

contents orcapacity of any figure whate ver. Thusto find the contents of a sphere , the rule is Mu l

tiply the surface by one third of the radius , and theproduct will be the solidity or, what will cometo the same thing, Multiply the cube of the diameter by the decimals Example : Whatare the solid contents of the earth , supposing itsdiameter to be 8000miles 1n lengtli8000 X 8000 X 000,000,000 and thislast productmultiplied by .5236 : 268 ,083,200,000miles .

Msnsuau xou , French systemqf.

183gallons .

LongMeasure.

M ina.

equal aquadrant of themeridian, or. 430100th part of a quadrant 5 1 324lmillnare ormi le . 513

3 3100 l stad 51. 2410 1 pcrch

i

jn’} “mm”measure

FmInch. Lina.

r 1metre or rectilinear unit 3 0 1 1. 44

1-10or l dec ime tre orpalm 0 3 93441-1000r00. l 1mi llemetre 0 0 443

1 are , orsuperficlal unit, ( beingasquare theside of Wt h is 100me tres in length) “

4 1000 t demare , or tenth of an are ; asuperflmes100metres long, and 10 broad

100 1 centiare

Measures of Capaczty .

t ubicd t imb er.1000 1 cub icmetre, or cadc, or ten 1obk l-2

100 dedicadc,’Or scuer

3 10 centicadc, or bushell knic dCCimCtre, qrE‘ntu 0'O O Q Q ON O UO O C'Q O O O

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2 96’MER

MERCURY, the name of aflu idmetal of a whitecolou r

, exactly resembling that of polished silver.Mercury is fluid because of its great readiness toimbibe caloric : It becomes solid, “

in which stateit ismalleable , at the temmrature of and

boils at that of Its specific gravity is twicethat of iron . Mercury is not only found in cin

nabar, and other ores , but it is sommet within its pure and flu id state, lodged in the accidentalcavities of hard stone so that when the workmenwho search thr its ore , accidentally break intothese cavities, it runs out like water.

At the common temperature of the atmosphere ,always in a state of flu idity, and init differs fromall othermetals ex

cepting those discovered b ProfessorDavy, within the last four years . e vapour ofmercuryis invisible and elastic like common air. Mercurycombines wi th the greater number ofmetals , andthese Comb inations are denominated amalgams .

W hen very pure,mercury is not oxydized

bu t

at the

common temperature of the atmosphere, bntmt}:be converted into an oxyde by boiling . A com

nation of oxyde ofmercury andmuriatic acid, ohtained by sublimation, is calledmuriatedorcorrosive sublimate . Calomel 1s cosame substances , bu t with alarger proportion of

MERCURY, in Astronomis a very small planetbright lig t, though on account

orhis Vicinit to the sun it is seldomseen by theinhabitants o the earth . He never rises somuchas two hours before the sun , nor sets somuchafterhim. '

O u'

account of its rapidmotion, the

MER 297

Greeks called this planet after the name of theswiftmessenger of the Gods , and represented itby the figure of a you th w ith wings at his headand fee t ; fromwhence is derived the astronomical character Q stil l inuse in books of sc ience.

Themean distance of Mercuryfromthe su n , is

to that of the earth fromthe sun as 387 to 1000,or abou t36millions ofmiles . See Sou p. system.MER IDIAN , in astronomy , agreat circ le of the

celestial sphere pass ing through the poles of the

world,and also the zen ith and nadir, cross ing the

equ inoctial at right angles , and dividing the spherein to two equal parts

,or hemispheres , the “

one

eastern and the other wes tern . In geographytheme i idian is a great circle pass ing throughthe poles of the eafl h, and any given place whosemeridian it is , and it lies exactly under, or in the

plane of the celestialmeridian . Thesemeridiansare various , and change according to the longitudeof plac es , so that their numbermay be said to beinfinite , forall places fromeast to west have theirmeridians . The firstmeridian by the ancientswas - u sually placed through the place farthestto the wes t that was known . Butmodern geographers us ually assume themeridian of the placewhere they l1ve or the capital of their country,or its ch ief observatory , fora firs tmerid ian , andfromthence reckon the longitude of places -east

,and west .Maximum- line, an arch , or part cl themeridian

of the place terminated each way by the horizon .

O r it is the intersection of the plane of the th e-5

ridlen of the place with the plane of the horizon,often called anorth and south line , because » its di »

METrection is fromnorth to south . There aremanymethods of drawing a.meridian line. Themostsimple is the following : 011 an horizontal plane,describe several concentric (311019 8 A B , a b, ate,Plate M‘

iscellzmieS, fig. 23, and on the commoncentre 0 erect astile or gnomon of abou t 1 2 inchesin Length . Towards the 20th of June , betwe enthe hours of 9 and 1 1 in themorning and 1 and 85in the afternoon observe the points A ,

a3B, b , 5550.

in the c ircles where the shadow of the stile terminates . B isect the arches A B and at b, inD , d If then the same right line D E, hmall these arches, it will be t hemeridian. line

sought.Manors , the bee eate1 , agenus of birds cf the

order Pica, of which there are twenty-six species.

The Morons apiaster, or common bee eater, 1s

inmany countries of Europe, but never inGreat Britain. It is particularly fond of bees,but will eat various other insects many of whiClrit seizes like the swallow,

on the wing In the

island of Candie, these birds are often taken byboys in the samemanneras Swallows , by a line,with an insoct attached to a hook at the end

METAL, in natural history and chemistry, thename of aclas s of simple bodies, of which it isobserved that they possess a lustre that they areopaque ; that they are fus ible , ormay bethat their specific gravity is greater thanany other bodies yet discoveredbetter conductors of electricitybody that they aremalleable , orextended and flattened

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300 METAL .

Silver, pest to gold and platinum, themestper.

feet, fixed , andductile of allme tals , harden andmoie soaoroast han gold, and fu sible with alesswhea

t into leavesW Witmay be drawn ou t intoIt is . found in quartz,

limes tone , hornstone, ‘

or combined with the oresMercury, -

or. quicksilverfl bf a white brillian tat the conimon temperature of the

atmosphere : ltabounds inEumpe , Sou th America,China, and occursmost commonly in schistus,lime—stone, and sand- stone.(Dapper, t

he hardest andmost elastic ofmetals ,except iron ; commonly fou nd in rocks of hornblende, schistu s , and quartz . l t is cons iderablyductile ,malleable , sonorous , fus ible , and destructi

ble by fire . Native copper occurs sometimes inmasses , j sometimes in plates of various forms , andsometimes crystall ized in cubes . It is the bas is ofseveral ~metals , as brass , bell-metal , prince

’s

,metal, whiteIron, the hardest,most abundant, andmost

useful of allmetals . Its propertiesmwellknown,vizq hard fumble malleable , c ombustible , and

. 1 Time the brightest ofmalleable metals , andleast ductile , except lead. It IS of a

'

white colour

,

and adisagreeable taste , soft, eas ily fu sible, elastic,(and sonorons. The only tinmines in Europe are

.those of Cornwall, DevonshireSiles ia, Hungary, Gallicia.

parts copperand one of tin. 1

Lead , a palemetal, soft, flexible; asthma;

METAL : 301

nor sonorous in any considerable degree,malllaable,fus ible, and capable of combining

.

withmost of

themetals . .Bymeans of heat it is formed intored lead, and by the steams of vinegar into Whitelead . Pewter is compomdmf three parts of tinand one of lead.

Nickel, of a white colour, softer than tron,

rendered brittle by heat,malleable when cold,and like iron attracted by themagne t. It hna

France , Germany, and cornmonlyZ inc, when pure , of a brilliant white colour,

composed of a number of thin plates . adheringtogether. It is fus ible, but not ductile ,

' nor somalleable as the metals alreadymentioned . It

generally accompanies lead ores . Three parts of

copperand one of zinc formbrass Three partsof z inc and four of copper formpinchbeck, or

prince’smetal.

Brittle and easily f u sible Metals .—Bismuth,

composed of broad brill iant plates of a yellowishcolour adhering to each other. It is fusible,

'

but

not ductile , and loses its lustre when exposed tothe air. It combines with almos t all themetals,often accompanies cobalt, andis found in England,Germany ,

France , Sweden , 8m. Dissolved in

nitrous ac id, it forms a paint called pearl white.

An timony, a ponderous brittlemineral, of laminatedt extnre and a greyish white colour, fusible,and easily reduced to afine powder. It combineswithmos tmetals ,

and is found abundantly inmany countries of Europe . Sixteen parts of leadand one of antimony forman alloy forprinters types.VOL .m. 2 D

302 METAL .

Tellmsum, ometal ef a bluish white colour,

fu sfiile, easily reduced to poin ter, and themos tvolatile at all themetals , exceptmercury andarsenic it is fou nd in Transylvania.

Arsenic, a brittle compact substance of a bluishwhite colour, volati le , and extremely combu stib le .

It has a sharp acrid taste , when heated it emitsa s trong odour o f garlic, and IS amost v iru lentpo

'mon. h combines withmostmetals , renderingthemmore bratfle and fu sible .

Metals brittleandf usiblewithdificufiby .—Cobalt,

aheavy antl gzrey colouredminenal, almost withent h use or sme ll, brittle , and eas ily reduced to

powder, attracted by themagnet, somewhat rashleable when hot, fu sible , and capable of combmgwithmostmetals.Manganese , a very hard, brittle , dark grey, er

brown,mineral, of agranular texture , withagooddeal of brilliancy, and fus ible by an intense treat.an combines with many of themetals : whenreduced to apowderit is attracted hy tb emagnet,and has teen long known and u sed in themanne Tungsten , that is , ponderous stone, found inSweden, one tof fire hardest '

ofmetals , of“

as

chering sfigbtly together, of a c olour resembling

fusible by a strong”heat.

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804 METtion, and rain , and thos e which arise from‘electricand other cau ses . Themajority ofmeteorologicalalterations depends on chemical changes and combinations , and if we were accu iately acquaintedwith the pecu liarities of the substances which f ormthe ‘component parts of the atmosphere

, nothingwou ld

'

bemore ‘

easy than to explain the result oftheirmu tual action, bu t this not be ing the casewemu s t be contented with probabilities . See -Rm;WEATHER, ru lesf orj udging y

’

WIND ; 8cc .

Mernons , or fire balls, have been frequently ohserved in the atmosphere . The elevation ‘

of someof these bodies above the earth is astonishingly

great, . theirmotion r extremely rapid, and

.

theirdiame ter in some instances exceeding yards .D r. Halley

, inMarch 1 7 19, observed aremarkableone, whose height he compu ted to have“ beenabou t 70miles, its diametermore than taimile,and its velocityabou t350

miles in aminu te . Ano

ther appeared in Augus t 1783, whose diameterwasat least equal to that of the former, whose ve loci tywas 1000miles in aminu te , and its he ight abovethe earth ‘

not less than 90miles . These bodies

generally disappear on a sudden, and w ith a loudunisex . Heavy stony .masses , composed of the

same ingredient, resembling each other, and differing (

completely fromevery other stone, are sai dto fall to the earth at the time of the explos ion .

Many wel l au thenticated instances of the fall ingof such stony subs tances have been recorded .

When discovered soon after theii fall , they are

always hot, andburied to some depth u nderground .The ir s ize varies froma few ounces to severaltons ; and inmany cases they smell strongly of

su lphur. The outer surface is arough black crust,chiefly of oxide of iron ; the in terior part iscomposed of fou r subM ees , viz . small sphericalbodies of greyish brown colour, fragments of a

peculiar pyrites, grains of iron , and agrey cementof an earthy compos ition . Thesemasses are probably concretions formed in the atmosphere : but,concerning themanner in which they are composed , and the splendour of the ir appearance in aregion where the air is times rarer thanthe air near the earth ’

s surface , we presume not to

offeraconjecture .

Ms'

rnomsrs, in church history, an extremelynumerous sect of Christians ; found in all parts ofthe United Kingdom, and inmost parts of America. Mr. John Wes ley, and Mr. George Whitfield , were the founders ofmodernmethodism.The followers of Mr.Wesley are usually regardedas the truemethodists , the ir distingu ish ing tenetsare Salvation by Faith in Christ : perceptibleand sometimes instantaneous conversion ; and anassurance of reconciliation to God, with which ,they say, the new birth, or being born again is

inseparably attended.” The Wesleyans at theirconference in 18 10 reckoned u pon the number of

persons attached to their system.Mezzo

'rnxro , amanner of representing figures

on dapper, so as to formprints , in imitation of shadowing in Indian ink. Take a well-polishedcopper-plate , and beginning at the corner, rake or

furrow the surface all over.with aknife , or instant»meatmade for the purpose, firs t one way, andM o the otherfi ill the whole is of aregnlarronghomwitbout the least smooth part to be seen ; in

2 D 2

306 MIDwhich state

,if apaperwere to be worked 03from

it at the copper plate pres s it wou ld be black all

over. When this is done , the plate 18 rubbed withcharcoal, black chalk, orb lack lead and then the

des ign is drawn with white chmk after whichthe out lines and deepes t shades are not scraped

.at all, the next shades are scraped bu t little, thenextmore , and so on

,til l the shades gradually

falling off,leave the paper white , in which places

the plate is perfectly burnished . By an artific ialdisposition of the shades

,and different parts of a.

figure on different plates,mezzotintos are printed

in colours , so as to represent actual paintings .

MICAH , a canonical book of the O ld Testamentwritten by the prophetMicah . The object of thiswork is this : the writer censures the re igningv ices of Jeru salemand Samaria; and denouncesthe judgments of God against both kingdoms ; He

likewise foretel ls the confu s ion of the enemies of

the Jews , the coming of the Mess iah , and theu ltimate success of the church .

MICROMBTER, an astronomicalmachine , which,bymeans of a screw,

serves tomeasure extremelysmall distances in the heavens .

MICROSCOPE, an optical instrument, bymeanswhereof

‘

veryminu te objects are represented, ex

ceedingly enlarged , and are viewed very distinctlyaccording to the laws of refraction,

‘

or reflection;See Germs .

Miosa AN, 11] the British navy , s sort ofcadet,appointed by the captain of a ship of war, to so »

condzthe orders of the superior officers , andassistin t the necessary bus iness of , the wessei, seaheraboard onashore . A shipof the s firw iflmrm

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308 MIMand cheese.

'Butter and cheese are artificiallymade, the formerby churning, and themilkwhichremains after the butter has been separated , or asit is called, the bu ttermilk, has all the propertiesofmilk fromwhich the creamhas been separated .

Cheese is obtained by the addition of rennet to thethe quality of the cheese depends u ponty of creamthat remains in themilk.

be fermented , and it w ill then yield a,vinou s intoxicating liquor.

amachine, which bymeans of any adeas steam, water, wind, oranimal exer

tion, acquires su ch an additional power as ,enables

themachinery to act with increased effect, andwith the requ is ite regu larity.

MIMO SA,a genus of plants of the polygamiamonoecia c lass and order

,of which there are

e ighty—five species known . TheMimosa sensitiva,

sens itive plant, rises with a s lender woody s talkseven or eight feet in height, armed with thornsthe principal stalk hasmany heads of flowers on

the upper part, fiirmore than a foot in length :this as well as the branches is terminated by headsof flowers y the leaves move bu t s lowly whentouched, but the foot-stalks fall whenpressed hard. Naturalists , says D r.

t explained the immediate cause of the

of the sens itive plant the leavesmeetand close in the night, during the sleep of the

plant, orwhen .exposed tomural coldtimin the samemanner as whenEmi l? W 031 “01911065

MlN 309surface asmay be to the air but do not, indeed ,collapse , qu ite so far ; for

’

when touched in the

n ight during the ir sleep , they fall stilt furtherespecially when touched onthe stems and the leaflets , which seems tobe theirmos t sensitive or

. irritable part . Novw'

as the irs ituation after being exposed to external v iolenceresembles their sleep , bu t w ith agreater degree ofcollapse

,may it not be ow ing to a numbness or

paralys is consequent to too v iolent irritation, like

the fainting of animals frompain or fatigu e ? Asens itive plant being kept in a dark roomtill somehours after day break, its leaves and leaf -stalkswere collapsed as in itsmost profou nd sleep

, and

on exposing it to the l ight, above twentyminu tespassed before the plant was thoroughly aWake , andhad qu ite expanded itself. During the night theu ppersurfaces of the leaves are oppressed ; thiswou ld seemto shew that the office of this surfaceof the leaf

,was to expose the flu ids of the plant

to the light as well as to the air.

”

a , inmetaphysics , that part of the animalc omposition which is perceptible only in its Ope

rations , it is'

said to be the instrument of thought.MINERAL

,in natural history, is used ,"ingeneral,

forall fossils bodies , whether s imple or compound,dug/[out of amine .menu . alkali. See SODA .M INERAL waters , inmedicine , ‘

all those whereinanymedicinal virtue s , besides those of commonwater, are found . Mineral waters are of variouskinds but they

f

are cons idered u nder the -

general

titles of chaly’oeate, Open ing, and

‘

alterative .

‘Allmineral watersmay be arranged in M r

8 10 MINclasses , viz. the acidnlous , saline , su lphureou s,

’

andferruginou s waters . The acidu lous are those inwhich the carbon ic ac id gas abounds , they are

known by the ir sharp taste , and the facility withwhich they boil and afford bu bbles by s imple agitatiOn : they redden the tincture of turnsole , , precipitate l ime-waterandalkaline sulphurets . Seltzerwater is of this kind , and there aremany otherplaces on the continent where they are to bemetwith , and where indeed they have obtainedmuchrepu tation. Saline waters are such as contain as ufficient quantity of neu tral salt to act on the animalframe : su ch are the Epsomwaters . Su lplzurecmswaters are those that appear to contain sulphur, orat least something that possessesmany of the pro

perties of sulphur, as the sme ll , and the effect ofdiscolouring s ilver These have been divided intothose that contain a small quantity of alkaline or

s u lphureous su lphu r ; and those which are impregnated with su lphuric hydrogen gas . The watersof Bareges belong to the firs t order : those of

Aix-la- chapelle to the second. Ferruginou'

s waters

contain iron : they are also called chalybeate .

These are all used inmedicine, as are likew ise thewarmand cold water naturally and artific ially so

the waters at Bath and Bristol are of the warmMmsRALocr is that branch of natural his tory

whichmakes u s acquainted w ith the propertiesand relations ofminerals . What is denominatedO ryctognosie is that branch ofmineralogy whichmakes us acquainted withminerals in their. natural order, under fixed denominations , and by

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312 MINERALO GY.

In this class, according toWernfi , there arc ing:

genera, viz . carbonates ,muriates, nitrates , sands u lphates.The characters of the iry

‘lamanablc elmare

class aremostly opaque, scarcely ever crystahlized, and they do not feel Geld . This class in e

elu des three genera, vie . salphm‘, coal, and gra~phite.

