mitchell proposal march 9 draft 9

Running Head: Through Grandma’s Eyes

A Phenomenological Study of the Experiences of Grandmothers

Who Voluntarily Engage in their Grandchildren’s Lives

California Institute of Integral Studies

Department of Clinical Psychology

February 14, 2016

By: Theresa Mitchell

Dissertation Chair:

External Reviewer:

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Table of Contents

Abstract............................................................................................................................................3

Chapter I. Introduction.....................................................................................................................4

Chapter 2: Literature Review...........................................................................................................6

The Role of Grandparents..........................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.

Changing Demographics...........................................................................................................13

The Innate Grandmother............................................................................................................16

Disconnected Grandparents.......................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.

Type of Relationship & Factors Affecting Relationship...........................................................16

Benefits of Grandparent Involvement.......................................................................................17

Global and U.S. Trends on Grandparents Living With Grandchildren.....................................20

Dominant Trend: Grandparents Raising Grandchildren...........................................................21

Literature Summary...................................................................................................................25

Chapter 3: Methodology................................................................................................................27

Phenomenology.........................................................................................................................27

Limitations of a Phenomenological Approach..........................................................................28

Data Collection Methods...........................................................................................................30

Data Analysis Methods..............................................................................................................31

References......................................................................................................................................32

Appendices....................................................................................................................................34

Informed Consent: Information Sheet...........................................................................................34

Informed Consent..........................................................................................................................37

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Abstract

The purpose of this study is to understand the experience of grandmothers who choose to have a

role in their grandchildren’s lives. Interviews will be conducted with 15 to 20 grandmothers, and

the data from these interviews will be examined for themes that will further the understanding of

grandmothers’ experiences. To date, research has focused primarily on quantifying how

grandmothers are affected when they raise their grandchildren. The data from this research

indicates that grandmothers place themselves at great psychological and physical risk when they

take on this responsibility so late in life. However, another sample of the population considers

grandchildren the greatest gift they could receive. The goal of the current study is to understand

the experiences of grandmothers who consider their grandchildren welcome additions in their

lives. By adopting a phenomenological method of investigation, this research aims to broaden

the understanding of clinicians who serve this population.

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Chapter I. Introduction

“Our grandchildren accept us for ourselves, without rebuke or effort to change us, as no one in

our entire lives has ever done, not our parents, siblings, spouses, friends — and hardly ever our

own grown children.”

—Ruth Goode

Many individuals’ experiences with their grandmothers are positive. Rudolph Giuliani,

former New York Mayor, said, "What children need most are the essentials that grandparents

provide in abundance. They give unconditional love, kindness, patience, humor, comfort, and

lessons in life. And, most importantly, cookies." Many people feel that grandparents are more

patient than parents, in addition to being more thoughtful, accepting, and considerate. Citation?

How often do individuals consider what they mean to their grandmothers? A Welsh

proverb asserts, “Perfect love sometimes does not come until the first grandchild.” This suggests

that it is a positive experience, but much of the psychological research demonstrates that the

opposite is true. Caregiving can be a very difficult, challenging role to which few people can

relate until they become a caretaker.

Grandparents caring for grandchildren are faced with many responsibilities that may

strain the family finances (citation?). Much research asserts that the exertion and stress of this

role also exact a toll on the health of grandparents (Grinstead, Leder, Jensen, Bond, 2003). In

many situations, the increased demands of a grandchild lead to less time for a grandparent’s self-

care, socialization, pursuit of hobbies, and health maintenance (Minkler, 1999).

However, other studies have contradicted the above claims. Hughes, et al. studied 12,872

grandparents in order to understand the impact of caregiving on grandparents. Their research

found little evidence to suggest that caring for grandchildren had a significant negative impact on

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the health of grandparents. Hughes et al. hypothesized that reports of negative effects were

attributed to the grandparents’ prior negative characteristics, rather than providing care to a

grandchild (Hughes, et al., 2006).

The hypothesis of the current study is that by interviewing 10-20 non-custodial

grandparents, the phenomena of becoming a grandparent will be better understood.

This study does not focus on custodial grandparents who are forced to abandon their

grandchildren to the foster system or take on the role of sole provider; the research examines the

experiences of grandmothers who adopt this role by choice.

The next chapter will explore previous studies of non-custodial grandparents. While there

is little research on this topic, what is available can be divided into six subheadings: The Role of

Grandparents, The Instinct to Nurture, Disconnected Grandparents, Connected Grandparents,

Type of Relationship and Factors Affecting Relationship, and Current Research on the Impact of

Being a Grandparent.

If this dissertation can expand the understanding of how a grandchild impacts their

grandmother, it will provide clinicians with insights into aspects of elder development and

attachment later in life.

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Chapter 2: Literature Review

The literature on custodial grandparents is vast; however, research on the more casual, or

per diem grandparent is rare. The phenomena with a greater impact on the economy tend to

garner more attention than one that is of a purely psychosocial nature. The Norman Rockwell

idea of a grandmother does not cost tax payers money, while the child who, by necessity, has to

be taken care of by the closest, stable relative, typically requires some form of economic support

by the government.) While this study does not aim to minimize the importance of custodial

grandparents, it intends to explore the experiences of the Norman Rockwell grandmother – the

per piem grandmother.

The Iconic Role of the Grandmother

Above are images of grandmothers from the early 20th century. The first two are Norman

Rockwell paintings, and the third is one of the thousands of images found when “grandmother”

is typed into a Google search engine. A grandmother’s role was never as it appeared in idealistic

paintings, nor was it as it is today. There has been a shift in the influence and position of

grandparents in the household, broadening the capacity of the grandmother. (entire above

paragraph needs citations)

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There are multiple examples of the presence and existence of grandmothers in many

societies. The most common and well known are the elephants as well as baboons. These are

most well known not only because they're mammals but they've been used as examples for the

evolutionary 'grandmother effect'. The Grandmother Hypothesis proposes that grandmaternal

investment played an important role in the evolution of menopause (e.g., Shanley et al. 2007),

lengthened the postmenopausal lifespan, and tightened the interbirth intervals of women

compared with other primates (Hawkes et al. 1997, 1998).

