Masters of Arts DegreeTHE REDEEMED CHRISTIAN

BIBLE COLLEGE

LECTURE NOTE ON EDUCATIONALPSYCHOLOGY CED 723

Course Writer:

Pastor Oyesola

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

Psychology has a great deal to offer the Christian but we should also exercise caution inusing psychology. Making psychology one's god is just as devil's work. Not every ideapsychologist have suggested can coexist with Christianity. Freud, for example that keptpeople from accepting place for ideals such as "mind" or "souls". Yet while mistaken insome areas, both freud and skinner have to back them up which and research to backthem up which validly reflect a part of human nature.

It is possible for us as Christian to place too much confidence in what theologians andothers tells us most of us agree the bible is out ultimate guide line for truth, but those whoattempt to interpret it for us are not perfect thus, while psychologists can be mistakenabout their understanding the world, Christian leaders can also be mistaken about theirunderstanding of the bible.

A past president of the American Psychological Association (APA), O. Hobert Mowrer,wrote positively of the contribution of Christianity in the 1950's. The APA created a divisiontitled "Psychologists interested in Religious issues" not long a go.

Even Freud was apparently more open to certain Christian ideas than years before Freud,Johann Heinroth suggested a theory of personality based upon Roman 7 in the Bible.Heinroth said the personality was comprised of the• Basic drives• The Ego• The Conscience

These three areas he believed were in conflict, producing a tension that could only berelieved by yielding to the Holy Spirit.

Apparently Freud adapted Heinroth's theory and developed his famous notions of id, ego,and superego. Col. 2:8 "Beware lest any man spoil you through philosophy and vaindeceit, after the tradition of men, after the rudiments of the world, and not after Christ".The pastor said that psychology teaches people to be human-centred; he felt peopleshould turn from psychology and turn to God. How would you answer the pastor?

Psychology though the youngest, is the queen of all sciences. The knowledge ofpsychology is very helpful in all walks of life. Let us first discus the various definitions ofpsychology.

1. As the Science of Soul: The earliest psychologists defined Psychology as thescience of soul. This definition was very common from the days of Plato. What isSoul"? According to Aristotle 'Soul is the sum total of vital functions'. Human nature ismade up of two things, body and soul. Soul distinguishes animate things remarkedPlato.

Criticism:

a. 'Soul' has a theological bearing. It makes Psychology more of religion than ofScience.

b. It is difficult to explain what is 'soul'c. 'Soul' is a metaphysical concept. It is not open to observation and

experiment.

2. As Science Of Mind: When the definition of Psychology as Science of Soul wasrejected, it came to be defined as the Science of Mind. What is mind? Mind is the sumtotal of the individual's mental processes. What is mental process? It is process ofknowing (cognition), feeling (affection) and willing (conation). Mind does not possessbut is itself these processes, just as a chair is itself and does have legs, seat andback.

Criticism: I can know my own mind and mental processes. The mind of the otherperson is a sealed book to me. Hence this definition is only a half truth.

How do we know the minds of the people? We know their mental processes throughwhat they do. Now they do constitute their behaviour Hence Psychology is the studyof behaviour

3. As Science of Consciousness: Psychology was also defined as the science ofconsciousness. What is consciousness? It is awareness, it is mind now, it is ourpresent experiences.

Criticism:a. The definitions to narrow because it does not cover the whole field of our

mind. It leaves our pre-conscious (fore-conscious or sub-conscious) andunconscious mental processes.

b. We can know directly only our own conscious processes. How do we studythe conscious processes of others? How do I know that you are attending to mytalk, you are feeling pleased or displeased or you are thinking something else

c. McDougal in his 'Outline of Psychology' write "Consciousness is a thoroughlybad word. It is used as synonymous with 'experience'. Experience is by far abetter word. It implies someone who experiences and something that isexperienced, i.e. subject an object. But no such reference to subject and objectis made in the case of consciousness.

4. As Science of Behaviour: Psychology having lost it soul, mind and consciousnesstook another turn and began to be regarded as the Science of Behaviour It is morerecent and popular definition. In its scope all behaviour is included, whether that ofindividual adults, adolescents, infants, same persons animals, or groups of people.Each of these kinds of behaviour is the subject matter of a special branch ofpsychological study.

What is behaviour? It is anything that a living being does. It is here used in a verywide sense. It has both mental and bodily aspect-the former is as important as thelatter. It includes not only motor activities like walking, playing digging or building butalso such activities as give us knowledge, for example, perceiving, imagining,remembering, thinking, reasoning and emotional, activities, like feeling happy, sadenergy or frightened, we have the fundamental hypothesis of a mind' behindbehaviour and controlling it. It is not the behaviour of Watson, the exponent ofbehaviourist school in Psychology, which ignores the mental side of behaviouraltogether. Behaviour is the response of a person to the circumstances in which hefinds himself. It is spontaneous and directed within. It is to be distinguished frommechanical action, which is directed from without, and not from within, Behaviour isthe activity of the living organism, while mechanical action is the movement of a non-living matter. Take the case of a bird picking up crumbs. A cat comes from behind. It

tried to stalk the bird. He bird sees the cat, flies off, flutters hither and thither and atlast finds shelter in a tree. This is behaviour as it is spontaneous and directed fromwithin.

Behaviour is purposive. The bird's has an end in view- the attainment of safety. Thebird ceases to move when it reaches a position of safety. Moreover with the samestimulus the bird may vary its movements, while in the case of a mechanical actionthe same antecedents always produce the same result. If a piece of soft iron is placedsufficiently near a magnet it moves towards the magnet and clings to it. The iron hasno choice in the matter, it cannot very its responses to a situation as the bird can weshall not call the action of iron as behaviour

Definition of Psychology

Psychology is the interpretation and explanation of behaviour in mental or psychicalterms. It tries to know how we perceive, learn, remember, imagine and think it isconcerned with the child, adult and even with the animal, with the normal; as well asthe abnormal human beings.

HUMAN MIND

Conation(Willing)

Inherited Acquired

Tendencies Tendencies

1. Reflexes 1. Habit

2. Instincts 2. Character

Psychology and its need to teacher. Psychology is 3 Generationthe science of behaviour It tries to explain behaviourin psychical terms. ... ,

Tendencies

What is education? This term is more easily understood than defined in brief, it is themodification of behaviour It is an attempt to mould and shape the behaviour of theindividual in such a way that he may play his proper part in social life. In general the aim ofeducation may be summed up as follows.a. To help the child to develop his personality.b. To help the child to relate himself to society in which he livesc. To help those who are growing up to be active and creative forces in society.

Of what use is the study of Psychology in achieving these aims? How is its knowledge

Cognition Affection(knowing) (Feeling)

1. Sensation 1. Feeling2. Memory 2. Emotion3. Attention 3. Mood4. Memory 4. Sentiment5. Imagination6. Reasoning7. Thinking

helpful to the educator? These are three ways in which it helps the teacher. It helps him.1. To understand the child and his nature2. To understand himself

3. To understand what methods he should use in teaching and in his general dealingswith children.

This can be put in another way as well. The process of teaching implies three things:1. The educator2. The educand, and3. The thought.

The knowledge there of Psychology helps the teacher to understand these three factors.

Let us thee points one by one:

1. Psychology enables the teacher to know and understand his pupils. Teach the childrather than the subject is the essential principle of "New Education' Sir John Adamswrote, 'The master taught John Latin'. The master should not only know 'Latin' butalso John. He knowledge of John's Psychology and hence the teacher must studyPsychology".

