o level study guide for zimbabwean history upto 1897

AN INTRODUCTION TO “O” LEVEL HISTORY: FROM

PAST TO 1897

BY

TRUST MAGAMA

2014

An introduction to O level History By Magama

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Overview of the book

This book is written with the prime objective to enable O level learners to have a

stomach of history. The book is a quick study instrument and is suitable to be used by

learners who are about to write their final exams. The book is not exhaustive in any

way, thus the learners are encouraged to read other sources. The “A” level leaners

can use this book as it provide a foundation to “A” level African history. The concepts

which are extensively covered at “A” level are just given in synopsis in this book.

Topics to be covered include Great Zimbabwe; Mutapa State; Rozvi State; Zulu State;

Ndebele State; Scramble for Africa as well as the wars of resistance in Zimbabwe

(1894-1897.

GREAT ZIMBABWE STATE

Objectives

By the end of a thorough study on Great Zimbabwe learners should be able to:

a. name the factors that led to the rise of Great Zimbabwe

b. describe the social, economic and political organization of Great Zimbabwe state

c. identify the groups of people who traded with Great Zimbabwe

d. outline the factors that led to the demise of Great Zimbabwe state

Overview

Great Zimbabwe is located at the southern edge of the Zimbabwean plateau. It is the

largest of an estimated 300 dry stone walled structures of what archaeologists now

call the Zimbabwe culture of southern Africa. The culture is broadly dated to the period

between the 11th and the 18th Century AD. The majority of the sites of this culture are

found in the modern state of Zimbabwe.

The ancient city of Great Zimbabwe covers an area of approximately 7 hectares

consisting of different dry stone wall enclosures, although it has become customary to

divide the ancient city into three principal parts, the Hill Complex, the Great Enclosure

and the Valley ruins. In addition are areas referred to as peripheral settlements. The

Hill Complex, regarded as the seat of power during the occupation of Great Zimbabwe,

consists of a series of enclosures constructed on a prominent hill to the north of the

monument.

The Great Enclosure is located in the valley adjacent to the Hill Complex and is

perhaps the most spectacular and most substantial part of the monument. It has an

outer wall approximately 250 m in length with an approximate height of 10 m. It is now

agreed to be the largest single prehistoric structure in sub-Saharan Africa. Inside the

Great Enclosure are a number on internal stone enclosures, including the Conical

Tower as well as remains of Dhaka (adobe) platforms. The Valley Ruins are located

between the Hill Complex and the Great Enclosure and consist of a number of

individual dry stone enclosures of varying size.

There is a general consensus that Great Zimbabwe have flourished between 1250

and 1450. The historic site of Great Zimbabwe consists of 12 groups of buildings


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covering an area of 3 square miles. Its outer wall was constructed from 100,000 tons

of granite bricks. At its height it was said to be a 14th Century walled city occupied by

18,000 people. In close proximity 4,000 gold mines were said to have existed and

there were facilities for iron smelting and the manufacture of copper and bronze

artefacts. Imports of stoneware and glazed dishes from China, coloured glass from

the Near East and painted bowls from Persia have been found at the site.

The history of this precolonial Zimbabwean State came mainly from archaeology. In

this booklet I am going to unfold the economic, social and political organisations of

Great Zimbabwe State. It is equally important for learners of history to take note of the

reasons for the building of the great stone structure as well as the factors that led to

the demise of the state.

Factors that led to the rise of Great Zimbabwe

Availability of granite rocks

Emergency of ambitious leaders

Location was favourable to international trade

A strong army

Rich mineral wealth in neighbourhood

Development of iron technology

Favourable climate

Abundant water supplies from Mtirikwi River

Availability of pastures

Strong religion

Fertile soils

Population growth due to polygamy

Why Great Zimbabwe was built?

As a trading centre

As a religious centre

As Mambo’s court

As an administrative centre

As a dwelling place for the nobles

As a symbol of power

As a fortress in times of war

The economic activities at Great Zimbabwe

Trade (external and internal trade)

Mining

Cattle rearing (pastoralism)

Crop cultivation

Tribute payment

Hunting and gathering

Blacksmithing/iron smelting


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Pottery, weaving and basketry

Raiding

Trade items or exports at Great Zimbabwe

Soap stones

Gold

Grain

Ivory

Iron tools

Livestock

Skin hides

Iron tools

Imports/items brought in at Great Zimbabwe

Clothes

Beads

Seashells

Chinaware

Ceramics

Bangles

Glass

Foreigners who traded with Great Zimbabwe

Chinese

Persians

Arabs

Portuguese

Indians

Swahilis

Zambians

Crops grown at Great Zimbabwe

Sorghum

Millet

Rapoko

Maize

Melons

Beans

Crafts at Great Zimbabwe

Weaving

Basketry

Pottery


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Spinning

Blacksmithing

Curving

Other Madzimbabwe in Zimbabwe

Ruanga

Chipadze

Tsindi

Khami

Naletale

Nhunguza

Manekweni

Uses of cattle at Great Zimbabwe

For trade

To pay lobola

To pay tribute

Used in ritual ceremonies

Manure

Skins used in blast furnaces

Used to pay fines

Skins were also used to make shields, drums and sandals

Forms of transport

Political factors for the decline of Great Zimbabwe

Corruption and disunity among the elite

Succession disputes

Emergency of ambitious leaders

External attacks from the Sotho-Tswana people

The vastness of the Empire

Economic factors for the decline of Great Zimbabwe

Exhaustion of soil

Shortage of salt

Overgrazing

Decline in external trade

Successive droughts

Shortage of ivory

Depletion of resources such as wood

Social factors for the decline of Great Zimbabwe

Overpopulation

Disunity


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Social organization of Great Zimbabwe State

The society at Great Zimbabwe was Characterised by social classes namely the ruling

class that enjoyed a number of privileges and the commoner class that was burdened

with tribute. The king lived separate from the common people, he stayed in the Great

Enclosure. Great Zimbabwe is said to have been inhabited by about ten thousand

people. The Shona people at Great Zimbabwe were a religious people who

worshipped Mwari. They also believed in the national spirits (mhondoro) and the

ancestral spirits called (vadzimu), which were worshipped through the spirit mediums

called Masvikiro. Mhondoro and Mwari were consulted during the times of troubles

such as wars and shangwa (drought).

The spirit mediums were important during the installation of the new Mambo. All the

religious ceremonies were presided over by the king. The Shona people at Great

Zimbabwe usually curved soap stone birds during their spare time. These soap stone

birds were made as symbols of Shiri yaMwari and they also symbolised religious

beliefs and the importance of Mitupo. The Conical tower and the Eastern Enclosure

were the areas believed to have been associated with religious functions. Many cattle

were killed to feed the people at traditional ceremonies. The Mambo could lend his

cattle to his subjects through the Kuronzera system. The karanga people at Great

Zimbabwe were polygamists. Men could marry many wives and have many children

who would enhance agricultural productivity.

Economic organisation of Great Zimbabwe State

The economy at Great Zimbabwe was diversified into trade, crop cultivation, cattle

rearing, mining, and tribute, hunting, gathering, and pottery, iron smelting; and raiding.

1. The people at Great Zimbabwe were traders. They were involved in both

internal and external trade. In internal trade, a sack of Rapoko could be

exchange with an ox in times of shangwa. In foreign trade local available items

such as gold, ivory and skins could be exchanged with foreign goods such as

beads, bangles and clothes. The Chinese, Portuguese and Arabs were some

of the major trading partners at Great Zimbabwe State.

2. Crop cultivation formed the basis of Great Zimbabwe State’s economy. Much

emphasis was on the production of cereals such as sorghum, millet, Rapoko

and maize. Crop cultivation was the work of women and children. The grains

obtained could be used in trade, to pay tribute and for consumption. Grains

were also important for beer brewery, especially during ritual ceremonies.

3. The people at Great Zimbabwe were pastoralist. They kept herds of cattle,

goats and sheep. Cattle were mainly used to provide food during ritual

ceremonies, for trade and to pay lobola. The king owned large herd of cattle

from which some of these cattle could be redistributed to his subjects through

the Kuronzera system. Cattle were a living bank of the Karanga people at Great

Zimbabwe.

4. Mining was also practised by the people at Great Zimbabwe especially gold

panning. It is worth note that there was no vast mineral wealth within Great

Zimbabwe but the Shona could go for gold panning in the River beds and River


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banks of Save and Runde. The minerals mined include gold, iron and copper.

Gold was mainly traded with other people such as the Persians, while iron was

forged into iron tools which enhanced agricultural productivity. Mining was done

after harvest.

5. Tribute collection was another economic activity at Great Zimbabwe. The

subjects and the vassals paid tribute to the Mambo. The payment of tribute to

the king was a sign of allegiance. The vassals paid tribute to the Mambo to

avoid being raided. Tribute was paid to the King inform of grains, tools, gold,

cattle, skins, ivory as well as cattle.

6. Hunting and gathering were other economic activities at Great Zimbabwe.

Large hunting parties could be organised in order to kill elephants which were

desperately needed in order to get ivory to enhance external trade. Hunting was

done by men. Gathering of fruits was done by women especially during their

spare time.

7. Pottery and weaving also formed the basis of the economy of Great Zimbabwe.

Pottery is the craft of making pots, dishes and other things made of fired clay.

Weaving is the making of fabric by interlacing long threads passing in one

direction with others at a right angle to them. These activities were done by

women during their spare time. Pots were needed for cooking and for storage

of grain and water. Women also made baskets. Thus crafting was a common

feature at Great Zimbabwe.

8. Iron smelting and raiding were practised by the people at Great Zimbabwe.

Blacksmiths could forge iron into tools such as hoes and axes which were very

essential in crop cultivation. Iron smelters could receive a high social status.

Raiding was mainly done to those vassals who refused to pay tribute to the

Mambo. Such raids enabled the people at Great Zimbabwe to obtain items such

as grain, tools and even captives and cattle.

Political organization of Great Zimbabwe State

The king lived within the Great Stone Structure. He was the head of the state whose

duties were to control over the allocation of grazing land and presiding over religious

and political activities. The King enjoyed a number of privileges such as access to

hunting products, for example skins and ivory. The king enjoyed monopoly over long

distance trade and enjoyed peasant labour at his court and in his field. The King was

assisted by the Dare (a council of advisors) in carrying out his duties. Members of the

Dare were appointed on merit and could help the King in presiding over court cases.

There were village chiefs and provincial chiefs who were answerable to the Mambo.

All the subjects and vassals paid tribute to the Mambo as a sign of loyalty and this

tribute was collected by the council of advisors. The ancestors of the Mambo were a

unifying factor in the Great Zimbabwe State. They were highly regarded and supported

by all the people in the state. Able bodied men could be summoned in times of war to

serve as soldiers and they could retire to their homes after a military expedition. The

spirit mediums were so important during the installation of the new Mambo. There was

no clear system of succession after the death of the Mambo and this weighed much

to the downfall of the state.


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The decline of Great Zimbabwe State

The factors that led to the decline of Great Zimbabwe State can be classified into three

that is, economic factors, political factors and social factors.

a) Economic factors

Decline in external trade: trade routes shifted to the Zambezi and the people at

Great Zimbabwe were deprived of important exotic items.

Exhaustion of soil: led to the falling of agricultural productivity. Many people

starved because of food shortages and fled to other areas where the land was

fertile.

Successive droughts caused poor harvests and this quickened the rate of

emigration to other areas. Droughts also led to deaths of many cattle which

were a living bank of the Karanga people at Great Zimbabwe, hence they

abandoned the state.

Shortage of resources such as salt, pastures and fuel also caused the collapse

of the state. Such scarcity led to the emigration of many people, including

Nyatsimbamutota, in search of salt. This mass migration made Great Zimbabwe

to lose its political influence leading to its demise.

b) Political factors

Succession disputes: erupted mainly because there was no clear system of

succession. Such disputes brought disintegration in the state, for example after

the death of Mambo Chibatamatose. Many people fled from Great Zimbabwe

because of succession quarrels, e.g. Nyatsimbamutota.

The vastness of the Empire: the state became so large such that

communication between the King and the vassals became so difficult. This

made the emergency of rebellious vassals, who with their activities, made the

Mambo to lost control over the other areas of the Empire.

External invasions: the Sotho-Tswana groups posed a serious threat to the

stability of Great Zimbabwe State. Such external invasions weakened the state

leading to the collapse of the state.

Emergency of ambitious people: Mutota emerged as ambitious and he was

determined in forming his own state in the Dande-Chidima area, north

Zimbabwe. The emergency of Mutapa State under Mutota led to the decline of

Great Zimbabwe as many people emigrated north with Mutota.

c) Social factors

Overpopulation: the state declined because of overpopulation. The number of

people available could not match with the resources available. More so the

vastness of livestock population resulted in overgrazing. As a result many

people started to move out of the state sealing the complete demise of the state.