Themetallic class containsmany genera : theyare characterized by opacity, and great specific

gravity they generally possess apeculiarlustre,are tough, and in . some degreemalleable s cold,and not eas ily inflamed . The generaof this Class

so arranged that those which possess the preparties of the class in the highest degree areplaced first ; thus , platina possesses themetallicqualities, in the highes t degree, and is placed at

the head of the class : next comes gold , thenmer~

cu ry, on account of its great specific granity,afterwards silver, copper, hon, &c. Sac .

q‘ The charac ters employedmthe descriptidnofminerals by Werner, and othermineralogists whoadhere tohis system, are dividedviz . The external, includinlustre , frac ture, hardness , weight,

3 Physical properties ,

discosered by themagnet.friction, and heat 4. Geogrrostic cha1acters , orthe occurrence of onemineral with another : thusnative arsenic frequent]

M IN 313

graphic character,which is determined fromtheloeal situation of amineral . See

‘ Joy ce’s Letters

on Experimental Philosophy .

Manama?“ state, aperson to whoma sovenzign prince intrusts the administration of the go

Mnmn a, in church ceremonies, one who

ministe rs the sacraments, 810. See B ISHOP, Deacon,&c .

MINT,mmodmhis tory, aplace where the nation’akpeinage of Britain and Ire lan d is permrmedlnminting, or coiningmoney , the firs t processis that oimeltingmetal ll] cruc ibles and pouring itintomou lds , wha'e it is formed into plates . Theplates are afierward passed through a dattingW 39 1 by which the ir thickness is regu lated . Theywemeet, withthe eminence of an instrument calleda trepan, cut into planchets , or c ircu lar pieces ,

The planchets are then du ly we ighed and, beingboiled , andmade clean , conveyed to themill, bywhich their edges aremarked . Coins , of sumcienttinclmess

, sametimes weave inscfiptions on theironly a small panern , commonly

calledthemilling sThe coining-mill stamps theem, symbol,flax-ilegeudmired .

W

, that, with the labour of oueman ,twenty thousand planchetsmay be amped in a

day The coin, 1 thus complem, is again weighedcities, are not stampedW ithout additiomlmil. ' Inmd Gf asingle stroke, the blow ls

314 M18,chet is taken fromthe dies , and heated . Medalliens

,the relief of which is still higher, are usually

cast in sand , and only perfec ted by themachine.

In the earlier stage of the art, the impressionwas given by the hammer ; the invention ,

“ themachine above al luded to , is attributed to aFrench .man , named Bracher, and dated, A . n . 1 553; bu t

an engine , of vastly greater perfeetion, belongs to acelebratedmechan ician of the present day, Mr .Bou lton .

MIRACLES ; on these depend the evidence in favou r of reveal ed religion. Dr. Clark defined amirac le to be a work effected in amanner differentfromthe common and regu larmethod of Providence , by the interposition of himse lf or some ihtelligent agent superior toman but Mr. HughFarmer, who u nder s the subject better thanany previous writer,maintains, thatmiracles areneither the effec ts of natural causes , nor of su

perior created intelligences acting fromthemselvesalone ; but that they are always to be ascribed to adiv ine interposition ; i . e. that they are neverwrought , but either immediately by God himself ,orby such other beings as he commissions and empowers to performthem. In proof of this propoaition ,

he alleges , that the same arguments whichprove the

domuchmore strongly conclude against theiracting ou t of their prOper sphere. Further, the suppos ition of the power of any created agents tomilkmiraeles of themselves in this lower world, is nontradicted hy the observation and ef perienee of all

ages ; than being, in fact, .no properevidence of

themahéf aaymiracleswnt sueb asmag be fitls

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8 16 MONhas fromtime to time sent into the world, to revealhis will tomankind . Upon this foundation he setabou t to extirpate idolatry, which was the religionof the : Arabs, his cou ntrymen , and to reformtheotherpabuses crept into religious worship . See

KO RAN .

Mou sses . See SUGAR.

MOLLUSCA, in natural h istory, the name of theSecond order of the Linnean class Vermes . Theyare naked , furnished with tentacula, or aims , forthemost part inhabitants of the sea, and by theirphosphorescent quality illuminate the dark abyssof the waters .

MOMENTUM, inmechanics, S1gnifies the samewith impetu s , or quantity ofmoving body, whichis always equal to the quantity ofmatter,mu ltipl ied into the veloc ity.

MOMORD ICA, agenus of plants , of which thereare

‘

eight spec ies, themost remarkable of which isthe Momordica balsamina, common balsamapple.This is anative of India, and is famou s tbr curing’

wounds the inhabitants cut open the unripe fruit,and then infuse it in sweet oil , till the oi l becomesred : in this state, when applied to wounds , they

MONARCHY . See KING .

MONASTE'

RY, a convent, or house, bu ilt for thereception and entertainment ofmonks ,mendicantfriars , and nuns . Monas teries are governed bydifferent ru les , according to the different regu lationsprescribed by their founders . The first regu lar and

perfectmonasteries were founded by Pachomius,in Egypt . Saint Augustin being sent into England ,by St. .Gregory the Pope, in the year 596 , to con

‘MO R 317

wrt the English , he, at the same time, introducedthemonastic s tate.MONK, a person who who lly dedicates himself to

the service of religion, and resides in somemonastery, ,unde r the direction bf particular statutesand ru les .

MONEY, a piece ofmatter, . commonlymetal, tow hich public authority has afiixed a certain valueand weight, to

‘

serve as amediumin commerce.mCom, EXCHANGE , and MINT .

MONOGM M,a character or cyphe r, composed of

one , two ormore letters , interwoven , being an ahbreviatiO n of aname

,antiently u sed as asea] , budge,

arms , dtc . printers , engravers , 6m. fortnerlymadeuse ofmonograms to distingu ish the ir works. See

Reas ’ New CYCLOPED IA .

MONSOON . See Wmo .

MONTH, in chronology . See TIME , YEAR.

MOON , in astronomy, a satellite, or secondaryplanet ; as that always attendant on the earth .

S ee SATELLITE. The distance of thismoon fromt he earth is determined to be abou t miles ;its diameter 8 192miles and its bu lk to that of theearth , as 1 to 48 .

MO RAVlANS , see UNH'

AS Fratrum.MORDANT, in dying. When a substance to be

dyed has l ittle or no attraction to thematter on

.which the colour depends , so as either not to beCapable of abstracting it fromits sol vent, or of

retaining it wittv snch three as to font) apmnent dye , thee some intermediate substanoe iswed,

this substanee is called amordantMonsoon, neat-meta, in eommflwesafimikind

318 MO Rof leather, prepared of the skin

'

of ananimal of thegoat kind , in the countries of the Levantl

vMO RTALJ‘

I’

Y, bills of ; registers of the numberof deaths or burials in any parish or district : thesewere : es tablished at the time when the plaguemade great ravages in London, and they have beencontinued fromthe conven ience found in ascer

‘taining by them, the prec ise time of the ~ bi1th ordeath of indiv iduals , and for the information theyfurnish respecting the rate of humanmortal ity,and the s tate of popu lation. The London hillsofmortality are founded u pon the reports of thesworn . searchers , who view the body after decease, and deliver their report to the parish clerk.

The parish clerks are requ ired tomake a weeklyreturn of burials with the age and disease of whichthe person died ; a summary is‘ publ ished everyyear.MORTAR-P IECE

, a short piece of ordnance, con»

siderably thick andwide , serving to throw bombs ,carcasses , fire-pots

,and other warlike prepara

tions . The u se ofmortars is thought to be older ‘

than that of cannon ,they having been employed,

ih the wars in Italy , to throw stones and balls of

red -hot iron,long before the invention of ’bombs ;

which , according to Blondel , were first thrown at

the siege ofWachtendorch , in Guelderland , in 1588.MORTGAGE

, 1n law, a pledge or pawn of lands ,tenements, &c . formoney borrowed ; so cal led ,because, if themoney is not lpaid at the day, the .

land dies to the debtor, and is forfeited to the creditou The commonmethod ofmaking amortgageis by lease for a long termof years , ,wherein a

peppercorn rent «has been usual ly reserved: or it

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sse

MuooLsremANS , orchu rch history, aseat whicharose in

i

England, abou t the year 1657 3s e dans »minatod fromtheir leaderLudowicMnggletonewho.with his associate Reeves , aeserted that theyWerethe xtwo lastwitnesses of God, that shou ld appearbefore the end of the world .

MULE , see House .

7 Mas on'

s , in law, the wilful andfelonious killinga person frompremeditatedmal ice ; provided theparty wou nded orotherwise hu rt, die with in ayearand a day after the fact be committed . See

Homcmn.

Mommas , in chemistry, agenus of salts formedof themuriatiq acid with certain bases : themostimportant of t hese is the mu riate of soda orcommon salt. It exists abundantly in nature, 1mmense quantities of it being dug ou t of the earth,which requ ires only to be reduced to powden. In

this state it is cal led rock salt. I t is also one of theconstitu ents of sea-water

,which when evaporated

yields the salt in crystals .

Mas on ic acid, in chemistry, is obtained by delcompos ing common salt : the sodais obtained pu re,and the acid goes off in a s tate of gas .

Mus, the rat,in natural history, agenus of themammalia, of the order gl ires . There are forty

six species, of which the followingmay be noted,viz . Mus lemmu s , or the leming. These an imalsare sometimes five inches long in the body, and inSome countries (as S iberia) only three. They

MUS 32g

tions, or storing up inmagazines . O n certain cc

casions , however, they descend fromtheir elevateds ituations into the plains , in innumerable and

formidablemultitudes . Their direction is alwaysin a straight l ine, fromwhich nothing inducesthemto deviate but the absolute imposs ibility of

proceeding in it. Their track is vis ible by the

destruction of herbage which attends it, the grassbeing devou red to its extreme roots , and theircou rse exhibiting ,

ins tead of the greennes s of vegetation, the brownness of a fal low. Thesemigra-rtions happen at irregular periods , generally afteran interval of some years , and the perseveranceand intrepidity with which they are condu cted arematter of astonishment. If attacked bymen, theywil l spring at the legs of the assailants , andwith

great difficulty can bemade to qu it their hold .

Thousands”

are destroyed in these progresses bybirds of prey

,and often themost formidable and

fatal conflicts occur among themselves.

Muse/1, the fly, a genu s of insects of the orderdiptera, of which thereare said to be a thousandSpec ies . They are divided into sections , accordingas they have or have not feelers . The larvae in thedifferent tribes of flies differ farmore in habitthan the complete insects , some being terrestn

'

al,

and others aquatic . Those of the common kindsare emphatically distingu ished by the title ofmaggots , and spring fromeggs depos ited on variouspu trid s ubstances . Several of the aquatic kindsare of s ingu larly cu rious formation , and exhibitwonderfu l examples of the provision ordained i bynature for

’

the preservation of even . tl1emeanest3} animals. The general formof the pupais that

322’

of an oral, differentlymodified , accordingspec ies , and formed by the external skin of

larva. Some species cast their skin before theirchange into the pupa state. O ne of themost remarkablespecies is Muscachamaele on , which i s alarge black fly, With a broad , flattish abdomen

,

hav ing the s ides of each segment yel low, formingsomany abrupt s emi-bands across that part . It

proceeds froman aquatic larVa, of very considerable s ize,measu ring 2 inches and a half in length ,which is common in stagnant Waters du ring thesummermonths , and passe s into its Chrysalis statewithout casting its skin, which dries Over it, soasto preserve the former appearance of the animalin amore contracted state.Among the bristly flies is the Mu scacarnaica, or

common blow-fly, which'

deposits its eggs on

animal flesh , either fresh Or '

pu trid . The larvae,ormaggots, hatch in the Space of a few hours , andwhen fu ll grown , which happens in eight or tendays , they are of a yel lowish colou r, with aslight tinge of pale red. When the animalchanges to a pu pa, the skin dries round it,and thewhole assumes a completely oval form,reddish colou r. In ten days after the fly emerges .

Messrs, in anatomy, apart of an animal body,destined tomove some other part.Moses, in the poetry of the ancients, personifi

cations of the various branches of delightfu l exercise in which human geniu s displays itself. ’

TheyWere beau tifu lly said to be the daughters of

'

Joreand Mnemosyne, or Memory ; and they wei‘e

represented’

as Compan ions of

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N.

N; the thirteenth 1amin the alphabet, and thetenth consonant : it is a liqu id , the sound of which

’

mou th and nostrils , being,cepted by applying the tip of the tongue to the forepart of the palate

‘

with the lips open. It sufl'

ers no

cons onant immediately after it in the beginning of

words and syllables , nor any before it except g, k;and s, as in gnaw, know,mow. As a numeral

, Nstands for900, andwith adash over it if forN . orN°

stands for nonzero, i . e . in number ; andN . B } for note bone , observe well.NABO B

,a Viceroy

,or governor of a province in

themogul empire .Nanomssm, (amy;amethod of computing time

fromthe commencement of Nabonas sar’s reign,

The epochs. of Nabonassar is of the greater impouan

'

ce, as Ptolemy and other astronomers ao~

cou nt th eiryears fromit.Name , in astronomy , thatpoint of the heavens

which is exactly u nder our feet, and consequentlydiametn cally Oppos ite to the zenith .

.

iNan, a bony excresoence growingat the ends of

NAT sea

the rooto r bas e ; andthe white partnear the latter,somewhat resemb ling a halfmoon , lunu la. Thes ubstance of the nail is that of the skin , hardened ,bu t firmly connected with it : for this reason, it isextremely sensible at its root, where the substanceis yet tender but at the apex

,where it is perfectly

hardened , it is capable of being ou t withou t pain .

NAPTHA, in chemistry,one of the b itumens '

which

has beenmuch u sed in the experimentsw on the newlydiscoveredmetals POTASSIUM and SO DAlUM, which

NArraon, in chemistry,a termfrequently given

to soda, upon the suppos ition that it is the n'

atronor nitrum'

of the anc ien ts . Natu ral natron occu rseither as an efllorescence on the su rface of the soilor on decompos ing rocks of particu lar kinds, or ohthe sides and bottoms of lakes that becom'e dryduring the. summer. In Hungary,

the natron’

lakesare very n umerous, and afl’ord a vast quantity of i tannual ly. lAbou t s ixtymiles north eas t of GrandCairo , in Egypt, there is a lime stone valley

, in

which there are several extens ive lakes, whichbecome dry du ring the summer, and leave theirs ides (and bottoms covere d with agreat quantity of

soda or natron .

NaTiONAL D ebt,we have under the word.

'

D nn'r

g iven an'

account of thenational Debt to the year(1 807 wemay now add that the whole debt, tothesth of January 18 10, was 1os . sag,whic h ismore than eight timesasmuch as thevalue of the gold and s ilver coined in Englands ince the Restoration to the 25th of March

, 18 10:

EfO l' during the'

rcign of

. Cbarles 1L 7 ,594,105 l. was coined .VOL .m. 2 r

Janies I I . was coined.AnneG eorge I .

I l .

I II .

Total gold and silver

’

comed s ince the restoration.

NATURAL H ts'

roar, the description of the produ ctions

‘ot

'

natu re . The natu ral histo ry of a place isa topic of wide and variou s range. Mr. Boylesuggests , that itmay be conveniently reduced tofour heads : I . The things that regard the heavens.I I . The air : I II . The waters and IV. The earth .

I . O f the first class are, 1 . The longitudes andlatitu des of places ; 2 . The length of the longestand shortes t days and nights 3. The climates andparallels ; 4. The fixed stars seen there or otherwise.I I . O f the air shou ld be observed , 1 . Its tempe

ratu re ; 2 . Its weight ; 3. Its variations, themelteoa

'

smos t usual in-it ; 4. The windsmost general.5 . The .diseases said to depend u pon its state ; orin which itmay be supposed to have ashore ; 6 . Its

us ual salubrity ; and 7 . The sort of constitu tions itdoes and does not agree with .

I II . ’

O t'

the waters , 1 : The sea—i ts depth , tides ,.currents , saltness , and o ther qualities ,and , pecu

liarities ; 2 . Rivers ; 3. Lakes ; 4.Mineralwaters *

;

5 . Fish and other productions .

‘IV.' The things relating to the earth are last to

'

be examined : these are , I . The earth itself ; Il .ll ts

inhabitants II I . I ts produc tions . In the earthitself, 1 . its dimens ions ; 2 . its situation ; 3. its

figu re , A . its surface, whether flat or othevwise 5

NAT

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328 NATURAL HIST;Negetables clothe its surface with verdure

, 1mbibenourishment through theh roots , respire bymeansof leaves , and continue their kinil by the dispersionbf their seed. They are 01gamzed bodies , possessing life ,but they are probably destitu teof sensationsee BOTANY . An imals inhabit the exterior pa1 ts ofthe earth , respire, and generate eggs : are impelledto action by hunger, affection and pain 9 and bypreying on other animals

, and vegetables , res trainw ithin proper limits and proportions the numbers’

of both ; They possess organized bodies , enjoyl ife and sensation , and have the power of locometion .

The Linnaean systemis divided into classes,or’ders , genera, Species and varieties

,

“ to each of

which their fnames , and characters are affixe d .

Ih this arrangement tbé classes and Ordei s are arbitraryh the genera and species are natural . O f

the threegrand divisions of natu re the animal kingdomstands highest ln the scale, next to it t he vegetable

,and lastly themineral kingdom. To the

Vegeiable andmineral kingdoms we have alreadyreferred under the articles BOTANY andM INERALOGYwithregard to the animal kingdomWemay observe,that an imals enjoy sensation bymeans of a l iv ingO rganization ,

an imation by amedu llary substance;

percepticn by nerves,andmotion by the exertion

of the will . They are furn ished withmembers f01the different pu 1poses ofme , organs for their different senses and facu l ties , or powers for the application

.

of their different pe rceptions . The folId ing 1s

'

eu abstract of the Linnamn arrangementin: the?aiiimal kingdom

NAT ass

1 . Blammalia.

Ferte PecoraGlires

,

CLASS I I . Aves.

Orders .

Anseres GallinaeGrallaa

Class I I I . Amphibia.

O rders .

Reptilia Serpentes .

CLASS IV. Pisces.

Orders .

Apodes Thoracici Branchiostegi

Jugu lares Abdominales Chondropterygn .

CLASS V. Insecta.

Orders .

Coleoptera Lepidoptera Hymenoptera Aptera.

Hemiptera Neuroptera Diptera

Orders .

In testina Tes tacea InfusoriaMollu sca Z oophyta.

NATURE, this word has various significations , as

it is now u sed . It denotes 1 . The uni verse, orwhole body of created things ; in which sensewe say , the author of natu re the God of natu r e

nature is beau tifu l there is no such thing in natu reas a phoenix .

2 . The properties or qualities of th ingsin which sense we say, such aman is noble by naiu re (meaning that his nobleness is an inherent

2 F 2

5'e NATURE.

qual ity); the nature iof flu ids by nature a stonefalls to the earth ; the established order of things(meaning that Order which resu lts fromthe properties or qualities of things), natn1 e (in alivingbody) 1s strong 01 weak (meaning that the natu ralproperties or qualities are exhausted or in vigour)natu re left to bet selfWill perfcnmthe cu re (mean ingthat the natu1al p1 opert1es or qualities will performit), good natu re ; ill natu ie; it is the natu 1e oi

a bird to fly &c .