He should thoroughly understand the nature of the child, the way his mind works, howand why he feels, his various powers, the stages of his development andpsychological characteristics of those stages. The teacher cannot help him sublimatehis instincts unless he knows what instincts are and how they are re-directed intochannels useful to society. We can help him develop normally only when we know thepart played by the unconscious mind in his life. A problem or difficult child thedisobedient, the truant, the inattentive an the lair -require tactful handling. Theabnormal as well as the supernormal children present their own problems to theeducator. All this needs the knowledge of Psychology

One of the general aims of education is to help the growing child to relate himselfsuccessfully to the society in which he lives. For this a study of the gregariousinstincts' is very necessary. Psychology tells us about he dangers and possibilities ofthis instinct and how it may be sublimated. It tells us how to pick out and train leadersfor society. This instinct gives us leaders of the society such as Gandhi, Nehru, Pateland Subash. It also gives the leaders of the gang such as Bhupat of Saurashtra,Banwari of Pepsu, Man Singh of U.P. and Hem Raj of Rohtak. Sampat of the popularpicture. Sampat is also a product of this instinct.

2. Psychology helps the leader to understand himself as well. Teacher's behaviour withthe children and with his colleagues will be greatly modified (for better socialadjustments) if he understands the working of the instinctive urges in him-why he getsangry-the effect of the urge to power in him etc. Aggressive or 1 type teachers andalways and themselves into.

Teacher is the torch bearer of he face, only if he knows and accepts it. He is an nationbuilder. Buddhan Christ, Nanak and Gandhi belong to his line. But before shoulderingthis onerous responsibility, he must know himself. Psychology repeats the old adage-"Physician, heal thyself". He must know his own good points as well as his shortcomings. He should resolve his complex before he takes to teaching. Thus he will beable to adjust himself successfully to the school environment.

3. Psychology will give the teacher control over his teaching methods and material. Ithas revolutionized methods of teaching. The new methods knows as the p[lay waymethod all have a psychological method, the Dalton Plan, and the Basic method all

have a psychological background, 'Dunda' or 'cane' is most unpsychological.Formerly we said, "spare the rod and spoil the child. "Now we say," Use the rod andspoil the child."

Psychology researches on learning, retention and memory are of great educationalimportance.

Concluding remarks: Educational theory and Psychology have been and are advancinghand in hand. Not only dos the teacher turn to Psychology for help in his practicaldifficulties but he in his turn dictates now problems to Psychology and so helps to advancethe science.

But Psychology is a positive and Education is a normative science. The former cannotprovide the latter with aims and objects. Though Psychology cannot decide the aim ofeducation, it can tell us how far the aim is practicable.

The knowledge of Psychology helps the teacheri. To know himselfii. To understand his pupils andiii. To improve his methods of teaching.

But a question may be asked. Is it impossible for a teacher. To be efficient without anyspecial knowledge of Psychology? There are a number of efficient teachers who are quiteinnocent of Psychology, some may pint out. Most a mason, on electrician, a professor ofmedicine or law, a religious guru or the drill sergeant known Psychology? Yes in order tobe efficient each one of them must know Psychology. But here Psychology is not to beused in its restricted sense. It means an knowledge of the principles of mental activity andmental modification. It is a practical knowledge known through experience and not merelyform boons on Psychology. It may be the result of unconscious process of acquisition formtheir experiences, by the individuals, during the course an growth of their development. If ateacher, who has not studied Psychology, succeeds in his work, it is because he ispractical Psychology, succeeds in his work, it is because he is a practical Psychologist.Similarly an M.A. in Psychology may fail as a teacher if he does not translate his theoriesinto practice.

It is sometimes said that teachers are born and not made'. This statement is based on thefact that the qualities of a practical Psychology are found in some and not in others. Wemay be admit this statement to the extent to which the ability to study others behaviour isinborn.

But the teachers are not only born and not made, they are also made.1. To a very large extent the higher degrees of differences among individuals to

successfully understand the behaviour of other persons, depend upon the nature andvariety of their social experiences. Latent powers may be not find an outlet in theabsence of proper opportunities-Potentialities of a born teacher may remain dormantwithout the knowledge of Psychology.

2. Since the knowledge of Psychology is likely to sharpen a man's sympathies andimprove his methods of influencing others, a systematic knowledge of the subject islikely to make the born teacher' a better self conscious educator, and the not so wellborn one' a fairly efficient instructor.

Psychology is the science of behaviour. Mind as well as behaviour constitute the subject-

matter of Psychology. Psychology like other sciences employ certain methods of a plannedprocedure we try to know the effects of those phenomena. Thus methods employed inPsychology are attempts to find the responses of the given stimuli and stimuli of the givenresponses. The methods of Psychology are (1) Observation (2) Experiment (3)Introspection (4) Psychology

Observation: The main method of Psychology as of all sciences, is observation.Observation is regulated perception. To observe is to look at a things closely an to takecareful note of several parts an details. Observation of the behaviour of others is animportant method of Psychology study. By observing their behaviour we know what isgoing on in their mind. We observed bodily behaviour movement of the limbs, facialexpression, heart beat, breathing and the like, A man's anger is known from his clenchedfist, loud voice, contoured face, gnashing teeth and quivering lips.

Advantages

1. We have to study mind in general and this we can do through observation. Ewe studythe mental processes of other human beings by observing their behaviour when theyare angry or happy or sad or wonder-struck

2. It is helpful in studying the mental life an behaviour of savages, children, animals,abnormal people, the people whose language we do not understand and illiteratepeople suitable words to convey and adequate idea of the mental processes.

Disadvantages

1. We do not observe impartially. We not only perceive but apperceive. We think thatother people and animals thing and feel in the same way. We look at the world atthrough coloured glasses.

2. Observation without the help of instruments is no doubt subjective, because theobserver may unconsciously neglect those factors of the situation which he does notexpect. Moreover, the human senses have only limited powers. The teacher cannotobserve the actions of all the students in a class of even twenty and even if he canobserve he cannot record every item. This defect can be considerably reduced ifinstrumental aid is taken.

3. The mind does not always manifest itself in observable behaviour Cognitiveprocesses such as thinking, reasoning an imaging etc. have no counterparts in bodilybehaviour

4. The behaviour of a hypocrite defies all explanation. How would you explain thecrocodile tears of one who is out to deceive you.

Experiment: In every science, as far as possible, knowledge is obtained first hand. Thisknowledge is obtained systematized and organized how is this knowledge obtained? It isdone through observation and experiment. To observe is to find a fact; to experiment is tomake a fact. Experiment is observation under known and pre-arranged conditions.Observation is he general thing of which experiment is the special form. When observationis controlled and eases to be general, we have an experiment.

The tremendous growth of Psychology during the last fifty years is due mostly toexperimental method. Until the late 19th century Psychology was not considered as ascience. It was regarded as a branch of Philosophy and the methods employed forpsychological investigations were those of philosophy such as observation andintrospection. The first attempt of making experiments in Psychology was made by Wundtin 1879. He established the first laboratory at Leipzig in Germany. Experiments were made

chiefly in the field of sensation, perception, association and memory. Later on Germanyand American took the lead by 1894, a score of research laboratories started working. Thelast two decades have brought in important developments in technique, methods andtrends in Psychology. In America and England there is psychologist for every school histask is to take care of the mental health of the children and this experiment is proving verysuccessful.

Experimental Method. What it is?It consists in the recognition of the interconnection of the human organism and the externalworld. The essential principal of the method is to place a human individual in a certainsituation and to note how he reacts there in. it is on the basis of his reaction in relation tothe situation in which has been placed that he laws of objective Psychology have beenderived. Woodworth expresses it as-a stimulus response chain. S-R. 'S' is the stimuluspresented to the individual or the situation in which he is placed and 'R' is the individual'sreaction to the stimulus or the way in which he behaves in the situation. The essential taskof Psychology is to take the course from 'S' to 'R' and to state the rouges from 'S' to 'R'under various circumstances.Experiment in Psychology is performed on a subject who is a living being. The livingorganism has got certain characteristics and the experimenter must take these intoaccount both in the conduct of the experiment as well as in the interpretation of the results.The experimental Psychologist has to depend on the co-operation of his subject, whetheran adult or a child or an animal. He cannot lose sight of the time honoured saying, "oneman can take a horse to water but even twenty cannot make him drink", Woodworth hasaccordingly presented a modified formula in Experimental Psychology as follows:

R1

R2

R3S- Stand for stimulus or situationI stand for the individual (with his own initiative and urges)R1, R2, R3, stand for variety of responses.