Revision Questions

1. Outline the importance of trade in the Great Zimbabwe state [11]

2. Describe the factors that led to the rise of Great Zimbabwe [11]

3. Why Great Zimbabwe was built [6]

4. Describe the economic, political and social organization at Great Zimbabwe [11]


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5. What factors influenced the collapse of Great Zimbabwe [11]

6. How important was the role played by the ruling class in the collapse of Great Zimbabwe [8]

7. To what extent were economic factors to blame for the collapse of the Great Zimbabwe State [8]

MUTAPA STATE

Objectives

By the end of depth study on the history of Mutapa state, learners should be able to:

a. name rulers of the Mutapa state after the death of Nyatsimbamutota

b. describe the military achievements of Mutota

c. describe the Portuguese-Mutapa relations up to the fall of the state

d. outline the economic activities of the Mutapa state

e. describe the social and political organization of the Mutapa state

Overview

The history of the Mutapa State was reconstructed mainly using the Portuguese

documents, which extensively covered the economic activities of the Mutapa. Oral

tradition of DP Abraham add more flesh on the history of the Mutapa state. The Mutapa

State can be called Mwenemutapa or Munhumutapa or Monomutapa. The founder of

the state was Nyatsimbamutota. The social, economic and political activities as well

as the reasons for decline will be unpacked in this book. It is worth note that the

learners should study the history of the Mutapa together with the history of the

Portuguese in the Zambezi Valley. Learners should deeply study how the Portuguese

led to the collapse of the Mwenemutapa State.

Some rulers of the Mutapa State

Nyatsimbamutota

Matope

Nyahuma

Kapararidze

Negomo Mapunzagutu

Mavhura

Mukombwe

Provinces of the Mutapa state

Manyika

Guruuswa

Mbire

Uteve

Madanda

Dande


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Portuguese who visited the Mutapa State

Antonio Fernandez

Gasper Bacaro

Gonzalo Da Silveira

Vasco Madeira

Francisco Barreto

Father Pereira

Factors that led to the development of the Mutapa State

The role of external trade

Availability of gold and other minerals

The ability of Mutapa Mutota

The role of the army

The presence of elephants for ivory

The role of religion

Cordial relations with the foreigners

Things used to pay tribute in the Mutapa

Gold

Ivory

Skin hides

Cattle

Grain

Clothes

Iron tools

The duties of the Mutapa King

Control of long distance trade

Allocation of grazing land

Lending cattle to the subjects through Kuronzera

The head of the state

Commander in chief of the army

Presided over national religious activities

Presided over court cases

He chose the provincial and district chiefs

He chose the chief security called Mukomahasha

Economic activities in the Mutapa state

Trade (internal and external trade)

Mining

Tribute

Livestock production

Crop production


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Raiding

Hunting

Gathering

Blacksmithing

Pottery

Fishing

Weaving

Basketry

Roles of the army in the Mutapa State

To maintain peace and order

To defend the state

To protect the king and the royal family

For state expansionist purposes

To punish rebels

For raiding goods in other areas

Officials in the Mutapa State

Chief confidant (mbokorume)

Chief Doctor (mangwende)

Chief secretary (ambuya mazvarira)

Chief security (Mukomahasha)

The royal princes

The head drummer

The cook

The King’s 9 principal wives

The king’s mother and sisters

Reasons for the decline of the Mutapa State

Succession disputes

Exhaustion of gold and other resources


Poor leadership of certain Mutapas

Portuguese interference

Regional interference by Changamire Dombo

The decline of external trade as the Portuguese became dominant

The introduction of Islam or Christianity

Natural disasters such as series of droughts

Swahili influence

Social organization of the Mutapa State

The Mutapa people were a religious people. Religion was the chief integrating factor

in the state. The common belief among the people was that when a King died he would


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go to heaven and become the Vadzimu. The Mutapa people believed in God and

ancestral spirits. The ancestral spirits could be consulted in times of trouble such as

wars and famine. The mhondoro were very important during the installation of the new

Mutapa. Thus the presence of religious leaders at the installation ceremony would

sweeten the political act of the King. During famine all the people could consult the

spirit of Dzivaguru who were at the shrine of rainmaking. The army was also blessed

by the religious leaders before going for a military expedition. Thus all the soldiers

would receive some charms from Mangwende the Chief Doctor. The Mutapa men

were polygamous, they married many wives and had many children. The Mutapa

people paid bride price inform of cattle, iron tools and even beads and bangles. The

King could distribute cattle to his subjects through the Kuronzera system. There were

social classes in the Mutapa state in which the ruling upper class enjoyed many

privileges.

Economic structure of the Mutapa State

1. Crop cultivation was the back- bone of the Mutapa economy. Deep alluvial soils

of the Zambezi enabled the Mutapa people to grow sorghum, millet and

Rapoko. Maize and watermelons were introduced after the arrival of the

Portuguese. Produce from agriculture could be traded or used to pay tribute or

for consumption. The king owned a large field (Zunde raMambo) in which all

the people provided labour. The produce from the king’s field could be

distributed to the subjects during drought or used during national ceremonies.

2. Cattle rearing constituted the basis of Mutapa economy. Cattle were used to

pay lobola, to provide meat and milk as well as to pay tribute to the Mambo.

Many cattle were slaughtered to feed the visitors at Muzinda waMambo and to

provide food during ritual ceremonies. The king used cattle to make the

Kuronzera system effectual. Cattle were a living bank of the Mutapa people.

3. The Mutapa people were involved in both internal and external trade. In external

trade items such as ivory and gold could be exchanged with exotic goods such

as beads and clothes. It is important to remember that at first the Mutapa people

traded with the Swahili, but after the death of Gonzalo the Portuguese became

the major trading partners of the Mutapa.

4. Tribute payment was another economic activity in the Mutapa State. The

subjects could pay tribute to the King in form of cattle, beads, bangles, gold and

grains. The payment of tribute to the Mutapa was a sign of loyalty. Most tribute

was kept and recorded by the secretary of the state called Ambuya mazvarira.

5. Mining and hunting were practiced by the people of the Mutapa state. Gold

mining was done by families who could go for panning. Gold mining was done

after harvest and this unfolds the importance of agriculture in the Mutapa.

Prospecting gold was very cumbersome, but the Mutapa people possessed

skills in prospecting through surveying rocks as well as soil types. Gold could

be used in trade and to pay tribute. Elephant hunting was conducted in areas

such Chidima and Dande along the Zambezi. Ivory was important in trade and

tribute payment.

NB other economic activities were the same as those of Great Zimbabwe.


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Political structure of the Mutapa State

The king was the head of the state and he was the central figure in social, economic

and political activities within the state. He was called by the praise name

Munhumutapa and he could chose the military commander and could control long

distance trade. Efficient government enabled the vastness of the empire from Zambezi

to Limpopo and from Indian Ocean to Kalahari Desert. The King presided over court

cases and was the chief of religious ceremonies. The Mutapa was assisted by

aristocratic officials, territorial kings and chiefs to administer the empire. The council

of advisors (Dare) advised the king on all important matters affecting the state.

Mukomahasha was the chief security appointed by the king and could lead the army

during war. Mbokorume (chief confidant) was mainly the son in law of the king ad he

was told the secret by the king. Mangwende was the chief doctor of the king and played

an important role in the installation ceremonies and before a military expedition is

carried out. Other important state officials included the royal princes, the head

drummer, the chief cook, the king’s mother and sisters. Mutapa placed his trusted

relatives to be the vassals in areas such as Dande, Barwe and Manyika. Each vassal

chief collected tribute on behalf of the Mutapa inform of grain, gold and other items.

Chiefs were appointed in consultation with the spirit mediums or mhondoro. All the

vassals were required to light their own fire from the royal fire and kept it burning

throughout the year as a further sign of loyalty.

Duties of the Captain of the Gates in the Mutapa state

The following are some of the duties of the Captain of the Gates in the Mutapa state:

Ensured that the Portuguese obeyed the Mutapa kings.

Made sure that the Portuguese paid tribute to the Mutapa.

They supervised the paying of taxes on Portuguese goods.

Advised the Mutapa kings on matters concerning the Portuguese.

Informed the Portuguese government on activities in the Mutapa state.

Controlled trade between the Portuguese and the Mutapa state.

Linked the Portuguese and the Mutapa.

They served as interpreters of the Mutapa kings.

They represented the Portuguese government in the Mutapa.

They settled disputes between the Portuguese and Africans.

Handing gifts from the Portuguese government to the Mutapa.

Mutapa-Portuguese Relations

a) Portuguese economic activities in Mutapa

They were involved in trade with the local Mutapa people. Trading activities were

manifested by the Portuguese’s establishment of trading posts at Massapa,

Dambarare, Bucuto, Luanze and other areas. Trading relations saw the introduction

of guns, clothes, beads, jewellery and ceramics in the Mutapa. These items were

exchanged with local goods such as gold, ivory, cattle, grains and other things. The

Portuguese introduced the credit system through which the locals were deprived of


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profitable trade. The Portuguese were also involved in gold mining and it is worth note

that it was gold that lured them in the Zambezi valley. African labour was used for them

to get minerals they desperately needed.

The Portuguese also introduced the Prazo-system whereby they were involved in

cultivation. Prosperous prazos were found on the South bank of the Zambezi from

Tete and in these prazos new crops such as maize and new farming methods were

introduced. Initially the Portuguese paid tribute (curva) to the Mutapa, but as time went

on they repudiated and instead forced the Mutapa to pay them tribute. The Portuguese

used their guns to hunt animals such as elephants which were desperately needed for

their ivory. They were also involved in slave trade and by 1800, prazos became the

centre of export for slaves. Most of African slaves were exported to Brazil and Cuba.

b) Portuguese political activities in the Mutapa State

The death of Gonzalo was a spark plug of an increase of the Portuguese involvement

in the Mutapa politics. Other historians and students of history pin point with certainty

that the Portuguese came in the Mutapa state in the name of trade, but later changed

like a chameleon and commenced to interfere in the internal politics of the Mutapa. In

an attempt to destroy the Mutapa state, abortive military expeditions were carried out

between 1569 and 1572 under Francisco Barreto. When the Portuguese entered the

Mutapa state they troubled the waters leading to the expulsion of the Muslims from the

Mutapa. After the dislodging of the Muslims, the Portuguese started to influence the

Mutapa and consequently they were given large land grants (prazos) in return for help

in times of war.

The Portuguese installed puppet leaders such as Gatsi Rusere and Mavhura Mhande,

who usually ruled in favour of the Portuguese at the expense of the whole nation. The

Portuguese also intervened in succession disputes by supporting rivalry claimants to

the throne, e.g. during a succession quarrel of Rusere and Kapararidze, the

Portuguese supported Gatsi Rusere. The Portuguese undermined the powers of the

Mutapa by refusing to pay tribute and forced the Mutapa to pay them curva. They also

disrespected the Mutapa by forming their powerful armies e.g. warlords like Gouveia

had a big Chikunda army. The availability of guns by the Portuguese weakened the

Mutapa state. The Portuguese even raided the people of the Mutapa and even took

the duties due to Mutapa kings e.g. they claimed ritualistic rights.

c) Portuguese social activities in the Mutapa state

The Portuguese were first determined in spreading Christianity. This is revealed by

the work of Gonzalo who in 1560 converted Mutapa Negomo and about 500 of his

family and court officials. The Portuguese practiced slavery to obtain labour for their

prazos. Slavery is the treating of other human beings as part of your property. The

Portuguese intermarried the African women and had the children which were called

the Mulatos. However some of the members of the Chikundas and the prazeros even

brutally abused women, e.g. sexual harassment. The Portuguese even refused to

show respect to the Mutapa kings and this was a taboo according to the Shona way

of life.


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The decline of the Mutapa State

The following are the generally agreed factors that led to the collapse of the

Monomutapa Empire:

Succession disputes which were among the rivalries and the royal princes

weakened the state. A good example was a dispute between Kapararidze and

Mavhura after the death of Gatsi Rusere. Such disputes brought division and

precipitated the collapse of the State.

Poor leadership of certain Mutapas was another cause for the collapse of the

Mutapa state. Such inability of the kings was partly because some of the

Mutapa were young when they ruled the Empire. Certain rulers like Gatsi

Rusere lacked charisma and military prowess to keep the state united, hence

they frequently relied on the Portuguese to stay in power. This made the fall of

the state inevitable.

The state collapsed because it was too large to be controlled by one king. It has

been agreed by the students of history that the Mutapa state extended from the

Zambezi to Limpopo and from Indian Ocean to the Kalahari Desert. Such

vastness of the Empire made communication with all parts of the Empire to be

extremely difficulty. Thus giving a green light to the rebellious people like

Changa.

The introduction of Islam and Christianity is said to have caused the decline of

the Mutapa state. These religions, according to oral tradition, are said to have

destroyed traditional religion which was a unifying element in the Mutapa State.

Thus the state disintegrated and fell as a result.

Depletion of resources such as land, gold and ivory caused the demise of the

Mutapa state. The absence of such important resources weakened the state

economically, politically and socially leading to its downfall.