3.

“ The creative and superintending intelli

gence ; in which sense , we say nature,when

wemean God ; nature is benevolent and wise.Here by natu re , we u nderstand either the Deityhimself , or a power performing the will of theDeity, and condu cting every thing in this worldu nder his order ; a

“

notion supported by someanc ient systems of philosophy , adopted by poets

,

andmost easy to popu lar idea, Independently of

this , however, we often say Nature herself, &c . in

amerely figmative sense personifying the lacf natu re, that i s , the properties ofmatter. When ,therefore, we say, that natu 1 e covers the earthwith abuhdance, Wemean that God covers the earthw ith abundance ; when we Say that natu re ismag nificent and inexhau stible, wemean that creat1on 1smagnificent and in austible ; when wesay that it is the nature of sugar to be sweet

,

wemean that sweetness is a qual ity or p1 opertyof s ugar. When we speakdf the study of natu re,wemean the study of e i eation which embracesfirst

,the knowledge ot th and secondly, the

knowledge bf the pro s 1 ties of things.

WhenWe speak 0 natureasopposed towhat 1s

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333 NAVhappy, consolation, and the despairing, hope. its

placid scenes calmthe feelings , its grand onesexalt themand neither of these states ofmindarecompatible with crime. Assuredly, nature proves notonly that themotives forwickedness are absent fromits haunts , but also by its salu tary influ ence on thenerves , is des igned to have abeneficial effect onthemoral character ofman . Another great con ;s ideration , in behalf of the study of nature (andthismore pecu liarly belongs to the study of the

qualities of things)is the relief it affords fromsu ~

NAVIGATION, the art of conducting a ship fromone place to another. It implies not only themechanicalmanagement of the sails, and workingthe ship, whichmus t be learned on ship board

,

and in the practice of sail ing, but likewise the

theory, which 1s to be obtained fromthe followingsources1 . A table of the latitu des and longitudes of themost parts of the sea-coas t, rocks , shoals , &c. in

the frequented part of the world .

2 . Maps and charts of the seas and lands, to

gether with the depths of water, and the tides andthe natu re of the coast onemay have occas ion to3. The use and application of several instruments , necessary to point out the way the ship hasto steer, tomeasure the rate she runs at, and tofind the place she is in whenever necessary.

4. A sufficient stock ofmathematical learning,particu larly trigonometry , to enable amariner tomake aright use of the observations thatmay bededuced fromthe preceding elements.

M in 333

NAUTiLtJS‘

,iii ulstural history, a simple shell

,

having no h inge, formed of oné continued piece,rol led as it were into a spiral form, and having itscavity divided into

'

a at ndthliéf of cel ls , bytransverse partitions, each

“

of which has aperfo

d is continuou s to 1 the others bymeansof a pipe carried the whole length of the shell .The animal 1s faiiioils foru sing its shell i111 themanner of a boat, and thus swimming on the surfaceof the sea

‘

; froth which circumstance. it is introduced into theEssayon Man 111 these l ines

Who taught the l1ttle nau tilu s to sai l ,Spread the th in cai‘, and catch the ris ingNAVY, the shipping of aprince or state .min isterialmanagement of the royal navy of Great

B ritfin’

18 intrusted to seven lords commiss ionersfor execu ting the oilice of the lord high admiralof England , commonly 13a by the title of lordso f the admiralty. Comm1ssioners of the navy , are

whose department 18 wholly dis't inct from“that of the admiralty. The number of those resi'dent 1n London IS eight, and there are others sta'tioned in difi

’

erent parts of the empire . Th‘

superintend the dock yards , and prov ide the ves se s‘which the admiralty requires fbrserv1ce .

"To theroyal navy there also belong a nictualiing qfiice ,

can oflice qf sick and wou nded seamen , arid a payqfiice.

NEALING See ANNéAt iNG.

NEBULJB, in as tronomy, are certainheavens some of which , bythe discoHers

chel , are foundto con8 1st of c lus ters of telescoPic stars , and others appear asmere luminousspots of different fornis.

‘

Themost considerable

334 NEC

is one in themidway between the two stars on the

blade of Orion’s sword ,marked l by Bayer, dis '

.

covered in the year 1 656 by Huygens ; it containsars , and the other part is a bright spot

ground, andappears like an Openinginto brighter regions beyond . Dr. Hersche l hasdiscovered likewise other phenomenain the heaven swhich he cal ls nebu lou s stars that is , stars s urerounded apparently with a faint luminous atmosphere of large extent. These the Doctor, by hislarge telescopes , has proved to be eithermerec lusters of stars , or su ch nebu lous appearances asmight be occas ioned by amu ltitude of stars at avast dis tance .

Necessrrv, philosophical ; the advocates for thisdoctrinemaintain that the volitions and actions of

intelligent agents are produced by causes equallydecisive and resistless as those which are admittedto actuate thematerial system.

.The doctrine ofnecessity extends to themind what is obvious andu ncontradicted with respect tomatter. It insistson

'

the absolu te and u ncontrollable influence ofmotires u pon the human will and conduct . .It assertsthat the determinations and actions of every indiv idual flow with u nfail ing precis ion and res istlessOperation

,fromthe circumstances , motives , or

'

s tates ofmind with which they are precededand that in the whole series of his existence , no

specific feeling, thought, or act cou ld have beendifferent fromwhat it real ly was , these previousc ircumstances continu ing the same . The grandarguments in defence of philosophical necess ity arederived

, 1 . Fromthe relation of cause and effect2 . Fromthe Divine Prescience ; the foreknow

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pperation,.mu ch

gm! Q‘pd htOO

‘

ll ltle

expe

ia‘

an

the needles taking care toremove' themfromtime to

', time. ,This .

serves totemper them, and take off their brittleness . They

NEEQ LE.

though there is scarcely any :cons umption of thembeingmanu factu re of needles

, thepass the steel through a coalhammer, to bring it ou t of itscylindi ical one . This done,11 throughwire

-drawingmous,,is then cut into

nded needles . Thesermthe

into the fire to

.

a puncheona leaden block11, the l ittle p iece of steel remainThecorners are .

then filed the

and a l ittle cavity filedhead: this done, the “point isand the wholefi ledpyeu theeyl l u

at redhot on a long, flat, nai row

NEEDLE. 337

next process is the polishing . To performthis ,ten or twelve thou sand needles are ranged in l ittleheaps against each other on a piece of new buckram, sprinkled with emery-dust. The needles thu sdispose

d,emery du st is thrown over them, which

is again sprinkled with oil of olives , and lastly,the whole 18made up

.

into a roll , well bound atboth ends . This rol l 18 then laid on a polishingtable, and over at a thick plank laden with stones ,which twomen work backward and forward adayand abelf, or two days, success ively : the rol l is ,

continually agitated by the weight andmotion of

the plank over it, and the needles within s ide beingrubbed against each other with oi l and emery areinsensibly polished . After polish ing, the dirt iswashed fromthemwithhot watei and soap. .They

,

are then dried 1n hot bran, a litt lemoistened , placedwith the needlesma round box, su spended in theair bya cord .which the branand needlesare . dry .

two or three different brans , are next pu t intowooden vessels , to have the good separated fromthosewhosepoints , or eyes ;have been broken eitherin polishing or wiping : the points are then turnedall oneway , and smoothed with an emery stone,tu rned with a wheel . Thisthem

,and there remains nothing

intorpackets of two hundred and fifty each .

NEEpLB, magnetical, in navigation, a needletouched withamagnet, or loadstone, and sustained

on a pivot in the center of the compass , where itassists themariner by,1ts 1general direction frompole to pole

,or

,as it is said in Europe,

tothe north. SeeMAGNETISM.

VOL. 111. 2 o

838 NER' Ns cso, properly, an inhabitant of Nigritia 111

Africa; bu t the name is applied to all blacks lwithwoolly hair. Europeanmerchants u sed to purchase these people fromthe coast 'of Africa, particularly that part called Gu inea, and convey them'to the is lands and continent of America, wherethey were re-sold at an' immense profit

,to cu ltivate

tobacco, s ugar, indigo, In Mexico,"P ,éru

and the Bras ils , they are used for diggingmines .

Naprons inmythology, the god, of the sea,and father of fountains and rivers . He was “theson of Satu rn and O ps, and the b1 other of Jupiterand Plu to. He is said to have been w

'

orshippedin Egypt under the name of Cenohus , or Campu s ,where his emblemwas the figure of Certain vasesor pitchers with which the people filtrated thewater of the sacred Ni le, and fromthemOu th of

which arose the head , and sometimes the head andhands of aman or woman . Among the Greeks ,andRomans , the badge of this ds ityawas atridentamong the Chinese he hears a load -stone.

NEREIDS, inmythology, Sea-nymphs , “

daughters:

of Nereus and Doris , and celebrated for theirbeau ty . In anc ientmonuments , the nereids

'

arerepresented as riding u pon sea-horses , sometimes.with

'entire human forms , and '

at others , with the'

tails of fishes .

N11115 15 i nzoology, agenus of aquatic animals ofwhich the noctilu ca, or nontilucou s ( night shining)ne reis

, aminu te insect, is thus described by GmeJlin : the head is roundish and flat ; the two herdsor feelers short and fibulated the eyes prominent,and placed on each

‘

s ide of the head ; the“body

composed of about twenty-three divis ions 6113011119;

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sass'

NEWsay anet refit, doc. anet produceexpress any commodity, all tare and chargesducted .

Nauaomna. See

Ns orsa, in‘ Latin grammar, a gender of nouns

fornames which are neithermasculine nortemihiné.

”M in na verbs, by some grammarians cal‘led 1htransitive verbs , are those which gove

rn'

nothing,and that are neither active nor pass ive . Whenthe'

action expressed by the verb has no object to fallu pon ,

bu t the verb alone su pplies the whole idea ofthe action, the verb is saidto be neu ter i as ; I sleep ,we walk, they stand stil l .NEUTRAL salts, 1n chemistry, those compounded

of an acid , and any other substance capable of

u niting with it, and destroying its acidity. See

SALTS .NEUTRALIZAT ION, in chemistry, when su bstancesmu tually disgu ise each others properties , they are

said to neutralize one another. This property“is

common to ag reat numberof bodies but itman ifests itselfmost strongly, and/ was first observed intheacids

'

and alikalies'

. Hence the salts'

obtainedf rom‘the combination of these different bodies , reicéived the h arrie of neu tral salts .

a s -PAPERS,periodical publications, daily,

weekly , for the pu use of communicating tothe pub l ic every thing 0?importance

,whether p

l itical, literary, Sec . They were first published inEngland , August The Journal desSw ans, aFrench paper, was first published in 1 665.

O ne was published , under the. title of the Pu blic

Intelligencer, in 1663, by SirRobert L’Estrange,

but dropped on the first appearance O f theLondon

N10 341G azette. Newspapers and pamphlets '

were pro

hibited by royal au thority in 1680. Though at theRevolu tion, prohibitions of this kind were doneaway

,and the press at liberty

,yet newspapers

were afterwardmade objects of taxation, and forthis purpose were first stamped in 17 13. Thenumber of them, however, gradual ly increased ,and there were printed in the whole kingdom, during the years

1 775

1 776

1 777

1 778

1779

1 780 14

1 78 1

1 782

Their number at present is probably nearly double.New-Holland

,the largest is land in the world,

s ituated in the Indian Ocean, equal in'

size to thehabitable part of Europe , first discovered in thebeginning of the 17th century, and then call ed“ Terra Au stralis Incognito .

” The original inhabitants are themostmiserable people in the world

,

withou t houses , and withou t clothes ; black , tall,thin

,with smal l limbs , great heads andheavy brows .

'

NEW - STYLE , first u sed in England in 1 753, wasintroduced to the western world by Pope GregoryXIII . The old-style, which is stil l used in Russia,is eleven days behind the reckoning of the new :

that is,the l st of March 0 . S . is the 1 1th N . S.

NICKEL,'

awhitemetal, which, when pure, is{ ductile andmalleable. Its colou r is intermediatebetween that of silverand tin , andj s not altered by

2 6 2

B43 NIGthe air.

~ "It is'

neai ly as hard as iron, and its spec ific

gravity is eight or nine times greater than that 01water. Nickel forms alloys with a niimber ofmetals .

NICTITATINGmembrane, avery thin andfine skin ,.chicfly . found in the bird and fish-kind , whichcovers the eyes of these creatures , sheltering themf romdust

,or fromtoomuch light, yet is so thin

and pellucid , that they can see through it.NIGHT

,that part of the diumal period du ring

which either hemisphere. ls tu rned away fromthesu n ; the time of da1kness . . In scripture language,this word 1s sometimes used forthe times of heathenish ignorance , as Rom. xiii . for advers ityand affl iction, as Isaiah xxi , 1 2 ; and for death , asJohn in . 4.

NIGHTINGALE, aspecies ofmotocilla, begins his

song in the dusk ot the even ing and continu es itall n ight. The nightingale is not kn own in Scotland, a circumstance which is attributed to thescarcity of hedges . The song of this bird charmsevery b earer. It 13 the constant theme of theeastern poets ; and by these is represented as attached, in amost extraordinary degree , to the rose,their favourite flower . Thu s , in a Pers ian fable

,

literally translated by SirWilliamJones , we havethe following passage

I knownot ahat the rose says under his lips,that he brings back the helpless nightingales, withtheirmournfu l notes . O ne day, the gardener,accordingnto his establ ished cus tom, went to Viewthe r oses he saw a plaintive nightingale, whowas rubbing his head car the leaves of the roses,sunwas tearing as under, with his sharp bill, that

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844 NITn itric acid ,

'

ahd alkhlies,earths , &c. Themost

important of these isNITRE , which see , be low .

NITRE,or ialt-petre, a simple salt, pellucid , but

somewhat whitish It 18 found immersed in imperceptible particles in earthy s ubstances , as thepartic les ofmetals 1n their ores bu t sometimes iti s gathered native and pure, in the formof an ef

florescence , or shapeless salt, either on its ore , or onold walls . The earth fromwhich nitre ismade,both in Persiaand the East- Indies , is a kind ofmarl, found on the bare s ides of b ills exposed tothe xiorthern or eastern winds , and never in anyother s ituation . The people of those countries collect large quantities of this earth , and having a

large and deep pit, lined with ahard and tenaciouskind of clay, they fil l it half fu l l of water, and intothis they throw the earth when this is brokenandmou lded to powder, they addmore water, andmixing the whole together , sufl'

er it to remain fou ror five days after this , they Open a holemade inone of the s ides of the pit, which lets ou t all theclear water into achannel of abou t a foot wide

,

which is also lined with clay, and through which itruns into another very wide and shallow pit

,which

is prepared in a level ground , secu red by slightwal ls on all bu t the north-eas t s ide, and Open to thesun at the tOp : here the water evaporates by de

grees and the salt which it had imbibed fromthe earth crystal l izes into small brownish white

,

hexaedral, but u sual ly imperfect crystals . This is

the rough salt-petre brought fromthe East Indies :there are some othermethods of procuring it ; hmthe fargreater part of the nitre u sed 1n the world isprepared in thismanne1 . Salt petre is of greatu se

845

in variousmanu factures : besides being the basis ofgun

- powder, it is employed inmaking white glass ,and is of the same use as common sal t in preservingmeats . Fromthe same substance

,also;

,

’Glauber s spirit of nitre or nitric andacid, &c.

Nitre is composed of Acid 44 parts .

’

Water

100

Nmzrc acid; isv

a'

compound of oxygen and nit»

trogen or azote . The two principal cons tituent

parts of ou r atmosphere, which, in certain-proportions formthe common air, do, in other preporo

tions , yield one of themost powerful 'of all the acids .

This cons ists of of the oxygen and of

nitrogen . The n itric acid is of considerable importance in the

'

arts . It. is emmoyed in etchingcepper ; as a solvent of tin to form' with thatmetalamordant for some of the finest dyes inmedicineand various chemical processes . A’

compou ndmade bymixing two parts of the n itric ac id withone of themu riatic , is that which was formerlycalledthe aqua regia, and is now known by thename of n itro -mu riatic acid : it has the property ofdissolving gold and platina. xThe n itric acid is oh~fained in the large way ftomn itre.NIZAM , the title of great officers of state in the

Asiatic govei nments .

No‘

BIe Y, in c ivil institu tions , rank conferred byexpress au thority of the govern ing power.

‘Theorigin of nob ihty

‘

18 by some referred to the Goths,

who rewarded their captains with titles of honour;

346 NOBIn Britain , the termnobility is restrained to degreesO f dignity above kn ighthood in other countries ,nobilzty and gen tility are the same . British no

bility is divided into five degrees , O f baron, Viscount,earl ,marqu is , and duke . These titles

,which are

hereditary , can only be conferred hy ,the king

’

s

letters -patent.It 1s acu riou s particu lar ln the history O f nobility,

that among the natives of Otaheite, rank i s not onlyhereditary , bu t actually descends to the son , to thedegradation of the father, while yet alive : thu s , hewho is anobleman tod ay , if a son be born to him,is a commoner to-morrow, and his son takes hisrank—Nobility originated in themilitary tenureO f lands .

NOBLE, an ancient coin of England, worth sixshillings and eight+pence.NOBLESSE , nobility . The nobility of France wereexempt fromtaxes on their lands , a privilege whichoriginated thus : in ancient times , the thanes heldtheir lands in cons ideration O f the performance ofmilitary service, and were therefore free frompeg.

cuniary levies , while the ceorles, who were notcalled u pon to ass ist the state in this way, weresubjected to imposts : in process O f time, the ceorleswere cal led into the field

,withou t being freed from

taxes ; and the themes ceased to performmilitary,serv ice; bu t continued to enjoy the privilege angnexed. The Venetian noblesse were famous : itwas in this body, that the sovereigntyO f the stateres ided . It was div ided into thi ec classes .

—Thefirs t~ only comprehended twenty-four families : thes econd included the descendants O f all those W119were entered in the golden book, in the year 1 289,

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348

‘as

011111 13125 , those who refuse'

to join the

established worship in the . established chu rch .

Nonconformists in England, are O f two sorts :Such as absent themselves fromdivine worshipin the established church , and attend the service O fno other persuasion . 2 . Papists and Protestantdissenters . The severity O f some laws , stil l existing against Papists , is extreme bu t they are

not now put into execution . See D ISSENTERS .NON-JUROR

, one who refused to take the oaths O f

fidelity to the success ion , establ ished at the revolotion , and who was in consequence u nder certainincapacities , and l iable to certain penalties .