Steps in the psychological experimentBroadly speaking the following steps are involved in Psychology experiment:

Experiment:1. Defining the problem first of all the field of study is defined. The experimenter knows

clearly which factors to control, which factors to changes, what changes to observeand with the help of which material.

2. Selecting the subject or the individual on whom the experiment is to perform.3. Setting the material for observation.4. Instructing the subject or telling his function during the experiment.5. Observing the responses of the subject.6. Getting introspective report of the subject. In psychological experiment we have to

deal with living human beings and while stating the result of an experiment and ismental state during eh experiment.

7. Analysis of the data obtained an interpretation of the data.Problems tackled: The following problems have been tackled in Experimental psychology

S

1. Sensation, sense training an perception.2. Attention, its span and duration.3. Memory and methods of memorizing4. Laws of learning and transfer of training5. Imagery and association of ideas.6. Thinking and reasoning7. Habits8. Work and fatigue9. Intelligence and its measurement.

Criticism:

1. Experimental method has serious limitations when it is applied to EducationalPsychology. While dealing with human beings it cannot be as objective as it isclaimed by it advocated, because human behaviour cannot be controlled to thatextent as is possible in the case of physical and chemical phenomena.

2. Secondly, human behaviour under controlled conditions is different from spontaneousbehaviour There force, the experimental findings should be cautiously applied to thespontaneous behaviour of human beings under normal and free conditions.

Concluding remarks: It is not always possible for every teacher to experimentalscientifically because of no special training in doing so and of lack of facilities forexperimentation in school, yet he can adopt new teaching methods with better results.

1. New teaching methods suggested by Psychology should be tried.2. Experimental Psychology helps the teacher in dealing satisfactorily with the

backward, the deficient, the emotionally deranged and the delinquent child.3. Experiments can also be carried on in the development of character and leadership.

Sciences of self-government and of giving responsibility to students can be tactfullyintroduced in schools.

Introspection: Observation is of two kinds - (1) objective and (2) subjective. Subjectiveobservation or self-observation is called introspection. It means to look within' Psychologylook within their minds, as it were, to discover how they think, reasons, imagine, etc. It isthe direct observation of mental processes by the individual who experiences them at atime when they take place. For example, if I want to know the nature of anger, I must lookwithin myself when anger comes and try to know the peculiarity of the experience.

Advantages:

1. It is a time honoured method. It is the only method by which mental processes can beobserved and studied, particularly those which are not exhibited external such asthinking, reasoning and imagining.

2. The Psychologist's own mind is his laboratory. Since it is always with him, he canintrospect whenever and wherever he likes.

3. This is the simplest and most economical of all the methods as it does not require anyapparatus or the help of any person.

4. The method is also suitable for the analysis of those mental processes which onemay not like to disclose to other. Therefore this method is specially suitable foranalysis of sex experiences.

5. Introspection may be usefully employed for the improvement of one's personality.While teaching, if the teacher feels that his method is not effective, he will they itimprove his method. He may observe his own weaknesses or the weak points in his

method and try to improve his efficiency.

Disadvantages: The behaviourist reject this method altogether.1. Mental processes are process and not things. They are transitory and short lived.

They always flow and flicker. They are never steady and abiding. It is ever difficult toarrest a mental process and then introspect it successfully.

2. Introspection is self destructive it destroys the very object it has to observe. It requiresthe mid to divide itself into the "knower" and the "know", which is very difficult.

3. Our mind is only one and by observing it alone we can never come to know what istrue of mind in general. Psychology deals with the mind in general and not with mymind or your mind.

4. Children, insane persons and lower animals are unable to introspect5. Our sub-conscious and unconscious mental processes are beyond the reach of

introspection6. Scientific observations can be repeated and checked by other investigators. The data

of introspection. Cannot be verified by repetition, since the mental operations ofdifferent individuals are never alike.

How to overcome these difficulties

The above defects may be remedied as follows:

1. Retrospection: We should let the mental process run its course un-disturbed andrecall it immediately after it is gone. Such observation is memory is calledretrospection. It, too, is not free form defects. Firstly, a past mental process whenrecalled may not be like its original. Secondly, memory is unreliable.

2. Collaboration: If we work in co-operation and compare our results, the chances oferror are greatly lessened.

3. Training and Practice: Though at first it is difficult to cultivate the habit of dividedattention, it can soon be acquired by practice.

4. We should be fresh and feel comfortable when we begin to introspect. We shouldintrospect seriously, attentively and impartially

Psycho-analysis: Mental processes are of three levels- (i) conscious, (ii) preconscious orforce conscious and (iii) unconscious. The conscious processes are those which weexperience at the moment. The pre-conscious are those which just on below the margin ofconsciousness. They can be brought back to consciousness at any time the individuallikes. The unconscious, on the other hand are those of which we are totally unaware. Theycannot be brought too consciousness a any time that we like. It was Dr. Sigmund Freudwho brought the concept of the 'Unconscious' to limelight.

The Unconscious, according to hi, is the greatest segment of mind. It is a huge reservoirwhich contains all our primitive impulses and strivings. Though completely out ofconsciousness, it can does influence mental life tremendously. It is a story house of thosedesires, wishes, aversions and hopes which are repressed and which we are afraid to ownin public. It is the lumber room of all our repressed wished. These repressed wishes leadto the abnormal behaviour of the individual of individual. They cause the following dreams,day-dreams, lapses of memory, slips of pen and tongue, forgetting of names and things,irrational fears, feelings of unrest and the like in normal life, several forms of automata andmannerism, left-handedness, delinquent behaviour

To explore the hidden trends of the unconscious is the main object of Psycho-analysis. It isan effort to catch the unconscious at work. It is the method which is applied to discover the

unconscious phenomena of the mental patient, it helps us in finding out the unconsciouswishes and impulses which are called repressed desires.

Method: The preliminaries of this method are word association test and dream analysis. Inword association test the analyst gives one word as the stimulus word and the patient isasked to give the response word, i.e., the word the comes to his mind on hearing thestimulus word. The nature of the response word, are studied by the analyst Karl Jungworking on word association test prepared a list of critical words. These words touch theemotional life of the individual. The roots of mental trouble generally lie in one's emotionallife. After analysis of the responses of a number of normal and abnormal persons, Jungprepared a list of normal responses and another list of abnormal responses. This list isadministered to the patient.

Dream analysis was developed by Freud. According to his theory the censor is ineffectivewhile we are asleep. So our repressed impulses find expression in dreams of an individualgives a clue regarding the potential danger points. The Psycho analysis them to reach thedeeper recesses of the mind of he patient which are not revealed in his consciousbehaviour.

The technique of Psycho-analysis is complicated. The general principle however is verysimple.

1. Make the subject or the patient sit comfortably in a sofa in a semi dark room, only theanalyst should be present with him. The patient should be made to feel at home.

2. The analyst should win the confidence of the patient in consecutive interviews. Howshould be encouraged to confide in the analyst.

3. The patient is then encouraged to talk out his malady. The analyst listens to himpatiently and only here and there helps him in digging out things from hisunconscious. He records whatever the patient speaks.

4. Because of he extra-sympathetic and over-courteous behaviour of the analyst, arapport is established between him and the patient. And consequently the patientfrankly discloses his mind to the analyst. This leads to the unburdening of his mind.He in this state of rapport gives out even his repressed desires. This relieves him ofhis complexes.

Psycho-analysis thus means discovery of repressed wished and then re-educating theindividual so that he looks at them from a different angle and thus is cured of his malady.The process is highly technical one and demands a specialization in the field before aperson is able to carry on psycho-analysis successfully.