The decline in external trade made the downfall of the Mutapa state

unavoidable. The Portuguese became dominant in this trade taking over from

the Mutapa kings. The Kings were no longer enjoying a monopoly over this

trade.

The regional interference by Changamire Dombo and the Rozvi weakened also

the Mutapa state. It has been argued that by the 18th century the Mutapa state

was almost like a vassal state of the Rozvi Changamire state.

The interference of the Portuguese led to the decline of the Mutapa state. The

Portuguese supported one group in the event of clashes between the Mutapa

rulers. The Portuguese also helped in the enthronement of weak puppet

Mutapas such as Mavhura and Rusere. The Portuguese also fanned

succession disputes since they took sides in disputes. They are also blamed

for destroying the Nevinga system which averted quarrels after the death of the

King. According to this system after the death of the king, the Nevinga could

temporarily be a king before a new king is chosen. Thus taking a glance on the

above, the Portuguese should be blamed for the collapse of the Mutapa state.

Revision questions


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1. Outline the achievements of Mutota and the political system which he developed in the Mutapa sate [11]

2. Identify the provinces of the Mutapa state at its peak [6]

3. How far did religion contribute to stability in the Mutapa state [8]

4. Describe the rise and expansion of the Mutapa state [11]

5. To what extent can the decline of the Mutapa state a result of Portuguese political interference [11]

6. Outline the economic, social and political structures of the Mutapa state [11]

7. Describe the Mutapa-Portuguese relations [11]

THE ROZVI STATE

Objectives

By the end of a deep study of the Rozvi state, learners should be able to:

a. identify the Rozvi kings up to the collapse of the state

b. describe the rise of the Rozvi state under Dombo

c. outline the roles of the army in the Rozvi state

d. describe the economic, political and social structures of the Changamire state

e. describe the Ndebele-Rozvi relations up to the colonization of Zimbabwe

f. outline the political, social and political factors behind the collapse of the Rozvi state

Overview

Historians agree that the founder of the Rozvi State was Changamire Dombo, a vassal

to the Mutapa who finally rebelled and founded his state South West Zimbabwe in the

strength of cattle. Extensive study by learners must be on the social, economic and

political organisations of the Rozvi state. Equally important the decline of the study

should be studied together with the impacts of Nguni incursions. The role of cattle in

the state and the Ndebele-Rozvi relations should be taken note of.

Some of the Rozvi Kings

Chirisamhuru 1

Chirisamhuru 2

Changamire Dombo

Gumboreshumba

Gomoremvura

Rupandamanhanga

Nechagadzike

Uses of cattle in the Rozvi state

Payment of tribute

As symbol of wealth

Used in Kuronzera

Used to get food such as milk and meat

Used in trade


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Used in ritual ceremonies

Used to pay lobola

Skins were used to make shields, drums and mats

Rozvi capitals

Danangombe

Naletale

Dhlodhlo

Manyanga

Kame

Tsindi

Ntabazikhamambo

The Nguni groups which attacked the Rozvi state

Maseko

Kololo

Ngoni

Ndebele

Ngwane

Msene Ngoni

Jere Ngoni

Economic activities in the Rozvi state

Cattle rearing

Crop cultivation

Trade

Tribute

Mining

Raiding

Hunting and gathering

Blacksmithing

Pottery and weaving

Fishing and basketry

Duties of the Rozvi army

Expanding the frontiers of the Rozvi state

Defending the state

Ensure that the subjects obey the king

For raiding

Attacking the invaders e.g. the Portuguese in 1693

Protecting the refugees who fled from the Portuguese

Maintain peace and order

Reasons for the collapse of the Rozvi


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Successive droughts

Succession disputes

Disagreement between political leaders and religious leaders

Exhaustion or depletion of resources


Rozvi failure in incorporating some Chiefdoms

Disruption of trade by the Portuguese

Civil wars

Nguni incursions

Social organization of the Rozvi State

The Rozvi belonged to the Moyo totem and were patrilineal. Their homesteads were

made up of lineages. Those who owned large herds of cattle were highly respected

and they acquired a high social status. The Rozvi practiced ritual, religious and

rainmaking ceremonies. They believed in the existence of the Supreme Being and

spirits. The Rozvi ancestors were highly regarded and the King could preside over all

national ceremonies.

Religion and politics in the Rozvi state were interwoven and the Mambo was regarded

as a semi god. The Rozvi were polygamous, wealthy men could marry many wives.

Lobola was paid inform of cattle and even iron tools. The wearing of glass beads was

regarded as status symbol. The Kuronzera system was carried out by the King to help

his subjects. The Rozvi enjoyed the veneration of spirits through the ceremonies called

Bira. Religious authority relied on the support of the military leader called Tumbare,

who stood in the place of the mambo after his death until a new mambo was installed.

Economic structure of the Rozvi

1. Crop cultivation was the back- bone of the Rozvi economy. They grew crops

such as sorghum, millet and Rapoko. Produce from agriculture could be traded

or used to pay tribute or for consumption. The produce from the king’s field

could be distributed to the subjects during drought or used during national

ceremonies.

2. Cattle rearing constituted the basis of Rozvi economy. Cattle were used to pay

lobola, to provide meat and milk as well as to pay tribute to the Mambo. The

king used cattle to make the Kuronzera system effectual. Cattle were a living

bank of the Rozvi people. The largest herd belonged to the king.

3. The Rozvi people were involved in both internal and external trade. In external

trade items such as ivory and gold could be exchanged with exotic goods such

as beads and clothes. Trade in the Rozvi state was conducted through the

Vashambadzi.

4. Tribute payment was another economic activity in the Rozvi State. The subjects

could pay tribute to the King in form of cattle, beads, bangles, gold and grains.

The payment of tribute to the King was a sign of loyalty. Those who refused to

pay tribute were subjected to raiding.


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5. Mining and hunting were practiced by the people of the Rozvi state. Gold mining

was done after harvest. Gold could be used in trade and to pay tribute. Elephant

hunting was conducted to get ivory. Ivory was also important in trade and tribute

payment.

NB other economic activities were the same as those of Great Zimbabwe.

Political organization of the Rozvi

The mambo was the head of the state and was a hereditary ruler. He was overall in

charge of military, social, economic, religious and political power. The Changamire

(king) ruled with the assistance of the dare, which comprised of priests, military leaders

and provincial governors. Provincial chiefs and sub chiefs were appointed by the King

to be in charge of provinces and chiefdoms. The headmen played an important role in

the Rozvi politics. The King was the distributor of land and the holder of other property

in trust of the state. Loyalty to the mambo was shown through the payment of tribute.

Religious leaders were involved in the installation of the new mambo.

The Mambo had several wives who played an important role in advising him. The

wives played a spy network informing the King on important matters which could

threaten the state. The army commander was Tumbare or Mutinhima, who was purely

chosen by the King on matters of bravery and could act as a regent king after the

death of the Mambo. The Mavhudzi were the Vazukuru who played an important role

in advising the Changamire. They were the ambassadors who could be sent on

important state assignments.

The collapse of the Rozvi state

Successive droughts resulted in depletion of cattle herds leading to the collapse

of the state. Many people started to migrate in search of better grazing lands.

Succession disputes hindered the survival of the Rozvi state. The disputes

culminated into civil wars. The civil wars of the late 18th century brought

divisions in the state. There were serious disagreements between

Gomoremvura and his son over the Rozvi ruler-ship, and this division led to the

collapse of the Empire.

Disagreements between the Rozvi rulers and the religious leaders led to the

collapse of the Rozvi state. Oral tradition says these quarrels led to drought

which greatly affected livestock production which was the base of the Rozvi

economy.

Depletion of resources such as gold made the decline of the Rozvi state.

Exhaustion of gold fields meant loss of foreign trade, thereby killing the life line

exchange in foreign goods.

The failure of the Rozvi to incorporate some chiefdom like the kalanga led to

the decline of the state as these groups frequently threatened the sovereignty

of the Rozvi state.

The Nguni invasions was another cause for the collapse of the Rozvi state. The

Rozvi state was attacked by at least six Nguni groups which include the

Ngwane, Maseko, Ngoni and Kololo. Capable Rozvi rulers were killed by these


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invaders and the caused political displacement. For example their invasion led

Tohwechipi, who was to succeed Chirisamhuru, to flee to Nyaningwe leaving

power vacuum.

Revision Questions

1. Outline the uses of cattle in the Rozvi state [11]

2. Describe the rise of Changamire Dombo and the Rozvi state [11]

3. To what extent was the decline of the Rozvi sate a result of Nguni invasions? [8]

4. Describe the role of the army in the Rozvi state [11]

5. Describe the political, economic and social structures of the Rozvi state [11]

6. Identify six Rozvi capitals and five Rozvi leaders [12]

THE ZULU STATE

Objectives

By the end of the study on the Zulu state, leaners should be able to:

a. identify the Nguni states in northern Nguniland in the 19th century

b. describe the rise of Tshaka to power

c. outline the military and political reforms of Tshaka in the Zulu state

d. name the problems faced by Tshaka as a Zulu king

e. describe the economic and social organization of the Zulu state

f. outline the causes and results of the Mfecane

g. name the Mfecane states in southern Africa

Overview

This state was one of the Nguni states. In this booklet, the following subtopics will be

discussed: the rise of Tshaka, his military reforms, political structure, social

organization and economic activities. The causes of Mfecane, results of Mfecane and

the reasons for Tshaka’s downfall will be discussed. The learners are also encouraged

to read about the Zulu state under Dingane, Mpande and Cetshwayo. They should

read about the Anglo Zulu war as well as the fall of the Zulu state.

States and their leaders in Northern Nguni in the 19th century

Mthetwa under Dhingiswayo

Ndwandwe under Zwide

Ngwane under Matiwane

Tshaka’s military reforms

Scotched earth policy

Soldiers were to run bare foot

The cow horn formation

The use of the assegai


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The use of the Zulu shield

Surprise night attack

Spy networking

Use of smoke for communication

Leaders and their groups who fled from Mfecane

Mzilikazi and the Khumalo

Sebitwane and the Kololo

Sobhuza and the Ngwane

Soshangane and the Shangani

Zwangendaba and the Jere Ngoni

Problems faced by Tshaka as a king

Faced hatred due to expansionist policies

Death of Nandi his mother

Jealous relatives

Enemies in his army

Rebellion of Mzilikazi

Threats from expansionist Boers and British

His army commanders were unfaithful

Shortage of resources

Reasons for the downfall of Tshaka

Tshaka was dictatorial

His strict discipline created enemies

Mass killing of people

Ambitious relatives

Jealous of his relatives

He neglected advise of his advisors

Threats of the Whites

People who plotted the downfall of Tshaka

Mkabayi

Mhlangane

Dingane

Mbhopha

Mfokazana

The rise of Tshaka

Tshaka was the son of Nandi and his father was Senzangakona, a Zulu chief. He spent

his childhood among his mother’s people because he is believed to have been an

illegitimate son. It was during hi tender age when Tshaka showed signs of bravery. He

thus distinguished himself and gained influence among other herd boys. By 1809

Tshaka joined the army of Dhingiswayo who led the Mthetwa. Through his bravery


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and ability in terms of leadership, Tshaka stole the heart of Dhingiswayo and was

diverted to the rank of a regimental leader.

Within the army, Tshaka emerged as an extraordinary military thinker. Through his

ability, Tshaka finally commanded Dhingiswayo’s army. In 1816 when his father died,

Tshaka was assisted by Dhingiswayo to ascend the Zulu throne. In order to remove

all possible threats, Tshaka killed his half-brother, Sigujana, who was to rule the Zulu

state. Once Tshaka achieved political power, he began to revolutionise the Zulu

military and political structures.

Military reforms of Tshaka

Tshaka introduced the short stabbing spear called an assegai. This type of a spear

was not to be thrown but rather each warrior was to march to the enemy and stab him.

An assegai was to be returned after an expedition and whosoever lost his assegai was

severely punished and labelled coward.

Tshaka also introduced the long shield which was often a height of a man. This shield

was used together with an assegai and was used to protect the Zulu soldier from the

spears of the enemies. The shield was used to hook the shield of an enemy in order

to expose his belly and the stab him with an assegai.

The cow horn formation was a military battle tactic which enabled the Zulu warrior to

envelope an enemy and attack him. The bravest warriors were to face the enemy while

other forces on either sides would envelope the enemy and then attack him without

escape.

Tshaka maintained the regimental system established by Dhingiswayo. Both boys and

girls were recruited into the age regiments. Each regiment was identified by a peculiar

military regalia (dress). All the members of a regiment were supposed to be forty years

and below.

No young man was allowed to marry until after he washed sufficiently his assegai with

the blood of an enemy. Thus marriage was won in the battle field. The Zulu warriors

were often given women by Tshaka as a reward for their bravery in the battle field.

Tshaka introduced the scotched earthy policy in order to be victorious over his

enemies. This policy meant destruction of everything that sustains life in the enemy

zone. Things such as water sources, grain stores and fruit trees were destroyed by

the Zulu Amabutho as part of their scotched earth policy.