Animals almost always continue to reproduce until they die. There are just three exceptions that

we know of: humans, short-finned pilot whales, and killer whales. In all three species, females

lose the ability to have children, but continue living for decades after. That’s menopause. Female

killer whales go through it in their 30s or 40s. Why? Why sacrifice so many future chances to

pass on your genes to the next generation?

On the left, a grandmother known as GM2 nurses her granddaughter

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Two grandmother monkeys have been seen intervening to raise their own grandchildren,

providing essential care including suckling the young.( Story from BBC NEWS:

http://news.bbc.co.uk/go/pr/fr//earth/hi/earth_news/newsid_8370000/8370743)

The little known grandmothers include more obscure mammals, birds and fish. The most

common are cooperative and communal breeders where social groups gather, nest and live

together participating in the parental care of multiple generations.

These include:

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Meerkats

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Seychelle's Warblers:

African cichlid fish, Neolamprologus pulcher:

The explanation for providing extensive and extended parental care is fairly

straightforward and can be easily explained using Hamilton's Rule of inclusive fitness which he

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defined as the sum of its classical fitness (how many of its own offspring it produces and

supports) and the number of equivalents of its own offspring it can add to the population by

supporting others. This includes offspring, their offspring, your sibling's offspring. ( Ancient

Bodies, Modern Lives: How Evolution Has Shaped Women's Health 1st Edition. Wenda

Trevathan Ph.D. .

Grandparents have always played an integral role in caring for their grandchildren

(proof?). However, the roles grandparents’ play is changing due to changing demographics and

social trends. The proportion of older people in relation to children is increasing, and will

continue to increase over the next few decades (citation?). People are becoming grandparents at

an older age, in addition to living longer and having fewer grandchildren. This trend means that

grandparents can spend more time with grandchildren and develop meaningful relationships with

them. The role of grandparents has changed because life expectancy has increased and the

family structure has changed. Families are now characterized by a variety of nontraditional

arrangements such as divorce, single-parent families, step-parent families, gay marriage, and

unmarried families (Georgas, 2003).

Grandparent relationships have a positive impact on grandchildren (citation?). Grandparents

may provide help with caregiving, giving the family an economic advantage and assuring quality

care. Grandparents can also act as a buffer against harsh parenting or other negative attributes of

parents. In fact, the children of depressed parents are less likely to be depressed if they have a

close, positive relationship with a grandparent (Dunifon & Bajracharya, 2012, p. 1174). A close

relationship with a grandparent is different from that of a parent, and frequently involves less

tension. Grandparents can provide a source of consistent emotional support, and therefore, have

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a very important, meaningful impact on their grandchildren’s lives, experiences, and

development. (Grandmotherhood: The Evolutionary Significance of the Second Half of Female

Life Eckart Voland, Athanasios Chasiotis, Wulf Schiefenhövel, 2005)

Although many grandparents are enjoying an involved, non-parental role with their

grandchildren, many are also taking on a primary caregiver role. Trends such as drug addiction,

child abuse/ neglect, and incarceration are rendering more parents unable to care for their

children than in previous generations. These trends have increased the number of households in

which a grandparent is raising a grandchild while the parents are absent. Understanding these

changing roles can help social workers and others provide appropriate family support

Grandmotherhood: The Evolutionary Significance of the Second Half of Female Life. Eckart

Voland, Athanasios Chasiotis, Wulf Schiefenhövel (2005)

Better Times, Better Genes

In addition to social and economic changes, there has been a shift toward more resiliency

and robustness in the aging population. Longer life expectancy has led to longer periods when

elders are capable of being grandparents. While the baby boomer generation might have heard

stories about their grandparents or had minimal contact with them, as children, they did not have

the same exposure to their grandparents as Generation Rx or Generation X (the present

generation). It is not uncommon to become a grandparent in one’s forties, and some people,

particularly women, become grandparents in their thirties (Timberlake and Chipungu 1992).

Because some people may be grandparents for several decades, grandparenthood has become a

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more meaningful stage of life. An increase in the number of single-parent households resulting

from divorce or out-of-wedlock birth has made the role of some grandparents in rearing children

more important than ever. Instead of providing merely a supportive role, many grandparents now

play an active role in rearing and socializing their grandchildren.

These concerns are important because the changing demographics of our culture are

resulting in longer life expectancy, which leads to a longer period as grandparents. Thus,

grandparenthood is becoming a more meaningful period of life, and for some, will last several

decades.

Changing Demographics

Although the number of children has always outnumbered the number of grandparents

(National Institute on Aging, n.d., p. 2), this trend is on the verge of changing for the first time in

history. In approximately five years, “the number of people [in the world] aged 65 or older will

outnumber children under age 5” (National Institute on Aging, n.d., p. 2). Worldwide, the

number of children is decreasing, and the number of older people is increasing (Uhlenberg, 2013,

p 12). The demands on the working population to support children are not predicted to decrease

significantly, but the demands of supporting the older population are predicted to increase

(Uhlenberg, 2013, p 16). This is because the portion of the population over age 65 is expected to

increase from 15 to 21 percent by 2050, while the portion of the population under age 15 will

decrease from 20 to 19 percent (Uhlenberg, 2013, p 16). As parents try to balance the need to

support their own parents with the need to support their children, families may become more

reliant on intergenerational cooperation in child-raising.

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People around the world are having fewer children and living longer. In 2010, 8 percent

of the world’s population was over age 65; by the year 2050, this figure is expected to reach 16

percent (National Institute on Aging, n.d., p. 4). The average life expectancy for a baby born in

the year 1900 was less than 50 years (National Institute on Aging, n.d., p. 6). In 2008, the

average life expectancy for an infant born in the United States increased to 78.1 years (Arias,

2012, p. 1). The probability of a person born in 2008 reaching 80 years of age is 55.6 percent

(Arias, 2012, p. 2). “In the mid-1990s, some researchers estimated that, over the course of

human history, the odds of living from birth to age 100 might have risen from 1 in 20,000,000 to

1 in 50 for females in low-mortality nations such as Japan and Sweden” (National Institute on

Aging, n.d., p. 8). Medical care that extends life even with issues such as heart disease, cancer,

diabetes, or stroke, is responsible for the increase in longevity (Arias, 2012, p. 3).