Limitations and drawbacks of this method.1. It can be applied only be an expert and one becomes an expert after a practice of

several years.2. This method is not id universal application. It can be applied to persons of above-

normal intelligence. It is not applicable to children.3. It is a very slow process. One case of Psycho-analysis runs over months and

sometimes over more than a year.4. It is very costly5. It does not explain why in spite of the incidents which are regarded as causes of

abnormality, most of us remain normal.6. This method applies the findings form abnormal persons to normal persons.

CHAPTER TWO

WORK AND FATIGUE

We are always engaged in cone activity bodily or mental, is continued beyond a certainlimit the individual feels fatigue, At first there is loss in interest and it is further follower by apositive dislike for the task in hand, Decrease in the capacity for work as a result of workis fatigue. Fatigue may be subjective (Mental) or objective (Physical). Persistent mentalwork and the latter cause the former by continued mechanical work. Physical fatigue isfatigue may be local or general. It is local when particular part of the system say, hand,arms, neck, leg, etc. are exhausted, it is general when the whole body is exhausted.

Subjective and Objective Fatigue: Fatigue may be subjective or objective. The former iscause by persistent mental work and the later by continued mechanical work. The formeris feeling tired and the later is "beings mental fatigue. Mental fatigue is a combination ofphysical fatigue and a lack of interest and feeling of boredom. Even mental work involvescontinuous use of muscles such as eye, head and neck muscles. These muscles consumeenergy an throw out toxins which cause fatigue. Subjective fatigue is nothing but collectionof sensations and fatigue producing an unpleasant effective zone of consciousness.

It is altogether impossible to have fatigue or mental work which does not involve muscularfatigue or physical work and conversely also we cannot have muscular work or physicalfatigue without involving any mental activity or mental fatigue. This distinction of mentaland physical is discarded immediately when we remind ourselves of the intimaterelationship of body and mind and the influence of one over the other is almost everyactivity of the organism. All muscular activity involves nerve centre and II mental activityaffects muscles. The distinction between subjective an objective fatigue is not of kindrather of degree.

Causes of Fatigue

The causes of fatigue are physical as well as metal. First of all we will discuss physicalcauses of fatigue.

1. Exhaustion of the energy producing compounds: There are certain compoundsthat give energy to the calls in the body. When the muscles are used too muchwithout sufficient periods of rest, fatigue is experienced. Fatigue may be result of ad-posture, sitting in an uncomfortable position, standing too long, playing games toolong or doing physical work of any kid for too long a period.

Unless you replenish the spent up store through rest, nourishment and sleep, themuscles would not work.

2. The present of waste products (called toxins) in both muscles and verves: Twodifferent processes are going within the issues of the body:

i. Process of composition or building upii. Process of decomposition or tearing down

When tissues absorb good elements and oxygen, the process of composition is at work.When energy is being used in some form of muscular activity we have decomposition ortearing down. Toxins are waste products they are formed due to exercise of any muscles.They are poisonous and their presence in blood causes fatigue. They can be removedthrough rapid circulation of blood. A period of rest is needed after muscular work to removefatigue.

3. Lack of Oxygen: Where there is not enough supply of oxygen, the waste product isnot readily oxidized and fatigue soon overtakes the organism. Fresh air gives usoxygen. Moving and breathing in fresh air removes fatigue. Lack of ventilation alsocomes under oxygen. The important cause of fatigue and inefficiency is air stagnation.We should, therefore, have open air schools.

4. Poor Lighting: Poor lighting lowers output directly. It increase spoiled work and leadsto over-strain We should not have out schools in congested areas, with many storeybuildings.

5. Noise: Experiments in industrial concerns have shown that noise also causes fatigue.In a school noise may come from outside or from within the school itself. We usuallyget accustomed to the noise from outside. The noise in the school itself should bereduced to the minimum.

6. Bodily Weakness: Disease is a considerable cause of fatigue. The teacher shouldsee that the sick or convalescent children do not over-strain themselves.

7. Weather: In summer we feel more fatigue than in winter periods should be shorter inhot weather and rest should be more frequent.

Mental causes of fatigue

1. Obstructing the child when he is trying to carry out his instinctive desires causesfatigues

2. Boredom and lack of interest. When we are not interested in lesson, we very son gettired of it. We are not interest in the work but we are forced to do it. Very soon we getfatigued. We are 'tired of and not tired by' the work

Remedy for fatigue

1. Sleep and rest: If we take rest after work new tissues are build and depleted energyis replenished. The body feels fresh and vigorous. Nap during summer as well aswinter is thus very useful.

2. Nourishing food: Nourishing food also reduces fatigues. Milk, fruit and foodcontained sugar, are, therefore recommended. Midday refreshments should beintroduce din schools, stimulants like tea, coffee and cocoa also remove fatigue is lostafter a cup of milk, tea or coffee or when we take an egg or even a tumbler of water.

3. Change of work "Change of work is rest": Said Napoleon. Frequent changes fromintellectual to manual work also lessons fatigue Here there is a difference of opinion.Those who differ hold that if a person is really fatigued, then a change of occupationis certainly not as good as rest. If it is a matter of loss of interest or boredom, then achange of occupation is beneficial.

4. Introduction interest: Lack of interest is boredom when a child attends to a subjectfor along time, it becomes monotonous, All interest is killed, Unless something new isintroduced continued work is not possible. The presence of interest is a powerfulfactor in removing fatigue.

5. Forming habits of work: We should build your habits of work Habits diminish fatigue

of body and mind by dispensing with random and preparatory movements.

Fatigue in school

How should we tackle the problems of fatigue in school? The following methods aresuggested:

1. Short periods of work and more than one interval: Children are quickly tired. Theirlesson period should be a short duration. We should never force children to workwhen they are tired secondary, there may be more than one interval or recess. In thearmy after every period of 40 minutes we have a break of five minutes. Usuallyschools have only period of recess in the middle of the day. We should have at leasttwo periods of break.

There are three stages in a period:1. Warming up2. Full working3. Falling off

In any period the second stage, that is of full working' should be as long possible. Theperiod must be so short that pupils barely get through the 'warming up' stage, norshould it be so long that the falling off or the stage of the onset of fatigue is tooextended. On an average a period for senior pupils should not be more than minutesin duration, while for very young ones twenty five minutes will usually be enough. Formore difficult subjects the period will be shorter.

2. Frequent changes from intellectual to manual worka. Gardening, craft-work, drawing, music and agriculture provide a usefulchange form Language, Mathematics and History.b. The classes should change rooms for different subjects of the day's time-table.

3. Certain subjects (difficult ones) such as English and Mathematics make greaterdemands than others on the learner. The school time table should be so framed thatdifficult subjects come in the beginning and easy ones at the end.

4. Rate of work should be well within the capacity of the learner.a. There are some periods in life when the child makes rapid progress in physical

growth from 3 to 7 and from 11 to 14 or 15. At such periods of acceleratedphysical growth the rates of mental development decreases. We must becareful, therefore, to avoid mental over-strain during such periods.

b. Individual differ in their capacity for work. Some get tired sooner than other. Theteacher should watch the symptoms of fatigue among his pupils. He shouldinfuse a spirit of cheerfulness and freedom in learning.

5. Nourishing Food- A cup of milk during recess will surely reduce fatigue of schoolchildren.

Work Curve

Experiment in simple Cancellation Test: The subject is given a printed page from thenews paper. He is asked to cross out al a 's' in it. The experimenter uses a stop watch. Hegives a signal to the subject after ever minute or every two minutes, whereupon the

subject indicates by a cross on the paper point at which he has arrived. Thus by countingthe number of 'a' 's' cancelled per minute in continuous experiment, the result can beplotter and graph obtained. This is called the work curve.

There are three distinct parts of a work curve.1. Step progress: The first part shows a steep progress it is due to (i) incitement and (ii)

adaptation incitement is 'warming up' and is always shown at the commencement ofany piece of work. Adaptation is the setting down to work.

2. Level of work in uniform: Here no sign of fatigue can be traced. It is the part whichis most satisfying for arriving at any inferences about the work of the individual.

3. Falling off period: Characteristics of this period are:i. First there is slow declineii. Curve takes a distinctly steep shape downwards.