No Zulu warrior was allowed to run away from the enemy. Any Zulu warrior who killed

an enemy was to collect his weapon and surrender it to Tshaka. A system of spy

network was used to detect enemies. Tshaka banned initiation and circumcision

ceremonies as well as the use of sandals in the army. The soldiers were to walk bare

foot for greater speed. The young boys were employed as baggage carriers for the

Zulu soldiers.

Zulu political organization


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Tshaka remained the supreme authority of the Zulu state. He was assisted by a council

of advisors, but important decisions were for him. Tshaka ruled with the help of

territorial chiefs (Izindunas). He was the commander in chief of the army and the entire

army was to gather once a year at the royal barracks to celebrate the first fruits of the

year. Tshaka presided over all ceremonies done at the national level. The Zulu king

was at the climax of the state functions and he personified the kingdom.

All the people were encouraged to adopt the Zulu language and customs, and this

was a political means to foster unity in the state. Tshaka appointed some of his

relatives to rule the parts of the kingdom as governors and chiefs. Tribute was paid to

Tshaka as a sign of loyalty. Those who refused to submit to Tshaka were subjected to

raiding or death. Tshaka’s female relatives were given powers in provinces and they

could act as spies of the King.

Zulu socio-economic organization

The main economic activities of the Zulu include crop cultivation, livestock production,

trade, tribute, smelting, raiding and public works. There was division of labour along

sex lines. Women and older girls were responsible for agricultural work and for

domestic tasks such as rearing of children. Women made pots, baskets and they did

household works such as thatching.

Cattle rearing was practiced to get milk and meat. Cattle were killed during ceremonies

such as Inxwala. Men did hunting and they also look after livestock. Cattle were highly

valued in the Zulu society as having many cattle could give a high social status. Cattle

skins were used to make shields and for trade.

The Zulu could marry many wives and have many children who would work in farms.

Lobola was paid inform of cattle. The chief controlled all productive activities such as

land, agriculture and livestock. The labourers were recruited to build huts of the King.

Tshaka was regarded as a semi god and the sole religious leader of the Zulu.

He was the leader of religious ceremonies such as Inxwala and he led the cult of

rainmaking. No one was allowed to marry without the approval form Tshaka. The Zulu

language and customs were supposed to be adopted by all the people in the Zulu

kingdom. The Zulu girls played traditional dances in honouring their ceremonies such

as Inxwala and Inkata.

There was social stratification in the Zulu state as revealed by different social classes

with different privileges and roles in the society. The members of the royal family

formed the members of the upper class while the other people especially the captives,

formed the base of the social pyramid.

Causes of Mfecane

Mfecane was a time of widespread wars from Nguniland caused by the following

reasons:

Rapid growth of human and animal population leading to clashes over

diminishing resources.


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There was limited population movement because of the domination of the

Europeans in the Cape. This limited population movement led to wars over

resources.

The introduction of maize and dependence on it caused the Mfecane. Maize is

prone to drought and it also enabled population growth over limited resources.

Short supply of land caused the wars as the population was increasingly

growing.

The Mhlatule drought of the 19th led to starvation in Nguniland and therefore

people started to fight over the resources available.

Competition over resources as a result of population growth caused the

widespread wars.

The rise of the Zulu king with new method of warfare resulted in the general

time of trouble in Nguniland.

The increased demand of slaves by the Portuguese at Delagoa Bay in Maputo

made the locals to capture people for selling leading to serious clashes.

Results of Mfecane

The Mfecane had constructive and destructive impacts down south and in the areas

north of the Limpopo. The following were the results of the Lifaqane:

There was general redistribution of population to other areas.

There was population increase especially in the areas north Limpopo.

Mfecane led to depopulation as many people died during the wars.

Mfecane marked the end of the Prazo system in the Zambezi.

There was the spreading of the Zulu military tactics to other people north

Limpopo.

Many chiefs were killed by the Mfecane groups e.g. Chirisamhuru the second

was killed by Nyamazana

It led to the decline of many states e.g. the Rozvi state, Lozi state and the

Tumbuka state.

It led to the creation of other nations e.g. Lesotho and Swaziland.

It led to the creation of other states which played an important role during White

encroachment.

The downfall of Tshaka

Tshaka’s policies of continuous warfare with other states was a disaster to him as a

king. Total warfare made him to create a bigger and complicated state for him to rule.

Tshaka also neglected the advice from his advisors and he even killed many people

on petty issues.

Thus Tshaka became dictatorial and there was a general discounted against him in all

the Empire. Those who were dissatisfied with the policies of Tshaka grew in large

numbers. In 1824 there was an abortive assassination attempt of Tshaka.

In 1828 a pot was organized by Tshaka’s relatives namely Mkabayi, Mhlangane and

Dingane and they killed him in a broad day light. This plot was successful because the


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army was away on a military expedition. Thus Dingane assumed the Zulu throne after

murdering Mhlangane who helped in the plot against Tshaka.

Study Questions

1. Name the economic activities of the Zulu state [6]

2. Outline the military and political reforms of Tshaka [11]

3. Identify the Nguni groups and their leaders in northern Nguni in the 19th century [6]

4. Describe the socio-economic organisation of the Zulu [11]

5. To what extent were the impacts of the Mfecane beneficial to the people in Southern Africa? [8]

6. Discuss the view that Tshaka’s downfall was self-inflicted [10]

THE NDEBELE STATE

Objectives

By the end of a study on the history of the Ndebele state, learners should be able to:

a. name the settlements of the Khumalo on their way to Western Zimbabwe

b. describe the Khumalo migration to Zimbabwe

c. identify the people who fought against the Khumalo on their way to Zimbabwe

d. describe the social, political and economic organisation of the Ndebele state

e. identify the internal and external threats to the Ndebele state

f. describe the Ndebele-Shona relations

Overview

The Ndebele state was born out of crises. Thus had it not been of Mfecane the state

could not have been created. Emphasis in this book is on the Khumalo migration as

well as social, economic, political and military organisations. Learners are advised to

study further on the threats to the Ndebele Kingdom as well as Ndebele-Shona

relations.

Ndebele settlements during their migration

ekhupumuleni

emhlahlahlandhlela

egabeni

mosega

endinaneni

enkengwini

tshweyane

Groups fought by the Ndebele during their migration

Hurutshe

Kora

Rolong


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Griqua

British

Boers

Sotho

Taung

People who occupied Western Zimbabwe when the Ndebele entered

Rozvi

Virwa

Kalanga

Nyubi

Tonga

Venda

Effects of migration on the Khumalo (later called Ndebele)

The Sotho gave the Khumalo the name Ndebele

Intermarriages

Loss of life

Establishment of friendship with Robert Moffart

Cultural fusion

Loss of possessions during wars

Duties of the Ndebele king

Commander in chief of the army

The highest judge

Chief administrator

Presiding over religious ceremonies

Distribution of captives and cattle

Allocation of land

Coordinated military strategy

Got rid of opponents

Economic activities of the Ndebele

Trade

Livestock production

Tribute

Raiding

Hunting

Blacksmithing

Pottery and mining

Internal and external threats to the Ndebele

Succession disputes after Mzilikazi’s death


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Resistance of the Shona e.g. Tohwechipi

Cattle disease of 1860

The 1847 Boer expedition

Missionaries who supported the destruction of the Ndebele state

Threat from concession seekers

Why the Ndebele state was regarded as democratic

The existence of Mphakati and the Izikulu acted as check and balance to the

king’s power.

Indunas were selected on merit or ability.

Captives were fairly treated e.g. Tohwechipi was spared by Mzilikazi in 1866

There was religious tolerance.

Subjects were allowed to pay tribute according to the resources they afford e.g.

the Shangwe people of Inyoka in Gokwe paid tribute inform of tobacco while

the people of Mphosi paid inform of iron.

Why the Ndebele state was regarded as undemocratic

More powers vested in the hands of the King

Men could marry after the approval of the king

Marriages between people of different classes were disapproved

The existence of different classes with different privileges

Language in toleration as the Ndebele language was regarded as official

The largest herd of the cattle belonged to the King and the king ordered how to

slaughter them.

Newly conquered people were subjected to considerable amount of bullying.

The Khumalo migration

Facing the fierce wrath of Tshaka after failing to surrender the raided booty, Mzilikazi

(the leader of the Khumalo under the Zulu) fled with his followers in search of a safe

place to establish his kingdom. Mzilikazi with less than 300 people fled into the interior

crossing the Drakensberg. The Khumalo first settled at Ekhupumuleni (a place of rest)

in 1824.

Mzilikazi raided the local people and the Ndzundza people were later absorbed into

the Khumalo horde. He raided cattle and capturing women and children in order to

increase his people. However the Ndebele (as the Sotho called them) abandoned

Ekhupumuleni and moved further because they experienced severe drought and were

often raided by the Zulu warriors.

Between 1825 and 1829 Mzilikazi moved to central Transvaal and established his new

capital at Emhlahlandlela. Here the raids were carried out to northern and central

Transvaal as well as Botswana and Lesotho. Cattle and captives were brought in from

these raids to swell the Ndebele herds and to increase the population. At this place

Mzilikazi met Robert Moffart (a missionary) and the two became friends. This place

was not safe for settlement as the Ndebele faced serious threats from Dingane’s army


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(Dingane ruled after the death of Tshaka). Serious threats also came from the Kora,

Khoisan, Griquas and Rolong warriors.

Thus Mzilikazi and the Khumalo moved further and settled at Egabeni along the Marico

River where they drove away the Hurutshe. At this place Robert Moffart revisited the

Ndebele and Dr Andrew Smith also visited the Ndebele for the first time. The Ndebele

raided the Basotho and the Taung but faced attacks from the Griqua-Tswana force

and the Boers.

At Mosega another settlement was established but short lived because the Ndebele

were attacked by the Boers, Tswana and the Zulu in 1838. Problems compelled

Mzilikazi and his group to move further north. Before crossing the Limpopo River the

Khumalo group split into two groups; one led by Mzilikazi, which went via Botswana

and the other led by Gundwane Ndiweni, which crossed to the Rozvi state.

Gundwane reached Western Zimbabwe and absorbed the local people such as the

Rozvi, Kalanga and the Venda. Mzilikazi had to return from Botswana to Matopos to

punish all those who had installed Nkulumane as the King, which was unacceptable

to Mzilikazi.

Problems faced by the Ndebele during their migration

The following are some of the problems faced by the Khumalo during their migration

to western Zimbabwe:

Separation with families as the Khumalo fled from Tshaka.

Lack of grazing land for their livestock.

Shortage of food due to droughts.

Wars with many groups such as the Pedi, Rolong, Griqua, Boers, etc.

Loss of life as many people were killed during the wars.

Loss of livestock as some of the cattle were raided by other people and some

cattle died due to tsetse flies.

Ndebele homes were burnt by other people.

Rebellion of some ambitious people.

Many people were affected by malaria.

They were attacked by wild animals.

Disruption of trade and farming activities.

They lived in constant fear of external attacks.

Many Khumalo women were captured by other groups.

Ndebele social structure

The Ndebele social structure was characterised by a complex social system made up

of three classes. The social groupings had different privileges and responsibilities in

the Ndebele society. At the very apex of the social pyramid stood Mzilikazi and the

members of the royal family called the Zansi class. This class was made up of the

original Khumalo who came from Nguniland. It was more of an elite group which

dominated political and military positions as well as having many privileges.


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Below the Zansi were the Enhla class which was made up of the incorporated groups

during the Ndebele migration e.g. the Sotho and the Tswana. This class constituted

25% of the total Ndebele population. The members of this class enjoyed fewer

privileges as compared to the abeZansi class.

At the bottom of the social pyramid were the amaHole class which comprised of the

local Shona and Kalanga whom the Ndebele had conquered when they entered

Zimbabwe. The members of this group enjoyed fewer rights and were subjected to

occasional Ndebele raids, although some historians dispute this. This class was a

source of labour to the Ndebele.

These two groupings were jealously preserved and marriages between the persons of

different classes were strongly disapproved. The Ndebele believed in high God whom

they called Umnkulunkulu.They also adopted the Rozvi Mwari whom they called Mlimo

and the Masvikiro whom they called Amadhlozi.

During disaster the Ndebele prayed to Amadhlozi to avert the disaster. Religious

leaders were highly reverenced as revealed by Mzilikazi and later Lobengula who paid

tribute to the Mwari people who stayed at Matonjeni and Uswa. The Ndebele people

were polygamous as they married many wives.

The Ndebele like the Zulu observed the Inxwala ceremony which was attended by all

the people and conducted at the King’s town. Many cattle were killed at this ceremony

which was often presided over by the King. The Ukulagisa system was practiced in

the Ndebele state. This system meant the distribution of cattle by the king to his

subjects for them to use without selling or killing them. That is how Bere and some

men under Gomara got Lobengula’s cattle. Thus the claim that the Ndebele king was

tyranny, savagery and unmerciful barbarian is both misleading and baseless.

