edited by

Ofer Bar-Yosef&

François R. Valla

InternatIonal Monographs In prehIstory

Archaeological Series 19

Natufian Foragers in the Levant

Terminal Pleistocene Social Changes in Western Asia

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Natufian foragers in the Levant : terminal Pleistocene social changes in Western Asia / edited by Ofer Bar-Yosef & François Valla. pages cm. -- (Archaeological series / International Monographs in Prehistory ; 19) Papers from a symposium held in 2009. Includes bibliographical references. ISBN 978-1-879621-45-9 (paperback : acid-free paper) -- ISBN 978-1-879621-46-6 (hard cover : acid-free paper) 1. Natufian culture--Middle East--Congresses. 2. Hunting and gathering societies--Middle East--Congresses. 3. Pleistocene-Holocene boundary--Congresses. 4. Social archaeology--Middle East--Congresses. 5. Social change--Middle East--History--To 1500--Congresses. 6. Excavations (Archaeology)--Middle East--Congresses. 7. Middle East--Antiquities--Congresses. I. Bar-Yosef, Ofer. II. Valla, François Raymond. GN774.3.N38N28 2013 306.3›640956--dc23 2013035516

© 2013 by International Monographs in PrehistoryAll rights reserved

Printed in the United States of AmericaAll rights reserved

Paperback:ISBN 978-1-879621-45-9Hard Cover:ISBN 978-1-879621-46-6

This book is printed on acid-free paper. ∞

International Monographs in PrehistoryAnn Arbor, MichiganU.S.A.

Printed with the support of the American School of Prehistoric Research (Peabody Museum, Harvard University)

Table of Contents

List of Contributors ................................................................................................................... vii

Preface – The Natufian Culture in the Levant: Twenty Years LaterOfer Bar-Yosef and François R. Valla ...............................................................................xv

Acknowledgements ....................................................................................................................xix

Northern Levant

Natufian Lifeways in the Eastern Foothills of the Anti-Lebanon MountainsNicholas J. Conard, Knut Bretzke, Katleen Deckers, Andrew W. Kandel, Mohamed Masri, Hannes Napierala, Simone Riehl and Mareike Stahlschmidt ..............................1

The Natufian of Moghr el-Ahwal in the Qadisha Valley, Northern LebanonAndrew Garrard and Corine Yazbeck ..............................................................................17

The Natufian of Southwestern Syria Sites in the Damascus ProvinceKurt Felix Hillgruber ........................................................................................................28

The Natufian Occupations of Qarassa 3 (Sweida, Southern Syria)Xavier Terradas, Juan José Ibáñez, Franck Braemer, Lionel Gourichon and Luis C. Teira ...................................................................................................................................45

The Early Natufian Site of Jeftelik (Homs Gap, Syria)Amelia del Carmen Rodríguez Rodríguez, Maya Haïdar-Boustani, Jesús E.González Urquijo, Juan José Ibáñez, Michel Al-Maqdissi, Xavier Terradasand Lydia Zapata ..............................................................................................................61

Fish in the Desert? The Younger Dryas and its Influence on the Paleoenvironment at Baaz Rockshelter, Syria

Hannes Napierala .............................................................................................................73

Preliminary Results from Analyses of Charred Plant Remains from a Burnt Natufian Building at Dederiyeh Cave in Northwest Syria

Ken-ichi Tanno, George Willcox, Sultan Muhesen, Yoshihiro Nishiaki, YousefKanjo and Takeru Akazawa..............................................................................................83

Southern Levant

El-Wad

Spatial Organization of Natufian el-Wad through Time: Combining the Results of Past and Present Excavations

Mina Weinstein-Evron, Daniel Kaufman and Reuven Yeshurun ...................................88

iv

The Last Natufian Inhabitants of el-Wad TerraceNoga Bachrach, Israel Hershkovitz, Daniel Kaufman and MinaWeinstein-Evron..............................................................................................................107

Domestic Refuse Maintenance in the Natufian: Faunal Evidence from el-Wad Terrace, Mount Carmel

Reuven Yeshurun, Guy Bar-Oz, Daniel Kaufman and Mina Weinstein-Evron ...........118

Natufian Green Stone Pendants from el-Wad: Characteristics and Cultural ImplicationsDaniella E. Bar-Yosef Mayer, Naomi Porat and Mina Weinstein-Evron ......................139