In 1900, most young children had at least one living grandparent, but the “typical ages at

which persons no longer have surviving grandparents have advanced substantially” (Szinovacz,

1998, p. 24). In 1900, only 15 percent of people age 30 had a living grandparent; in 2000, this

number increased to 67 percent (Szinovacz, 1998, p. 26). Most people now are over 30 before

their last grandparent dies, making it much more likely for a family to extend to the fourth

generation (Szinovacz, 1998, p. 25). Also, lower death rates for females make it more likely that

a child will have a living grandmother, rather than to a grandfather (Szinovacz, 1998, p. 26).

Another changing demographic is the age when people become grandparents. In the

early 20th century, family sizes remained large, and it was fairly common for a woman in her

early forties to have at least one child under age 5 at a time when her older children might begin

to have children of their own (Szinovacz, 1998, p. 30). In other words, it was common for

women to raise young children of their own when they first became grandparents. This

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phenomenon has become very uncommon. Today, people are becoming grandparents at a much

older age – often between the ages of 45 and 50 (Szinovacz, 1998, p. 30). If women are raising

their own children when they become grandmothers, it is most likely due to teen pregnancy

(Szinovacz, 1998, p. 30). In fact, if “very early childbearing occurs in several generations,

grandmotherhood can arrive before women reach age 30” (Szinovacz, 1998, p. 30).

As people live longer, more people in their 50s and 60s are likely to have surviving

parents; thus, more children will know their grandparents and great grandparents (National

Institute on Aging, n.d., p. 22). However, although there may be more surviving generations in a

family, they are more likely to live separately than in the past (National Institute on Aging, n.d.,

p. 22). Economic security, increased migration, divorce and remarriage, blended families and

stepfamilies contribute to families living apart from older generations of family members

(National Institute on Aging, n.d., p. 22). “In the past, living alone in older age often was

equated with social isolation or family abandonment” (National Institute on Aging, n.d., p. 22).

Research shows that today’s older generation often prefers to live in their own home or

community, even if they live alone (National Institute on Aging, n.d., p. 22).

Family sizes have decreased, from an average of 2.18 children per U.S. household in

1955, to 1.86 children per U.S. household in 2009 (Dunifon & Bajracharya, 2012, p. 1168). The

decrease in family size means there are fewer children to compete for attention and time. At the

same time, grandparents are living longer, giving them more time to develop meaningful

relationships with grandchildren (Dunifon & Bajracharya, 2012, p. 1168). “Increased financial

security among older Americans, due to the availability of Social Security and pensions, means

older people spend more time in retirement, with potentially greater time available to spend with

grandchildren” (Dunifon & Bajracharya, 2012, p. 1168). As these trends continue, “more

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grandparents are able to enjoy sustained relationships with their grandchildren as they move into

adolescence and adulthood” (Dunifon & Bajracharya, 2012, p. 1168).

Another increasing trend worldwide is “skipped generation” households, in which a

grandparent is raising a grandchild and the parent is absent (National Institute on Aging, n.d., p.

22). In the United States, many such households exist due to parental drug use, incarceration, or

other problems. In other countries, such as Zambia, AIDS has led to a marked increase in

“skipped generation” households. In Zambia, for example, 30 percent of older women are

raising grandchildren due to the high mortality rates from HIV/AIDS (National Institute on

Aging, n.d., p. 22).

The Innate Grandmother

David A. Coall, job title? of Edith Cowan University, examined the role of grandparents

in industrialized societies. He stated, “Evolutionary perspectives on the post-reproductive years

have highlighted grandparenthood as an unusual feature of the human lifespan that is only shared

with one or two other species, such as some whale species,”

Type of Relationship and Factors Affecting Relationship

The type of grandparent involvement affects how beneficial the relationship is for the

child. Researchers have identified three types of grandparent involvement: companionate

(interacting but not taking direct responsibility for the grandchild); remote (uninvolved); and

involved (the grandparent assumes a parenting role) (Dunifon & Bajracharya, 2012, p. 1171).

Sometimes, grandparents also “adopt a model of ‘selective investment,’ devoting more resources

to grandchildren who are experiencing a crisis such as parental death, divorce, unemployment,

illness, or incapacitation” (Dunifon & Bajracharya, 2012, p. 1169). The “latent function

hypothesis” is the term used to describe situations in which a grandparent has a relatively minor

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role until a crisis, and then takes on a more significant role out of need (Dunifon & Bajracharya,

2012, p. 1169).

There are multiple theories about the factors influencing the quality or nature of

grandparent-grandchild relationships (Dunifon & Bajracharya, 2012, p. 1169). Gender, as well

as the age of the grandparent and grandchild may influence the level of involvement and the

types of interactions (Dunifon & Bajracharya, 2012, p. 1169). Race and culture also affect the

type of relationship or level of involvement of grandparents (Dunifon & Bajracharya, 2012, p.

1171). “Matrilineal grandparents tend to be more involved with their grandchildren than those

on the paternal side, and grandmothers tend to be more involved than grandfathers” (Dunifon &

Bajracharya, 2012, p. 1171). Some studies have found that African American grandparents tend

to be more involved with grandchildren than white grandparents (Dunifon & Bajracharya, 2012,

p. 1171). In cultures where migration is common, distance can also be an important factor

(Dunifon & Bajracharya, 2012, p. 1172). The parents’ relationship with grandparents also

affects the quality of the relationship between grandparents and grandchildren, and parents may

serve as “gatekeepers” between the grandparents and the grandchild (Dunifon & Bajracharya,

2012, p. 1172).

Benefits of Grandparent Involvement. Relationships with grandparent benefit children in

many ways. many waysenndparent Involvemente can also be an important factor (Dunifon &

Bajracharyato them, grandparents could provide benefits by serving as role models and

discussing appropriate behavior, encouraging academic or other success, helping with

homework, or providing advice and emotional support” (Dunifon & Bajracharya, 2012, p. 1173).

For example, a recent Iowa study of multi-generational families found that children who reported

close relationships with grandparents had better academic competence, higher self confidence,

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improved personal and social skills, and a higher maturity level (Dunifon & Bajracharya, 2012,

p. 1174).