General rules about effective work

1. Do not avoid fatigue2. Fatigue should be kept within limits3. Deciding about when and how long to rest will depend upon practice, fatigue,

incitement and adaptation.

Time Motion Study: Time and motion study aims to bring about the most economic use ofbody and mind on the part of the worker. The purpose behind it is to eliminate such factorswhich cause useless expenditure of energy. It is meant to find the most efficient co-operation of movement of the limbs of the workers so as to secure maximum of output withthe minimum of effort.

It has been found that:There are many movements which are altogether useless and can be omitted in theperformance of a task.

One uninterrupted circular movement is less fatiguing that two disconnected movements.It is less fatiguing to perform an act rhythmically than to perform it as an irregular series ofjerky movements.

INSTINCTS AND EMOTIONS

Instinct: Psychology is the science of behaviour Behaviour is either inherited or acquired.Instinct is an unlearn, inherited behaviour It is inborn, natural tendency to action. Instincttheories were furthered by William McDougall, who interpreted all behaviour, even socialbehaviour, as an expression of innate impulses. Bernard Dunlap, Watson and Woodworthbegan the overthrow of instinct doctrines in Psychology. Because most forms of humanbehaviour are so variable and modifiable and modifiable, that Psychologists have droppedthe terms 'instinct' when speaking of human beings. Tell almost any psychologist todaythat some body does something 'instinctively' and he is apt to rise in indignation and pointout that instincts were thrown overboard twenty years ago. Little or no human behaviour isinstinctive, he will declare practically everything we do is wholly or partially learned and notthe unmodified expression of human urge.

Human behaviour obviously arises form some urge, if not from an instinct then fromanother kind of urge. Woodworth calls it drive. Others call it motive.

McDougall defines instinct as 'an innate disposition which determines a organism toperceive and pay attention to any object of a certain class and to experience in itspresence a certain emotion excitement and impulse to action which find expression acertain emotion excitement an impulse to action which finds expression in a specific modeof behaviour in relation to that object. "That growing of a cur when you snatch away itsbone instinctive. Birds build their nests, seek their food and fear harmful objectsinstinctively. A child sees a dog running towards him. He carefully watches him (cognition),then the emotion of fear is aroused (affection) and he tries to run away conationPsychology. This is an example of the instinct of flight.

Characteristics of Instincts

1. Innate: Instincts are innate, inherited and not acquired. They are there from the verybeginning.

2. Dispositions: They form part of mental structure. They are not always present inconsciousness. They are evoked only when the proper stimulus is there.

3. Racial Heritage: They are present in every member of the species. They form part ofthe racial mneme and racial born.

4. They serve the purpose of the preservation of the race and its members. Instincts ofsex, flight and curiosity help us in the preservation of the race.

5. Every instinct has got cognitive, affective and connotative aspects. Just as a specialkey opens a lock, a special stimulus evokes an instinct.

6. Every instinct has its period of appearance, maturity and weakening. Not all instinctsare ready at birth combat and play become weaker with age. Sex does not appear tillpuberty.

7. Instincts are plastic: They are capable of modification and adaptation as a result ofexperience and environment. Hunger or food seeking instincts is common to all butthe manner in which it is satisfied differs from nation to nation. Some people use forksand knives, others pieces of sticks, still others simply hands. Some eat nice dishessitting on chairs, another group while squatting on the ground and another in theredinner suits at table, while still another gathering crumbs from door to door. Yet allthese sons of Earth are satisfying one fundamental urge and that is hunger.

Instinct and Reflex Action

1. Both have some common features2. Both are universal3. Both serve some useful biological purpose. Both are conducive to the well being of

the organism.

They differ in the following respects

1. Reflex action is a prompt response to a stimulus. As soon as the stimulus appears.The response is evoked and is done and is done with. In the case of an instinct theresponse may not be spontaneous.

2. In reflex action, one stimulus can evoke one type of response. The same situationmay not arouse the same instinct in different individuals.

3. The response in reflex action is evoked unconscious. Instinctive actions have all theconditions of a conscious of a conscious, experience.

4. Reflex action cannot be modified but it can condition. Instincts can be modified.

Examples of reflex action are sneezing, coughing, blinking of the eye, salivation, blushing,paling, yawning withdrawal of hand or skin to health, shuddering with cold or emotion,vomiting, etc. A reflex act is an innate, spontaneous response of an organism to a stimuluswhich is common to all the members of the species, which is conductive to the well-beingof the organism and which cannot be modified.

Instincts are common to all forms of animals including human beings. In their crude formthe instincts of man are in no way different from those of other animals. Instinct of laugher,of course, is peculiar to man.

However, man is a social being gifted with reason, and these two factors alone (socialityand rationality Psychology) have placed man on a much higher footing. They have broughtabout the marked different between the instincts of human beings and other animals. Aswe go to the scale of evolution we find that the instincts can be modified more and more.In modified to a notable degree. The instinct of combat which manifests itself in fightingagainst obstruction in animal behaviour, gets modified to make war against obstruction inanimal behaviour, gets modified that distinguished the instincts of man from those of thereanimals.

Sublimation of Instincts

The process of redirecting instincts to worthy ends is sometimes known as sublimation ofinstincts. The word is particularity used with reference to redirection of the energy of thesex instinct. An instinct is said to be sublimated when the energy behind it is utilized inactivities that are socially valuable.

The instinctive energy may be disposed of in any of the following four ways.1. It may be satisfied at the animal level. Here there is no modification in the instinctive

tendency and one follows one's impulses blindly,2. The instinctive energy may not be allowed any outlet. This may be done consciously

or unconsciously, when there is a conscious control over the instinctive energy theprocess is called suppression. But when this tendency is controlled by anunconscious process it is called 'repression'. This is not a desirable process becauseit leads to mental abnormalities. This is postponing the issue and not solving it.

3. This instinct may be satisfied in a socially desirable way. His process is called'socialization' or social sublimation of the instinct. Institution of marriage is an exampleof satisfying sex impulse in a socially desirable way.

4. When instinctive energy is directed to achieve ends which are conductive to theprogress of humanity and civilization, the process the process is called moralsublimation or only sublimation. This is the most desirable channel for the instinctiveenergy cause the instinct is satisfied and also a higher end is achieved. Insocialization the biological goal remains unchanged but in sublimation, biological goalis replace day a socially and morally uplifting goal or example. Sex instinct issublimated by devoting the energy to literature, fine arts, etc. Parental instinct issublimated by nursing the sick or wounded. For many women the profession ofnursing or teaching sublimates the sex instinct. Vigorous physical games like hockey.Football, kabaddi, boxing and wrestling sublimate among adolescents a tendencytowards fighting.

Sublimation is by fat the most satisfactory was of dealing with instinctive dries and urges. Itis the ultimate goal of education. A progressive school rightly maintains a large number ofextra-curricular activities like games, dramatics, a library, debating societies, music clubs,scouting, hobbies, a museum, a library, debating societies, music clubs, scouting, hobbies,a museum, a magazine, so that young people may have a large number and variety ofhealthy outlets for their growing and expanding interests. Some teacher are able topersuade pupils to help them in class control, organizing games, social functions, hostelprogrammes and the like. Such co-operation form pupils provide valuable opportunities tothe abler, older and stronger boys to exercise leadership and express their attitude andability of the teacher. Instincts are the great dynamic forces of human nature whichdetermine.

NEUROSIS AND PSYCHOSIS

There are different types of mental illness and some can have similar symptoms. Due tothe uniqueness of human characteristics and behaviour people with the same diagnosiswill have their own experience of mental illness and so can have different symptoms.Mental illness diagnoses are most accurately determined by identifying a collection ofsymptoms which may not be immediately obviously. Because of the complexity of doingthis it is therefore important to rely on a doctor and ideally a psychiatrist to diagnose amental illness.

Most conditions can be classed as either neurotic or psychotic and will be briefly describedin this lesson. There are other conditions called personality disorder, organic disorder andillness caused by the use of illicit drugs and these will be described.