Eynan

The Final Natufian Structure 215-228 at Mallaha (Eynan), Israel: an Attempt at Spatial Analysis

François R. Valla, Hamoudi Khalaily, Nicolas Samuelian, Anne Bridault, Rivka Rabinovich, Tal Simmons, Gaëlle Le Dosseur and Shoshana Ashkenazi ....................146

A Study of two Natufian Residential Complexes: Structures 200 and 203 at Eynan (Ain Mallaha), Israel

Nicolas Samuelian ..........................................................................................................172

Graves in Context: Field Anthropology and the Investigation of Interstratified Floors and Burials

Fanny Bocquentin, Teresa Cabellos and Nicolas Samuelian ........................................185

Obsidian in Natufian Context: the Case of Eynan (Ain Mallaha), IsraelHamoudi Khalaily and François R. Valla ......................................................................193

Flint Knapping and its Objectives in the Early Natufian. The Example of Eynan- Ain Mallaha (Israel)

Boris Valentin, François R. Valla and Hugues Plisson with the collaboration of Fanny Bocquentin ...........................................................................................................203

Searching for the Functions of Fire Structures in Eynan (Mallaha) and their Formation Processes: a Geochemical Approach

Ramiro J. March ..............................................................................................................227

Avifauna of the Final Natufian of EynanTal Simmons ....................................................................................................................284

Bone Ornamental Elements and Decorated Objects of the Natufian from MallahaGaëlle Le Dosseur and Claudine Maréchal ...................................................................293

Reconstruction of the Habitats in the Ecosystem of the Final Natufian Site of Ain Mallaha (Eynan)

Shoshana Ashkenazi .......................................................................................................312

v

Southern Levant - other sites

Wadi Hammeh 27: an open-air ‘base-camp’ on the Fringe of the Natufian ‘homeland’Phillip C. Edwards, Fanny Bocquentin, Sue Colledge, Yvonne Edwards, Gaëlle Le Dosseur, Louise Martin, Zvonkica Stanin and John Webb ...........................................319

Art Items from Wadi Hammeh 27Janine Major ...................................................................................................................349

The Final Epipaleolithic / PPNA site of Huzuq Musa (Jordan Valley)Dani Nadel and Danny Rosenberg .................................................................................382

Natufian Settlement in the Wadi al-Qusayr, West-Central JordanMichael Neeley ................................................................................................................397

The Steppic Early Natufian: Investigations in the Wadi al-Hasa, JordanDeborah I. Olszewski ......................................................................................................412

The Natufian of the Azraq Basin: An AppraisalTobias Richter and Lisa A. Maher ..................................................................................429

Chert Procurement Patterns And Exploitation Territory: Case Study From Late Natufian Hayonim Terrace (Western Galilee, Israel)

Christophe Delage ...........................................................................................................449

A Faunal Perspective on the Relationship between the Natufian Occupations of Hayonim Cave and Hayonim Terrace

Natalie D. Munro ............................................................................................................463

The Natufian at Raqefet CaveGyörgy Lengyel, Dani Nadel and Fanny Bocquentin ....................................................478

Hof Shahaf: A New Natufian Site on the Shore of Lake KinneretOfer Marder, Reuven Yeshurun, Howard Smithline, Oren Ackermann, Daniella E. Bar-Yosef Mayer, Anna Belfer-Cohen, Leore Grosman, Israel Hershkovitz, Noa Klein and Lior Weissbrod ...............................................................................................505

The Life History of Macrolithic Tools at Hilazon Tachtit CaveLaure Dubreuil and Leore Grosman ..............................................................................527

General Reviews, Climate and Interpretations

Breaking the Mould: Phases and Facies in the Natufian of the Mediterranean ZoneAnna Belfer-Cohen and A. Nigel Goring-Morris ...........................................................544

Ruminations on the Role of Periphery and Center in the NatufianA. Nigel Goring-Morris and Anna Belfer-Cohen ...........................................................562

vi

The Natufian and the Younger DryasDonald O. Henry .............................................................................................................584

Scaphopod Shells in the Natufian CultureAldona Kurzawska, Daniella E. Bar-Yosef Mayer and Henk K. Mienis ......................611