Grandparents can also influence youth because of their influence on parental behaviors

(Dunifon & Bajracharya, 2012, p. 1173). reported close relationships with grandparents had

beto parents, this could translate into decreased parental stress or improvements in parental

emotional health, which ultimately may lead to positive youth outcomesrandparents had

betharya, 2012, p. 1173). Grandparents also can create additional stress for parents and interfere

with parentsor improvements in parental emotionaHowever, most evidence shows that

grandparents stress for parents and interfere wit

Grandparent relationships have been related to improved mental health in youth, and may

help to mitigate negative circumstances in the home. For example, in youth between ages 18 and

23, a close relationship with a grandparent is linked to lower levels of depression (Dunifon &

Bajracharya, 2012, p. 1174). Children of single parents experienced reduced rates of depression

when they had a close relationship with a grandparent (Dunifon & Bajracharya, 2012, p. 1174).

Grandparent relationships can also mitigate overly harsh parenting methods. One study of

preschool-aged children found that “18 and 23, a close relationship with a grandparent is linked

to lower levels of depression (Dunifon & Bajracharya, 2012, p. 117” (Dunifon & Bajracharya,

2012, p. 1174).

The bond between grandparents and grandchildren is second in emotional power and

influence to the relationship between children and parents. Emotional attachments between

grandparents and grandchildren are unique, and differ from those between parents and children

because they do not include some of the normal parent-child conflicts (Kornhaber & Woodward,

2012, p. xxi). The attachment is an emotional sanctuary from the pressures of the outside world.

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Grandparents are exempt from the emotional intensity that characterizes the typical parent-child

relationship (Kornhaber & Woodward, 2012).

Urban children benefit from the presence of grandmothers in cognitive and health

outcomes, as well as psychological and sociological well-being (Sear, Mace & McGregor, 2000).

This is reflected in higher survival probabilities for children with living maternal grandmothers

(Sear, Mace & McGregor, 2000). There is also evidence that the reproductive status of the

maternal grandmother influences child nutrition, with young children being taller in the

presence? of non-reproductive grandmothers than grandmothers who are still reproductively

active (Sear, Mace & McGregor, 2000).

Grandparents often give ndmothers than grandmothers who are still reproductively

activen their parents are distracted or unavailable. Grandparents are also the most likely resource

when families experience a crisis. Grandparents serve as playmates, caregivers, storytellers,

family historians, tutors, drivers, spiritual guides, and role models.

Grandparent relationships promote connections between grandchildren and their ancestry

and family history. Anthropologist Margaret Mead stated that connections between the

generations are milies l grandmother influences child nutrition, with young (Bosak, 2015). This

includes the family “lore” telling and re-telling of family stories about childhood, ancestry, and

heroism or family roots (Bosak, 2015). Knowledge of family history is significantly correlated

with internal locus of control, higher self-esteem, better family functioning, greater family

cohesiveness, lower levels of anxiety, and lower incidence of behavioral problems (Fivush,

Bohanek & Duke, 2008). These findings imply that children with a close grandparent

relationship will be more likely to have higher self-esteem and self-control, as well as good

overall mental health.

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Global and U.S. Trends on Grandparents Living with Grandchildren

In many parts of the world, improved financial stability has led to families choosing to

live separately from grandparents, but in a convenient, nearby location. In urban areas in most

parts of the world, nuclear families live in the same building or very near grandparents (Georgas,

2003). In cultures where grandparents might previously have resided with the nuclear family,

younger couples are now more likely to have the economic means to purchase their own housing

(Georgas, 2003). An independent home provides psychological privacy, even if it is located

right next door (Georgas, 2003). This may create a geographic separation, but does not mean

there is psychological separation from extended family (Georgas, 2003).

At the same time, the concept of family in the contemporary Western world is

increasingly flexible as it includes different living arrangements resulting from the breakdown

of traditional gender roles in the last 50 years (Georgas, 2003). Responsibility for raising

children has shifted; parenting roles are now shared between generations. More two- and three-

generation families in the United States are cohabitating, while the nuclear family used to be

considered the norm (Georgas, 2003). Ultimately, while families in other countries tend to live

separately but near each other, more U.S. families are choosing to live together.

One noted family theorist observed that the U.S. family is now more “free form,”

including immediate family members as well as extended family members, especially

grandparents (Szinovac, 1998, p. 23-29). This could be due in part to the high prevalence of

divorce, single mothers, and other nontraditional households. Children living with a single

mother are more likely to have at least one very involved relationship with a grandparent

compared to children with married parents (Dunifon & Bajracharya, 2012, p. 1170). In 2009, 9

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percent of children in the United States lived with a grandparent, but in households with a single

mother, 17 percent lived with a grandparent (Dunifon & Bajracharya, 2012, p. 1170).

Dominant Trend: Grandparents Raising Grandchildren

More grandparents are assuming a primary caregiver role as the sole primary caregiver or

a co-caregiver with a parent, often a single mother. Factors that have increased the number of

grandparents involved as primary caregivers for grandchildren include increased poverty rates in

some cultural groups, higher housing costs, and higher rates of incarceration (Uhlenberg &

Kirby, 1998). Grandparents and parents sometimes live together in order to save money by

sharing expenses. In a home with a single mother and a grandmother, for example, the

grandmother will often assume a co-parenting role, rather than maintaining the more traditional

role of a grandparent who is involved with (but not responsible for) a grandchild. When a family

member is relied upon to care for a child under age 5, it is most frequently a grandparent (U.S.

Census Bureau, 2008, p. 11).

A significant trend regarding the family structure is the dramatic increase in the number

of grandparents assuming responsibility for raising grandchildren in the absence of both parents.

In the past, a grandparent might assume a parenting role due to death, divorce or abandonment;

now, there are also more parents who are unable or unwilling to raise their own children (Pinson-

Millburn & Fabian, 1996, p. 548). Some “parents may be substance abusers, victims or

perpetrators of physical or sexual violence, or sufferers of emotional or neurological disorders

that render them incapable of parenting” (Pinson-Millburn & Fabian, 1996, p. 548). The parents

may also be incarcerated or living in a drug treatment program (Pinson-Millburn & Fabian, 1996,

p. 548). U.S. households in which a grandparent raises one or more grandchildren increased by

40 percent from 1985 to 1995 (Pinson-Millburn & Fabian, 1996, p. 548). Among African

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American families, this situation is particularly common (Pinson-Millburn & Fabian, 1996, p.