NON-Naturals,inmedicine , so cal led because

by thei1 abuse they became the cau ses Of disease’;drinks , sleep and 1ts Oppos ite,motioriassions O f themind, and the reten

e, the wilfu l absence O f an coolebenefice , continued for onemonth

or for twomonths , at diffe1ent times infor which he 15 liable to cei tampenal

t bishOps , the king’s chaplains , &c . are

it, the dropping O f a su it or

g thereof by the plaintiff ; a

the accu sative caseto the hou se,

” wheres ubject, I is the no

ominative case standsI went,

”and

,“ the hou se

NOT 849

the cause is so far proceeded in that the jury isready at the bar to deliver 1n their verdict. A non.

s u itmay take place in the fol lowing cases - 1 .

Where a plaintiff brings apersonal action , and doesnot prosecu te it with effect ; 2 .

,

When u pon trialhe refuses to stand a verdict : 3. Whe re the plaintifi

'

is not ready for trial at the cal ling and swear ,ing of the ju ry .

N0111 1 11111111 h ours . See AURO RA’

BoreaIis .

Nose , the organ O f smell . The u se O f the nosecons is ts ' ia its reception O f impress ions fl oor theefl uvial particles ,

in natu re, its serving in the greatofi ce O f respiration, and ‘its ass istance inmodulating the voice .NOSOLOGY

,aGreek word , signifying adiscourse

or treatise on diseases .

Nmocu , the name of .a .t ahle -substance,which seems to difier fromalmos t all others of thesame fi nd.

“

It is of agreenish colours, partly transparent, and ofavery irregular figure . It tremble;at the touch like jelly , but does notmelt like that.It is found in almost all kinds O f soils , sofietimes ongravel walks after rain .

NO TARY, aperson , usually ascr1vener, who takes

notes , or f short drumof qmtracts, ohligal

fimis, chartero parties , or other writings . At present, he i smiled anotary-

pilhlic , whopublicly at~tests d or writings , in order tomake themauthentic in another nation ; but he i s princ ipallyemployed in businws concomimgmerchants 318

ng protes ts of fills of exchange, (Sec Notingabill , is theact of writing on its back the exact

s ormanner in which thVO L. ( ll.

350 NOTNora, a character or abbreviation serving to

express something inal ittle compass . Note inmusic ,a character whichmarks a sou nd ; that is , the'

elevation and falling of the voice, and the swiflnessand slowness of itsmotions. In general , underthe termnote is comprehended all the s igns orcharacters used inmu s ic, though i n propriety, theword only implies the marks which denote thedegrees of gravity andacuteuess to be given to eachsound .

‘

Noros sc'ri , the boatfly , agenus of insects be

longing to the order of hemiptera, of which thereare fourteen Species , and seven of these commonin Eu rope —The following is the description of

the notonectaglauca its legs are long, andwhentaken out of the water it hOps ; it is very commonin the ponds of water in Hyde park , and in severalplaces abou t London. It is of a very particularform

,being flattish at the belly , and ris ing to a

ridge in the'middle of the back ; so that when it

swims , which it does almost always on its back,its body hasmuch the resemblance of a boat infigure, whence its vulgar name . I t is eight lineslong, three broad, and two and a

'

half thick .

has provided it with an offens ive weaponinga sting. Itmust be cau tious ly handlede who would avoid being pricked by it;

the point of its rostrumis exceedingly sharpand intolerable painfu l ; but the sensation goes offin a fewminu tes . The head 18 large and hard ;the eyes nearly of a triangu lar form; the nose

,9.

longgreen hollow‘proboscis , ending in ahard and

sharp point, which, in its natural pos ture, remainsunder the belly, aiidreaches to the niiddle Pair O f

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sse NUMx Novsmnnnfin chronology, the eleventhmonth ofthe Ju lian year; "

consisting on ly of,thirty days ;

its : name, .Noveinher, originates in . its being theninthmonth of the Roman zreckoning.

K

1. NO VICE; a person not yet Ski lled or experiencedin an art or profess ion . Novice

'

ismore particularlyu sed inmonas te ries for a religious person , yet inhis or her year of probation; and lwho has notmade the vows .

NovromTE, the termappointed for .the trialofthose who are to enter am'onas te ry, in order toascertain whether they feel the heavenly . call,.and

have the qualifications necessary forJiving up tothe ru le to which they are tohindthemselves by,

VOW»

Nous,in grammar, aword that denotes any

object of which we speak, whether that » object .bean imate, inanimate or ideal ; as .man , gate,mind.Nounsor

‘

names,as they shonld be '

called, formthebasis of all language thus

, ,wecall‘

a certain instrument,asaw the act of u s ing that instrument, sawing and thence obtain the verb, to saw.

NUCLEUS , in general , denotes'

the kernel of anut,or any seed . inclosed . within at husk.

'

The termnu cleus is also u sed for the body of a comet, otherwise called its head.

NUMBERS,in poetry, oratory, certainmeas

sureg'

proportions, “ c adences”:which render averse or period agreeable to the ear.

NnMBEris'

, poetical, consist in a certain harmony:in the order

,quantities , Sec of the feet and sylla

bles,whichmake the piecemus 1cal to the ear, and

fit for s inging, for which all. verses we1e originally

NUM 353

NUMBERS , Rhetorical, or Prosaic, are a sort ofs imple unaffected harmony, less glaring than thatof verse , but such as is perceived , and affects themind with pleasu re . The substance of the remarks of critics on this subject has been reduced tothe following heads :1 . The style becomes numerous by the alternate

disposition and temperature of long and short syllables, so as that neither themu ltitude of short onesrender it too has ty

,nor that of long ones too s low

and langu id . Sometimes,however

,longand short

syllables are thrown des ignedly together, withoutany suchmixture, to excite in themind the ideaof s lowness

,or celerity, ofmotion .

2 . The style becomes numerous by the intermixture of words of one , two, ormore syllableswhereas the too frequent repetition ofmonosyllables renders it pitifu l and grating.

3. It contribu tes greatly to the numerousness ofa period , to have it closed bymagnificentandwellsounding words .

4. The numbers depend not Only u pon the

grandeu r of the words in the close, but of those inthe whole tenor of the period .

5 . To have the period flow equal ly and easily,the harsh concu rrences of letters andwords is to bestudiously avoided, particu larly the frequentmeeting of rough consonants ; the beginning the

first syllable of a word with the last of the preceding ; the fi-equent repetition , where repetition isnot desirable, of the same letter or syl lable ; andthe frequent use of words ending with the sames ound .

6 . The utmost care is to be taken lost, in aiming2 n 2

NYMat oraton

'

cal numbers, the writer fal lmto poet icones , and, instead of p1ose, produce verse.

NUMBERS , abook of the bible, so called because itcontains an account of the numbenng of the people .The ,book comprehends a period of, the lsraelitishhistory of abou t thirty eight years.

NpMERAL Ln'

r'

rnns , those whichare occasional ly

used to express numbers . See Anrrnms '

rrc .

NUNCUPATWE-will, awill or desire expressed verbally , but not put.into writing .

_ Nu ncupative, in ageneral sense, s ignifies someth ing that exists onlyin name .

Norman, the fru it of a species of Myristica it

g rows principal ly , but not exclus ively, in the BandaIslands, and the trade was formerlymonopolizedby the Du tch . It is generally separated fromitso utward coat, themace, betare it i s shipp

ed ; butthe whole fru it 15 occasionally imported in apreserved state, as a sweetmeat .NYCTALOPIA , a dismder of the eye, in which ,

through weakness it can discern objects only byn ight, or in obscu re places . This 13aconstitu tionaldetect, not to be cured Anatomists attribu te it tothe want of a constitu ent

.

part of the animal sub:stance , called the ratemucosum

,which gives

'

colou rto the complexion, hair, and eyes .

Nm'rHEMEtRON, the day and n ight, or space of

Nmmi, inmythology; '

an inferior goddess ,‘ in

habit’ing themountains , woods, waters , Thenymphs ,Who were represented as existing withou tn umber} were ,

the daughters of Oceanus andTe thys .

0’

. 1“They” were supposed, wye Chandler, to

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356‘

O AK

is'

hard like that of the common '

oak‘

Its growth?is so qu ick that, in twenty or thirty years , its girthand al titude exceeds that of a common one at one

hundred years ofage . I t is cu ltivated in Cornwall ,Somersetshire, and variou s other places . The

growth of the common oak in general is extremelys low. The acorn , or oak-com, is the fru it of thisO ak-hark and saw-dust are u sed in tanning. Inmedicine, the bark is a s trong astringent, and istherefore recommended in haemorrhages . Somepersons have supposed that it wou ld answer everypu rpose of Peruvian bark ; bu t this idea, others ,after trial , have discountenanced . Both the barkand the leaves are employed in hot-beds ; and theleaves are now reckoned better for this use thantheb

'

ai'k .

O AK- leof galls, protuberances on the leaves of

the oak formed and inhabited by insects . Theyappear in April and remain till June or longer .When Opened; they are found to contain one insectonly . Itmight appear that the parent fly, whenshe had formed a gal l for the habitation of herwormoffspring, had placed it in an impregnablefortress but this is not the case for it frequentlyhappens that afly which produces a wormof thecarn ivorous kind , pierces the sides of the gall , anddepos its her egg with in it . The worm, whenhatched, feeds u pon the proper inhabitant ; and,finally , after devou i ing it, pas ses , itself, into theChrysalis s tate, and thence appears in the formof itsparent fly

,and is seenmaking its way out of the

gall ."Q u inn ,

oldmpes untwisted , and pu lled out into

O AT 357;

loose hemp, in order to be used in caulking seamsof aship, for stopping or preventing leaks .

O AT, a s pecies of corn, known in botany u nderthe name avena. The original coun try of the cat,

”

that is , the place in which it grows witheut Cu l ti-rVation , is fixed by Mr. Bru ce, in Aroossi, a smallterritory near the source of the Nile Wildoats , says this gentleman, grow up here,spontaneous ly , to a prodigiou s height and s ize ,capable often of concealing both the horse and hisrider, and some of the s talks being little less thanan inch in c ircumfere nce They have

,whenripe,

the appearance of smal l canes. The inhabitantsmake no sort of use of this grain in any period ofits growth . The u ppe rmost thin hu sk of it isbeau tifully variegated with a changeable pu rplecolou r : the taste is

,

perfectly good .

”

OATH, a formal and solemn pledge, by word ofmou th ,made in the presence of amagistrate , or

other pers On rendered ‘conipetent . by the - law toadminister it. O aths are taken on two very different occasions In the first, an oath is an assertion of the truth .of something which theJuror, orsweater, says has happened in the second it is apromis e or vow respecting his fu ture conduct. It

the thing asserted is not true, we say that the jurorhas sworn falsely,

'

and is guilty of . peij ury . If hethat swears to pu rsue a certain line of conductfai ls to do so, we say that he .

has broke his oathhil t we cannot charge himwith perju ry . In boththese cases , however, t he general formof an oathis the same the juror Consents to expect theblessings of God , on ly as he does or shall s peakthe truth, or do the thing required

'of him. The

358 O AT

ju ror, if aChristian, while he hears or repeats thewords of the

'

oath , pu ts his right' hand Upon a

bible or other book containing the fou r gospels .

Themeaning of this part of the ceremony, is verymuch obscured by an omiss ion as is,indeed, that

of the » whole,’ by the very carelessmanner in

which it is frequently performed . The words generally u sed are these : So helpme God bu t itwas des igned that, with reference to the gospels , itshou ld also be said, and the contents of this book.

~In ju rispru dence, an . oath answers a two-fold

pu rpose : it is intended to lay hold of the consc iences ofmen , by the solemnity of the act, and byconnecting their words with their religiou s hopesand, in a legal point of view, by its formality torender an assertion capable of proof,

'

and at oncefacilitate the punishment of perju ry, and pu tmen’

u pon theirguard against the commission of the

crime.OATH

,Coronation,an oath of the promissory kind,taken by the sovereigns of Great Britain , at theircoronation . The words are these :The archbis p or bishop shal l say

—Will

you solemnly promise and swear to govern thepeople of this kingdomof England , and the dominions thereu nto belonging , according to the statutesof parliament agreed on, and the laws ”

and customsof the same ?”a The king and qu een shal l say, - I solemnlypromis e so to do .”1 Archbishop or bishop —Will you , to the utmostof your power, cause law and justice , inmercy,to he execu ted in all you r judgments i’”

King or queen —I wil l}?

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860 O CE

s ite instruments . Themost celebrated edifices ofthis kind , are those of Greenw ich , Paris , Urani ~bu rg, bu ilt by Tycho Brahe, Pekin , and Benares .

The following instruments are necessary in an

observatory.

‘

1 . A pendu lum. c lock for showingequal time. ‘

2 . An achromatic retracting telescope,or a reflecting one of two feet in length . 3. Amicrometer . 4. A quadrant. 5 . An sastronomicalor

'

equatoria] sector. And’

6 . .A transit and equalaltitude instrument. The equatorial

'

or portab leobservatory is an instrument des igned to answer anumbe r of usefu lpurposes in practical astronomy,indepen dent of anyparticu lar observatory .

O BI, a sort of tal isman , to which some of the

nations of Africapay a superstitiou s reverence.OCCULT, something hidden, secret or invisible .The occu lt sciences , so called as depending u poninvisible things , aremagic , necromancy, &c . O c

cult qual ities , in philosophy , were those qualitiesof body or Spirit, which

“

bafiled investigation . Ex.

perimental philosophy sets its face against occu lt

causes or qualities, as termsmwhich ignorancetakes shelter, and fromwhich error is produced

astronomy , the time during'

which a star is hid fromour sight, by the inter;of the body of themoon, or some other

1"

OCEAN,thatmass of salt water which tsu rrounds

all partsof the world ,'

and which is distingu ished ,for conven ience of description , as if divided into

11 . The Atlantic‘ocean,

and 1s,in general , about 3000miles in width ; 2 .

The Pacific ocean, or Sou th Sea; wh ich divides1

OD! 36 1:

Ainieri'

ca from' :As ia, and is generally , abou t.miles over ; 3. The Ind1an ocean

, whichseparates theEast - IndiemfmmAfrica, and is 3000miles across . The Mediterranean , Bal tic , .WhiteSea, &c . are parts or branches of the one ocean .

‘OCHRE , in . natural h istory , a genus of earths ,slightly coherent, composed of fine , smooth , soft,argillaceou s particles , rough to the touch , and rea

d ily difi'

usible in -water . Ochres are of variouscolours

,as red, blue , yellow , brown, 8m.

OCTAGON , a figu re of eigh t sides and angles”When all the s ides and angles are equal , it is calleda regu lar octagon .

”

OCTAHEDRON,a' body cons ist ing of eight equal

and equivalen t triangles .

n O CTO BER, the eighthmonth of the year as arranged by Romu lus , and thence named bu t thetenth in the kale nde1 of Numa, Ju lius Cmsar, sac .

. O hm, Woden or Wodan , the supreme deity of

theancient nations of northern Europe, fromwhomthe fourth day of the Christian week is calledWednesday, or Woden

’s day . See D AY . Odin,

”

says Dr. Henry , in his History of Great Britain ,

is believed to have been the name of the one trueGod among the firs t colon ies who came fromtheeast, and peopled Germany and Scandinavia, andamong the ir posterity for several ages : bu t at

length -amighty conqueror, the leader of a new

army of adventurers fromthe eas t, over ~ run the

north of Eu rope, erected agreat empire, ass umedthe name of O din, and c laimed the honou rs whichhadbeen formerly paid to thatDeity . Fromthen ce b .

tiorward, thiss deifiedmortal , under the name ofO din , or l’Vodin ,

’

became the Chiet object 0f theVQ L. 111 . 2 I

362 O BS

idolatrou s worship of the Saxons andDanesmthisisland, as well as ofmany other nations . Havingbeen amighty and successfu l warrior, he was believed to be the g

od of war, who gave victory , andrev ived courage in the confl ict. Having civi lized,in somemeasure , the cou ntries which he conquered; and introduced arts formedy unknown

, he

was'

also worshipped ne the god o f arts and artis ts .

Inaword , to this O din his delu ded worshippers 1mpiou sly ascribed all the att ibutes wh ich belongonly to the tru e God : to himthey bu iltmagnificen ttemples , ofl’eredmany sacriflees , and consecraedthe fou rth day ot the week, which is stil l calledby his name in England , and in all the other conntries where he was formerly worsh ipped .

O ESO PHAGUS , the gullet , is amemhranaceou s catial; reaching fromthe fences to the stomach , andconveying into it the fbod taken at themouth ; It s

figure is somewimt l ike a funnel», and 'its upperpart is called the pharynx.

O esrnus , 111 natu ral h istory, the gad fly, agenusof insects of 11 the Order diptera. The s pecies of this

genusare extremely trou blesome to horses , sheep,and cattle . T here are twelve species named Oestrus

O estrus hominis , &c . The

is O estru s bovis , or theox ~

gad~ fly , which is of the s ize of acommon bee .

The female of this species , when ready to depes ither eggs , fastens on the back of a heifer, or a cow,

andpiercing the skin with the tube situated at thelipcf the abdomen , depos its an egg in the puncture,anathen procee ds to anothers pot at some distancefromthe

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36 i O LY

thu s if a ship be seen fromshore sailingout to leeSward , they say, she stands f orfl ie ofiin and ifxa‘

ship, having the shore near her, have anotherfarther ou t to sea than herself, they say of that ship ,that she IS in the qfiin .

0113, an u nctuou s inflammable substance , drawnFromvarious substances , both animal and vegetable ;Fromthe pecul iar properties of dificrent oils, they

‘

are naturally divided into two kinds , the fixed or

fat o ils , andthe volatile oressential oils : the formerrequire a high temperature to rise themto a stateot

'

vapour, but the volatile oils are volatilized at'

a

temperature. of boil ing water, and even at a lowerone . Both the volatile and fixed 011s are obtainedfromplants , and sometimes fromthe same plant;bu t

'

always fromdifferent parts of it While thes eeds yie ld thefixed oil,

'

the volatile is extractedfromthe bark orwood ; Olive oil has been decomposed and found to contain abou t

7 9 parts of Carbon and”

2 1

OLIGARCHY ,agovernment where the administra

tion of affairs is confined to afew hands .l

OLYMPIAD,the space of four years , by which the

Greeks reckoned time .

O LYMPlC games, were solemn games celebratedby the Greeks , and so called fromthe OlympianJupiter, orJupiterworshipped atOlympia, towhomthey were dedicated .

OLYMPUS , a name given by the Greeks to severalmou ntains , the highest of which stands on' the northof Thessaly , on the confines of Macedonia, . and is

famou s for the fable of the Titans . Thismountainwas reckoned themost lofty in thewhole iworldf e

‘

k

car . we :ceeding the ilight of birds : fix whichmafiawascal led heaven, thanW 651 nothing is higher.