The Natufian Chronological Scheme – New Insights and their ImplicationsLeore Grosman ................................................................................................................622

Natufian Foragers and the ‘Monocot Revolution’: A Phytolith PerspectiveArlene M. Rosen ..............................................................................................................638

Lithic Technology in the Late Natufian – Technological Differences between ‘Core-area’ and ‘Periphery’

Hila Ashkenazy ...............................................................................................................649

Variability of Lunates and Changes in Projectile Weapons Technology during the NatufianAlla Yaroshevich, Daniel Kaufman, Dmitri Nuzhnyy, Ofer Bar-Yosef and Mina Weinstein-Evron..............................................................................................................671

Specialized Hunting of Gazelle in the Natufian: Cultural Cause or Climatic Effect?Guy Bar-Oz, Reuven Yeshurun and Mina Weinstein-Evron .........................................685

Commensalism: was it Truly a Natufian Phenomenon? Recent Cntributions from Ethnoarchaeology and Ecology

Lior Weissbrod, Daniel Kaufman, Dani Nadel, Reuven Yeshurun and Mina Weinstein-Evron..............................................................................................................699

139

Introduction

Beads are used as body and cloth decorations and are considered to reflect personal and/or group awareness (Dubin 2009; Bar-Yosef 1991). The earli-est appearance of beads, made of sea-shells, is from about 100,000 years ago and they were discovered in Skhul Cave, Mount Carmel, Israel (Bar-Yosef Mayer 2005, Vanhaeren et al. 2006, Bar-Yosef Mayer et al. 2009) and similar finds were discovered in North Af-rica and South Africa (d’Errico et al. 2009; Jerardino and Marean 2010). Ostrich egg shell beads from a site in Kenya, dated to about 40,000 years ago (Am-brose 1998), mark the onset of another type of raw material to be used as personal ornaments. Bone, ivory, and other organic materials were used during the Upper Paleolithic in Europe where occasionally minerals were used as well (White 2007, Taborin 2004). In the Levant, beads of bone and shell were common in the Upper and Epi-Paleolithic periods, but stone beads constitute a Natufian innovation (Bar-Yosef Mayer and Porat 2008). One of the ear-liest stone bead assemblages was discovered at el-Wad Cave, Mount Carmel, Israel. This assemblage was initially mentioned by Garrod (Garrod and Bate 1937) who expressed doubt on its Natufian affiliation. We re-studied these pendants recently and re-assessed their stratigraphic assignment. The Natufian characteristics of the pendants and their role in the Natufian material culture will be discussed in light of personal ornaments from el-Wad and other sites.

Methods

The stratigraphic assignment of the pendants was based on published information (Garrod and Bate 1937) and on archival research of the original excavation field notes at the archives of the Israel Antiquities Authority. The location of three pen-

Natufian Green Stone Pendants from el-Wad: Characteristics

and Cultural Implications

Daniella E. Bar-Yosef Mayer, Naomi Porat

and Mina Weinstein-Evron

dants from el-Wad at the Israel Museum in Jerusa-lem and four others at the Rockefeller Museum in Jerusalem enabled their study. The seven pendants were measured using a digital caliper. Mineralogical and technological observations were made on three of them (from the Israel Museum). The latter were inspected under stereoscopic microscope (up to x45), as well as under Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM). In the SEM the energy dispersive analyzer (EDS) mode was used to determine the chemical composition of each bead and the beads were not carbon coated in order not to damage them. For SEM analysis the selected beads were placed on a stainless steel stub and held in place with a carbon sticker.

Results

Nine green stone pendants from el-Wad were photographed in the early 1930’s, and their photo, located in the Israel Antiquities Authority’s archive (Fig. 1; Weinstein-Evron 2009: Fig. 2.19, p. 32) was the basis for assigning them to a single assem-blage. Seven of the nine pendants were located and re-studied.