548).

In 2004, about 6.5 million U.S. children lived in a home with at least one grandparent

(U.S. Census Bureau, 2008, p. 2). Of these households, 1.6 million had no parent present in the

home (U.S. Census Bureau, 2008, p. 2). In addition, less than 10 percent of U.S. children lived in

a household that included a grandparent (U.S. Census Bureau, 2008, p. 11). This trend was most

common in African American families (14 percent of children) and Hispanic families (12 percent

of children) (U.S. Census Bureau, 2008, p. 11). In Caucasian households, 6 percent of children

lived with a grandparent (U.S. Census Bureau, 2008, p. 11). These figures include households

where the children live with a grandparent who provides for them financially or as a primary

caregiver, and households in which a grandparent lives with the family because the grandparent

needs care. It is important to recognize the frequency of grandparents accepting a parenting role

when parents cannot. Four percent of children in the United States lived in a household without

either parent in 2004; of those, 55.5 percent lived with a grandparent (U.S. Census Bureau, 2008,

p. 5).

There are some correlations between households that include a grandparent, and

increased poverty levels; however, this can be due to a number of factors. In some cases,

families may live with a grandparent to alleviate financial stress on the parent. In other cases, the

grandparent may need care, or the family may combine resources due to combined financial

hardships. In 2004, “[c]hildren living with grandparents were more often living in families in

poverty than were children living in households with no grandparents present” (U.S. Census

Bureau, 2008, p. 2). However, children living with a single mother were less likely to live in

poverty when a grandparent was in the home (U.S. Census Bureau, 2008, p. 2). Households

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consisting of a single mother and a grandparent lived in poverty 23 percent of the time,

compared to 39 percent of the time when children lived with a single mother and no grandparent

(U.S. Census Bureau, 2008, p. 2).

Due to changing demographics, it is important to note that grandparents may vary in age,

from 40 years old to 80 years old (Pinson-Millburn & Fabian, 1996, p. 548). Some grandparents

are poor, and others have financial assets (Pinson-Millburn & Fabian, 1996, p. 548). Some

grandparents have legal rights to custody or visitation, and others do not (Pinson-Millburn &

Fabian, 1996, p. 548). Many grandparents are part-time caregivers for grandchildren, or live in

three-generation households and take on significant caregiving responsibility (Pinson-Millburn

& Fabian, 1996, p. 548). Others are raising children without parental involvement.

There currently are an estimated 723,000 households in the U.S. in which a grandparent

is raising one or more grandchildren with absent? Parents (Pinson-Millburn & Fabian, 1996, p.

548). These grandparents are faced with problems, such as their own declining health,

incapacity of their children, and concern that their grandchildren could also be disabled or

dysfunctional (Pinson-Millburn & Fabian, 1996, p. 548). Many of the children are at risk of

psychiatric and developmental disorders (Pinson-Millburn & Fabian, 1996, p. 548).

Grandparents caring for grandchildren may wonder what they have done wrong, and feel

responsible for their child’s inadequacies as a parent (Pinson-Millburn & Fabian, 1996, p. 549).

Grandparents may have varied reactions including feeling isolated, frustrated, cheated out of

retirement activities, or they may feel useful, needed, and that they “matter” (Pinson-Millburn &

Fabian, 1996, p. 549). “The emotional response is often grief – grief for the loss of their children

through death, addiction, unemployment, child neglect or abuse, or some other psychological or

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physical disability; and grief for their own loss of freedom to realize their own dreams” (Pinson-

Millburn & Fabian, 1996, p. 549).

Four major contributing factors lead to grandparents taking on primary caregiver roles in

the absence of both parents. These factors are in addition to the traditional reasons, such as the

death of the parents. The four social trends leading to the increase in grandparents as primary

caregivers are: parental abuse of drugs and alcohol, incarcerated parents, parental abuse or

neglect, and parental illness/death from AIDS. The fourth trend, relating to AIDS, is much less

of a problem in the United States, but is a major factor in the need for grandparents to take over

child-raising worldwide.

The biggest problem in the United States contributing to grandparents raising

grandchildren is parental abuse of drugs and alcohol. “By far, the major contributing factor to

the creation of grandparent households is the inability of parents to provide care because of their

serious drug and/or alcohol abuse problems” (Pinson-Millburn & Fabian, 1996, p. 550).

Grandparents may struggle with the medical and psychological problems these children often

face. The children may have birth defects such as fetal alcohol syndrome, a higher rate of

attention deficit disorders, and increased likelihood of emotional or psychiatric problems

(Pinson-Millburn & Fabian, 1996, p. 550).

A second contributing factor in the United States is the fact that grandparents are raising

a significant number of children because the parents are incarcerated. Children of incarcerated

parents often have emotional and behavioral problems (Pinson-Millburn & Fabian, 1996, p. 550).

They may feel shame and isolation, and be victims of social stereotypes (Pinson-Millburn &

Fabian, 1996, p. 550). Sometimes children also experience posttraumatic stress disorder due to

events related to their parent’s incarceration (Pinson-Millburn & Fabian, 1996, p. 550).

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Grandparents will need to deal with these issues in addition to the normal stresses of raising a

child.

A third contributing factor to the increase in grandparents raising children is parental

abuse or neglect. Sometimes, parents leave their children with a grandparent; other times, state

involvement leads to the grandparent(s) taking on an official role as foster parents. These

children are also likely to have special needs. Children who are victims of physical, emotional or

sexual abuse are likely to have psychiatric symptoms, such as depression or agitation (Pinson-

Millburn & Fabian, 1996, p. 550). They may develop behavioral problems, inadequate coping

skills, poor social skills, and other issues (Pinson-Millburn & Fabian, 1996, p. 550).