Ndebele economic structure.

1. Raiding was an important economic activity. The army apart from being a

defence instrument, was also an instrument for creating wealth. Raids were

conducted to obtain cattle, grain and women. Raids were carried out in

Mashonaland, Zambezi and as far as Zambia. In Mashonaland, only those

chiefs who refused to pay tribute were raided.

2. Crop cultivation was the base of the Ndebele economy. Crops such as millet,

sorghum and Rapoko were grown. The Induna Enkulu and the chiefs were

responsible for the allocation of land. People were to provide labour in the

King’s field and communal work parties called Ilima were done. The agricultural

produce could be used in trade, ceremonies and payment of tribute.

3. Livestock production was another economic activity in the Ndebele state. Cattle

ownership was highly regarded in the Ndebele state. The King owned the

largest herd of cattle. The king could distribute his cattle to the subjects through

the Ukulagisa system. Cattle could be used to pay lobola, trade and to give to

the subjects as a reward. The Ndebele moved from one grazing area to another

in search of good grazing lands.


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4. Trade was conducted with the Whites and the local people like

Mashayamombe. In external trade the Ndebele got exotic items such as beads

and clothes. They traded with missionaries based at Inyathi and with hunters

such as John Lee and Wilson Asher as well as the Portuguese.

5. Tribute was paid to the King to show respect to the King. The Shona people of

the Chirimuhanzu dynasty paid tribute to the Ndebele. Tribute was paid inform

of spears, hides, clothes and beads. All those who refused to pay tribute were

raided by the Ndebele.

6. Hunting was done by the Ndebele to obtain ivory which would be used in foreign

trade. They also mined gold for trading and iron which was used by the

Blacksmiths.

NB For other economic activities refer to other precolonial states in Zimbabwe.

Ndebele political and military organization

The Ndebele state was centralised and covered a limited area of settlement. All

Ndebele settlements were located 80 km radius of the King’s village. The king was the

commander of the army, highest judge, chief administrator, religious leader and

distributor of captives.

The king presided over national ceremonies such as Inxwala. The king ruled with the

help of two advisory councils. The first was the Mphakati which was the highest

decision making body in the state and this body was made up of the members of the

Zansi. The second was the Izikulu which was made up of the individuals chosen on

merit. It included elders noted for their wisdom on tradition and customs. This

discussed important national issues before presenting to the Mphakati.

The Ndebele state was divided into regimental towns which include the Amanyama,

Amakanda, Amahlope and the Izigaba. Each settlement was a settlement of soldiers

and supporting civilians; and the leader of a town was called an Induna. The Induna

Enkulu (usually appointed from the Zansi class) was the leader of a province.

The chiefs had a duty of limited distribution of cattle and were bound to travel to the

royal town where they formed the advisory council. The Ndebele army was divided

into regiments. The young men could marry after the blessing of the king. The army

was used to raid the Shona, as well as to maintain law and order.

The town Indunas commanded the armies in towns. Tribute was paid to the King to

show loyalty. Lobengula (who ruled after Mzilikazi) was able to maintain his authority

over the Ndebele until his state was destroyed by the imperial forces in 1894.

Revision Questions

1. Identify six settlements established by the Khumalo on their way to Zimbabwe [6]

2. Describe the Ndebele migration to Zimbabwe [11]

3. To what extent were the Khumalo affected by their migration? [8]

4. Name the responsibilities of the Ndebele king [6]


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5. Describe the military and political organization of the Ndebele state [11]

6. To what extent was the Ndebele social structure beneficial to all the people? [8]

7. Describe the economic and social organisation of the Ndebele state [11]

Missionaries in Africa

Objectives

By the end of a deep study on the history of the missionaries in Africa, learners should be able to:

a. identify missionary groups who worked in Africa

b. name the aims of the missionaries in Africa

c. describe the work of various missionary organizations

d. describe why the local people resisted missionary influence

e. describe the role of the missionaries in the colonization of Zimbabwe

f. name the reasons why missionary work was a failure especially in Zimbabwe

Overview

In this topic I am going to explore the following subtopics: aims of the missionaries,

the work of different missionary groups, successes of the missionaries as well as their

failures. The learners should extensively study the role played by the missionaries in

the colonization of Zimbabwe and outline the reasons and methods used by the locals

to resist missionary influence.

Aims of the missionaries

to spread Christianity

to stop slave trade

to promote legitimate trade

to teach new farming methods

to teach new skills

to teach people to read and write

to civilise the local people

to promote European rule

to establish mission stations

Names of some missionaries who worked in Africa

Andre Hartmann

Peter Prestige

Father Kroot

William Sykes

Robert Laws

Knight Bruce

Charles Helm

John Smith Moffart


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Robert Moffart

David Livingstone

Michael Buys

William Allan Elliot

Francois Coillard

Some of the missionary groups/organizations

London Missionary Society

Roman Catholic Church

Dutch Reformed Church

Berlin Missionary Society

Paris Evangelical Mission

Anglican Church

The Methodists

Mission stations established in Zimbabwe

Inyathi Mission

Hope Fountain Mission

Empandeni Mission

Morgenster Mission

Gokomere mission

Mt Selinda Mission

Mnene Mission

St Lukes Mission

St Augustine Mission

Mutambara Mission

Problems faced by the Missionaries

Hostility of the locals to Christianity

Missionaries could not understand local languages

Climatic problems

Short supply of drugs when sick

Failure to win converts

Depending on local supply for food

Role played by the missionaries in colonization

Active supporters of European political control

Persuading local chiefs to sign treaties

Cheating African chiefs during negotiations for treaties

Gave Africans false sense of security

Accommodating concession seekers

Linking African chiefs with concession seekers

Skills taught by missionaries


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Carpentry

Farming

Teaching

Nursing

Preaching

Reading

Writing

Successes and failures of missionaries

They taught people to read and write

Enabled the colonization of Zimbabwe

Promoted trade between Whites and Blacks

Established schools and mission stations

Western education was introduced

siNdebele books and Shona grammar books were printed

however missionaries failed to convert the locals

they failed to stop some local customs and local religion

Missionary work in Zimbabwe

Missionaries preached against slave trade and slavery, twin destruction, body

tattooing, polygamy and traditional religion. Their preaching of equality made their

words to be unacceptable to the Ndebele people as their state was characterised by

three distinctive social classes.

The missionaries established mission stations, for example the London Missionary

Society established Inyathi Mission in 1859 and Hope Fountain Mission in 1870. The

Catholics opened missions at Empandeni near the present day Bulawayo.

Some of the missionary groups who established mission stations include; the Dutch

Reformed Church, the Roman Catholic Church, the Methodist Church and many

others. Mission stations established in Zimbabwe include Inyathi Mission, Mnene

Mission, Mutambara Mission, Marry Mount Mission and many others.

At mission stations, the missionaries, preached the gospel and taught other people to

be evangelists. Missionaries taught people to read and write, for the purpose of

reading the bible. Missionaries also initiated scientific and systematic study of local

languages and gave most of them in a written form.

The siNdebele books were written for the Ndebele children to read and the grammar

books were printed. For example in Zimbabwe the first grammar school was

established at Mt Selinda Mission and standard shone language was established.

Missionaries spent a great deal in training the Africans for various jobs such as

teaching, nursing and cultivation.


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Crops such as vegetables were introduced and new farming methods such as crop

rotation were also taught the locals. The Africans were exposed to new forms of

cleanliness. The missionaries established hospitals, boarding schools, churches and

training centres for the Africans. Thus missionary work was more of a blessing than a

curse to the Africans.

Missionaries were also involved in trade with the locals e.g. the missionaries at Inyathi

traded with the Ndebele. Missionaries were involved in inoculating cattle, repairing

guns, treating the sick and even writing letters on behalf of the African chiefs/ kings

e.g. Lobengula. In their political activities, missionaries were active supporters of

European colonialism.

They persuaded or cheat the African kings into agreeing to the terms of the concession

seekers e.g. the work of J S Moffart in 1888 and C Helm in October the same year

with Lobengula.

Ways / methods used by the locals to resist missionary influence

They moved away from missionary settlements and settled in far areas. They did not

abandon their traditional religion but rather continued. The Ndebele continued with

raids though the missionaries denounced raids.

The locals refused to attend missionary schools and they even continued with their

traditional education. Some of the missionaries were even killed by the locals blaming

them to be witches. The African leaders killed all those who accepted missionary

teaching or who attempted to accept e.g. in the Ndebele state.

The locals refused to give food to the missionaries and the locals even accursed

missionaries of being spies of the imperialists. The missionaries were even forbidden

to move freely talking with the local people. The African leaders expelled missionaries

and the African leaders discouraged the people to attend church services.

Study Questions

1. Why the locals resisted missionary influence from 1850? [11]

2. Describe the ways used by the locals to resist missionary influence as from 1850. [11]

3. To what extent did the Africans benefit from the work of the missionaries? [8]

4. Outline the activities of various missionary groups in Zimbabwe. [11]

5. How successful were the missionaries in achieving their aims? [8]

6. Identify the aims of the missionaries who came in Zimbabwe as from 1850. [6]

7. Describe the contribution of the missionaries towards the colonization of Zimbabwe. [11]

The Portuguese in the Zambezi


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Objectives

By the end of this topic learners should be able to:

a. name the reasons why the Portuguese entered the Zambezi Valley

b. name the methods used by the Portuguese to control the Mutapa state

c. identify the advantages of the Portuguese activities in the Mutapa

d. name the trading stations established by the Portuguese

e. describe the social, economic and political activities of the Portuguese in the Mutapa state

f. describe the Prazo-system introduced by the Portuguese

Overview

The Portuguese entered the Zambezi valley after the death of Gonzalo Da Silveira.

The discussion in this book covers the activities of the Portuguese in the Mutapa. The

Prazo system is extensively discussed. The learners are encouraged to study the

Portuguese activities separately, that is, economic activities, social activities and

political activities. Learners should be able to link the Portuguese activities and the

demise of the Mutapa state.

Why Portuguese entered the Zambezi valley?

The need for gold

To establish trading posts

To avenge the death of Gonzalo

To dislodge Moslems from the interior

To spread Christianity

To control trade routes

To get land for agriculture

To control the Mutapa state

They had been invited by the Mutapa kings

Places explored by Antonio Fernandez

Barwe

Manyika

Dande

Mbire

Guruuswa

Tete

Harare

Chegutu

Advantages of Portuguese activities to the Mutapa


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New crops were introduced

New weapons were brought in

Trading partners

Brought clothes

New farming methods

New mining methods

Aided the Mutapa against the enemies

Demerits of Portuguese activities to the Mutapa

Political interference

Slavery and slave trade

Forced labour

Loss of land

Abuse of women

Exploitation of the Mutapa people during trade

Undermining African culture

Trading posts established by the Portuguese

Massapa

Dambarare

Bucuto

Luanze

Sena

Tete

Masekesa

Effects of the Prazo system

It reduced the land controlled by the Mutapa

The Chikundas became extremely powerful

Slavery and slave trade emerged

It led to deAfricanization of African society

African chiefs lost their powers to the prazeros

New crops were introduced

Forced labour was introduced

Mutapa women were abused by the Prazeros

Some Portuguese Prazo holders

De Jesus Xavier

Jose De Araujo Lobo

Vicente Jose Ribeiro


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Jose Do Rosario Andrade

Sebastiao Moraes Almeida

Joao Lobo

Vicente Ribeiro Da Fonseca

The Prazo-system

Prazos were large land grants given to individual Portuguese by African chiefs in order

for them to be assisted during the times of war. Some prazos were taken through

treaties or through bribery, treachery or force. The owners of the prazos were called

the Prazeros and they often lived in luxury.

Most of the prazos were found in the area around Tete, Sofala and Chicoa. The

prazeros used African labour on their prazos and slavery was a common feature in the

prazos. The Portuguese on the prazos used private armies called the Chikundas. For

example Diego Simeos Madeira was the most Portuguese settler in the area leading

a private army of about 4000 soldiers.

The prazeros did what they pleased with the Mutapa women and such cohabitation

led to the produce of what is generally known as the Mulattos (coloured population).

Many Africans were tortured and even killed in the prazos for minor offenses. The

prazeros surrounded themselves with advisors and they supervised the election of the

local chiefs and headmen.

The prazeros weakened the powers of the Mutapa kings by claiming tribute and

ritualistic rights due to African chiefs. On prazos, the Portuguese controlled trade

through the use of the trading agents. The prazos were source of slaves during the

era of slave trade. Most slaves were exported to Brazil and Cuba. However the Prazo

system saw the introduction of new crops and new farming methods.

The Portuguese and the Mutapa

The Portuguese used various methods or ways in order to control the Mutapa state.

The following are some of the methods used by the Portuguese to gain control of the

Mutapa state:

They forced the Mutapa kings to expel the Swahili from the Mutapa state.

They established trade posts in the Mutapa state there by controlling the

economy of the Mutapa.

They controlled mining using forced labour.

They introduced the credit system whereby the locals were exploited.