Stratigraphic assignment

Based on the information gathered from the accession cards of the items in the Rockefeller Museum, the pendants are Natufian. It is highly probable that the original information on these cards is based on the observations of Charles Lam-bert, who executed the trial excavation at el-Wad in autumn 1928. Lambert had precisely delineated the Natufian stratigraphy at the site and was the first to recognize the culture’s most unique features. The green stone pendants were unearthed by him from the lower part of the layer just overlying what is most probably correlative with Garrod’s Late

140

Daniella E. Bar-Yosef Mayer, Naomi Porat and Mina Weinstein-Evron

Natufian Layer B1 in the cave (Lambert 1928/3:6, 20 November 1928; for details see Weinstein-Ev-ron 2009). While the bottom of this layer contains some later finds, most notably from the Pre Pottery Neolithic (Weinstein-Evron et al. 2007) the greater part of the finds are Natufian, as already clearly stated by Garrod regarding her correlative Layer A: “Flint implements were very abundant, but by far the greater number were obviously derived from the underlying [Natufian] layers …” (Garrod and Bate 1937:30). According to our reconstructed stra-tigraphy of Chamber I of the cave (Weinstein-Evron 2009; Weinstein-Evron et al. herein) the pendants were most probably derived from the Late Natufian. Significantly, Lambert does not mention the exact number of pendants he found.

Typology

The pendants are trapezoidal or pear-shaped, as referred to by Garrod (Garrod and Bate 1937:39) (Table 1). All have a hole at about a third of the length, with their upper parts rather flat and their lower, longer, parts below the hole, thicker and exhibiting a plano-convex section (Fig. 2). In a few cases grooves of wear were visible on the top and bottom sides of the holes.

Raw material

SEM-EDS indicated that the pendants contain Ca, P, (Si, Al). Based on a comparison to identified minerals, we conclude that they are made of apatite.

Fig. 1. Green stone pendants unearthed by Lambert and Garrod at el-Wad (Photograph courtesy of the Israel Antiquities Authority).

Table 1. Measurements of the el-Wad pendants

IAA Registra-tion no

LocationLength (mm)

Diameter of hole (mm)

Width bottom (mm)

Width top (mm)

Thickness (mm)

Tests

I1735 ISRAEL MUSE-UM 17.1 1.96 9 6.5 4.1 - 2.36 SEM

I1732 ISRAEL MUSE-UM 12.57 1.7/2.4 6.85 5.35 3.05 - 1.86 SEM

I1738 ISRAEL MUSE-UM 17.54 1.79/1.95 7.35 5.66 5.18 - 3.14 SEM

I1739 ROCKEFELLER 15.3 1.47 7.15 4.98 - 2.69

I1735b ROCKEFELLER 15.79 2.18 9.26 5.54 3.71

I1737 ROCKEFELLER 16.32 1.85 9.34 7.06 4.75 - 3.56

I1738b ROCKEFELLER 15.63 2.02 8.66 6.68 3.42 - 2.93

141

Natufian Green Stone Pendants from el-Wad…

Discussion

The Natufian pendant assemblage described here from el-Wad is unique in that similar Natufi-an stone pendants are not known from any other site. Although the pendants were never published in a coherent way and their exact provenance not fully established, their form and raw material suggest that they are Natufian. As we have seen, the stratigraphic considerations place them in the Late Natufian. Several stone beads and pendants were discovered in the old excavations of el-Wad, but there is considerable confusion about them because they were described three times in three different ways. In Garrod’s 1937 “The Stone Age of Mt. Carmel” (Garrod and Bate 1937), first mention of stone pendants is on page 39 where a “more or less oval or pear-shaped” pendant of brown limestone is mentioned, followed by footnote no. 3: “Lambert in one of his soundings found seven pendants of this type made from green phosphate similar to that from the plateau of Siru, near es-Salt in Transjor-dan, but as the deposit at this point was disturbed, these objects cannot with certainty be assigned to the Natufian…”. Here we first learn about the exact number of pendants discovered by Lambert; a reference is here also made to the raw material they were made of. This is the only mention of a brown limestone pendant in the report. Next, Garrod describes a number of beads in a paragraph on page 40: “A small number of beads were found in B, but none were in really satisfacto-ry stratigraphical position, as they came from the extreme upper end of the terrace where there had