Neurosis

Neurosis conditions are the most common forms of mental illness. Symptoms can beconfused with normal emotions but are different because they cause a more extremereaction. Examples of neurotic illnesses are depression and anxiety-it is normal toexperience these emotions to some degree in out lives but they become a mental illnesswhen the problem becomes severe, escalating out of proportion and affecting normalactivities. Other types of neurotic illness are panic attacks and obsessive compulsivedisorder (OCD).

Common symptoms:

Depression: severe low mood, isolation, poor sleep and appetite, hopelessness, difficultiesin concentrating and lack of energy. In its most severe form some people with thisdiagnosis may develop thoughts of suicide.

Anxiety: anxiety that is severe and persistent which can happen for no apparent reason oris triggered some external stimulus including a phobia.

Panic attack: linked to anxiety and phobias. The attack will cause a person to experiencea sudden rush of intense fear frequently with feelings that they are going to die. Commonlypeople during an attack experience breathlessness, tremors, palpitations, sweating, lightheadedness and tingling in the fingers.

Obsessive compulsive disorder: obsessive thoughts that can not be ignored and aredistressing or repetitive. They can cause the person to repeat behaviour in an attempt torelieve the anxiety and temporarily stop the thoughts.Psychosis

Psychosis conditions are when a person forms a different interpretation of 'normal'experiences. It is the most serious type of mental illness. Examples of psychotic illnessare: schizophrenia, bipolar disorder (manic depression) and schizo-affective disorder.

Common symptoms

Schizophrenia: this is not a person who has a 'spirit personality' but means that they canfind it difficult to determine what is real and not real. Their thoughts may be muddled andconfused and they may appear very fearful. Symptoms vary from person to person andmental health workers will often classify them as 'positive' and 'negative' symptoms.Common 'positive' symptoms can be: disturbed thoughts; false beliefs that are very real tosmelling or seeing something that others do not feel, hear, smell or see. By contrast'negative' symptoms can mean that people with this diagnosis develop social isolation;poor personal hygiene; self neglect; difficulty in relating to others; poor motivation; andproblems in coping with everyday activities. Unfortunately 'negative; symptoms cansometimes be made worse by side effects of the medication used to treat the 'positive'symptoms of schizophrenia.

Bipolar affective disorder also known as manic depression: a common illness that causesextreme mood swings from severe depression (see symptoms of depression) to manicepisodes. Typical symptoms of mania are: inappropriate happiness; fast speaking andthinking; inability to sleep or rest, hallucinations; false beliefs; over activity; and behaviourthat is promiscuous; disruptive; rash or uncharacteristic.

Schizo affective disorder: an illness when a person experiences symptoms of bothschizophrenia and bipolar affective disorder.

Emotional intelligence, Mayer, (1997) is the ability to understand how other emotions workand to control one's own emotions. Gordon, (1998) says that emotional intelligence dealslargely with personality and mood aspect of individual that can not be changed. Gordon,(1998) furthered stressed that improving employees literacy and analytical skill is the bestway to boost job performance and productivity.

Yang (2002) in this viewed on emotional intelligence says "Emotional intelligence is relatedto the abilities to control one's own emotions. For example, an emotionally intelligentpastor is someone who can control frustrations, delay gratification, make rationaljudgement, and emphasize. Yang (2000) suggests that social/emotional intelligence arenecessary skills among the workers because they can influence increase in workersproductivity.

Emotional Intelligence Competition

The most common mistake is to think that acquiring more knowledge will make you better.To be effective in most occupations or to be productive a person needs the ability to usetheir knowledge and to make things happen. These can be called competencies, whichBoyatzis (1982) defined as "The underlying characteristics of a person that lead to orcause effective and outstanding productivity.

There are set of competence cause or predict outstanding professionals, managers, orleaders. Regardless of author or study, they tend to include abilities from three clusters.Cognitive or intellectual ability, such as system thinking; self management or intra-personalabilities, such as adaptability; relationship management or interpersonal abilities such asnetworking.

Building upon and integrating or great deal of competence research, Goleman, Boyalzis,and Mckee (2002) a model of emotional intelligence with eighteen competencies arrayedin four clusters the self- Awareness, Accurate self -Assessment and self-confidence; Theself-management cluster include emotional self-control, Achievement, initiative,transparency, Adaptability, and optimism; The social awareness cluster included empathy,service orientation, and organization awareness, the relationship management clusterincluded inspirational leadership, influence, conflict management, change catalyst,developing others, team work, and collaboration.

Mayer and ciarrochi (2007) states that beyond knowledge and competencies, theadditional ingredient necessary for outstanding performance/productivity appears to be thedesire to use one's talent. This seems driven by a person's values, philosophy, sense ofcalling or mission, unconscious motives, and traits. These three domains of capability (i.e.knowledge, competencies, and motivational drivers) help us to understand "what a personneeds to do" (i.e. knowledge), "how a person needs to do' it" (i.e. competencies), and "whya person will do it" (i.e. values, motives and unconscious dispositions) mayer aciarrochi(2007) viewed that the assumption for too long has been that the competencies are inborn. This deterministic view has led to a focus on selection and placement rather thandevelopment. But these competencies, and in particular the ones called emotionalintelligence, can be developed.

A growing body of research has helped us to discover that yield sustained behaviouralchange.

Cherniss, Adler (2000) Boyalzis, stubbs and Taylor (2002) viewed that these improvementsprovide hope and evidence that people can develop the abilities, or competencies, thatmatter the most to outstanding workers performance/productivity, namely, the ones we callemotional intelligence (EI). Altogether the need to develop (EI) appears to be commonsense, it is not common practice.

Decades of research on the effects of psychotherapy (Hubble, Duncan and Miller 1999),self-help programmes (kanfer and Goldstein 1991), cognitive behaviour therapy (Barlow1988), training programs (morrow, Jarrett, and Rupinski 1997), and education (Pascarellaand Terenzini 1991) have shown that people can change their behaviour, moods, and self-image. There are few studies showing sustained improvement in the lead to outstandingworkers productivity (Mayer and Ciarrochi 2007)

They furthered says that Intentional change is a desired change in an aspect of who youare (i.e., the Real) or who you want to be (i.e., the ideal), or both.

Bar-on (1995) He started his research by looking at every some individuals have greateremotional well being and greater success than others.Further, he was equally interested in why some individuals with proven superior intellectualability seemed to fail in life.

Emotional intelligence can be seen as the intelligence that determines how people interactwith themselves and others and what their potential for success is, beyond their level ofcognitive intelligence. Broadly speaking, emotional intelligence deals with the emotional,social, personal and survival dimensions of intelligence, which are often more important fordaily performance and productivity than the more cognitive aspects of intelligence Bar-on,1997; Academy personal, Executive and life coaching, "undated"

Emotional intelligence has originated from the early theories of intelligences. Generalintelligence refers to "a person's overall capacity for adaptation through effective cognitiveand information processing" (Matthews et al, 2002, p 59) salovey and mayer (1990)viewed emotional intelligence as an ability, Goleman (1998a) sees the construct ascompetency-based, and others, like Bar-on (Bar-on & Parker, 2000) define the constructas a trait.

While some have said emotion has no place in business or in government, in fact,emotions are a key ingredient and in a single human life. It is only when leaders discoverhow to make their feelings work for them that they spark growth and change in themselves and in the organization (Noyes, 2001 P. 1) Humphrey (2002) went further byarguing that leadership is essentially an emotional process through which leaders identityto encourage emotions in their followers, and then attempt to manage their followersemotional conditions accordingly.

Golemen (1995, p. 34) state that his 'concern lies with a key set of these "othercharacteristics", namely emotional intelligence, abilities such as being able to motivate oneself and persist in the face of frustrations; to control impulse and delay gratification; toregulate one's moods and keep distress from swamping one's moods and keep distressfrom swamping the ability to think; to empathize and to hope".