The fourth factor is the death of parents from AIDS, other illnesses, or accidents. AIDS

is a significant problem, especially in Africa. In some African nations, nearly one-third of

skipped-generation households have been caused by high mortality rates from HIV/AIDS

(National Institute on Aging, n.d., p. 22). Children from this group may be HIV-positive or

affected by the social stigma of being associated with a person with HIV/AIDS (Pinson-Millburn

& Fabian, 1996, p. 551). They may experience guilt, shame, depression, and anxiety related to

the circumstances of their parent’s death, in addition to grief over the loss (Pinson-Millburn &

Fabian, 1996, p. 551).

Literature Summary

Changing demographics are leading to a new trend: soon, the number of older people in

the world will exceed the number of children citation? Because women are having children later,

and fewer children, and because older persons are living longer, grandparents are having more

time to develop meaningful relationships with their grandchildren. Grandparents have a unique

relationship with their grandchildren, as the grandparent can offer unconditional love and

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affection, emotional support, and other kinds of help without the pressures of being the primary

caregiver.

Grandparents typically have one of three levels of involvement. They may be distant,

involved without parental responsibility, or acting as a caregiver. The relationship between a

grandparent and a grandchild is also affected by many factors, such as the ages of the grandchild

and grandparent, geographic distance, gender, personality style, and dynamics of the parents’

relationship with the grandparent. Parents have the capability of acting as a gatekeeper to allow

or disallow contact with a grandparent.

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Chapter 3: Methodology

The objective of this study is to observe the lived experiences of women given the role of

grandmother, using phenomenological methodology.

Phenomenology

The phenomenological approach to research design is intended to describe the common

meaning of lived, conscious experiences that amalgamates the “essence” of what and how it is

experienced.

This research explores the combined lived experiences of non-custodial grandmothers.

Many studies have examined the grandparent-grandchild relationship using a quantitative

research paradigm. (Hayslip Jr. & Goldberg-Glen, 2000) Using a phenomenological paradigm

for this study is designed to provide a broader method to study the topic.

Groenewald (1994) asserts that:

The purpose of the phenomenological approach is to illuminate the specific, to identify

phenomena through how they are perceived by the actors in a situation. In the human

sphere this normally translates into gathering ‘deep’ information and perceptions through

inductive, qualitative methods such as interviews, discussions and participant

observation, and representing it from the perspective of the research participant(s).

(Groenewald, 2004)

((The following discussion of World War I seems off point to me….To illustrate the choice of a

qualitative, the phenomenon of World War I provides an example.

Europe was, for lack of a better word, ‘different.’ The damage to infrastructure, to

communities, to families, to individuals - all aspects of life were impacted. (Groenewald, 2004)

The men and women who survived the horrors that occurred between 1914 and 1918 wanted to

27


better understand the phenomena of the war. What the scientifically minded individuals lacked

was a succinct and yet empirically valid method to conduct their research. Eagleton (1983, p. 54)

describes the circumstances he, and his contemporaries faced, but more importantly how he

came to understand the relevance of phenomenology:

The social order of European capitalism had been shaken to its roots by the carnage of the

war and its turbulent aftermath. The ideologies on which that order had customarily

depended, the cultural values by which it ruled, were also in deep turmoil…In the context

of this ideological crisis, the German philosopher, Edmund Husserl (1859 – 1938),

“sought to develop a new philosophical method which would lend absolute certainty to a

disintegrating civilization” (Eagleton, 1983, p. 54). Although the origins of

phenomenology can be traced back to Kant and Hegel, Vandenberg (1997, p. 11) regards

Husserl as “the fountainhead of phenomenology in the twentieth century”. (Groenewald,

2004) (Eagleton, 1983)))

Phenomenology has a powerful philosophical element as a search for wisdom, rather than the

empirical view of simply “observing” an experience.

Limitations of a Phenomenological Approach

Quantitative studies can be dissected, the validity, both external and internal, outlined??.

Discussions regarding the flaws of the statistical methods for quantitative studies are so

numerous that the validity of the investigation is implied. One can easily state a hypothesis, test

its reliability and even, with varying ‘confidence intervals,’ determine how much the reader can

rely on the results of the data. Qualitative research cannot do this—the data collected is highly

subjective, and the findings are easily challenged as invalid.

Another limitation of phenomenological studies can be found in the method.

28


Phenomenological researchers need to rely on their own experiences and then choose how they

will separate them from the experiences of the participants.

In the current study, the phenomenon examined is the experience of grandmothers who

integrate their grandchildren into their lives. This researcher is a grandmother who has chosen to

integrate her grandchildren into her life. Indeed, this researcher values her grandchildren to a

degree that is difficulty to ‘quantify.’ Since this study seeks to understand a small group of

grandmothers’ experiences, the method of inquiry poses a significant challenge for this

researcher: to remain objective. (Moustakas, 1994)

Lastly, and most importantly, phenomenology encourages researchers not to overextend

the phenomena they are studying. As such, they are encouraged to keep their sample sizes

relatively small. Statistically, this is a major threat to the internal validity of research. Plummer

(1983) asserts:

A fairly common comment concerns sample size -it can be hard to get over to people that

a single-figure sample is valid - and there can be confusion between methods such as

theoretical sampling (see Glaser & Strauss 1967), used to ensure that participants are

drawn from a spread of contexts, and statistical sampling which is concerned with

quantitative reliability and often with differences between contexts. If the sample size is

increased a common misunderstanding is that the results should be statistically reliable.

(Plummer, 1983)

This study has a small sample size; ideally, between 10 and 15 participants. Extrapolating

broader themes from such a small sample is a major problem.

If there were a better way to understand the phenomena under investigation, this

researcher would have opted to increase the power? by including more individuals into the

29


sample. Unfortunately, no alternative method was deemed superior to exploring a phenomenon

using a phenomenological methodology. The prejudices against studies with small sample sizes

will undoubtedly limit the veracity of this study. However, just as with any quantitative study,

the audience should objectively weigh the findings and trust this researcher’s conviction to

create a dissertation with the most accurate representation of the phenomena under investigation.

(Mason, 1994)

Data Collection Methods

In order to analyze the phenomena of focus, a questionnaire has been developed with

specific questions related to a grandmother’s feelings, attitudes, and emotions associated with

being a grandmother. The questionnaire is in the form of a semi-structured interview.