been, in places, admixture down to bedrock. They are therefore described with the reservation that they may possibly not be Natufian. Two small an-nular specimens are made of carnelian and chlorite respectively, and three flat quadrangular beads, bored from end to end, are of green phosphate. A small fragment of basalt has the beginning of a perforation which would have transformed it into a bead”. She thus mentions a total of six stone beads, three of them being green flat quandrangulars, all apparently found on the terrace. In spite of the fact that the beads were made of green stone, none of them conform in shape to the pear-shaped pendants described above. In a footnote Garrod refers to Horace Beck’s report on four beads that he studied, which constitutes the third mention of stone beads and pendants from el-Wad (Beck 1937). In his illus-trated report Beck refers to three beads as made of green phosphorite, one of which is an elliptical cylinder (that is possibly what Garrod termed “flat quadrangular”) and two others clearly resemble the pear-shaped items described above. Beck’s fourth bead made of black hisingerite, according to him “looks ridiculously modern” (Beck 1937:125). Beck’s bead collection is at the Cambridge museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, but an attempt to locate them there failed. However, even though Garrod fails to mention them in her publication, the two specimens analyzed by Beck were most probably unearthed during her excavations at el-Wad. The photograph of all nine pendants that was found in the archives of the Israel Antiquities Authority in Jerusalem lends support to their homogenous nature. Their number also accords well with that

Fig. 2. Photograph and sections of a selection of the el-Wad pendants.

142

Daniella E. Bar-Yosef Mayer, Naomi Porat and Mina Weinstein-Evron

of the combined assemblage of Lambert’s (n=7) and Garrod’s (n=2) excavations. Unfortunately we were not able to locate any of the other beads and pendants mentioned on pages 39-40 of Garrod’s final report (Garrod and Bate 1937). In order to refute Garrod’s doubts as to their Natufian age we re-examined the beads. Besides the stratigraphic position of their find spot, the raw material they were made of and their typology lend support to their Natufian affiliation. The dis-cussed pendants, like most other green pendants and beads from Late Natufian sites, are made of apatite (Bar-Yosef Mayer and Porat 2008). Beck identified the raw material of the two pendants he studied as green phosphorite specifying that it is “a rock composed of dahlite (a mineral closely allied to apatite) and sometimes calcite” (Beck 1937). Each of the accession cards accompanying Lambert’s pendants at the Rockefeller Museum contains the following note: “green phosphorite (Brit. Mus.); Apatitic limestone (Ben-Tor)”. We understand this as reference to the initial identification by F.A. Ban-ister of the British Museum, mentioned in Beck’s report, and also that the beads were inspected by the Israeli geologist Yaacov Bentor. Thus there is agreement that they are made of apatite, which is the major mineral component of phosphorite. The source of the green apatite is in the metamorphic Hatrurim Formation in Israel (Gross 1977) or the equivalent Dabba Marbles in Jordan (Techer et al. 2006). These formations are exposed along the flanks of the Jordan Rift Valley. In Israel there are large outcrops near Ma‘ale Adumim and ‘Arad, and smaller outcrops along the Dead Sea. In Jordan the Dabba Marbles are found near the Yarmuk River, and to the north and south of Amman. The Siru Plateau exposures cited by Beck most probably belong to the same formation. Indeed, most Late Natufian beads that we examined in Israel were made of this material. The pendants discussed here are typologically unique, and no other Natufian stone pendants of this shape are known from other sites. The types of stone beads of this culture are limited, with the most conspicuous type being the disk bead that emerges in stone and shell for the first time in the Levant in Late Natufian sites. Other types that are relatively common in sites of Late and Final Natufian are double-holed pendants, and short and long cylindrical beads (Bar-Yosef Mayer and Porat 2008). On occasion there are unique shapes that occur only once or twice, or that are found only in a specific site. Such may be the case of the trapezoidal pendants of el-Wad discussed here. Garrod was the