'

Bhe '

senenity re igning on itsminimit is eeiebratedhy the1

0m, in the historyfi'

s uperstition, anz

acc iéent

supposedto t'

orerunmis fortune. Ameng the an ~ ~

tients, there were internal omens , orthose which

affected the pemmthems elves . O f this sert , were

cons te rnation , orpen icj hars, that se ized uponmenwithou t any visihie cause , and were therefore im~

poted to the demons , and especiaiiy to Fan . O f

internal omens , or present iments , there are not

wanting persons , of weak Spirits , who'

stiil taik'

with seriou sness andalmost every object, animateor inanimate

,toge ther with every circumstance

that occurs, is , with this or that heiiever, w hens .

O piUM, the Ju ice of the white poppy , w ith iwhiehmfields are sewn in Asia M in or, and Which 1s

said to be pfl idnced in k greatest strengt h Bathesoilabout the Ganges .

D efines,the science of th e iaws by which the

rays of l ight part fromal uminous poin t, andreachthe eye that 1s , the knowledge of the causes of

vision, and of the effec ts of light, direct, reflec ted,

orrefracted . In this cornprehensive sense , Newton called his book ot

'

iight and colou rs , Optics. In

afimfierapplication ,Optics is the science of direct

vision only ; while the science of the laws and

properties of the rays of light , when cons idered asreflected , are cal led cataptri cs, and the sc ience ofretracted rays , .dtrqflrtcs so ,that in its general ,

“

sense,optics compfiehends

80

the whole , of that ofwhicli catoptrics and diqp

’crics are two parts.

Under the artic le Lic n'

r we have given an se

2 i 2

366 OPTICS .

count of some of its properties : observing; amongother things , that the particles of l ightmu st beinconceivably small , for they cross each other in allposs ible . directions withou t the least disturbance .

Take a piece of brown paperandmake apin -holein it, through this small aperture , . a '

great varietyof objectsmay be seen , as trees , hou ses , &c . .

The

l ight proceed ing fromall these objects ,mu st passat the same instant through the hole , and cross

each other before they reach the eye , yet the clearness of vision is not disturbed by it .The particles flowing froma l uminou s body, as

the su n, oracandle, and falling u pon ou reyes , gi veus the idea of light and the rays of light falling .

on bodies , and reflected to our eyes, give u s the

idea of, those bodies . For if you go into a dark

roomyou have not the smal lest conception of the

several article s of furn iture that it contains admitthe rays of light, these , at the same instant, (owingto the great swiftness with which they travel), fallu pon the bodies in the roomand are reflected tothe eyes

,thereby exciting in ourminds the ideaof

these bodies .

Every point of a vis ible body reflects the rays ofl ight 1n allmanner of d11 ect10ns hence every part .

of the surface of a body which is towards a spectator w ill'be vis ible to him, when no interveningobj ect steps the passage of light .A parcel of rays of light proceeding fromapoint

is called apencil of rays .

Amedium13any transparent body which su ffersthe rays of light to pas s th1ough it. Thus water

Parallel rays are su ch as

‘move always at thesame distance fromeach other.

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OPTICS.

Take n p'

an A B D C (fig. with an uprightside into adark room; let in , bymeans of asmallhole in the window -shutter, a ray of light C B ,

so as to lhll upen thehottomof th'e panat E ;markthe spot E 5 then , withou tmoving the pan , fill it !

with water, and the ray will nownot pass on to E,

butwil l be refracted to F. The candleG willansweras well as the direct raysof the

”

sun .

If ashi ll ing be stuck en tire part F with wax, sothat an eye at G cannot see ‘ it when the '

pan is

empty, it

wil l become vis ible themement the ves »sel is filled with water.

1

Take a glass goblet half ful l of water and putashilling into it, then put asaucer or plate uponit, and holding it sight on , turn plate and g lass to

gether : abyestander u nacquainted with the lawsof retraction, will su ppose that he sees a shillingand :a half crown : the one is seen by retraction

through the water, the o therhy the rays after sefraction at di e surface.

A lens is aglass ground into such a formas tocollect or disperse the rays of l ight wh ich pas sthrough it. There are variou s kinds of lenses ,named according to thei1 forms . A plano-convexlens has {one side flat, and the other convex, as A ,fig . 4. A “

piano concave is flat on one side,

andmvex cmthe other, as B . A double con

vex” is convex on both s ides as C . A douhle

concave is concave on both sides , as D . Amen iscus ” its Convexon one s ide andconcave onthe other, 38 13. The axis of a lens is aline passingthrough the centre : thus F G is the axis to ail

'

the five lenses . If parallel rays fall u pon apianocommlens, they will he so redi-acted as to unite

OPTICS.

i napoint behind , called the principal focus, or

focus of paral lel rays . Thus the rays a, 6 (fig . 1)fal ling u pon 0 d, are refracted towards the perpendicu lar C x

,and u nite in , C .

The d istance fromthemiddle of the glass to thefocus ,

~ is called the -f ocal distance. The focal distance of aplano convex lens , is equal to the diameter of the sphere of which the lens is a portion .

The focal distance of a double convex lens is

equal to the radius of a sphere of which the lens isa portion. See fig. 5 .

A ll the rays of the sun which pass through a

convex glass , are collected in its focu s . The force

,of the heat at the focu s is to the common heat ofthe sun , as the area of the glass is to the area of

the focus . If a lens four inches in diame ter collect the s un’

s rays into a focus at the distance of

1 2 inches, the image wil l not 'bemore than one

tentho f an inch in diameter, the surface of thislittle c ircle is 1 600 times . less , than the su rface of

the len s , and consequently the heat wil l be 1600times greater at the focu s than at the lens . Hence

the constru ction of common burn ing glasses , whichare all double convex lense s . We see the reason

why furniture has been set on fire by leaving a

globular decanter of water incau tious ly exposed

to the rays of the sun which acts as a dou bleconvex lens .

If another double convex F G fig. 5, be placedin the rays at the same distance fromthe foc us , itwill so refract the rays , that they shal l go ou t of itparallel to one another. It is evident that all theraysexcept the ,middle one , cross each other in thefoeusf , of course the ray D A,

~wbich is uppermost

$70 OPTICS.

in going in ,is the lowest in going fou t

, asG c. If !

Candle be placed atf , the diverging rays betweenF G

,will , u pon going out of the lens, become

parallel at d c. I f the candle be placal'

neaner the

glass than the focus , the rays will diverge after

going through the lens . If the candle he p lacedfarther fromthe glass than the focus , the rays wil lconverge, after pass ing through the glass , andmeetin a point, which will bemore or less distan t fromthe g lass , as the candle is nearer to, or fartherfromits focus . Where the raysmee t they willforman inverted image of the flame of the candle .

If an object A B 0, (fig. 6) be placed bed'

yoml the focus F of the convexglass 478f , sameof the rays which flow fromevery point of the ob

jaet on the s ide next the glass , will fall upon it ,midafter pass ing through it they will be convergedinto asmany pomts on the oppos ite s ide of the

glas s , where the image of thewho le wil l be formed ,which . will he inva'ted. Thus th'

e rayns flowing

fromA, as A d, A c, A f , will converge in the

space d o f , and‘

bymeeting in awill there form'the image of the peintA : aud

'

so .of those saysflowirg fromB and C

,and of course of all the

The picture wi l l be asmu chthe object, as its distance fromtor less than the distance of the object.When paralle l rays pass through a double cen

cave lens they will diverge after passing throughthe gh ss, as if they had come fromapoin t in thecentre ot the concavity of the glass . This point iscalled themuzgmaryj bcus . If the rays a, b, c, &e .

(fig 7) pass through A B, and C he the ceutte ef

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372 O PTlCS.

to F C E . The same is true of convex and con~

‘

cavemirrors .e t a

When parallel rays fal l upon aconcavemirror;they will be reflected , andmeet in apoint, at halfthe distance of the surface of themirror fromthecentre of its concavity : . If I stand “hetero a large

'

concavemirror, beyond its centre of uconcavity , Ishall see an inverted image ofmyself in the air.

And if I hold ou tmy hand towards themirror, sthehand of the image wil l come ou t and, coinc ide withit,as if the two were shaking hands . If I reachmy hand faither, .the hand of the image will pass

by it,andif Imovemy hand to one s ide , the hand

of the image wil lmove to the other. A by standerw ill see nothing of the image , because none of thereflected rays can enter his

,

eyes .

The eye is of aglobular form, and is composedof three coats, covering

'

one another,and inclosing

different substances called humours. The threecoats ’

are the sclerot ica,” the choroides,°

2’and

the «The three humours are . the

aqueous,

”the “

c rystal line,

”and the “ vitreous .

”

A B G , fig. 8 , represents a section of the globeof -the eye , the three circ les represent the threecoats : the ou ter» one is 'the sclerotica, abut the

part A E F B is called the cornea. .Themiddlec ircle is the . choroides , the fore part .of which iscalkd the iris , and the inner circle represents the

retina, which serves to rece ive the images or objeéts produced

‘ by the retraction -of the differenthumou rs of the eye . The aqueous . humou r 'fills

u pall the space A , E , F, B , x ; y 22 , is the crystall ine in . the formof a double convexs lens ; and the

vitreous humour occupies all the intmior part of

O PTICS . 373

the oeyemn behind the crystalline . Fromthebinder part of the eye proceeds the optic nerve d ,which'

conv eys to the brain the sensations produced

Objects are seen bymeans of their 1mag es beingpainted

‘on the retinaof the eye . As the object

A B sends ou t rays that fall on the cornea of the

eye between E ,and F

,and by passing on through

the popil and humours,they wil l be converged to

asmany points on the retina,and will there forma

distinct inverted pictu re c b a, of the object . Thusthe pencil of rays 9 r r

,that flow fromA will be

’

converged to the point a on the retina ; those fromB ,

'

will be converged to the point b ; those fromCto point c and so ofall the intermediate points ; bywhichmeans the whole picture a b c is formed andthe object ismade visible . Though the images of

objects are painted on the 1 etina in an invertedstate , yet they are seen erec t.D imness of sight

‘

generally attends old people ,’

whichmay arise either ( 1) by the eyes growingtooround ortoo flat, and not u niting the rays at theretina: or (2)by the humours los ing their transparency in some degree, whichmakes every objectappear faintand indistinct . Spec tacles are intendedt oassist the sight of those whose eyes are eithertoombd or too flat. Concave glasses are necessary toi those whose eyes are too rou nd . Convex glassesare necessary tothose whose eyes are toofl at . Eyesthat

’have the ir humours of adue convexity cannotsee an object dis tinctly at a less distance thanseyen inches .

fi uMicroscopes are instruments for viewmg smallobjects . They apparentlymagnify objects becauseVO L. 111.

8 74 OPTICS .

they enable us to see themnearer, withoutMesh

ing the distinctness of v ision. Take a piece of

brown paper andmake apin hole in it, then bringthe eye close to the hole, and the paper within twoorthree inches of asmall Willis which will be apparently muchmagnified, though withou t thepaper the letters wou ld at that 1118581106 be wholly

There are three kin ds ofmieoosoolie, the single,themoundand the solar. The single

.

eons , is only asmall double convex lens , having thechiecf placed in the focus , and the eye at theme

distance on the other side . Themagnifying pomof the singlemicroscope is fe tmd by dividing seveninches , the leas t dis tance atwhich an object can beseen distinctly by the naked eye, by the (midis‘

tanee of the lens. By the‘eJe rimenztjustmen

tioned.the brown paper was brought twice orthreetimes nearer the book than the distance of distinctv ision, and the length of the letters weremagnifiedtwo or three times . W ith a lens Whose focal distance is only one inch, the length Of an ohmwouldappearto.be seven times largerthan it is,and the surface wou ld hemagnified ags imeszthatis the square of 7 . if. the hicaldistanoe of thehe. only the é of an inch, then the diameterobject Will -bemagnified 528 times (because 7 disvided by Q is the same asmultiplying 7 by 41)athe surfaeewill bemagaified 784 tinies.The compoundmicroscope consis ts of an ohm

g lassM en eye glass The object to be umis a b

, (fig. 9 c d, is the object-glass, ande f umeeye glass, The Object. is placeda little beyondthetocus of dc, therays will convergeandM ac

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376 O PTICS .

te rn the re is a thick dou ble convex lens , or aplanevconvex (usual ly called a bull

’s eye)of

'

short focus;

The lantern is closed on every s ide ; so that nolight can come out of it, but what passes through‘

t he lens . In the direction of this lens the re is at ube “ fixed to the lantern , which has a lateralaperture froms ide to side through this the

'

glassslider a a with the painted smal l images , ismovedin an inverted pos ition . The forepart of the tu be.r contains another sliding tube , which ! carriesa double

'

convex lens . The effect of those parts isas follows : the thick lens throws agreat deal ofl ight fromthe candle ’

upon the image . And to f iricrease that light stillmore a reflector is often , butnot always , placed on such .lanterns ; for as the

fl ame is in the focus of the reflector,

.the light pro s

eeeds in paralle l l ines fromthe refl ector to thewas.The image be ing thus well illuminated , sendsf orth rays fromevery point, which , by passingthrough the

' lens , are converged to a focu s uponthe wall and fbrmthe large images , as is shewmin

i n

The . phantas ’magoria is like themagic nlan,

t ern , only instead of painting the figures on trans ,parent glas s , la“. the glass is -Opaque, except athe

.figure only , which being painted' in transparent

colours the l ight shines through it, and no lightcan

'

fall on the screen , bu t what passes through -the‘figu re . The screen is very thin s ilk between thespectators and the lantern , and bymovmg the ,

lantern backwards or forwards , . .the figures seemtorecede or approach .

a Amultiplying glass ismade by grindingdownt he s ide of a convexglass into several flat surfaces,

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378

du ring Lent ; and, for'many years past, in Ehge

e v » I ) :’ i

ORATORY, acloset or smal lapartment neara bedschamber , furnished with an altar, cru cifix, 8m. .fbr

private devotion ; or,asmall chapel .

01113113, in as tronomy , ,the path of a planet or

comet in its cou rse rou nd the sun : thus the earth ’s

orbit is the cu rve which it describes in its annualrevolution

,and which is u suallypalled the ecliptic .

The orbits of all the planets are ellipses , (seeCome SECTIONS) having the sun in the ir commonfocu s : but that of the earth losesmuch of apparentregu larity by the action of themoon ; as doesthat of Saturn by the action of Jupiter , when theyhappen to be in conjunction .

ORCH IDms, in botany, consist of the Orchis , andother plants that resemble it in habit, powers , andsensible qual ities . The flowers are hermaphrodite,and placed at the summit of the s talk, either

,

in

a spike , or, in a panicle . The flowers of the diffi

ferent species are remarkably variou s and singu larin their shape, resembling different kinds of animals or insects . In the bu tterfly orchis , the planthas oyate bu lbs , tapering to a point et the base ;thick fleshy fibres proceed above themfrom. the

P

base of the stem: one of these bu lbs is alwayswrinkled and withered , whi le the other is plumpand delicate : the first is the parent of the stemthe second is the offset, fromthe centre of whichthe stemof the su cceeding year is destined to rise .

Such are themeansmade u se of by natu re .not

only to disseminate plants , bu t to enable themtochange their place , and thus to draw in freshnourishment. The second .root . is always about

O RD 379,

half an inch fromthe centre of the first, so that ina few years , the plant will h avemarched severalinches fromthe place of its first existence .

ORDEAL, a test, in which an appeal wasmade toGod, toman ifes t the trutb , by leaving natu re toits ordinary cou rse , if the accused were gu ilty ;by interpos ing amiracle , if innocent. Thismodeof distributing j us tice in criminal charges prevailed , du ring themiddle ages , throughou t almostthe whole of Europe . In England it exis ted fi

‘

omthe time of the Confessor, to that of Henry the

Third , who abolished it by declaration : whi le itlasted

,themore popu larmodes of resorting to it

where those of fire or the hot iron , and of wate rthe firs t for freemen and people of rank , thesecondfor peasants . Themethod of administeringthe ordeal by flag, in England , was by placingn ine red-bot plough shares in a line , ,

at certain distances fromeach other, and requiring the

'

person

accused to walk over themwith naked feet. If his

feet always alighted in the Spaces between the

shares, so that he passed over themunhu rt,his

su ccess was deemed a d1vine assertion of his innocence if

,on the contrary

, he was bu rnt, the disas ter was an oracu lar proof of his gu ilt. The or

deal by .water was of two kinds ; here , the prisoner, if innocent, having put his armor leg intoscalding ‘

water, brought ,it out

,u nhu rt, or was

plunged into cold water, where his body swamsupernatu rally .

Modes of trial so liable to human collu s ion , andfo unded upon u nwarranted ideas

_of the divine pro

vidence, have deservedly passed away bu t the

fact of their former existence remains attes ted , bya formof words still requ ired to be used by a

380

parses arraigned “ma] . Such a one,mewdays at

“

endeals , had it in .his c hoice to put him;self u pon Endand his Country, er upon God ideas .

4

h ere tbrmer lcase , he pmflassed his readiness“abide the deciSi’en of a

’

ju ry, ’in themes hemppeaied

d

tome nrdeal, as to the immediate ju dgmentof Go At present , the priseher, on pleadingnot gritty,

and beingaskea, 1 ‘how he will betried . a que stionwhich alludes to the choicefbrmerfly aliowed, is always to answer, ByGridand the ( c anny so that, in reahty, the questionand reply have , now, nameaning.

Osman,in architecture

,ersystem

of proportions , or reguiar arrangement cf the projecting parts of abu i lding ,

particularly the columng’so as that it shall possess that un ity of espressien

o

Which give s pleasure to themind :Now, this u nity, which we require aswell in

poetry,mus ic, and the graphic arts, as in apehi~

tecture , is a-unity or oneness of idea, in an indirio

du al dfiect , not a. Samenes s of all objects according

-ly, we admire beauties -of

\very Various kinds

There is a gracefu l wildness which , absolutelyfrorn the want of aword, we call pic turesque ;there are neatness, elegance , gracefuhie ss , grandeer and sublimity. The last, perhaps , is almost'beyond t he reach ‘of Architectm'e, since one of its

chief sou rces is a answers that , in -adegree,'

overw

powers themuman facu l ties ; but the other -speciesof beau t are each exemplified by some pecu liarThere are three which have been receivedfromthe ‘Greekss the Eerie , the l urid the

Corinthian . To these , by smistare cf their propardons , the W edded two, the Tuscan , and

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38Q

entahlatm‘ozj the Doric oriiereontains twelve dismeters and Onei third ; the Ionic thi rteen and - n

half ; the Corinthian fourteen and a half ; and theComposite fifteen and a third .

ORDER, 3 termused in astronomy, and appfied

to themotiemof a planet; Platietary bodies amsaid to'go aéomd insg to the . order of the s igns ,when the apparen tmbtion is direct , preceedingifromAries to Taurus , thence to Gemini, 8m,Theirapparentmotion is contrary to the order ofsigns , when they seemto go bwkwards fromPisc es

'

to Aquafi hs , «Si c.

ORDER,’

in natural h istory, asubdivision of a.

clas s, which is itse l f farther divided into genera, asthese are into species . The orders in the Liamsystemof botany are founded o n the

'

numberofstyles or female .orgmns . They are all , expressedby a s ingle term, which is of Greek etymo logy,and is s ignificant of the character of the order towhich it is applied .