Participants are going to be interviewed, and their responses will be collected,

categorized, analyzed, and deconstructed in order to better understand the phenomena under

investigation. Ideally, these interviews will be completed face to face; however, the interview

permits participants to answer each question without having to interface with this researcher.

Data elicited from an interview has been validated by phenomenological researchers as

the most effective means to understand a common experience among a group of people.

(Moustakas, 1994) As Englander (2012) describes in his discourse on the collection of data in

phenomenological studies:

The interview is one of the major sources of data collection, and it is also one of the most

difficult ones to get right. In qualitative research the interview is a form of discourse.

According to Mischler (1986) its particular features reflect the distinctive structure and

aims of interviewing, namely, that it is discourse shaped and organized by asking and

answering questions. An interview is a joint product of what interviewees and

30


interviewers talk about together and how they talk with each other. The record of an

interview that we researchers make and then use in our work of analysis and

interpretation is a representation of that talk. (Plummer, 1983) (Englander, 2012)

While enthusiastically validating the use of interviews, Englander also offers a warning. The

interviewee is half of the equation; the other half, the interviewer, is just as important in the

method of data collection used for this dissertation.

Having never conducted a complex, qualitative study, it is unclear whether this researcher

will elicit data that accurately describes the phenomena. Since this researcher is a grandmother,

the hope is that the interviews will be similar to a conversation among peers.

Data Analysis Methods

The most complicated factor to consider – especially prior to the collection of data – is

how to analyze the breadth and depth of data collected from a qualitative research study. This

study will utilize interviews, and as Hycener (1985) states, “The ‘problem’ for many researchers

with phenomenological research is that it generates a large quantity of interview notes, tape

recordings, jottings or other records all of which have to be analyzed.” (Hycner, 1985)

The semi-structured interviews were constructed to encourage organization in the

participants’ responses. The questions are brief and to the point, enabling participants to answer

the question ‘yes’ or a ‘no,’ while allowing for elaboration.

After the interviews are completed and the participants’ words are transcribed, the first

step will be to read each transcript. The initial ‘read-through’ is anticipated to provide a general

sense of the underlying themes expressed. The data will guide the process of interpretation.

There are statistical programs available for qualitative computer analysis, but the interviews can

be organized and their common elements discovered by this researcher’s efforts alone.

31


ReferencesAdcox, S. (n.d.). The pros and cons of grandparent foster care. About Parenting. Retrieved

from http://grandparents.about.com/od/Raising-Grandchildren/fl/The-Pros-and-Cons-of-

Grandparent-Foster-Care.htm

Arias, E. (2012). United States life tables, 2008. National Vital Statistics Reports, 61(3).

Retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nvsr/nvsr61/nvsr61_03.pdf

Bosak, S. V. (2015). Why grandparents are VIPs. Legacy Project. Retrieved from

http://www.legacyproject.org/guides/gpvip.html

Dunifon, R. & Bajracharya, A. (2012). The role of grandparents in the lives of youth. Journal of

Family Issues, 33(9): 1168-1194.

Fivush, R., Bohanek, J. G., & Duke, M. (2008). The intergenerational self: Subjective

perspectives and family history. In F. Sani (Ed.) Individual and Collective Self-

Continuity. New York, NY: Psychology Press.

Georgas, J. (2003). Family: Variations and changes across cultures. In W.J. Lonner, D.L.

Dinnel, S.A. Hayes & D.N. Sattler (Eds.), Online Readings in Psychology and Culture

(Unit 13, Chapter 3), Center for the Cross-Cultural Research, Western Washington

University, Bellingham, Washington, USA.

Kornhaber, A. & Woodward, K. L. (1985). Grandparents and grandchildren: The vital

connection. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books.

National Institute on Aging (n.d.). Global Health and Aging. Retrieved from

http://www.nia.nih.gov/sites/default/files/global_health_and_aging.pdf

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http://www.nia.nih.gov/sites/default/files/global_health_and_aging.pdf

http://www.legacyproject.org/guides/gpvip.html

http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nvsr/nvsr61/nvsr61_03.pdf

http://grandparents.about.com/od/Raising-Grandchildren/fl/The-Pros-and-Cons-of-Grandparent-Foster-Care.htm

http://grandparents.about.com/od/Raising-Grandchildren/fl/The-Pros-and-Cons-of-Grandparent-Foster-Care.htm


Pinson-Millburn, N. M., Fabian, E. S., Schlossberg, N. K., & Pyle, M. (1996). Grandparents

raising grandchildren. Journal of Counseling & Development, 74(6), 548-554.

Sear, R., Mace, R., & McGregor, I. A. (2000). Maternal grandmothers improve nutritional status

and survival of children in rural Gambia. Proceedings B, 267(1453): 1641-1647.

Soine, L. (2013). Kinship foster caregivers: Partners for permanency. Social Work Today,

13(5): 12. Retrieved from http://www.socialworktoday.com/archive/091613p12.shtml

Szinovac, M. (Ed.) (1998). Handbook on Grandparenthood. Westport, CT: Greenwood

Publishing Group.

Uhlenberg, P. (2013). Demography is not destiny: The challenges and opportunities of global

population aging. Generations, 37(1), 12-18.

Uhlenberg, P. & Kirby, J. B. (1998). Grandparenthood over time: Historical and demographic

trends. In M. Szinovac (Ed.), Handbook on Grandparenthood. Westport, CT:

Greenwood Publishing Group.

U.S. Census Bureau (2008). Living arrangements of children: 2004. Household Economic

Studies. Retrieved from https://www.census.gov/prod/2008pubs/p70-114.pdf

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https://www.census.gov/prod/2008pubs/p70-114.pdf

http://www.socialworktoday.com/archive/091613p12.shtml


Appendices

Informed Consent: Information Sheet

Purpose of the study: As part of the requirements for a doctoral degree in Clinical Psychology from the California Institute of Integral Studies, every student must conduct a study in order to develop a dissertation. This study is titled: “Through Grandma’s Eyes: A Phenomenological Study of the Experiences of Non-custodial Grandmothers.”

Are you required to participate? No. Your participation is desired, and highly beneficial, but it is not necessary. Participation in this research is at your discretion. Whatever choice you make will be honored.