first to note that these are similar in form to several bone pendants unearthed during her excavations at the site (Garrod and Bate 1937:39). Similar bone beads are known from other Natufian sites as well (e.g., Belfer-Cohen 1988; Phillips et al. 1998; Valla et al. 2007). Other Natufian sites where stone beads were found include Hatoula (Lechevallier 1994), Rosh Horesha (Larson 1978), and slightly later the Final Natufian: Eynan (Valla et al. 2007) and Gilgal II (Bar-Yosef Mayer 2010). In Lebanon, stone beads were discovered at Jiita III and Saiide II (Schroeder 1991:54, 74), in Jordan at Khallat ‘Anaza (Betts 1991:219), Tabaqa (Byrd and Colledge 1991:266, 272), and in Syria in Abu Hureyra (Maréchal 1991: 603) and Mureybet (Maréchal and Alarashi 2008). In these sites the most frequent types are disk beads, but also cylindrical beads and in a few cases unique types (e.g., at Eynan; Valla et al. 2007). In Garrod’s and Beck’s reports there is also mention of cylindrical beads that were discovered in her excavations, and were also made of “green phosphate”. It is worth noting that in recent excavations at el-Wad Cave another such bead was discovered (Weinstein-Evron 1998: fig. 62/1, p. 107). Similar large cylindrical beads were discovered at Hatoula, Gilgal I and III, and in Jericho and seem to date to the Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA; Bar-Yosef Mayer 2010; Lechevallier 1994; Wheeler 1983). This somewhat lends support to Garrod’s doubts as to the age of the other beads. Yet the similarity of the trapezoidal pendants to the Natufian “pear-shaped” bone pendants pulls the latter back into the Natufian world. One possible explanation for the unusual shape of the stone pendants from el-Wad is that because the Natufians were not yet very experienced with stone pendant manufacture, they initially tried to imitate the shape of what was more familiar to them, namely bone pendants that have been in use for millennia. The occurrence of Late Natufian double-holed bone pendants (Weinstein-Evron et al. 2007: fig. 16:11-13, p. 78) reminiscent of the stone ones mentioned above, lends further support to this view. Subsequently they switched to produce beads and pendants that were more suitable for stone, such as cylindrical and disc-shaped beads. Moreover, it is also possible that unique shapes of artifacts, and especially of personal ornaments, denote means for expressing individual and/or group identity, and that, together with the Early Natufian “twin pendants” (Garrod and Bate 1937: Plate XIV/2, Plate XV/2) the trapezoidal pendant represented “el-Wadians”.

143

Natufian Green Stone Pendants from el-Wad…

A detailed investigation of various technological aspects is planned for the future, yet certain remarks can already be made here. Beck (1937) noted that a groove was cut across one of the pendants to enable the drill to be started. These grooves are what we understand today as being wear signs, and on this basis we suggest that the pendants were strung in a double loop or an 8-shaped knot (Fig. 3). A similar reconstruction was proposed for bone pendants by Le Dosseur and Maréchal (herein).

What distinguishes the stone beads from the ones made of shell and bone is their green color. It has been suggested recently that green beads and pendants had a symbolic value: The green color of the stone represents green plants and the wish for fertile crops, during this period that marks the onset of plant cultivation (Bar-Yosef Mayer and Porat 2008). It is thus possible that when green became more meaningful to the Late Natufians, they searched for a medium to display their identity and express it in this color. To conclude, the stone pendant assemblage of el-Wad is most probably Late Natufian, despite Garrod’s doubts. We base this on the stratigraphic position of the pendants as described by Lambert; the apatite that is the most commonly exploited raw material for making green stone beads during this period; as well as the similar typology to bone pendants common at el-Wad and in other Natufian sites. This assemblage is among the earliest green stone beads in the Levant. The pendant type, unique to el-Wad, lends further support to its special value and importance at this site.

Acknowledgements

We thank François Valla and Ofer Bar-Yosef for inviting us to participate in the Natufian Conference II. Arieh Rochman-Halperin, of the Israel Antiquities Authority Archive Branch provided access to the el-Wad Archives and provided the original photograph of the green stone pendants described in this paper. Debby Hershmann, Israel Museum, and Fawzi Ibrahim, Rockefeller Museum, enabled the study of the stone beads from el-Wad and provided their accession cards. Photographs were taken by Yoram and Malka Weinberg. Drawings and figure layout were prepared by Sapir Ad. This research was supported by the Israel Science Foundation (grant no. 62/05 to Daniella Bar-Yosef Mayer and Naomi Porat; grant no. 913/0 to Mina Weinstein-Evron and Daniel Kaufman). DBY thanks the Israeli ministry of Science, Culture and Sport for supporting the national collections of natural history at Tel Aviv University as a biodiversity, environment, and agriculture research knowledge center.

References Cited

Ambrose, S. H. 1998 Chronology of the later stone age and

food production in east Africa. Journal of Archaeological Science 25:377-392.