They converted some of the Mutapa kings and their subjects (remember the

work of Gonzalo in 1560s)

The Portuguese encouraged and intervened in civil wars against or for the

ruling Mutapa kings.


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They married the Mutapa women thereby gaining the heart of the Kings and

they even enslaved Africans especially the prazeros.

They forced the Mutapa to pay them tribute, this was after the alliances with the

Mutapa kings such as Rusere and Mavhura.

The Portuguese helped to install the vassal chiefs. The installed chiefs were

usually loyal to the Portuguese.

They signed the treaties and concessions with the Mutapa kings where they

usually received much power in the state.

The Portuguese created the private armies known as the Chikundas and these

armies undermined the authority of the Mutapa kings.

The Portuguese established private prisons of which most prisoners were the

local people.

The Portuguese took large areas of land from the locals where they created the

prazos.

The Portuguese took administrative duties of the Mutapa kings such as land

allocation and later they refused to pay tribute to the Mutapa kings.

Portuguese Missionary work in the Interior

Father Gonzalo Da Silveira was the first Jesuit missionary to penetrate the interior. He

was able to convert a local chief in Southern Mozambique at Inhambane. After weeks

of preaching in the Mutapa, Gonzalo is said to have refused to accept the gifts of

women, food or gold from the Mutapa kings. This made some of the traditional religious

priests at the Mutapa’s court to regard him as a witch.

After long preaching, Gonzalo was able to steal the heart of Mutapa Mapunzagutu and

about 500 people at his court. These converts were then baptised signifying the

success of Gonzalo’s missionary work in the Mutapa. Evidence of Portuguese

missionary work was excavated by archaeologists at Khami and Dhlodhlo monuments.

A Dominican priest by the name Dos Santos also did provide evidence of Portuguese

missionary work in the interior.

Dos Santos described Tete as having 600 Christians and pointed out that Dominican

missionaries were allowed by the Mutapa to convert people and build the Churches.

The Dominican and Jesuit missionaries built church buildings and had congregations

at Massapa, Luanze and Bukuto.

The missionaries are said to have retreated to the coastal areas after the death of

Gonzalo. By 1590 the Portuguese missionaries are said to have baptised over 20000

people in the Zambezi area. The Portuguese missionaries are said to have moved

from Zambezi into Mashonaland where the Portuguese priests built churches at trade

centres.


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In 1607 the Jesuit missionaries returned and set up centres in the Zambezi and

expanded further into the interior. The puppet Mutapas such as Mavhura encouraged

Portuguese trade and missionary work in the Mutapa state.

The Portuguese priests are said to have preached and ran small mission schools in

Mashonaland and Manicaland. The sons of the Mutapa kings were sent to learn in

Portuguese schools at Sena, Tete as well as theological schools in Mozambique.

It is worth note that Portuguese missionary work benefited the local people as they

gained literacy as sons of the ruling class learnt at larger missionary school at Tete

and Sena. Some of the Shona evil practices such as twin killing were discouraged.

However Portuguese missionary work divided the Shona between traditionalists

(those who supported traditional religion) and converts to Christianity, hence

instability. This division was witnessed in the ministry of Father Gonzalo Da Silveira.

The scramble for Africa

Objectives

By the end of the topic learners should be able to:

a. identify European powers involved in the scramble for Africa

b. name the European Powers and their African colonies

c. describe the methods used by Europeans to colonize Africa

d. identify European agents in the colonization of Africa

e. outline the causes for scramble of Africa

f. describe the Berlin colonial conference

g. identify the results of the scramble

Overview

As from 1870s the European Powers changed their attitude towards Africa. They

started to be interested in extending their political influence outside Europe. Thus there

was a rush to annex the African colonies leading to a possibility of wars amongst the

Europeans. This led to the convening of the Berlin colonial conference which set rules

for the peaceful partition of Africa. In this topic I am going to cover the causes for

scramble, the course and the results of the scramble and partition of Africa.

European powers involved in the scramble for Africa

Portugal

Britain

Italy

Germany

Spain


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Belgium

France

European powers involved in the scramble for Southern Africa

Germany

Britain

Portugal

European powers and some of their African colonies

Britain [Zimbabwe, Zambia, Malawi, Lesotho, Kenya, Uganda, Nigeria, Ghana,

etc.]

France [Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco, Senegal, Mali, Guinea, etc.]

Germany [Cameroon, Tanzania, Rwanda, Namibia, etc.]

Portugal [Mozambique, Angola, etc.]

Italy [Somalia, Libya, Eritrea, etc.]

Belgium [Congo]

African kingdoms colonized during the scramble

Zulu

Ndebele

Kololo

Xhosa

Sotho

Gaza

Swazi

African leaders who sought British protection during the scramble

Mswati of the Swazi

Khama of Ngwato

Moshesh of the Basotho

Causes of the scramble for Africa.

The need for new markets

The need for raw materials

Need to export excess population

Need to show supremacy

Need to invest surplus capital

Need to solve problems at home

The effect of industrialization

Activities of merchants, traders, explorers and missionaries

The effect of scientific advances


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Methods used by Europeans to colonize Africa

Use of chartered companies

Use of concession seekers and hunters

Buying of agreements

Trickery

Bribery

Use of treaties

Use of missionaries

Use of force or wars

Use of explorers

Protectorate status

Results of the scramble and partition of Africa

New boundaries were created

New chiefs were installed

Loss of life

New systems of administration were introduced

Loss of chiefly prerogatives

Forced labour was introduced

Family disintegration

Infrastructure development

Complete removal of slave trade

Introduction of legitimate trade

Effective exploitation of African resources

Loss of independence

African culture was undermined

European agents in the colonization of Africa

C.J Rhodes from Britain

Karl Peters from Germany

De Brazza from France

Morton Stanley from Belgium

William Mackinnon from Britain

Harry Joston from Britain

Louis Faidherbe from France

Countries represented at the Berlin colonial conference of 1884-5

Britain

France

Germany


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Portugal

Belgium

Italy

Spain

Benefits of colonization to Southern Africa

Infrastructure development e.g. roads, railways etc.

Building of industries and creation of employment.

End of slave trade.

New farming methods were introduced e.g. irrigation, crop rotation.

Better weapons for defence were introduced.

New crops were introduced.

Better means of transport were introduced.

End of some barbaric African customs such as twin destruction.

Causes for the scramble and colonization of Africa

a) Economic reasons

After the Industrial Revolution, Europe produced more goods and there was

underconsumption. Hence there was a need to sell surplus goods and the

African continent found herself attracting to Europe.

Industries in Europe needed raw materials for them to continue functioning and

Africa offered the possibility of vast natural resources to feed European

industries, thus Africa was colonized to get resources.

Africa was also colonized because the European powers wanted to control

areas of economic interests, especially where minerals were found. The

discovery of gold and diamonds in South Africa appetized them to colonize

Africa. They suspected copper in Shaba province of Congo and gold in Ghana.

Africa was colonized to invest surplus capital in the continent. They wanted to

have a place where they could start their businesses. Thus Africa was a good

place uncivilized which meant to them no economic rivalry.

Industrialization resulted in new technology being introduced which enabled

them to conquer more lands. For example the invention of a steam ship made

movement of Europeans to Africa so easier leading to colonization.

b) Political factors

Africa was colonized to show supremacy. The acquisition of many colonies was

regarded as a sign of greatness. Thus many European Powers colonized Africa

to show that they were super Powers.

Political rivalry among the Europeans made Africa to be colonized. Sour or bad

relations between France and Germany made these countries to colonize Africa

to increase their strength and power in case of any eventuality.


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Strategic motives made the whole of Africa to be colonized. The annexation of

the Suez Canal in 1882 by Britain to ensure the security of her highways to the

Far East, made other European Powers to rush for territories of interests in

Africa.

The influence of individuals such as Bismarck, Leopold and Rhodes, made the

colonization of Africa inevitable. Bismarck for example convened the Berlin

colonial conference in 1884 from which the principle of effective occupation was

agreed. By such principle African territories were no escape from European

imperialism.

c) Social factors

Europeans scrambled in Africa in order to civilise it. Missionaries who worked

to bring civilisation in Africa worked together with imperialists and asked for

European governments to conquer Africa.

The need to stop slavery and slave trade made the colonization of Africa. Many

Europeans wanted to conquer African territories in order to silence slavery and

slave trade which were believed to have been part of people’s social life in

Africa.

Scramble was also caused by the need to export excess population. Most of

the land in Europe had been used during industrialisation. Hence the

Europeans wanted to free space in order to export part of the population and

Africa was found the best place.

The Berlin colonial conference 1884-1885

The years after 1870 saw many Europeans rushing in Africa to acquire colonies. There was no agreement as to how the partition of Africa was to be done. Hence there was the possibility of conflicts. Thus the conference was held in Germany aiming at putting rules to prevent conflicts among imperial powers. The one who called the conference was Otto Von Bismarck, a Germany Chancellor.

Terms agreed

All powers to enjoy freedom of navigation on major rivers that is Zambezi, Congo, Niger.

Before areas could be claimed as colonies, treaties would be signed with African chiefs.

Other imperial powers should be notified of any claim to allow them to make counter claims.

All claims to be followed by effective occupation in order to be valid.

The European powers were to stop slave trade in the areas occupied.

The Congo Region was recognised as belonging to Leopold of Belgium.

The conference stimulated the race for colonies in Africa hence the process which had begun earlier was speeded up in a peaceful atmosphere. Thus one can be lured to argue that the Berlin colonial conference to a larger extent should be blamed for the colonization of Southern Africa in particular and Africa as a whole in general.


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The competition for Southern Africa

The British, Germans, Portuguese and the Boers fiercely scrambled over the control of certain territories in Southern Africa. The Boers and the British competed for the control of Zimbabwe. Both of them wanted to expand north of thee Limpopo; the British from Cape while the Boers from Transvaal. This competition was erupted after the refusal of the Boers to be in the South African confederation under the British law. After the refusal it became a British policy to deter any Boer expansion.

Competition for the land between Zambezi and Limpopo is revealed by the signing of the Grobler treaty (of the Boers) with Lobengula in 1887, which was cancelled due to the signing of the Moffart treaty (of the British) in 1888. The British did not only barrier the Boers from expanding into Zimbabwe, but they stopped Boer Westward expansion by ensuring Bechuanaland to be a British protectorate.

Britain and Portugal also competed for the control of Eastern Zimbabwe. After the signing of the Rudd Concession, Rhodes claimed to have been given power to take over control of Mashonaland. However this did not go well with the Portuguese who wanted to use their long established trading relationship with the Shona to control Mashonaland and Manicaland from Mozambique. Many treaties were signed in the 1890s with the Shona chiefs by the Portuguese in an attempt to control Mashonaland, but Rhodes’ imperial stamina was unshaken.

The British and the Germans from Namibia both wanted to control Botswana and Matebeleland. The competition between the two powers was rife and Britain occupied Botswana as a protectorate state and this frustrated Germany’s efforts. By the Rudd concession and the war of dispossession, Britain was able to take control of Matebeleland. Thus the Germans failed to realise their imperial aims over Matebeleland.

The results of the scramble

1. Political Results

New boundaries were formed to suit the desires of the imperialists. Resistant chiefs were removed from power and new chiefs who were loyal to the imperialists were installed. There was loss of independence by Africans as they were subjected to colonial rule. East Africa was divided between Germany and Britain e.g. Britain got Uganda and Kenya while Germany got Tanganyika. New systems of administration were introduced e.g. the British introduced indirect rule, the Germans direct rule while the Portuguese introduced assimilation.

2. Economic results

The locals were recruited to work in farms and mines of the Europeans. Forced labour was introduced to the Africans. The Africans were deprived of their land. Taxation was introduced to Africans as a way of taking wealth from the locals. Infrastructure developed in administration centres such as Salisbury (modern day Harare). Legitimate trade was introduced after the complete wiping up of slave trade. There was maximum exploitation of resources such as ivory, rubber and minerals by the Whites. Agriculture was promoted and developed and some crops introduced became the export base for many African states.


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3. Social results

Local families who had history were broken and separated e.g. after the colonization of Southern Africa the Shona people fell some in Mozambique and others in Zimbabwe. There was loss of life especially when the Europeans used force to silence the resisting chiefs. African culture was undermined and western practices began to dilute the social way of life of the Africans.

Questions for revision

1. Describe the economic causes for the scramble and partition of Africa [11]

2. Outline the terms of the Berlin colonial conference [11]

3. To what extent did the Berlin colonial conference lead to the scramble for Africa? [8]

4. Describe the competition for Southern Africa by the European Powers [11]

5. Outline the results of the scramble and partition of Africa [11]

The colonization of Zimbabwe

Objectives

By the end of this topic learners should be able to:

a. name the reasons for the colonization of Zimbabwe b. describe the stages taken by Rhodes in the colonization of Zimbabwe c. describe the Grobler treaty, Moffart treaty and the Rudd concession

Overview

The process of colonizing Zimbabwe began in the 1880s with the increasing influx of the Whites in the country. In 1897 Zimbabwe was completely colonized by the British after fierce wars often called the wars of resistance. In this book I am going to cover the causes for the colonization of Zimbabwe, the treaties signed with Lobengula, the Pioneer column up to the first Chindunduma generally known as the first Chimurenga.