Q ueues,military, or orders of knighthmod or chic

Vairy, institutions originally intended h r the de ifence of the Chris tian Faith ; but, among themoderns , designed to enable kings and princes to

confermarks of honou r.Ch imes

,re lig ious, congregations or societies ofmonastics . An order consists in ~ themies t o be

obserifed by those who enter it thus some ordersaremore austere ithan others, and one order dresse sin wh ite , wbile another is habited in Mack and

Synonymous with .the expression, the order >ef

St . Francis,

” is,

the ru le of Six/Franck ” 1«

Gunman, ia

'

general : sign ifies omen; usual

thus anambassaciererenvoy in ordinaryfismae s eht

O RD 383

to reside oeatinually in the court of some foreignprince orstate in order to preserve a good unde rsfoodiog, and watch over the interest of his oo n

This termis also applimi ‘ to several oficers in

the royal household, who attend on.common occa»

signs , as, physician to ordinary .

0119131332 , in common and canon law,one who

has ordinary, or immediate jurisdiction . In whichsense,mhdeacons are ordiaaaes ; though the op»

palletico ismore frequently given to the bishop of

the diocese , Who has the ordinary ecclesiastical

ju risdiction . The archbishop is the ordinary of-

the whole prov ince , to visit, and receive appealsfrominferior judicatures .

M aps of Newggte, aclergyman who attends.Inordinary uponthe prisoners in thatgaol, preaches

andw ith prayers« in the chapel , and attends and

prays M b Wodemnedmolefaotors at the plow of

executmo .

QaDmARY, orW omble ordinarydmheraldry , o

denomination, given to the ten following charges :the chief the pale, the bend, the fesse, the bar, th

e

seiner, the chevroof the honoure , sod the ode .

a omion, the cmferring holy orders , or initisting aperson into the pries thood In the clmmhof Eugene, some years also, allow any person,80

,disposed,might be ordained ; but, at 93636 91; 3mof Qui etness ,more or less , according to the

habits Of each individual bishop, is observed. The

fies thing necessary on applicatiofl for holy orde rs ,ne the possesmn of atitle that 18 , asort ofi a

’

ssu

W ft'

oma rfimto the bishop , that, pmvuled4139 1M fiods the partyfit to hem-darned, the

sss O RE

former will take himforh is curate , with a. statedsalary . The"candidate is then examined by thé

bishop , or his chaplain, res pe cting both his faithand his erudition : and various certificates are new

cessary, pa‘rtwularly one

,s igned by the clergyman

of t he parish in which he has resided during a

given time . Subscription to the thirty-nine articles 18 requ ired; and a clerkmus t have attained histwenty-third year before he can be ordained a

deacon ; and his twenty-fou rth to rece ive priest‘sorders . In the chu rch of Scotland

,where there

are no bishops,the powe i of ordination is lodgedmthe presbytery.

ORDNANCE, a general name for great gu ns of

e very des cription .

ORDNANCE, ofiice qf, an office kept within the

Tower of London,which su perintends and dis

poses of all the arms,instruments

,and u tens ils of

War,both by seaand land , in all themagaz ines,

garrisons , and ~ forts in Great Britain .

' The principal

'

officers of the ordnance are , 1 . themastergeneral , from

Q

whomare derived all orders anddispatches . the l ie utenant-general ,

'

who réceives the

‘

orde rs of the former, directs the firingof guns on occasions of rejoicing, and sees the trainof artillery fitted out when ordered to the fiel d ;3. the surveyor-general , who inspects the

ordnance,

stores , and prov is ions of war, in the custody of the

store keepers,allows bills of debt, keeps a check

c ou

pon the labou rers , 860. 4. the treasu rer ; 5 . the

clerk of the ordnance ; 6 . the clerk of the del iveries.

”O RE,in natural history ; the compoundmineral

.glebe , earth , stone ,"or otheri suhstanee , which con

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386organ is usually “ pressed by the length. of its

largestpipe . i

ORGAN, Hyémulic, a nmsioalmachine whichplays by water, instead of wind .

Qnoaxzms , a des cription of s ilk usual ly importedfromItaly into th is country . The process whichthe silk undergoes to bring it into th is state , con.

s ists of the fiollowing operations . 1 . The s ilk iswound fromthe skein u pon bobbins. It is thensorted . 3. It is twisted on amill in the singlethread . 4. Two threads thu s spun are doubled,or drawn together th rough the fingers of awoman ,who, at the same time cleans them. 5 . It is thenagain thrown by amill , that is , the two threads aretwisted together, and, at the same time, wou nd inskeins upon a reel . 6 . The ske ins are sorted , to thedifferent degrees of fineness , and then the processis complete . Formerly nothing but Italian silkwas thrown into Organz ine, but new the finer sortsof s ilk fromthe East Indiesmay. be converted

th row s , the oriole , agenus of birds of the orde rPica,

of which there are forty-five orfifty species .

The b irds of this groans are natives of Americathey are clamorou s and voraciou s : appear inflocks , feed on fruits and grain. Oriolus icteru s ,or the Banana bird, is tbund in all the €aribbee

Islands, feeding on insects , .and hopping like amagpie. These birds are domesticated in Americafor the express pu rpose of destr

'

ng insects. In

astate ot‘nature, four or five

‘ will attack a lhim, and appear, aftertearing it topieces , todiv '

oocae'

onally attack thehuman race, The O riolus

O RN 387

of Baltimore, er Baltimore bird, so called by way'

M’

ekfisence , is named by the natives the fire bird,because its feathe rs , whenmost brilliant, naturallyexcites the ideaof fire ,

O exos , in as tronomy , a constellation confisfingof eighty stars , enumerated in the Britis h catalogu e,bu t the late ly imprbved telescbpes have discoveredseveral theu sandmore : of these there are N O of

the firstmagnitude, viz. Rege l and Betelg'nese :

four of the second , vii . Be liatrix on the leftshou lder, and three in the be lt, lying nearly in a

right line, and at equal distances fromone'

another;ORN ITHOLO GY, that branch of natu ral history

which cons iders and describe s birds , their naturesand kinds : their termexternal and internal , andteaches theirmomy and u ses . B irds are are

ranged in the Linnaean system, according to f latfi rmof their bills , Hate six orders , viz .

Acciptres , as eagles , vultures and limb .

These are e rapaccmus tribe , feeding on carcasses

however putrid, but , un less pressed with hunger,Seldomattacking living

“

animals : they are bold ,gregarious , fly slowly , unless when very high it)the air : they have an q uisite sense of Sme ll .

Picaa,”as crews , jackdaws , parrots , 8m. These

live in pairs’

: have the ir nes ts in trees,and themale feeds hismate w hile she is s itting 3

: their foodis varions filthy subs tances .

Ans eres,”as de cks , geese, swans, galls,

These are frequentlypolygamdu s : themother takeslittle care in prov iding for their you ng : they buddtheir Bestmost ly on the ground : their feed fish,fl ogs , worms , and aqimtic plams .

ostifi het, 81‘

s

383 ORNITHOLOGY.

These have their nest on the grou nd they live onmarsh animalcnles : their legs are naked above theknees .

Gal linae, as peacocks , pheasants , turkies,c ommon fowls , &c . The food of these birds cons ists of grain and seeds

,which they scratch from

the ground andmacerate ,in the crap : theymake

theirnest on the ground , with very.little care : theyare polygamous , and fond of rolling ih _

the dus t,

and teach ,their young to collect food .

Passeres ,” including sparrows , larks , swalo,

lows , &c . This order is divided into the pu re ors uch as feed on grain ; and the impu re or those,who live on insects . They live chiefly in trees andhedges , aremonogamou s , vocal , and feed the ir.young by thrusting the food down the ir throats .

B irds are dis tingu ished fromquadrupeds by theirlaying eggs : they are generally feathered , buts ome few are hairy, and instead of hands and forelegs they have wings . 4

,Their eggs are covered

with a calcareous shell , and they cons ist of awhite,or albumen, which first nourishes the chick during.the incubation ,

and a yolk,which IS so suspended

within it as to prese i ve the s ide on whichthe little.rudiment of the chicken 1s

,

Situated continual lyu ppermos t and

,next to themotherthat is s itting

.u pon,it . The yolk js , .in

‘

agreatmeasure , rece ivedinto the abdomen of the

,chicke n, a little before the

time of its be ing hatched , and serves for its su pport,l ike themilk ,

of the quadruped , and l1ke the

,cotyledcnsmf young plants , until.the systemis

become sufficiently s trong for extracting its ownfood out of the ordinary nu triment of the species,The generic characters of birds a1 e taken fromt he

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$99 O ST

teache s the nature and affections of letters, andthe ju stmethod of spelling orwriting words .

ORTHOGRAPHY, in geometry, the art of drawingor de lineating the fore right plane of any object,and of express ing the he ights orelevations of eachpart In architecture orthography is the elevationof abu ilding.

O iiTHoGRApHv , in perspective is the fore rights ide of any plane , that is the s ide or plane

,that

lies parallel to as traight line , andmay be imaginedto pass through the outward convex points of theeyes

, continued to aconvenient lengthORYCTOLOGY, is the science which teaches the

natural history of those animal and vegetables ubstances which are dug out of the earth in amineralized state .

OSC ILLATION. See PENDULUM.

OSS IFICATION, the formation of bones,butmore

particu rlarly the convers ion of parts naturally soft,to the hardness and consis tence of bones.

05mm, the oyster, agenu s of the Vermes Testacea, of. which there are said to be 1 50 species

,

divided into sections most of,this , genus are

furnished at the hinge internally with n umerou stransverse grooves in each valve

,and are dis tin

gu ished fromthe genu s area, in not having teethalternate ly locking in

,each other. Scallops will

leap out of the water_

to . the distance of half ayard

, and open ing t heir shells , eject the lwater

within ' them, after which they s ink u nden the

water, and sudden ly, close the shel ls with a louds nap . The Ostreamaxima, a very large oyster.

thund inmos t European seas , whence they are

O UT 3921

dredged upabd pickled for sale. The shell of this, .

is that which was formerly worn by pilgrims onthe hat or coat , as amark that they had crossedthe sea for the purpose of paying the ir devotionsin the holy land ; in commemoration of whichit is still preservedmthe arms ofmany families .

O tTO MAN, 01 othoman, an appellation given to

the Turkish empire , from0thomann us , orOsmanbus , the first emperor of the present family.

O VAL , themethod of describing an oval ore lipse is bymeans of a string, the length of

'

which ,is equal to the greater diameter of the

intended oval , andwhich is fas tened by its extremeends to two pins , placed in its longes t diameter,then by holding '

it always stretched ou t with a

pin or.

pencil carried round the ins ide, the ovalis described , which will be longer or shorter asthe two fixed points w e farther apart.Omar

,open

,fromthe french ouvert : thus , in

law, an overt act, is something actual ly done , and '

capable,

of c lear_ proof ; and such an actmu st be

al ledged in every indictment for high -treason .

O vnnruan, an opening or prelude . The overture of the theatre or scene , is a piece of musicu sual ly ending with afugue ; the overture of a

jubilee is ageneral process ion .

OUTLAW ,one that is deprived of the benefit of

the law,and therefore held to be out of the king

’s

protection; Where an orig inal writ , and thosewhich follow

,are retu 1 ned by the sheriff, indorsed

non est inventus”

(“ he is not to be found

and aftera proc lamationmade for the party to appear, if he omits so doing, an ou tlawry is nextobtained by the prosecutor. Formerly, no one

‘héminawéd, except in acase of M y,Which being punishable

“With death, and byWay

'

ot’

term, all persons we‘

re f tefl‘

at liberty 16 slay“

aa-aaaaw nw ‘

ontiarvrymay saw be gems -anyrésbrié

'

d to; 51rd, 1111 the other hand, the sheris‘

only , andhe“(ma legat warmer,mfiypfit aMan ‘

assured hf ’felony to death . An infant sheerage ,‘

h‘

eitherof Whomare ever swamto at;legian

'

c‘e,cahh

‘

Ot he an ou tlaw; but aré‘

said to‘

be‘

waiiobs and ‘to

'

be waived”O ffi txwav , aprocess

'

which lies in ihdiétifients’

of'

treas'

on,felon

’

y, trespass , ahdinmany civi l actions

,as of del)

O n an omlawry fo’

r felony, the person forfeitslfis landa

'

goods , “

andchattels . I‘

npet‘Son

‘

alactions,the

'

goods and‘

cha’

ttels only are liab le ; and theyarefb ifeited to the h og, with the profits of thelands ; for the party being ‘

withoiit thalawcare of themhims elf. In caseor felony, ah 6121 may be

reversed by writ of error,or leamust then stand trial for the ogenc'

e on accoun twhich he was ou tlawed .

OXALIC acid,in chemistry, is fbim‘d native in

some acid vegetab le ju ices , partiailafl y in theOxal is acetqcella or wood Tt is

‘

natu

u nited with aquantity'

ofpotash , not'

suflicien

complete satu ration , forming ‘

vvhat has been longknown under the name of ‘f essent ial salt of sorrel.he great attraction Which

'

this acid has forlimerenders itofg reat u tility i at

’

subStah Ce .

O xalic acid combines With earths"andmetallicoxides , and the salts fhu'

s formal tire denominated ’OXALATES .

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394

gases to whish okygen has beentherefore, is absolu te ly necessarymany experiments also,

rimal can live foramoment inany air or gas which does not contain oxygen :oxygemtherefore , is absolu tely nece ssary to respi311116011 . t substances are bu rnt inoxygen gas ,

kmin any other gas containing oxygen, if the air beexamined after the combustion , agreat part of theoxygen wil l be found to have d isappeared . Ifchai coal, for instance , be burnt in oxygens

’

gas ,there wi ll be found, instead of part of this oxygen ,anotherVery different gas , knoWn by the name ofearbpnic ‘acid gas . Exactly the same thing takesplacewhen air is respired by animals . Part tof

the'

oxygen disappears , and itsplace is occupied by

substances possessed of very fierent properties.

fi xygenxgas , theretbre , undergoes some changeduring combus tion , andgas is

femitted frommitre .an the application of

heat grand has been W OUSly called dephlogweatenas ,

empyi‘e '

alan,and vital air.l 0 11 12 1016114

1 l), a french phrase, ancien tly ih ~

trodtrced into EnglishW e proceedihgs ,1 111 51111

used by‘

criénrs 1n courts , to procure silence before

proclametmn .

Tnaarmsa( 'to bear and deterndne), acommiss ion daected to the judge 0Tassise, and

emerl fgemtlemeh , wering themto hear anddetermineall cau ses . ems.

FAG are

'T .

t

P, the fittesnth new, and the eleventh censor

nant of the alphabet ; the s ound O f which 3formed by expressing tbobroath somewhatmoresuddenly than in fgrmieg' the sound 6, in otherrespec ts, these two sowads are very t alike ,andare often confounded with one another. Whenp stands before t or3, its sonar] is los t as in psalmwhen placed before k, they together have the

soundof f : among as tronomers P. M. is used to

denote postmeridian, or the afternoons 'As a

numeral P signifies the same as G,viz . 400, and

with a dash over it P , 400, .QOO Amnngtphysi;c ians P. denotes pugil , or the eighth partof ahandful.PAGE, ameasure taken fromthe space hm

the twofeet of aman in walking, u sually reckonedtwo fee t and a half.PACKERS, persons whose employment it is to

pack upall goods intended for exportation, whic hthey do ,forthe great trading compan ies of London.

Paeme OCEAN, orSouth See , that vast seawhiehseparates America fromAs ia. It is cal led pacificon account of themoderate weather the r firstmam; who sailed in itmet with between thetropics ; and south, becau se the Spaniards crossed r

.

the isthmu s of Darien fromnorth to sou th , whenthey first discovered it. W ith regard to Americait is the western ocean.

.Pacamsm, .el1e religi on of the heathen : world,

’

PAI

forms , and by all kinds of images or idols ,it is

therefore called idolatry, or image worship . The

theology of the Pagans was of three sorts, fabu

lous , natural , and political or civi l . The firsttreats of the g

'

enealogy, worship , 'and attribu tes oftheir deities , who were for themost part the oil‘s pring of the imagination of poets , painters , and'

statuaries the natural theology of the Pagans wass tudied and taught by the phiIOSOphers , who i re l

jected themu l tiplicity of Gods introduced by thepoets , and brought their theology to amore re

“

tional form. The political or'

civil theology of '

the

Pagans was institu ted by legislators , statesmen;and politicians , to keep the people in s ubjection tothe civil power. This chiefly respected the ir temples, altars, sacrifices and rites of worship .

PAGE,a scrt of servant of honour. The pages

in the royal hou sehold are variou s , and havevarious

'

ofiices assigned them; as pages of honour,

pages of the presence chamber, and pages of the

back - stairs .

PAGOD,

or Pagoda, an B indh word , whichEuropeans report to have three significations 1

,

an idol ; 2 ,the temple in which an idol is war

shipped ; 3, coins of gold'

aand sil ver.

PAINTING , the art of fi lling up the ou tlines of oh

jects represented on aflat surface , and giving them,by colour and shadow, or by shadow alone, theappearance of reality. The f ollowing ru les Of

critic ismin painting have been laid down :1 . The subjectmust , be .well imagined gand, if

poss ible , improved in the painter’s hands hemu stthink wel l i es

'

an'historian, poet, orphilosopher ;

and,more especially.as

,a painter, inmaking a

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5915 PAINTING .

recommended in the s ixth ru le, it shou ld ba resmarked that selection is a duty of the first irn.

portance, in the practice of every imitative alt ..It

is to this Operation of themind that belqngs therequ isite, taste. That nature can be im

proved in the hands of the artist ought, perhaps, to

be denied withou t hesitation ; but that her heathtiesmay be selected, and shown in theirmost ex.

quisite or their strongest light, is certain : andthere is one '

principal reason.amongmany others,

why the artistmus t not fail‘tomake use Of this

discrimination : as in copying he will i nfallibly.

lose a great portion of the grace or energy of

hismodel, it is necessary that he should supplythe deficiency bymeans of attractionsmore within“5 1'tPainting is of '

various kinds , according’tothematerials u sed thematter upon which they are ap.

)manner of applyingpainting in

oil,in fresco

, in water-colours, andencaustic painting.