Bar-Yosef, D. E. 1991 Changes in the selection of marine shells

from the Natufian to the Neolithic. In The Natufian Culture in the Levant, edited by O. Bar-Yosef and F. R. Valla, pp. 629-636. International Monographs in Prehistory, Ann Arbor.

Bar-Yosef Mayer, D. E. 2005 The exploitation of shells as beads in the

Palaeolithic and Neolithic of the Levant. Paléorient 31/1:176-85.

2010 The stone beads of the Gilgal sites. In Gilgal: Early Neolithic Occupations in the lower Jordan Valley, the excavations of Tamar Noy (eds. O. Bar-Yosef, A. N. Goring-Morris and A. Gopher): pp. 223-237. American School of Prehistoric Research Monograph Series. Oxbow Books, Oxford.

Bar-Yosef Mayer, D. E. and N. Porat2008 Green stone beads at the dawn of agricul-

ture. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the U.S.A. 105/25:8548-8551.

Fig. 3. Suggested reconstruction of suspension of the el-Wad pendants.

144

Daniella E. Bar-Yosef Mayer, Naomi Porat and Mina Weinstein-Evron

Bar-Yosef Mayer, D. E., Vandermeersch, B. and O. Bar-Yosef

2009 Shells and ochre in Middle Paleolithic Qafzeh cave, Israel: Indications for modern behavior. Journal of Human Evolution 56:307-314.

Beck, H. 1937 Report on four beads from layer B of the

Mugharet el-Wad. In The Stone Age of Mount Carmel, by D. A. E. Garrod and D. M. A. Bate, p. 125. Clarendon Press, Oxford.

Belfer-Cohen, A. 1988 The Natufian Settlement at Hayonim

Cave. Ph.D. dissertation, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem.

Betts, A. 1991 The late Epipalaeolithic in the Black

Desert, eastern Jordan. In The Natufian Culture in the Levant, edited by O. Bar-Yosef and F. R. Valla, pp. 217-234. International Monographs in Prehistory, Ann Arbor.

Byrd, B. F. and S. M. Colledge 1991 Early Natufian occupation along the edge

of the southern Jordanian steppe. In The Natufian Culture in the Levant, edited by O. Bar-Yosef and F. R. Valla, pp. 265-276. International Monographs in Prehistory, Ann Arbor.

d’Errico, F., Vanhaeren, M., Barton, D., Bouzouggar, A., Mienis, H. K., Richter, D., Hublin, J. J., McPherron, S. P. and P. Lozoueth

2009 Additional evidence on the use of personal ornaments in the Middle Paleolithic of North Africa. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science of the U.S.A. 109, (38):16051-6.

Dubin, L. S. 2009 The History of Beads: From 100,000 B.C.

to the Present. Revised and Expanded Edition. Abrams, New York.

Garrod, D. A. E. and D. M. A. Bate 1937 The Stone Age of Mount Carmel. Vol. I.

Clarendon Press, Oxford.Gross, S.

1977 The Mineralogy of the Hatrurim Forma-tion. Israel Geological Survey Bulletin, Vol. 70.

Jerardino, A. and C. W. Marean 2010 Shellfish gathering, marine paleoecology

and modern human behavior: perspec-tives from Cave PP13b, Pinnacle Point,

South Africa. Journal of Human Evolu-tion 59:412-424.

Lambert, C. 1928/3 “Wadi Mughara 1928: Notes made during

excavations.” Trench 3. IAA Archives, British Mandate Record Files, File 193, el-Wad Mugharat.

Larson, P. A. 1978 Ornamental beads from the late Natufian

of southern Israel. Journal of Field Archaeology 5:120-121.

Lechevallier, M. 1994 Les éléments de parure et petits objets

en pierre. In Le gisement de Hatoula en Judée occidentale, Israël, edited by M. Lechevallier and A. Ronen, pp. 227-232. Mémoires et Travaux du Centre de Recherche Français de Jérusalem, No. 8. Association Paléorient, Paris.

Le Dosseur, G. and C. Maréchal herein The bone jewels and decorated items in

Mallaha, from early to final Natufian. Edited by O. Bar-Yosef and F. R. Valla. International Monographs in Prehistory, Ann Arbor.