Reasons for the colonization of Zimbabwe

the need for minerals

a strategy to stop Boer expansion

the Cape to Cairo dream

to compensate false investments in Rand

activities of missionaries, hunters and traders

the need for markets

the need for a place to settle

the need for land

the need to invest surplus capital

British people who were involved in the colonization of Zimbabwe

Rhodes C.J

Colonel Pennefather

Charles Rudd

Rockford Maguire

Francis Thomson


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Frank Johnson

F.C Selous

Allan Wilson

J.S Moffart

Stages in the colonization of Zimbabwe

Moffart treaty 1888

Rudd Concession 1888

Royal Charter 1889

Formation of the BSAC 1890

Jameson’s Party to Lobengula 1890

The Pioneer Column 1890

The war of dispossession 1893-1894

The first Chimurenga 1896-1897

The treaties signed with Lobengula

Tati concession 1870

Grobler treaty 1887

Moffart treaty 1888

Rudd concession 1888

Lipert treaty 1890

Forts built by the BSAC in Zimbabwe

Fort Tuli

Fort Victoria

Fort Charter

Fort Salisbury

Fort Usher

Fort Rixon

Fort Melsetter

Fort Martin

Contribution of Rhodes towards the colonization of Zimbabwe

Financed the colonization from the Moffart treaty to the First Chimurenga

Organised the BSAC

Recruited the Pioneers

Sought the Royal Charter

Organized the war against the locals

Companies and people who gave financial support to Rhodes to colonize Zimbabwe

De Beers (company)

Rothschilds (company)

Goldfields Consolidated (company)

The Duke of Fife

The Duke of Abercorn

The Prince of Wales


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Lord Salisbury

Why Lobengula failed to stop the colonization of Zimbabwe

Rhodes bribed many people

Lipert cheated Lobengula

Lobengula’s Indunas misled him

Missionaries cheated Lobengula

Lobengula was illiterate

The Boers did not aid the Ndebele

Military leaders of the BSAC Forces during the 1893-1894

Major Forbes

Captain Lendy

Colonel Gold Adams

Captain Barrow

Captain Raaf

Major Heanry

Allan Wilson

Causes of the Anglo-Ndebele war

Jameson boundary

Conflict over the Shona

Failure to find gold in Mashonaland

Company shares fell

Company desire for the second Rand

Ndebele raids

Shona refusal to pay tax

Settler desire to destroy the Ndebele state

The Victorian incident

Causes of the First Chimurenga

Brutality of the BSAC policemen

Loss of land

Loss of cattle

Ill-treatment of Shona workers

Forced labour

Hut tax

Natural disasters

Loss of independence

Loss of trade

Abuse of women

The role of religion

African leaders involved in the First Chimurenga

Zvimba

Chinamora


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Seke

Mapondera

Zhanda

Nyandoro

Mashayamombe

Hwata

Chiwese

Nyamweda

Kaguvi

Nehanda

Chihota

Mangwende

Religious leaders involved in the First Chimurenga

Kaguvi

Mkwati

Siginyamatshe

Bonda

Chifamba

Mabwani

Nehanda

Reasons for the defeat of the natives in the First Chimurenga

Inferior weapons of the locals

The capture of Shona leaders

Lack of unity among the locals

Lack of strategy

Superior weapons of the Whites

The Whites were helped by other Powers

Ndebele surrender

Hunger and starvation

Scotched earthy policy of the Whites

Causes for the colonization of Zimbabwe

1. The British colonized Zimbabwe because they wanted mineral resources such as gold. Zimbabwe was regarded as a second Rand and the British occupied the territory in order to exploit the minerals.

2. Faulty investments in the Rand made Rhodes to be interested in colonizing Zimbabwe. After the failure to successfully invest in Luapardvlei, Rhodes colonized Zimbabwe to compensate the losses which he suffered.

3. Zimbabwe was colonized as a British strategy to force the Boers to accept the British scheme of South African Confederation under the British law. The Boers had refused to join the British, and after this the British were determined to colonise areas north Limpopo to stop the expansion of the Boers northwards.

4. Zimbabwe was colonized as part of the fulfilment of the Cape to Cairo project by Rhodes. Rhodes was an imperialist who wanted to control vast lands in


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Africa from South Africa to Cairo. Thus Zimbabwe was no exception in this project.

5. Missionaries caused the colonization of Zimbabwe. The protestant ideology of missionaries all pressed them towards supporting the colonization of Zimbabwe. After their failure to convert any single soul in Matebeleland, missionaries started to make clarion calls for the colonization of Zimbabwe. This attracted many imperialists leading to the colonization of the state.

6. Zimbabwe was colonized in order to enable the settlement of the Whites. The land which was promising high agricultural productivity and the pastures of Matebeleland well for cattle ranching, all impressed the British to colonize Zimbabwe.

7. Racist tendencies that was high during the 19th century also explain why Zimbabwe was colonized. Rhodes believed the British to be the finest race in the world. Thus he colonized Zimbabwe and other countries in order to civilise what he labelled barbaric race of Africa.

The Grobler treaty 1887

The Transvaal government of the Boers wanted to expand north Limpopo after the discovery of gold at Witwatersrand. They believed that Zimbabwe had vast gold deposits more even to that of the Rand. Paul Kruger sent Peter Grobler to Lobengula to discuss for a friendly treaty and Kruger’s envoys agreed the following with Lobengula, King of the Ndebele:

a. Lobengula was to be a friend of the Boers b. Hunters and traders from Transvaal were to be allowed to operate freely in

Matebeleland. c. The Transvaal government was allowed to maintain permanent representatives

at Bulawayo. d. Lobengula agreed to provide military aid to the Boers against the British. e. The Boers were to help Lobengula against his enemies f. Lobengula agreed to catch and hand back all the criminals who escaped from

Transvaal g. Lobengula was not allowed to administer the Boers. Thus the content of the

treaty was entirely in favour of the Boers.

The signing of this treaty triggered the scrambled for Zimbabwe as many concession seekers streamed into the country. The treaty alarmed the British who did not want to see Zimbabwe falling into the hands of the Boers. The British then sent JS Moffart to Lobengula leading to the cancelling of the Grobler treaty and the signing of the Moffart treaty.

The Moffart Treaty 1888

The main purpose of Moffart’s mission was to reverse the Gobbler treaty of 1887 and to bring Matebeleland into the British sphere of influence as a step towards the British occupation of Zimbabwe. The treaty was signed by Lobengula and John Smith Moffart in February 1888.

Moffart was sent because he was the son of Robert Moffart who had been friended Lobengula’s father during the 1820s. It was hoped that this relationship would help to


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oil the wills of diplomacy. It affirmed that peace and amity should continue to prevail between the British and the Ndebele.

Lobengula was persuaded to make no dealing with any other foreign power without the knowledge and permission of the British High commissioner or Lobengula promise that if and when he tended to cede any land to another imperial power, he must consult the British first.

Lobengula had no intention to cede land to another imperial power and thus probably why he signed. It brought the British a step forward towards the colonisation of Zimbabwe. In order for the British to safeguard or consolidate their position they now sought for another concession from Lobengula. It eliminated other players in the scramble for Zimbabwe. This was called the Rudd concession.

The Rudd Concession 1888

Rhodes was not satisfied about the terms of the Moffart treaty, he thus sent a delegation of three people to negotiate for a mineral treaty with Lobengula. These envoys include Charles Rudd (a friend of Lobengula), Rockford Maguire (a lawyer) and Francis Thomson (a fluent Nguni Speaker). A close scrutiny can leave none with doubt that the organization of a delegation reveals that Lobengula was a victim of calculated deception. Charles Helm a missionary also misled the Ndebele king into signing the Rudd concession. Pressure to sign the legal document came also from Lobengula’s trusted Indunas, Lotshe and Sikombo, who had been bribed by the Whites. Thus the signing of the Rudd concession followed an incredible saga of chicanery. The following were the written terms (non-verbal) and non-written (verbal terms) of the Rudd concession:

a) Written terms

Lobengula was to receive 100 pounds (British money) per month

Lobengula was to be given 1000 rifles (guns)

Lobengula was also to be given 100 000 rounds of ammunition (bullets)

A gunboat was to be placed in the Zambezi River

The whites were allowed to do what they deem necessary

The Whites were granted all metals and minerals in Matebeleland b) Non written terms

Lobengula promised that no more than ten men would enter his kingdom.

He promised that those entering the Ndebele kingdom would follow the Ndebele laws/rules.

If and when acquired to do so, those entering the kingdom would assist Lobengula in defending his state.

No entrance of men and machinery into the Ndebele kingdom before the payment of first instalment of the guns promised.

The concession to be published in newspaper for the world to know.

The Whites were to dig one hole and return back to South Africa.

With such promises which were not fulfilled later, Lobengula was made to sign the Rudd concession with Reverend Helm as the witness. Lobengula was cheated and he realised this later and he tried to carry out a desperate remedy for a desperate situation in order to stop the colonization of Zimbabwe.


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How far were the missionaries to blame for the signing of the Rudd Concession?

Describe the events for the signing of the Rudd Concession.

Reaction of Lobengula after the Rudd concession

After E.A Maund informed Lobengula that he had been cheated by Rhodes’s men, he wrote a letter to Rhodes complaining about the Rudd concession. He also wrote a letter to the British High Commissioner based in Botswana. He also sent two emissaries to the Queen in England accompanied by Maund. Lobengula even killed his two Indunas, Lotshe and Sikombo, because they had misled the king into signing the Rudd Concession. Lobengula invited many explorers to explain to him about the Rudd Concession. He continued to emphasize the verbal agreements of the Rudd concession to those at his court. Lobengula publicly denounced the Rudd concession and a search party was sent after Maguire. Lobengula finally signed the Lipert treaty to frustrate Rhodes. However despite Lobengula’s efforts to stop the colonization of Zimbabwe, the diplomacy of Rhodes as well as missionary chicanery made the colonization of Zimbabwe predetermined.

The Royal Charter 1889

After the Rudd concession, Rhodes wasted no time in seeking a royal charter from the British Queen. A charter is an official document from a Queen granting somebody a permission to do something on behalf of a certain government. The charter was granted to Rhodes in October 1889 by the Queen. The Charter granted Rhodes and his group the following:

(a) To promote good governance (b) To preserve peace and order (c) To issue mining concessions (d) To grant plots of land (e) To establish banks (f) To make roads, railways and telegraphs (g) To promote trade and commerce (h) To promote civilization (i) To respect the local customs, laws and religion (j) To ban the sale of liquor to the locals (k) To abolish slave trade

By the provisions of the charter the result was that Rhodes and his group were given all power to take over and rule the region to the north of Limpopo. Another result was the formation of the BSAC which was to invade Zimbabwe.

The Pioneer Column

Having obtained the charter, Rhodes wasted no time in organizing a party which was to occupy the land between Zambezi and Limpopo for the first time. Adverts were sent throughout the entire world as far as to Canada and from many applicants only 200 were selected. Those who were suitable were aged 30 years and below and were supposed to have African experience. Those who were selected fell under the pay roll


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of Rhodes. The members of the Pioneer Column represented various skills, there were teachers, nurses, blacksmiths, carpenters, miners, farmers, bakers as well as traders. Rhodes promised each member of the Column a farm of 3000 acres as well as 15 gold mines on reaching Mashonaland. The occupation of Mashonaland was to be carried in a form of military invasion. Thus the Pioneers were accompanied by a police force of about 500, which was led by Colonel Pennefather together with Barrow and Heanry as juniors. The work of the police Force was to crush any resistance from the local people. Khama of Botswana also aided the Pioneers with soldiers. The leader of the Pioneers was Frank Johnson and the guider was Fredrick Courtney Selous who previously hunted in Zimbabwe.

The march to Mashonaland started in early1890 with goods of the Pioneers carried by about 117 ox wagons. In June the Pioneers crossed Moloutsie River while in July the same year they crossed Shashi River. The Ndebele Amabutho wanted to vent out their exasperations as they saw the incoming of the Pioneers, but Lobengula restrained them because he clearly understood the detrimental effect of the White gun. On their way the Pioneers erected laagers in case of any eventuality and they built Forts such as Fort Tuli, Fort Victoria and Fort Charter. On September 12 1890, the Pioneers reached Harare. The Shona people received them as Vaeni. From that day up to 18 April 1980, the country was a colony of Britain for 90 years

The war of Dispossession 1893-1894

Causes

1. The company wanted to destroy the Ndebele kingdom because it symbolise the independent African state.

2. The British settlers under Doctor Jameson the residence commissioner and the Ndebele had divergent interest over the Shona people. The Ndebele regarded the Eastern part of Zimbabwe as part of their tributary state system whiles the company and the white settler farmers saw the Eastern part as their source of labour.