With this wide spread interest in emotional intelligence, interpersonal relationships andsocial skills have become increasingly important to effective leadership (Goleman, 1998a).Apart from planning, organizing and control the overall management of an organization.Leadership role now also include so called "soft skills" for example the ability to inspire andencourage others, to advance and to create a sense of contribution, ownership andimportance with and among employees (Hogan, Curphy & Hogan 2001, p. 5) Goleman(1998b) and Ravi (2001) called emotional intelligence the sine quanon of leadership,seeing it as the indispensable condition or requirement of leadership. Goleman (19989)Claimed that emotional intelligence accounts for close to ninety percent of leadershipsuccess various researchers agreed with Goleman (1998a) that leaders with highemotional intelligence are better able to manage their own and their followers emotions tofacilitate performance productivity more effectively Ashkanasy & Dasborough, 2003; Book,2004; Boyatzis, 2004; Gardner & Stough, 2003; George, 2000; Macaleer & Shannon,2002; Palmer et a;., 2001; vitello-cicciu, 2003; weissman, 2003

i. Emotion, its natural and training

What is emotion? There are three aspect of a mental process knowing, feeling aswilling feelings are elementary metal processes and exists to some degree at alltimes. Feelings are elementary and do not produce any violent reaction on our part.When feeling are violent and the calmness of our mind is disturbed, we have no lonerfeelings but emotions. An emotion thus is nothing but an intense and violent feeingwhich is sufficiently strong is disturb our mental calmness. It is a disturbed state ofmind which prepares the organism or activity in response to the stimulus whichcauses the disturbance.

Emotions are the prime movers of thought and conduct and their education andcontrol is very important. They play a very important part in the individual and sociallife of man. They determine to a very great extend his physical and mental health.They also determine whether a person will be liked in society, will gain the admirationand affection of his neighbours or will be treats as a nuisance. There are certain

emotions that accelerate digestion and help in the building of the body. They are loveand joy. These are expanding emotions. Laugh and happy when talking meals' is asound advice. Eat with a friend rather than alone. What affects health is not so muchwhat you eat but how you eat.

Characteristics of Emotions

1. Emotions have a wide range. From the lowliest organism to the highest is thesame fear or anger that is aroused.

2. Emotions are capable of being aroused by a large variety of stimuli, Anger maybe aroused when the food is not properly coked or when a students has not donehis home task or when someone has offended you. Any kind of obstruction causesanger and any kind of danger may cause fear.

3. Some emotion have a paralysing effect on our movement. Stricken with grief atthe death of a relative we are unable to think and know what to do some emotions,however, lead to greater activity, William James mentions the case of an athlete,who, when all boy, was chased by bull and in his fright scaled a wall which he wasnever able to climb again till he had grown up.

4. Emotions may be aroused extremely as well as internally. In the former casethere is an outside stimulus which excites emotions. They may be internallyaroused by organic changes in the body. Men with bad livers are peevish andobstinate.

5. Emotions rise abruptly but die slowly. They tend to persist and leave behind anemotional disposition known as mood.

6. Emotions have a parasitical character; writes Stout. He occurrence of anemotion presupposes the existence of a conative disposition. Emotions andinstincts are very closely related.

7. An emotional state is accompanied by physiological change. For example, infear, heart beats rapidly, perspiration starts, mouth becomes dry, and the bodybeings to tremble.

Training of Emotions

Education should train young people to control their emotions individuals differ greatlyin their power of self control some have emotional stability and balance, others getupset even at trifles. Some feel insulted every time they are not consulted, others areabsolutely unmoved by reproach.

There are four ways of treating emotions, through disuse, punishment, fee expressionand sublimation. The first ways are not commendable. To starve emotions throughdisuse, to suppress then through punishment, and to give free expression to everypassing emotions do not lead to the healthy development of the child. The best courseis to direct their expression into health channels. The task of education is not to get ridof them but to harness them for useful ways of though and life.

The teacher: The most important factor in healthy emotional education is the teacher.His emotional life should be stable and well balanced. Emotional sates are contagious.Individual differences in emotional make up can be traced to the parents and teacher

with whom children had their contact and experience.

2. Through teaching of literature, nature study drawing, music games, and dramatics theschool should promote the emotional development of its pupils.

3. Mental occupation: An empty brain is a devil's workshop when a child is engaged insome rigorous pursuit, all his energy is being consumed in that occupation. He has noavailable energy to indulge in any superfluous emotional state.

4. Catharsis: Form time to time it is necessary that some amount of catharsis be providedfor feelings that suffer from social taboo. One who wants children to remain seriousalways ignore the demands of human nature. There should be occasions for laugher,play and fun in schools, dramatics, variety, show fancy dressing tit bits, etc, affordemotional release.

5. Sublimation: just as no instinct as such is bad, similarly no emotional is bad it itself. It ismostly its use than is good or bad. Anger as such is not bad. It supplies the energy tothe organism necessary for fighting. But a misdirected anger, may instead of injuringthe opponent, injure the angry person himself. Let the student be made to feel angry atone who does injury to his school or class rather than to his person. The student whodefends his weaker class fellow from the attack of some bully should be praised for hiscourage. What is true of anger is also true of fear. The student should not feardarkness, ghosts or closed spaces but he should surely fear doing wrong to anyone.Religion, painting, and music sublimate our emotions. The young should be taught toappreciate the beautiful, to see the perfect in nature and art, to love truth and to fightfor the right.Fear, its role in education

The instinct of flight is usually called the instinct of fear also. This urge plays aprominent part in our lives. The following serve as the key to this urge.

a. Dangerous situation that which suggests danger or the possibility of danger.b. Anything strange on unknown.c. Anything which threatens to upset your lifed. Anything that adversely affects our social economic welfare.

We are afraid of our employers, of violating social customs, of public opinion, of illness,of accidents, of future because it is unknown. Of all instincts fear it's the most difficultyto sublimate because it is a negative force.. it is great enemy of power and control.

Fear of punishment when we punish a child we bring in a fairly strong element of fear.Fear of tatting the punishment will deter a child from repeating the wrong deed.Punishment and the fear of punishment have a negative effects. It will prevent the childfrom doing something but will never train him to do anything. It will prevent the childfrom doing something but will never train him to do anything. It is sometimes necessarythat we should use this negative force but that is less than half the task. Punishmentmay rot out weeds but will never cause and the flowers to grow. We should, therefore,employ constructive measure and agencies. It is wrong to suppose that discipline is awhich from can be imposed thing without or from above. There discipline is a matter ofdevelopment and growth of self control. Self control is do not developed by fear ofpunishment. True discipline must grow and develop from within. As teachers weshould not frighten our students into doing what we ask them to do. We should help tounderstand when and why obedience is necessary. Discipline based on fear is externaland short lived,. It has no permanent effect on the child's character except that is

cramps his physical and mental growth and makes him long for an opportunity to overthrow it. The old maxim-spare the rod and spoil the child is no longer rue. Neweducation has taught us that if we use the rod, we spoil the child.

How can discipline from within spring?

1. Student readily obey the rule and regulations of the school, the framing of whichthey have a hand. If full responsibility cannot be given, at least co-operation maybe secured. System of self-government in school is very useful from this point ofview. Pupils make rule or are consulted when rule are made, hence they obeythose rules. With smaller children rules and orders have to be imposed becausethey do not understand things. But as they grown they should be givenresponsibility by stages. Rules and orders should always be explain to thestudents when they are issued.

2. Games also make students disciplined. Players accept the rules before playing thegame. This is self imposition unfair or poor umpiring or the desire to win at anycost spoils the game. We should introduce play for all in our schools so that everystudent should have the opportunity to play.

3. Group competitions Group competition whether in work or play should be held inschools. Rules and arrangements are made by the student themselves. Self-discipline is inculcated.

4. Another of the parents or the teacher should not be based on fear, or on the ideaof superior physical strength. It should rest on affection and justice No unjusttreatment should be given to the child because it will undermine the real authority.Sublimation of fear: IT is a difficult task, yet the following methods are suggested.