PAINTING in enamel. See Enamel,

PAm'rnwEncaus tic, an anc ient art, which con

sismin the use of was , to give a gloss to thecolours, and preserve themfromthe injuries of theair. After having been long lost, it was revived byM, Baehelier; in 1749, and brou ht into publicnotice by

,countCaylu s, in 1758 . t has also been

carried to,asuperior degree of perfection by Miss

Greenland , who communicated hermethod to the,Society of Arts, in 1 787, and was rewarded withthe prize . This lady

’s directions are as followa

“M Mgum-mm: powdered put the .wax in

P‘AlNTING. 399

e glazed earthern vessel , over a very slowfire

and when it is qu ite dissolved , strew in themaStic,a l ittle at a time, stirring the wax continually um'ri'the -whole quantity of gumis perfectlymeltedandincorporated the n , throw the paste into the coldWater and when it is hard

,take it ou t of the

water,wipe it dry , and beat it in one ofWedgwood

’smortars

,observing to pound it at first in alinen

cloth , to absorb drops of water that will remain inthe paste , and wou ld prevent the possibility of reducing it to a powder, whichmu st be so fine as to

pass through a thickgauze. It shou ld be poundedin a cold place, and bu t a little while at a timeas

, afier long beating , the friction will , in a cc,

soften the wax and gum, and instead of their becoming a powder , they wil l return into a paste .Make some strong gum-arable water ; and whenyou paint , take a l ittle of the powder, some colou r,andmix themtogether with the gum-water.

Lig‘b t colou rs requ ire but a smal l quantity of the

powder, butmore of itmust be pu t in proportionto the body and darkness of the colours ; and to

black there should be almost asmu ch of the powderHavingmixed the co lou rs , and nomore than

can be u sed before they garrow dry

,paint with fair

water, as is practised ln painting with water eo

lor1rs ; agroun d to the wood being firs t painted of

some proper colou r, prepared in the samemanneras is described for ihe picture. Walnu t-tree andoak are the sorts of wood commonlymade »use of

in Itaiy for this pu rpose . The painting shduld be

very highly fin ished, otherwise, when varhiShed,the time will not appear united.

490 PAINTING.

When the painting is qu ite dry , with rather a

hard bru sh , passing it one way, varnish ,it with

white wax, which is pu t into an . earthern vessel , ,

and,keptmelted over a s low fire , till the pictu re

is varnished ,'

taking great care that the wax doesnot boil . Afterwards , hold the picture beforefire

,near enough tomelt the wax, but not t omake

it run and when the varnish 1s entirely cold andhard , rub it gently with a linen c loth . Shou ld thevarn ish

, blister, warmthe picture again, veryslowly ,

and the bubbles wil l subs ide . When the .

picturej s dirty , it need only be washed with coldwater.

~

PA INT ING in Fresco, that is , in the Open air, amethod of painting adapted to sustain the 1njuriesof the weather. The principal colours employed ;in this al t

,and which are ground and worked with

water, ,are lime , slaked long belore , andmarble

d ust, forwhite ; ochres , for red and yellow

'

; ver

diterhlapis l

- lazu li , and smalt,for blue ; ,

chalk, forblack most of themare found to grow brighter ,

as themortar on which they are laid becomes dry .

The painting is performed while the wall is ,wet, ,

and thu s incorporated w ith its ground . The brushes ,

and pencils ought to be long and soft, and the co

lours ful l and flowing.

'1 be whole sliould be done

qu ickly , and w ithout retouching.

PAIN'

rlNG in O il 1s performed on canvas , wood ,stone

, plaste i ormetal. O n whateve1 body , the .

first,operation is . that

.

called priming. In ~

psingcanvas , { the c loth is stretched on a frame; andcovered w itha layer of s ize or paste-water, afterwhich it is rubbed with pumice stone , to take away ,

the knots . Bymeans-of the s ize, the little threads .

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40? PANEnglish, gerefa,

‘

greve , reve , or sheriff fromthesecou rts lay the appeals alreadymentioned. The

graf was s ometimes distingu ished by the situationof his district : the graf of a frontier dis trict, ormarch

,was called amark-

graf, whence the syno

nymous wordmarqu is ; u sually,the centre of the

empire was ru led by an officer whose extent of jnrisdiction was greater than the rest , and who borethe title of landgrave ; and a town or castle inwhich the emperor bad res ided, becoming, throughhis favour, .

a bu rg orborough , the governor of sucha one was cal led a burg-

graf : themean ing of

these titles , however, gradually changed , and at

length , as has been already sugges ted , in Germany ,the poss essors , of thembecame cc-emperors ; inother parts of Europe , they are u sed as honours,and, as in England , are only the n itmes '

of gradationsof peerage .

PALM,an ancientmeasure taken fromthe extent

of the hand . The Roman palmwas of two kinds,

the great one was equal to 8% inches English; the‘

small one be three inches . The English palmisequal to 3inches .

PALM-

.

SUNDAYg in the Christian church,the

Sunday next be fore Easter ; so called inmemoryof the entiy

t of Jes us into Jerusalem, when the

people strewed palm-branches in his way .

PANDECTS, in the civi l law,collectionsmade by

Ju stinian’s order ‘ of 534 decis ions of the ancient

lawyers ,'

on somany ques tions occurring in the

civilJaw ; to which that Emperor gave the forceand authe rity of law,

. by an epistle prefixed totheme 1

PANEL,J°

n law, aschedule , orsmall rollof parch

PAP 403ment, in Wh ich is contained the'

names of . the

ju rors returned by the sheriff, to pass upon trial .PAN IC , an ill grounded terror the origin of the

word is fromPan, one of the captains of Bacchu s,who with a fewmen rou ted a numerous army , bya noise which his soldiers raised in arocky valleyfavoured w ith a great number'

of echoes : for by:

this stratagemthe ir numbers appeared mu chgreater than they were . Hence all ill groundedfears have been called Pan ic fears .

PANTALOON , a garme nt said by some to havebeen firs t introdu ced by the Venetians . It hasbeen remarked that the Irish very anciently woretrowsers of this description and that Lou is XIII .is the first who appears with what we now call

breaches .

PANTOMETER,the name of an ins trument used to

take'

all sorts of angles , distances and elevations .

PAPER, thin she ets of avegetable subs tance , u sedas a vehicle {hrwriting, and so named fromthepapyrus, the leaves of which plant originally did,and still do , serve certain nations for this pu rpose .

The paper of the Egyptians ismade of the pa

pyrus, aru sh '

grown on the banks of the N ile , asalreadymentioned Chinese paper is of variouskinds , as of the rinds of barks of trees , especially ofthemu lberry, the elm, the bamboo , and the cottontree ; cotton paper has been in u se upward of six

h undred years , and is stil lmade in the East- Indies ,by beat ing cotton-rags to apu lp ; papermade of

straw is now used in London and awhole genusof aquatic vegetab les , known by the name of con

f erva, have late ly been applied to this purpose inGermany.

404: PAPER.

Thou gh this lattermay be an ‘

original discoveryof the profes sor who has brought it fiirward, the

practic e was formedy realized in Scotland , as appears froma notice in Lightfoot

’s Flora Scotica,

reSpesting the corg‘

er'oabu llosa, or craw-si lk :

It is a soft substance, and in pure water, wherethe threads grow long, resembles tow. Bu t inmuddywaters

,where they are short, it is not un like

cotton which be ing carefu lly collected u ndried,turns whitish , and has sometimes been used insteadof it, either as wadding to stuff garments with, or tomake towels or napkims . We have also seen a

.

coarse kind of papermade ( If it at Edinb urgh .

”

This sub stance ,”

says a correspondent of theMonthly Magazine, may bemet with in greatabu ndance in almost every ditch and pool, espec i

ally old c lay pits,and inmos t slow streams . In

cold weather, it is always below the surface of the

water, and forms amass of yellowish green fibres,

very fine , and interlacing each othermevery direce

'

ou . In summer, it ris es to the surfime in largefleece ‘ likemasses, commonly of a

,

deep greencolour, and a Spu

‘

cgy texture , inclosing numerousglobu les of air, to which it 'owes its huoyancy . If

raked ou t of the water, and exposed for a few daysto the sun, it closes its green colour

,and becomes

very tolerably bleached .

”-Linen paper, or thatmade of cloth produced fromflax

,the last species

to bementioned,appears to have been first intro-o

'

du eed about the beginn ing of t he fourteenth cen

tury bu t by whomit was invented isnot known .

Themanu facture of this paper, of which kind'

are

the present sheets , andwhiehmaybe said to ; be

still exclus ively used in E urope , is effected bywe

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roe PAPER.

the oldmanner, its Surfi ce was cma Sedof wirebars , cross edwith others of afiner texture

,the form

of whichmay be discovered by holding paper,made on s uchmou lds, to the light it is by thesewires , which take fromthe thickness ’

of the paper,and consequently give a transparency, that whatare called the water-marks are produ ced ; and thewater»mai~ksmay be of any four according to thewire s worker

’s des ign as is exemplified in themodern Bank-paper. The paper

,however, which is

called wire-wove, as the pres en t, and that used fordrawing, and which has no othermark than themaker’

s name, ismade u ponmoulds, the wired '

bottomof which is extremely fine,with the wires

closely interwoven ; and some examples of inferiorwove paper exhibit this Crossing of the wires , as

plainly as the bars are perceived in thatmade afler '

the oldmanner.Themou ld is dipped horizontally into the copper

containing the pu lp,and immediately taken ou t :

bymeans of its wooden frame , it retains just somuch pu lp as is wanting for the thickness of thesheet, While the superfluity returns through the interstices of the wires . A second band, called awasher, ins tantly receives it fromthe dipper, calleda vat-men opens the frame, and turns out the

sheet (which now hasshape , but not consistence),

on a cloth of soft fe lt , which is Spread on the

ground to receive it. O ver this is laid another piecec l

’

felt, which receives another sheet of paper, andthe pile is thus increased ; till forty or fifty shee tsare formed . These are then remove d to a largescrew-press ,moved by a long lever, which forciblysqueezes the Waterout of them, and gives themith

PAPER. 407

mediate c ons istence after which, the felt andpaperare separated , and the latter, whichis thrown

,ou one s ide, while the former is thrown on the

othe r, is taken upwith an ins trument in the formof the letter T, three sheets at atime , and hung on

lines to dry . It hangs for aweek or ten days ,during which its whiteness is increased and then

passes through the hands of women , called pickers ,who, with proper instruments, remove knots , dirt ,or other imperfections . It is then s ized , withou twhich operation it wou ld not bear ink orany liqu id .

The sheets are just dipped into the size , and takenout again. The exact degree of s izing is amatterof nicety, to be understood only through experience .

The paper is hung up to dry 9. second time ; andwhen this object is completed , it is taken to thefin ishing room, when the fau lty shee ts are rejected,and the perfect pres sed in dry presses, whic h givethemtheirordinary degree of smoothness ; countedinto quires and reams and packed for sale to thestationer, by whomtheyare retailed to the pu blic .

The stationer, also , cuts the edges , and cau ses it,for various purposes , to be gilt, or bet-pressed zwhich latter operation is peithrmed bymeans ofhemmetal-plates . The whole process at thepa

per-mill occupies about three weeks.) The part

performed by the powerof themillitself is that ofreducing the rags to apu lp , as above described .

PAPER, blotting, paper not s ized , into which li~

qu ids readily sink and which is therefore oe q

casionally u sed to dry upsuperfluous ink in writing.

Papas ,marbwd, paper the surface of which is

408 PAPcontained in a trough , and into which each

'

sheet of

paper is plunged .

’ The colou rs are then laid on thes urface of the l iquor, bymeans of ab ru sh of hog

’s

hair, and these are waved and intermingled with a

s tick skilfu lly drawn along the surface . The sheetof paper, on being drawn up, is coloured accordingly .

PAPER qfiice, an office be longing to the government,to which some apartments in the ancient palace

of Whitehall are allotted , in wh ich all state-papersare depos ited .

PAPlLIO , the name of a subdivision of the insectc lass , when in their imago, or third state ; that is ,that in which they have wings . Every fly is animago bu tamoth is calledphalc na, andabu tterfly ,papilio.

‘

Themost natural and approved distin

gu ishing names for the several Species of insects ,which are called the trivial names , are taken fromthe vegetables on which they feed : but in themultitude of bu tterfl ies, the proportion that belong to

extra-european parts of the world is so great, andtheir several foods so l ittle known , that Linnaeuswas obliged to adopt a different scheme of nomenc latu re ; andaccordingly divided theminto sectionsby the names equ ites, keliconii, danai, nymphales ,andplebii. The individuals of the section of equ ites,have their names fromthe Trojan history those of

that of the heliconii fromthemuses ; the danai

fromthe children of Danau s -the nymphales fr omthe nymphs of antiqu ity and the plebii fromthecelebrated antients .

In subdividing the equ ites, the classical natural ist

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410 PAR

seminated and self-sown in places where theywowo therwise have never existed .

PAR. ( equal), in comme rce, is said ofany two

things equal in value and inmoney-afl'

airs , theequality of one kind ofmoney or property withanother. thus, when tool. stock 13worth exactly1001. Specie , the stock 1s said to be at par ; that is,the purchaser 13required to give neithermore norless of the commodity with which he parts , than hereceives of that whic h he acqu ir zes thus

, too, thepar of exchange 18 the equal value ofmoney in one

In the exchange ofmoneywith foreign countries , the person to whoma bill ispayable is supposed to receive the same value aswas paid to the drawer by the remitter; but this 18not always the case with respect to the intrinsicvalue of the coins of different countries , which isowing to, the fluctuation in the prices of exchange,among the several Eumpean countries and greattrading cities . The par therefore differs fromthecourse of exchange ,

in this , that the pat-cf egu

change shows what other nations should allowmexchange , which is rendered certain ,and fixed bythe intrinsic value of the several species to be e nchanged ; bu t the course shows what theywillcaliowin exchange ; which is uncertain and contingent,sometimesmore and sametimes less ; and hence

the exchange is sometimes above, and sometimesunderpar,Panama

, See Como sections.

Pmnox, in philosophy ,a proposition seem

taglyman t a yet ree ly true 1ii:that

,mh

PAR 41 1

PM X, annual, the change of the apparent

place of a heavenly body ,which is cau sed by beingviewed fromthe earth , in different parts of its orbitround the Sun . The annual parallax of the planetsis conSiderable , but that of the filled stars is imperPARALLELS, or

_parallel circles, in geography,

called also , leis orc ircles of latitude , are lesserc ircles of sphere , conceived to be drawn fromwest to eas t, throngb all the points of the

commend ng fromthe equator, to which they areparallel, and terminating at the poles . They arecalled parallels of the latitude , becau se all placeslying under the same parallel have the same laPAémmsa. See Come sections.

”

Paramoum, in law,

the supreme lord of the fee .

The lards of those honours , Ormanor-s , that haveothermanors under them, are stiled lords -pumamoun t ; and the king, who, in law, is chief lordofall the lands in England, is , thus , the lord~ paramean t.

'

.Pmsmn, aPersianmeasure, varying indifi'

crent

ages,and in different places , fromthirty to fifty

stadiaor furlongs .

Pu cnmmrr, in commerce , the skins of sheep or

goats, prepared in such amanneras to renderthempreper forwriting upon .

The skin,be ing stripped of its wool or hair,

placed in a lime-pit, and pared of its fleshy part bymeans of an iron instrument, ismoistened with arag, and Spread over with powdered chalk the

bottom, with which he sconrs it : and when ,by a

412 PAR

continuance of similar.0perations , it is smoothedand softened, it passes fromthe skinner to the

pat chmentmaker. The latter, while it is in a

state of dryness , pares it on a summer (a calf-skinstretched on a frame), and, working ‘

with asharperinstrument than the skinnei', proceeds to take awayhalf the thickness of the skin afterwhich . it

_

is

again smoothed bymeans of pumice -stone, rubbed ,

over it while placed on a bench covered with sack,

ing, and stu ffed with flock. This done, the parchmen t is fit for use and the parings are employedinmaking glue orsize.

PAREMBO LE, afigure i n rhetoric , generally confou nded with the p

o

arcnthesis. The parembole }S,

in real ity , aSpecies of parenthesis ; and its specificcharacter is this , that it relates to the subj ectwhereas ,many other passages parenthetically tu

troduced are foreign , beingme 1ely accidentalthoughts that occur to themind of the speaker or

writer. The following sentence exhibits an example ‘

of the paremboleEven that privilege which they enjoy ofiex

elu sively trying the ir ownmembers ; in case of anyaccusation thatmay affect their l ife (a priv ilege .

which we'might at first s ight think repugnant to

the ideaof aregu largovernment,and even alarmingto the rest of the people), has constantly beenmade u se of by the lords to doJustlce to their fellowrsubjects .

”

PARENTHESts , apassage so introduced into asen”tence or discomse

,as that it has no grammatical

connection with the res t, and if taken away leavesthe sense perfect. If the words of the parenthesisrelate to tke suly

’

ect, they are called aparembole

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4 14 PAR

appropriated to the es tablished formof worship,and so situated as to be w ith in the reach of ipa

rishioners res iding at adis tance fmmthe ChU I‘Cht z

PARK, in rural economy, aa large inc losure , priti’

v ilege tl for beas ts of the chace . To renderan en-‘l

cl osure a p irk, a licencemu st be obtained under

the b1 oad seal ; bu t there areparks in repu tation,though not erected with lawfu l warrant ; and the

'

owner of su chmay bring his action against any'

one stealing deer there in . The pulling down walls01 pales of parks Is an offence equal to that of k1l

‘

Jugdeer.

PARLEY, a conference with an enemy . To sound

a parley,is tomake a S ignal for holding s uch con

ference,by heat of drum, or sound of trumpet .

PARLIAMENT (parlement, speaking), the seat ofthe legis lative au thority u nder the British constitu tion , composed of the three estates of the realm, ‘

viz . the king, the lords , and the commons ; theunited will of which is absolu te , and competent toevery act of power. SeeKing, Lords, andCommons.Though , in modern times , the sess ions or

s ittings of parliament follow each other at theiraccustomed periods , withou t interruption, yet i tis not a corporation , existing continually, bu t atemporary assembly, owing its be ing to the voice ’

of the king, and ceas ing when he dissolves it.Thus we say, Thef ourth parl iament of the present reign ; and amember of the house of commons is amember of the parl iament to serve in ;

which he is e lected . A peer or lord of parliamentis not amember of any perpetual body, bu t one

who has an hereditary t ight to aseat in every parliament. '

See Peer.

PARLIAMENT. 415

".

A pariiament is called by the king’s writ , or

letter, .directed to each lord , summon ing himto

appear; and by writs sent by the lord chancelloru nder the great seal , commanding the sheriff’sof each cou nty to take the necessary steps for the

e lection ofmembers for the county, and the

bomnghs contained it . O n the day appointed forthemee ting of the parliament, the king sits in thehouse of lords , u nder a canopy, and dressed inhis robes , as are all the lords 1n the ir

’

;s and, the

commons be ing summoned to the barof that hou se ,he addresses both hou ses on the state of pu blicaffairs . The commons are then requ ired to choosea speaker, which officer be ing presented to and

approved by the sovere ign, the latter withdrawsthe commons retire to their own hou se ; and the

business of parliament begins .