3. Jameson thought the solution was on drawing and defining a boundary where the Western part was Matebeleland and Eastern part Mashonaland under whites. The problem was that it kept shifting into Matebeleland and Lobengula was not willing to confine his raids within the Western part.

4. Arrival and settlement of white settlers in Eastern Zimbabwe interfered with Ndebele tributary. Some Shona chiefs thought that an end to Ndebele raids. Some stopped paid annual tribute e.g. chief Nemakonde and chief Chivi and were killed for failure to submit to the Ndebele rule. To the British such acts were unacceptable because they interfered with the British activities as the Shona were their main source of cheap labour on their farms.

5. The BSAC envied Ndebele land and Cattle at the same time they were hoping to discover gold, they had found little amount of gold in Mashonaland and the company shares were failing.

6. The existence of large of large and powerful independent Africa State i.e. Ndebele was greatly resented by the settlers who viewed it as a symbol of Africa independence. They also thought that it would have a negative influence of Africans under their control.


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7. The Victoria incident- this incident took place following an attempt by Lobengula to asset his authority over his tributary state system. 1892 incident occurred in and around Masvingo which was a potentially wealthy agriculture branching and mining. The white settlers were engaged in farming and mining using Shona as labourers. In May 1893 chief Gomara used Lobengula cattle to pay a fine to the British when his men had cut and carried away about 500 yards of telegraph wire. In the meantime Chief Bere took belonging to Lobengula. A primitive expedition was sent by Lobengula with strict instruction to avoid clashes with the settlers.

In July 1893 a raid was carried out, homes burnt, man killed and women and girls driven in the neighbourhood of Fort Victoria. Farms and mines in Eastern were deserted of African labour force. As a result economic activities came to stand still. Jameson ordered Ndebele to leave the area within two hours but the Ndebele failed to withdraw on time resulting in skirmishes between them and the white forces. Eleven Ndebele worries were killed and the rest fled. Sensing victory the settlers now demanded full scale war in order to destroy the Ndebele kingdom once and for all.

Course of the war

The Victorian Incident made the war between the Whites and the Ndebele to break

out. The settlers who volunteered to fight the Ndebele were promised 2469 hectares

of land each and a herd of cattle. The Whites were aided by Khama with the soldiers

to fight the Ndebele. The war started in October 1893 with the Ndebele being

numerically superior, but using poor weapons such as spears. The Whites were armed

with guns and modern weapons as well as horses which increased their mobility. The

Whites under the command of William Forbes moved from Iron Hill Mine heading

towards Bulawayo. The Ndebele intelligent units watched the movements of the

Whites. The Whites built a laager on 25 October to rest after they crossed the

Shangani River. Early in the morning the Whites were attacked by the Ndebele

Amabutho and many Shona collaborators were killed because they were sleeping

outside the laager.

However the Amabutho were repelled after several hours of fighting. The Whites

moved further and built another Laager near Mbembesi River on 31 October. The

Ndebele also attacked the Whites but they were successfully repelled by the Whites.

Many Ndebele soldiers were killed at this battle. The Whites wanted to storm Bulawayo

and capture the Ndebele king Lobengula responded by setting his capital on fire and

then escaped northwards The Whites captured the city and then raised their Union

Jerk on November 4 1893. Jameson ordered the pursuit of Lobengula because he

thought that if the king was not captured, he [Lobengula] would continue encouraging

the Amabutho to fight on.

The Pursuit of Lobengula (Allan Wilson’s Party)

On 3 November Bulawayo fell to the BSAC Forces and Lobengula fled northwards.

Jameson ordered Forbes and Captain Raaf to pursue and capture the Ndebele King.

On December 3 Major Forbes and his Forces reached Lobengula’s Shangani Camp.


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The BSAC found out that Lobengula had quickly abandoned his camp and they failed

to catch up with him. Fearing to be captured, Lobengula sent two chiefs to the pursuers

with a piece of message pleading for peace. Lobengula’s surrender message and gold

did not reach Forbes and the latter continued searching for Lobengula. Forbes and his

Forces camped at Shangani. Forbes assigned Wilson and his group of 21 men to go

further and find Lobengula’s direction. Allan Wilson’s Forces caught up with

Lobengula’s fleeing Party on the Western side of the River. Wilson requested

reinforcement but Forbes did not comply. Instead he dispatched Barrow with 20 men

without instructing them whether they were a support unit or another attacking Force.

Barrow’s Force joined Allan Wilson’s group on 4 December and together the White

Forces attacked Lobengula’s group. Lobengula’s group attacked the White Forces and

Barrow together with Wilson were killed, except 3 Whites who fled. Forbes did not

assist his colleagues because the River was dangerously flooded. On December 5,

Forbes and the rest retreated and they never captured Lobengula.

Results

Matebeleland was opened up for white settlement signifying complete colonization of

Zimbabwe. The white settlers were given land grants, thus 6350 acres and 20 gold

claims plus part of Ndebele cattle, as a reward for being involved in the war. Two

reserves namely Gwai and Shangani were created by Ndebele and were dry infertile

hot tsetse infested. The rest of the Ndebele cattle were taken over by the company by

virtue of conquest, only 40000cattle were left to the Ndebele. White settlement brought

taxation, forced labour and other forms of political and exploitation. New

communication channels were developed in Bulawayo. Telegraph line was erected

which linked Bulawayo with Cape Town. Trading stores, Banks and new houses were

established. A printed paper was produced.

Activity

1. Give an account of the pursuit of Lobengula by the BSAC Force after the fall of Bulawayo [11]

2. Did this pursuit benefit the BSAC? [8]

Who is to blame for the Anglo-Ndebele war?

The Whites played a part in causing the war of dispossession, hence they are to blame. Jameson kept on shifting the boundary to the side of the Ndebele. More so the time given to Manyao and Mgandani was short and it was very difficult for the Amabutho to move out of Masvingo. The Whites also deliberately delayed the letter sent by Lobengula soliciting for peace. There was a secret arrangement between the BSAC and volunteers to destroy the Ndebele state. The Amajaha are also to blame because they were restless trying to vent out their exasperations.

The First Chindunduma/Chimurenga 1896-7

Causes


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The Ndebele regarded Gwai and Shangani reserves as graveyards.

The Ndebele cattle were taken by the Whites after the war of dispossession.

Both the Ndebele and the Shona were subjected to taxation e.g. hut tax.

The use of Shona police angered the Ndebele who regarded the Shona as inferior.

Both the Shona and the Ndebele were subjected to forced labour in mines and farms.

Usurpation of chiefly prerogatives, that is, the local chiefs were deprived of their duties such as land allocation.

There was loss of independence as the locals were subjected to colonial rule.

The Whites were brutal to both the Shona and the Ndebele.

Natural disasters such as drought, rinderpest and locust made the native to fight against the Whites as they were misinterpreted by the religious leaders.

The Shona were angered by the loss of their trade with the Portuguese.

Jameson Raid gave the Ndebele an opportunity to attack the isolated White farms.

Course/events of the war

a. Course/events of Ndebele Risings

The war started in March 1896 when the Ndebele learned that Jameson and the White Forces were on a military expedition against the Transvaal government. In few weeks of March many Whites were killed by the Ndebele Amabutho and the Whites were scattered about the country at farms and mines. In the last week of March 122 White men, 5 women and 3 children were murdered in isolated homesteads and camps.

The Amajaha also killed the Shone labourers who worked in farms and mines of the Whites. The Ndebele were armed with traditional weapons such as arrows, bows, assegais, axes and knobkerries. By early April White survivors were in fortified camps at Bulawayo and Gwelo (present day Gweru). The religious leaders such as Mabwani, Umlugulu and Mkwati influenced the Ndebele to drive the Whites out of the country as they blamed then for natural calamities such as drought, rinderpest and locusts.

The religious leaders influenced the Amajaha to deliberately leave the road to the South open so that the Europeans might have the opportunity of escaping. In April 02 Major Plummer was appointed to command the Matebele Relief Force. As from April 28 the Matebele soldiers were driven out of Bulawayo. The Amabutho had nothing to do, but all they could do was to hold out in the tangle of granite kopjes that is Matopo Hills.

The Whites tried to starve the Ndebele, but it was difficult because another uprising began in Mashonaland. Rhodes was determined to make peace with the Ndebele and then concentrate all the resources against Mashonaland. This led to the Indaba peace talks

The Indaba Agreement

The war continued unabated and Rhodes was worried because:

The fighting was costing the BSAC a lot of money.

The mines were not working and the BSAC was losing its profits.


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The Whites were fighting war from two fronts i.e. Matebeleland and Mashonaland.

Rhodes decided to talk with the Natives. The Ndebele also wanted peace with the White because the villages, crops and grain stores were being burned by the Whites. In August 1896, Rhodes and the Ndebele Indunas had a meeting and agreed the following:

Rhodes promised that the Ndebele could return to their lands if they agreed to stop fighting.

Rhodes chose 10 Indunas who would be paid a monthly salary.

The trial of the Ndebele officials who committed crimes in the war.

Mwari cult officials should be punished for their role in the war.

The Ndebele weapons were to be submitted to the settler government.

Rhodes would give the Ndebele grain, food as well as seeds.

By this agreement the Ndebele lost freedom and independence. Their arms were lost to the Whites and leaders were tried and sentenced to death. The Whites therefore benefited at this agreement.

b. The Shona Uprising June 1896

The war started in June in Mashayamombe area. Eurocentric historians argues that the Shona rose against the Whites because they feared to be punished by the Ndebele, thereby overlooking the real causes of the first Chimurenga. In few weeks the White farmers, miners, traders and prospectors were killed by the Shona. The Shona used guerrilla warfare and inferior weapons such as spears against the Whites who used Maxim guns and Dynamites.

The Whites established laagers for protection against spears. The Shona could attack the Whites and retreated in the caves. Such battle tactic made it difficult for the Whites to quickly defeat the Shona. The Shona were united by religious leaders such as Mkwati, Kaguvi, Nehanda, Bonda and Chifamba.

However some the Shona did not fight against the Whites, but for the Whites. Such collaborators include Chirimuhanzu, Zimuto and Matiki. The Whites were aided by Britain and Botswana to fight the Shona. This made the Whites to have upper hand during the zenith of the Chimurenga. The Whites finally used the scotched earthy policy to starve the natives and those who hid in the caves were dynamited, for example, Makoni in his Gwindingwi. The capture of religious leaders such as Kaguvi and Nehanda made the Shona to surrender in 1897.

The Chimurenga and religious Leaders

The spirit mediums were behind the Ndebele-Shona risings. The spirit mediums like Nehanda, Kaguvi and Mkwati coordinated the war. The religious leaders motivated the fighters e.g. Umlugulu and other spirit mediums prophesised that the Whites were doomed and would be driven out of the country.

Mlimo’s messages influenced the fighters to expect supernatural help from Mlimo (God). Thus religious leaders maintained morale among the fighters. The religious leaders in Matebeleland also planned the timing of the Ndebele uprising. It coincided with the Jameson Raid of 1896 when the Police Force was on a military expedition


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against the Transvaal. The religious leaders influenced the Maungwe passage to be left open for the Whites to use it in escaping. However this led to the defeat of the locals as this route was used by the Whites to bring in reinforcement from outside. Mkwati, Kaguvi and Siginyamatshe played an organizing role during the war e.g. Siginyamatshe organised in an area South of Bulawayo, Nehanda in Mazoe, Kaguvi in Chegutu.

The religious leaders commanded the soldiers to fight the Whites e.g. the rising in Matebeleland started in March under the High Command of Umlugulu. The religious leaders such as Mkwati tried to unify the Shona and the Ndebele against the Whites. They gave medicines to the soldiers which would give them some psychological advantages during the war.

Results

The Natives were defeated.

Many natives died, but the number of the Whites was few.

Trade and agriculture was disrupted.

A system which was to check African ill-treatment was established.

Hut tax was reduced.

Effective control of the colony began.

Many locals turned to Christianity to follow Western culture.

More reserves were created.

A land commission was established.

There was railway expansion from Mafeking to Harare and from Beira to Harare, and Bulawayo line reached Harare in 1897.

Britain decided to monitor and control the operation of the BSAC in Rhodesia by stationing the Commandant General and the British High Commissioner.

The Chimurenga had effect of delaying the development of modern politics in this country.

Peace settlement called the Indaba Agreement was negotiated between Rhodes and the Ndebele Indunas.

Reasons for Shona-Ndebele defeat

The use of inferior weapons such as bows and arrows, etc.

Superior weapons used by the Whites such as guns made the Natives to be easily defeated.

Lack of unit among the Natives, the locals fought separately i.e. the Shona alone while the Ndebele alone.

Collaboration with the Whites made the defeat of the Natives inevitable.

The Natives lacked strategy as vital routes through which the Whites received reinforcement were left open.

The White received aid from Botswana, Britain and South Africa.

Economic crises made the Natives to surrender.

o level study guide for zimbabwean history upto 1897

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