Maréchal, C. 1991 Elements de parure de la fin du natoufien:

Mallaha niveau I, Jayroud 1, Jayroud 3, Jayroud 9, Abu Hureyra et Mureybet IA. In The Natufian Culture in the Levant, edited by O. Bar-Yosef and F. R. Valla, pp. 589-612. International Monographs in Prehistory, Ann Arbor.

Maréchal, C. and H. Alarashi 2008 Les éléments de parure de Mureybet.

In Le site néolithique de Tell Mureybet (Syrie du Nord), edited by J. J. Ibañez, pp. 575-618. BAR International Series 1843, Oxford.

Phillips, J. L., Belfer-Cohen A. and I. N. Saca 1998 A collection of Natufian bone artefacts

from old excavations at Kebara and el-Wad. Palestine Exploration Quarterly 130:145-53.

Schroeder, B. 1991 Natufian in the central Béqaa valley,

Lebanon. In The Natufian Culture in the Levant, edited by O. Bar-Yosef and F. R. Valla, pp. 43-80. International Monographs in Prehistory, Ann Arbor.

Taborin, Y. 2004 Language sans parole: La parure aux

temps préhistoriques. La maison des roches, Paris.

145

Natufian Green Stone Pendants from el-Wad…

Techer, I., Khoury, H.N., Salameh, E., Rassineux, F., Claude, C., Clauer, N., Pagel, M., Lancelot, J., Hamelin B. and E. Jacquot

2006 Propagation of high-alkaline fluids in an argillaceous formation: Case study of the Khushaym Matruk natural analogue (central Jordan). Journal of Geochemical Exploration 90:53-67.

Valla, F. R., Khalaily, H., Valladas, H., Kaltnecker, E., Bocquentin, F., Cabellos, T., Bar-Yosef Mayer, D. E., Le Dosseur, G., Regev, L., Chu, V., Weiner, S., Boaretto, E., Samuelian, N., Valentin, B., Delerue, S., Poupeau, G., Bridault, A., Rabinovich, R., Simmons, T., Zohar, I., Ashkenazi, S., Delgado Huertas, A., Spiro, B., Mienis, H. K., Rosen, A.M., Porat, N. and A. Belfer-Cohen

2007 Les fouilles de Ain Mallaha (Eynan) de 2003 à 2005: Quatrième rapport préliminaire. Journal of the Israel Prehistoric Society - Mitekufat Haeven 37:135-383.

Vanhaeren, M., d’Errico, F., Stringer, C., James, S. L., Todd J. A. and H. K. Mienis

2006 Middle Paleolithic shell beads in Israel and Algeria. Science 312:1785-1788.

Weinstein-Evron, M. 1998 Early Natufian el-Wad revisited. ÉRAUL

77, Liège.2009 Archaeology in the Archives: Unveiling

the Natufian Culture of Mount Carmel, American School of Prehistoric Research Monograph Series, Brill, Boston/Leiden.

Weinstein-Evron, M., Kaufman, D., Bachrach, N., Bar-Oz, G., Bar-Yosef Mayer, D. E. Chaim, S., Druck, D., Groman-Yaroslavski, I., Hershkovitz, I., Liber, N., Rosenberg, D., Tsatskin, A. and L. Weissbrod

2007 After 70 years: new excavations at the el-Wad Terrace, Mount Carmel, Israel. Journal of the Israel Prehistoric Society - Mitekufat Haeven 37:37-134.

Weinstein-Evron, M., Kaufman, D. and R. Yeshurun

herein Spatial organization of Natufian el-Wad through time: Combining the results of past and present excavations. Edited by O. Bar-Yosef and F. R. Valla. International Monographs in Prehistory, Ann Arbor.

Wheeler, M. 1983 “Appendix J: Greenstone Amulets”. In

Excavations at Jericho V, edited by K. M. Kenyon and T. A. Holland, pp. 781-787. British School of Archaeology, Jerusalem.

White, R. 2007 System of personal ornamentation in the

early Upper Paleolithic: Methodological challenges and new observation. In Rethinking the Human Revolution: New Behavioural and Biological Perspectives on the Origin and Dispersal of Modern Humans, edited by P. Mellars, K. Boyle, O. Bar-Yosef and C. Stringer, pp. 287-302. McDonald Institute Monographs, Cambridge.