In the hou se of lords , the seat of eachmember is

’

prescribed, according to rank ; though, ex

cept in-the presence of the king , this formality is

almost wholly dispensed w ith . The princes of the

blood sit on each s ide the throne ; the two archbishops agains t the wall, on the king

’s right hand ;

the Bishops of London, Durham, and‘Vinchester,be low the former, and the other bishops accordingto priority of consecration . O n the king

’s left

hand , above all the dukes , except those of the

blood‘ royal , sit the lord - treasurer, lord -pres ident,ant] lord privy-seal ; then the dukes

,marqu ises ,

and earls , the individuals of each class taking precedence according to the date of their creation.

Across the roomare wool-sacks , continu ed fromancient cu stom; . and on the first of these, immediately before the throne, sits the chancellor, as

416 PARLIAMENT .

speakerof the house . O n the other woolfl sacksare seate d the judges ,masters in chancery, and

king’5 counse l , who only give theiradv ice on points

of law

In the hou se of commons there are no peeahar

seats for anymembers . The speake r, on ly, hasa chair appropriated to him, at the upper end of

the hou se ; and at a tahle betbre himsit the elerk

and his ass istant .When the parliam‘ent is thus assemble d, nomember ismdcpart' withou t leave . U pon extra

ordinary occas ion s, all the members are summoned otherwise , three hundred of the commonsis reckoned afull hou se ; and thirtymay campeseahouse for the dispatch of lmsineSs .

PARLIAMENTS of Fumes were courts of justice :that of Paris was instituted in the samemanner,and for the same purpos es , as the auto -regis

(king’s- bench) was afterward in England ; viz.

the admin istration of pu blic jus tice , and the decisionof difl

’

erences between the king and his heroes .

It was in consequence of the judgments awmdby that court that

'

tha king proceeMd to seize thedominions of the lords or princes against whoma s entence had been passed . The parliament ofParis , as . did] the other cou rts of law

, groundedits judgment upon the edicts or ordonnances of theking, when it had once enregistemd them. Whenthos e oedonnances were tho ught grievous to the

subject, the parl iament refused to registermm:

but this it did without any pretens ion to a share inthe legis lative au thority it only objected that theirwere not sat isfied that the ordennance before itwas ureaflyme wfl l of the king, and then pro

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418 PAR

sants of every district, fromamong themselves ,and not gentlemen, to the number of abou t twohundred and fifty also , the fifilnThis parliament u suallymeets at Stockholm;

and after the affairs of state have been represente dfromthe throne , it separates into four set'eral

chambers , or houses , in each of which questionsare determined by amajority of votes : and, as inGreat-Britain , each chamber can by its negative

prevent the pass ing of any law.

PARLIAMENT, is also sometimes u sed for otherassemblies than those of the s tates of akingdom2thu s the assembly of some inns of court, called toconsult on their common affairs, is cal led aparliament .

PARO DY, apopu larmaximor proverb as also a

poetical pleasantry, consisting in applying verseswritten u pon one subje ct to another.

PARsO N,the rector or incumbent of a parish

church.

PARTICIPLE, in grammar, an adjective formed ofa verb

,so called because it participates of both aman and a verb being variable through the geh r

ders and cases l ike the former, and regardingtime

, action, pass ion , &0. like the latter.

PARTkCLE, in grammar, a denomination given to

all those smal l words that unite nouns and verbstogether, or that express themodes ormanners ofwords , andwhich are us uallymade to include adverbs

,prepositions , interjectiens , and conjunctions .

Mr. Locke has observed , that it is in the right useof partic les that clearness and beau ty of a good

”

s tylemore particu larly consists . To express the

PAS 419

upon another, amanmust have words to showwhat connection ,

restriction , dis tinction , O ppos ition ,emphasis , or other quality, he gi ves to his dis‘

cou rse . This cannot be lightly understood W ithout aclear

'

v iew of the pos tu res , limitations , excaptions , and other thoughts of themind.

these there are a great varie ty ,much exceedingthe number of particles thatmos t languages havetbr their express ion ; whence it happens thatmostof these partic les have divers , and sometimes almos tPARTNER, in trade , one having ashare in a joint

stock. If there be several partners, and a personhas dealings generally with one of themconcern

ing the ir joint trade , whereby a debt becomes dueto that person , the debt belongs to all, jo intly, andto the ir survivors ; but if the person on ly dealswith one of the partners upon a separate account,in this case, the debt only affects that partner andhis execu tors . If one ormore of the joint tradersbecomes a bankrupt, his or their proportions can

only be ass igned by the commissioners , to be heldin common with the res t who are not bankrupts.If one or two partners become a bankru pt, thecommiss ioners cannotmeddle with the ”

interest ofthe other, s ince he is not affected by the bank »

y of his companion . Payment to one partneris payment to all.PASQ UIN,aname given toamutilated statue which

s tan ds at the comer of the palece of the'

Wrsini inRome . The namo was that of a cob ler fam’ous

PAS

some workmen, who were digging up t he~

pave.

ment before his shop, fou nd in the earth a statue of

an ancient gladiator, we ll execu ted, but .maimedthis they set upin the place . where it was found ,and by common consent named it Pasquin . S incethat time, all satirical papers in that goity are at

tributed to this figure , and either, path toj iumouth, or pasted on its body .

PASQ U INADE, asatirical libel fas tened tbthe statueof Pasquiu . It is commonly short,merry, andpointed , and written as if addressed by Pasqu into Marforio, another s tatue at Rome . WhenMarforio is attacked , Pasqu in ass ists himagainsthis enemies and when Pasqu in is attacked , Marl'

orio as sis ts in his turn . Lampoons of a similarnature are sometimes cal led pasqu inades . The

difference . between a .pasqu inade and a; satire is ,that the end of the latter is to correc t and reform,while that of the former is only to ridicu le and

es pose .

PASSAGE, birds f , those which at stated seasonsof the year remove fromone climate to another

,

and at '

other stated seasons return to the. firs t as

quails, woodcocks, storksfl nightiugales, and s wal

lows . Thegeuerality of birds that remain inBritainduring the winter have strong hil ls, andare enabledto feed on what that season affords ; while ,

that leave it have generally verys lender

fitted fior feeding on insects . This food disappearina the approach of winter, it is necessary that

part of the northern

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$22 PASSIO N .

oralarm, is excited by some adequate cause ; and

Whenever any other adequate cause than~that

which operated first gains a similar influenc e , theforce of the pass ion is weakened . I f the secondcause of emotion gains bu t s light ascendancy , thereign of the pass ion is only shaken ,

but if sufficientstrength , overthrown . If an O ppos ite pass ion in;terfere , while the first is un impaired , as love withhatred, there ensues a violent confl ict ; but, if thecaus es of sensation operate withmore .mildness,that gentle dispu tation which is called reasoning .

Reasoningmay surely be defin ed , the act of balancing in reason ing upon ou r desires , we balancedes ire against des ire ; in reasoning u pon truth , webalance evidence agains t evidence . When no one

idea has sufficient influence over the fee lings toforbid the entertainment “

of others , themind iscapable of reasoning ; and in proportion as the

power of the se ve ral ideas is equal , that of rea

Rouss eau is re lated by M . de St . Pierre to haveobserved to the latter, that when aman begins toreason he ceases to feel . This is u ndou btedlytrue ; bu t if we analyse thematter thoroughly, weshall perhaps conc lude that the observation

,cor

rectly expressed,would be th is when aman be ~

gins to performthe act of balancing fee ling agaimM ug, he ceases to be under the absolu te dominion of any one exclu sis ely.

A pas s ion , then , is a steongo feeling or emetionof the soul, exci by an u adequate c ause, and

existing in such strength asman ,and res ist the influ enceof nomination . Thus, alover

. PASSION . 423

by aFrench writer, to be no th ing but a loverand wemight speak of every other pass ion in thesame phraseology : an angryman is nothing butan angryman ; a certain cause has excited hisfeelings to anger ; if an adequate cau se of griefshou ld occur, he woul d become a grievingman ,

and while he remained so, his angermust ceaseif it return , he cannot be aprey to grief during itssta

I); order to forma clear notionof the pass ions,

wemu st begin with rejecting the phrase thatmanispossessed of th is or

'

that number of pas sions , andsay that he ispossessed of one quality, that is, suscep~

tibility, .which is liable to be acted u pon by this orthat number of causes. Man , therefore, has not

aomany fee lings , bu t one feeling, assuming dif

ferent forms of appearance according to the impress ion it rece ives ; and the number of passionsis exactly that of the c ircumstances that are important to a sentient creature . NOW, these , in a

comprehens ive po in t of view, are only of two

kinds ; thos e that contribute to its pieas ure, and

those that are produc tive of pain. It is for thisreas on that, according to some ,man has only twopassions the des ire of happiness , and the aversionto evil ; but, subdivided , each order

,has its genera,

and each generaits Species .

«The desire of hap

piness is separated into love , or the wish to possessthat which wil l impart happiness ; hope , which 3the expectation of possess ing it ; andjoy ,

which isthe assurance of possess ion . The aversion to evil isseparated into fear, which be longs to the dread of

ev il ; grief, which belongs to the presence of it ;and anger,

'

which resents it . These, again , to

.424 PASSIO N .

which , also , other generamay he added, are dis -f

tingu ished into species as to fear belongs terrorand horror and to anger, envy, jealousy , hatredandmal ice .

Some think themost natu ral division of the passions is into pleasu rable and painfu l

Love , hepe, andjoy , fair pleasu re’s smiling train

Fear, grief, and hate , the family of pain

but this is looking to“

their effects , not to the ir natu re . 1

Locke has enumerated themas follows Byreflecting on the variousmodifications or tempersof themind , and the internal sensations ,whichpleasure and pain , good and evil

,produce in u s ;

wemay thence formto ourselves the idea of our

passions thus , by reflecting u pon the thought weave of the del ight which any thing is apt to produce in u s , we forman idea which we call love . i

Des ire is that u neasiness which aman feels inhimself upon the absence of any thing, the presentenjoyment of which cau ses delight.Joy is a delight of themind , arising fromthepresent

,or assu red approaching poss ession of some

ood.

,

gSorrow is an uneasiness of themind u pon the

thought of agood lost, or the sense of apresent evil .:H ope is apleasu re in themind , upon thethought

of a probable future enjoyment of a thing which isapt to delight.1 Fear is an uneasiness of themind , upon the

thought of a futu re evil likely to -befal u s‘Anger is adiscompos ure of themind , upon . the

rece ipt of injury with a present ipm'pose of re

venge .

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426 PAT,

leavened bread , two pieces of the‘

paschal lamb ,one boiled

,and the other roasted to call tomind ,

it is said , that Go d had delivered themwith an

ou tstretched arm. The father of the family sat‘

down with his family and slaves, took bitter herbs ;ate

'

themwith mustard , -and distributed themaround ; « after which , all park of the lamb ;while he recited the history of the .feast ; and inConclu s ion , every one joined in hymns and prayers ,Themodern Jews , in general , observe the sameru les .

PASTORAL,in poe try , a name given ‘ to a species

of cologne , which , in the dramatic or narrativeform, represe nts themanners and pursu its of shepherds , and the charms of pas toral life . In thisspecies of writing, the imagesmust be derivedfromrural objects , and the whole di stingu ished aswell by s impl icity as by elegance . A really beautifu l pas toral can hardly be written by any otherthan aman who is at once possessed of an e legantmind

,a s tranger to

'

school learn ing, and l iving inthe sphere of life he describes s uch an u n ion of

qualificationsmust be rare ; yet it has existed inthe present age ; and in the writings of Bu rns areru ral poems , answering to the pas toral , that su rpassperhaps

,any thing that themodern languag es , at

least, have to boas t under this name .

PATENT , Letters, are writings sealed with the

great seal of England, by which aman is au thoril ed to do or enjoy any thing which of himse lf hecould not. They are also so called on accou nt ofthe ir formbeing open, with the ir seal afiixed, readyto be exhibited for the confirmation of the au thorityde legated by them. Letters patent for new in

PATventions areobtained by petition to the crown they i

have to go throughmany offices , and are liable toopposition on accou nt of want of novelty , &c . and

if obtained,and it can be proved that the invention

was not new,or had beenmade public, previous ly

to the granting the patent, theymay be set aside .

A'

patent that is to extend to the three branches of

the kingdom, England , Ireland , and Scotland , willcos t abou t 300l.PATERA , in architecture , an ornament frequently

seen in the Doric frieze , and in the tympans of

arches . The paterawas a vesse l u sed by the R0mans ia the ir sacrifices , in which they offered theirconsecratedmeats to the gods , andwithwhich theymade libations ; and hence , as the Doricwas u sedfor terriples , it became an ornament of that order.It was also enclosed in u rns with the ashes of thedead , after it had been u sed in the libations of wineand other liquors at the funeral .PATR IARCH ,

a title at present appertaining to thesu preme eccles iastical head of several Christiansects or churches . The patriarch of Constantinopleis the chief dignitary of the Greek church . The

patriarch of Jeru salem, on a certain day 1n everyyear, solemnly excommunicates the pope .

PATRlClAN, in Roman history , atitle given at firs tto the de scendants of the h undred , or according tosome , two hundred senators whomRomu luscreated

,and cal led patres, fathers . It was

afterward enjoyed by those who became se natorsby other channel s than that of hereditary claim.

PATRON , in the canon and common law, a personwho having the advowson of a parsonage, vicarage , or other spiritual promotion , belonging to his

498‘ PAY

manor ,maypresent a clergyman to it whenever itbecomes vacant. The right to present arises ori

ginally fromthe patron or his predecessors in themanor . having been the founders or builders of thechurch ; f romtheir having given lands for itsmaintenance or fromthe chu rch having beenbu ilt: (in . their ground and, frequently fromallthe se canSes united .

PAVILION , in architecture, a bu ilding containedunde r one roof, the re semblanee of which to ‘

a tentist he origin of the name .

Pave, the peacock , in natural history , is agenusof birds of the

‘

order Gall inae. There are fourspecies . The Pavo cristatu s , or crested peacock,was originally braught fromIndia in aWild s tate

,

ande xhibited all itsmaturity of growth and glow.

. Irwas an article of importation from

ta the cou rt of thatmagnificentmonarch , the invaluable treasures of art and natu re . In thiseountry peaeooks do not attain their full andbrilliant plumage till their firird year. They prefer elevated situations for roosting, , cheosing the

tomof hous es and the highest trees for this pur.

pose . Ration , in speaking of their plumage , says .

it seems to combine all that de lights the eye in

the soft and de licate tints of the fines t flowers, all

that dazzles in l the sparkling lu stre of the gem;and all that as tonishes in the grand display of the

rainbow .

” See Plate Nat. H ist . Fig. 36 i

PAMNG , among» seamen whe n the seams of ashipare l eve r withacoat ef hot pitch, it iscalled

Paying her

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PEA 4Q9

PEACE orTHE KING, that peace or secu rity, both'

of ‘Iife andgoods , which the king promises to allhiss ubjects , or others who are u nder his protectionsuch is the peace of the king

’s highways , which

cons ists in the freedomfromall annoyance andmolestation to whichmay be added the peace ofthe plough , whereby both the plough and ploughcattle are secured fromdistresses and fairs are

said to have their peace , which cons is ts in the secarity of those who attend themfrombeingarrestedfor debts contracted elsewhere .

PEARL,in natu ral history , ahard , white, shining

body, u sually of a globu lar, bu t sometimes of a

r-shape , found in a tes taceous fish commonly ’

cal led the pearl-oyster, and esteemed agemof highvalue . The formation of the pearl is

‘

very satisfactorily accou nted for by Reaumur. No one ,

who is in the least degree acquainted with the com;pos itionof an imal bodies , is ignorant that theirjuices are capable of prod ucing hard substancesand he justly observes , that it is far fromextraordinary that afish which has a sufficientquantity ofstony j u ice to bu ild , thicken , and extend a shel l,shou ld have enough to formthese stones

,it it hap

pen to overflow, or bu rst into any cavity of the

body , or among themembranes . This naturalists upports the common notion that the pearl is produced 1n consequ ence of a diseased state of the fish :

1

but it is difficu lt to believe that whole species ofanimals are u niformly diseased and we are boundby analogy to suppose that these excrescences answer some usefu l end.

The seas abou t the East-Indies andAmericayieldpearl-fish in great abundance and they are found

480 PEARL.

with goodpearls in several parts of Europe . In theeast

,the coasts of the island of Ceylon

, and the

Pers ian gulph , are the partsmost celebrated forpearl fisheries ; and in the west, the coast of Terra-vfirma, and the gul ph of Mexico. The Eu ropeanpearls are chiefly found on the coast of Scotland,and in a river of Bavaria.

PEARL-fishery in the East I ndies, an occupationwhich employs a considerable numbe r of persons attwo seasons oi the year . The first is in MarchandApr1l, and the second in August and Sep

tember”

Each bark puts off fromthe share at sun rise, with{ land-breeze which never fails , and returns to theshore at noon, with asea-breeze by which it is succe

‘

eded : whe n it arrives where the fish lie ,and hascas t anchor, the diver binds a stone , six inchesthick, andabou t afoot long, under his body which .

serves himas ballast, prevents his being carriedmay by the cu rrent, and enables himtowalkmore ]

steadily under'

the wate r : he also ties another stoneto one of his feet, bymeans cf .which he themorespeedily s inks to the bottomof the Sea2 and, as thefish are u sual ly firmly fastened to the rocks, hearms his hands with leathe rnmittens , to preventthei r being wounded in pulling themoff bu t thispart of the task some performwith iron rakeslastly , each diver carries with hima large net, ‘

in

the termof a sack , tied to his ne ck by along cord , i

the other end of which is fas tened to the s ide of thebark ; the net to ho ld the fish he shall gather, andthe cord to hoist himup, when he wants air, or hisbag is filled . W ith this equ ipage, be frequently

precipitates bias ed to the depth of sixty feet and,

when arrived at the; bottom, immediately pmceeds

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4se PECPaar, or Turf, is acongeries of vegetablematter,

in which the remains of organization aremore orless visible cons isting of trunks of trees , of leaves ;fru its; stringy fibres , and the remains of aquat icmosses. It occurs in extens ive beds , called peatmosses , occupying the su i iace ol the soil , or cove 1 edto Ahe depth oi a few teet, with sand , g1avai , &o .

.In this country it is the common lue l of large districts of Wales and Scotland , and of some parts ofEngland where coals are very dear.P£conA or Pncunns. See Mammmand NAmeat. H is

'

roav.

PECennui , in canon law, aparish or chumh thathas jurisdiction within itse ll, and is compe tent tothe granting probates of wills and le tters of admifl istmtion , exempt fromthe ordinary or bishop

’s

e omts . The king’8 chapel is a royal pecu liar

,the

W icfien of which 18 in the king himself. Thereare also pecu liars be longing to the see of Canter

,and these are not l iable to the v is itat ion oi the

diocesan or s ufl'

ragan bishops and others that belong to deans , chapte rs , and prebendaries , and

which are only exempted -fromthe ju risdiction of

thearchdeaoon : these latter are derived fromthebishop, whomay vis it them, and to whomtherelies an appeal.PECULIARS , Court of, an eccles iastical court , in

which the affairs of pecu liars are transacted .

END O F VO L. III .

f