What will the study involve? The study will involve filling out a brief questionnaire (5 min) and then sitting down with me to be interviewed. The interview is expected to take 20-30 minutes, is semi-structured, and almost entirely focuses on your experiences as a grandmother and mother.

Why have you been asked to take part? You have been asked because you are a grandmother, but not a custodial grandmother. If you are reading this, then it has been determined that the amount of time you spend with your grandchild or grandchildren fits the criteria for this research.

Do you have to take part? No. You have the option of not participating. Furthermore, you are welcome to withdraw from the study at any point, or to have your interview transcript destroyed and the data in it to be excluded if you choose.

Will your participation in the study be kept confidential? Yes. There will be no references to any names, specific date of birth or any information that might be used by any reader who took part in this study. The research is seeking experiences. You also have the option to waive confidentiality; but your identity will be kept confidential, regardless. If an excerpt from your interview is cited, the avatar you will be assigned is what will be used.

What will happen to the information you give? The audio files of the transcripts will not

be reproduced or shared with any third t parties, and will be destroyed. The transcripts from the interviews will be kept in a secure location, where only I can access them. Upon completion of the thesis, the interviews will be retained for six months. After that time, they will be mechanically destroyed. The transcripts will be retained for research purposes.

What will happen to the results? The data collected will be interpreted and compared to other interviews for this research. Relevant aspects of the interviews will be incorporated into the thesis, and a brief excerpt from the interview may be used in the dissertation. This dissertation will be available to other researchers, students and faculty. The study may be published in a research journal.

What are the possible disadvantages of taking part? I do not anticipate any negative

34


consequences for participants in this study, but it is possible for a person to experience emotional pain when asked to discuss events, or recall memories they have not thought about for some time. Put another way, sometimes an interview may spark an old memory you have long since forgotten, and which you may prefer remains that way - but this is not anticipated, and should it occur, it will be at your discretion if you would like to proceed or rescind your consent to participate in this research.

What if there is a problem? If you experience any adverse reactions during or after the interview, you are encouraged to alert me immediately. At the end of the interview, I will ask you about the experience of being interviewed, how it felt, and how you are feeling. If you are feeling any distress, I will ask you if I can contact someone you would like to be with you (a friend or loved one, for example.) If you would like additional support, the following agencies are geared towards providing psychological support for temporary distress:

ACCESS (Acute Crisis and Care Evaluation for System Wide Services)

1-800-491-9099Hours of operation: 8:30 am – 5 pm

After Hours calls are immediately forwarded to Crisis and Support Services, who are available 24 hours a day, 7 days a week:

Crisis Support Services of Contra Costa and Alameda1-800-309-2131

Who has reviewed this study? In order to conduct research, it is the policy of the California Institute of Integral Studies that the procedures to be administered be reviewed by a panel of three mental health professionals, to ensure no participants involved in this research will be harmed by participating in the research. Below is the address of the Human Research and Review Committee. Please feel free to contact them if you have any questions, or would like further clarification regarding the approval process. (Please include both my name (Theresa Mitchell) and the name of my Dissertation Chair: Dr. Leland:

Human Research and Review CommitteeC/O CIIS 1453 MISSION STREET

SAN FRANCISCO, CA 94110.If you have any further questions, please feel free to ask me directly, or you may contact my dissertation chair, Dr. Leland, (707) 555-5555. If you have any concerns or would like to speak with my dissertation chair, you have the right to do so, anonymously, if you choose. You are also encouraged to contact the Chair of the Human Research and Review Committee:

Emi KojimaHRRC Coordinator

California Institute of Integral Studies 1453 Mission StreetSan Francisco, CA 94103, or by telephone

35


Emi Kojima Coordinator HRRC (415) [email protected]

36

mailto:[email protected]


Informed Consent

Your privacy with respect to the information you disclose during participation in

research, a doctoral candidate at the California Institute of Integral Studies in San Francisco, is

conducting a study on the experiences of non-custodial grandmothers.

Participation will involve filling out a brief personal and family history form (5 min.),

and then engaging in a one-on-one interview. The interview and personal/family history form

are expected to take 20-30 minutes. The interview questions will be provided to you prior to the

interview if you would you like review them before the interview. If you would prefer to forego

the one-on-one interview, and you would rather write out your responses to the interview

questions, you are welcome to do so and return it to me when completed. The one-on-one

interview is preferable, since the nature of this study is to understand how being a grandmother

has impacted your life.

If you experience any discomfort as a result of discussing or recalling personal

experiences, you are free to refuse to answer any question. Furthermore, if participation in this

study becomes unpleasant, I would prefer that you let me know so we can decide whether or not

to proceed. While I expect participation to be a positive experience for you, I cannot anticipate

the unforeseen, but do want you to know that your emotional and psychological well-being

should not be unduly impacted by your participation. To put it simply, you are in complete

control. If you want to speak my Dissertation Chair, or me you can find our contact information

at the end of this page.

All information you contribute will be held in strict confidence, and within the limits of

the law. As such, the audio-recordings and transcripts will be kept in a secure location to which

only I have access. Tapes and transcripts will be identified using pseudonyms. Any identifying

37


information will be either deleted or altered to protect your privacy. If direct quotes are used in

the dissertation, nothing that would betray your identity will be included. The transcripts will

only be shared with the dissertation, and HRRC, administrators and staff who are directly linked

to this research. If you consent to participate, please indicate by printing your full name and then

signing where indicated.

I, , consent to participate in this study being conducted by

Theresa Mitchell - a doctoral student at the California Institute of Integral Studies. I have

received a copy of this consent form, Bill of Rights, and Confidentiality Statement, and I

understand that my confidentiality will be protected within the limits of the law.

Please complete the information on the following page, if you would like to participate in this

study:

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Participant Name:

Participant Signature:

Date:

Researcher: Theresa Mitchell, M.A.

Researcher Signature:

Date:

If you would like to receive a copy of the dissertation at the completion of the study, please provide the address where you would like it delivered:

______________________________________________________________________________Street City Zip

39

Running Head: Through Grandma’s Eyes 40

mitchell proposal march 9 draft 9

Documents