1. When children develop different kinds of fear, the first thing to be done is to helpthem to face their fears.

They should understand why they are afraid of certain things which rouse fear inteem. This will help them to get rid of their fears.

2. Help them to grow up to fear the right things. There are things in the world, in thecountry, in the village, which it is useful to fear we should fear things, which aredangerous to society to the welfare of.

CHAPTER THREE

SUGGESTION, IMITATION AND SYMPATHY

Suggestion: It is the cognitive aspect of group behaviour McDougall defines it as "aprocess of communication resulting in the acceptance with conviction of the communicatedproposition in the absence of logically adequate groups for its acceptance. "Suggestionwas first brought into limelight by the hypnotists. It plays an important part in normal lifealso. Whenever we accept as true something for which we can give no reasonable proof,we are victims of suggestion. A man in a crowd is very much like a hypnotized person. Thestory of a Brahmin, who let go his goat because four of the cheats one after the othersuggested to him that he was carrying a god and not a goat, is too common.

a) Factors on which suggestibility depend suggestion does not have the same influenceon different individuals. Some of us are more suggestible than other why? Because ofthe following factors:

1. Age: Children are far more suggestible than adults. The child receivessuggestions from father, mother, relatives' teachers and older people.

2. Ignorance or lack of conviction: Ignorant people are more suggestible thanintelligent ones, for the latter being well informed accept statements only after acareful security. Cabinet minister who are quite new to their job accept what theirexperienced secretaries tell them.

3. Source of suggestion: We take suggestions from person in authority, formpersons whom we admire and from the printed page. This is prestige suggestion.

4. Expectation: We accept suggestion when we are mentally and emotionallyready for it. We lose a game and accept the suggestion that the referee was unfairand partial.

5. Character and temperamental conditions of a person also determine whetherhe is suggestible or not. If self abasement is strong in him he is more suggestiblethan one is whom the urge to assertion or the urge to combat is strong.

b) Kids of suggestion: suggestion is of six kinds.

1. Auto suggestion or hypnotic suggestion2. Prestige suggestion3. Mass or herd or group suggestion4. Form suggestion5. Contra, counter or Hetero suggestion6. Negative suggestion

1. Auto suggestion: I auto suggestion, the person suggesting and the personreceiving are one and the same. Imaginary external object are pictured due toauto-suggestion. Nervous people after suggestion to themselves thoughts ofmishaps and illness. Life become a series of victories to one who is an optimistand suggests to himself healthy thoughts. Similarly many a battle has been lostdue to unhealthy auto-suggestion. Fear, it is said, is the most expensive host toentertain. All kinds phobias are due to auto suggestion.

2. Prestige suggestion: We readily accept suggestions from those who are superior

to us in experience, age, scholarship, social status and power, printed matter, orfavourite author, the teacher in the class, the parent at home, a leader in thegroup, the speaker in the Assembly all enjoy this advantage. The teacher whoenjoys the confidence and respect of his pupils can easily and quickly mould theirthoughts in desirable directions because of prestige suggestion. He hasknowledge, experience and authority whereas the student are submissive, youngand immature. The more friendly the relation between the teacher and the pupils,the greater is the suggestive potentiality.

What he should do: The teacher should give the benefits of his experience,knowledge and wisdom to young and immature minds. He should encourage free,independent and wholesome thinking.

What he should not do? He should not exploit his power to suggest his ownreligious or political creed since he is a servant of the society as a whole and not ofa danger of a particular sect or party, He who suggests his won political ideals is adanger to society. He should not give ready made through to his students he shouldnot suggest his prejudices, like and dislikes to them. He should not help them toarrive at right thoughts and to learn and acquire right ideals and habits. Apart fromdirect positive suggestions, the teacher is often responsible for several far-reachingindirect suggestions. While discussing the daily lesson he can quietly drop a hintabout religion, God, social reform, etc, which in the long run develops into apermanent attitude for a against the given topic.

3. Mass or herd or group suggestion: It is also known as herd or groupsuggestion. What the majority thinks or believes, is readily accepted byindividuals. Suggestion. A man in a crowd is very much like a hypnotized person.We incur extravagant expenditure on wedding, not because it is reasonable butbecause every body does it. A fruit vendor or a sweet seller is sometimes cheatedby a group of respectable school student because of group suggestion. Thepoliceman at the crossing is set at naught and challenged; pranks are played withthe tongawala, the students of other school are jeered at, even insulted becauseof group suggestion.

Mass suggestion is a great force in the school

We should set a healthy tone is school and build up useful traditions. In school in class,room, in unions mass suggestion is often operating and the child uncritically accept theviews because all around him seem to hold it. So good traditions in the school will leadto the healthy development of the child school tone, more than anything else, is adetermine factor in shaping the character an conduct of each individual child.

4. Form suggestion: It is suggestion that comes to us from things or the form inwhich the ideas are presented to us. A well furnished room can give us anaesthetic suggestion and a place of worship such as temple, a spiritualsuggestion.

Sometimes it is difficult to tell whether the suggestion is one of form or of prestige.An article in a newspaper may be the cause of suggestion because (1) of the wayit is written or (2) it is a printed matter or (3) of the author of the article whom welove and respect.

5. Contra, counter or Hetero suggestion: Sometimes it so happens that the

subject not only rejects the proposed idea but is definitely inclined to do theapposite. It is found in the class of teacher who is either (1) too aggressive or (2)too inefficient. The personality and attitude of a teacher may lead to discontentamong pupils and they may act and think in the prohibited way. The teacherscharacter, learning and sincerity in work must be above question.

Negativism is a persistent altitude of contra suggestion. Many children take tonegativism when too frequently scolded and ordered about.

6. Negative suggestion: As far as possible avoid giving negative orders. Pindaraopened the box which contained all the calamities simply because she wasdefinitely told not to open it. Adam and Eve tasted the forbidden fruit simplybecause it was forbidden. Thus negative moral commands do not steal, do not tella lie are not only useless for he child but they do him positive harm.

a) Relation between the leader an the led

1. A successful leader smut have membership character in a group he cannot be anoutside. A new corner, a white collar claimant to leadership, or an individual who looksdifferent lacks membership character in group.

2. He must be able to understand his followers their attitudes, values fear, frustrationand goals.

3. He must present the point of balance, he must not be too erratic, impulsive orirregularly given to blowing his tops'

4. He must know when to withdraw or admit his mistakes to his followers. He must beadaptable, able to retrench and shift his course as emergencies arise.

5. The laziness, the indifference and the apathy of the masses due to their inability andinsufficiency are sometimes the important factor in the psychological relationshipbetween the leader and the led.

b) Is a leader born or made?

There are two different theories which are advocated in this connection. The man or 'hero'theory and the 'Times or History' theory.According to the former (the man theory) the traits and qualities of a leader would havemade him a leader whatever the situation. According to the latter theory the gat man is aproduct of his time and place. Clear cases supporting this theory are as leaders likeChurchill, Eisenhower, Subhaschandra Bose. The general trends among Psychologist andPsychiatrists, however recognized an interaction of heredity and environment, aninteraction between the leader and the society.

1. History shows that leadership arises only when a man with outstanding personalitycharacteristics finds himself in a social situation where they are appropriate. Theimportant things is to et a chance, a push to show one's abilities.

2. The difference between leaders and non-leaders lies not so much in age, intelligenceand emotional maturity as in interaction behaviour Only leaders can establish supportwith others and win their confidence.

3. There are social limitations to the leader's freedom because he has to work withinlimits of the laws, institution, morals and customs. Leadership lasts only as thefollowers are in a completely suggestible frame of mind. A leader once said. I' amyour leader, and therefore, I must follow you".

c) The qualities of a leader

The destiny of a nation and her prestige in international sphere depends upon is leaders. Itis leaders who raise a nation to the heights of glory and progress. It is essential, therefore,that we should have leaders of integrity and prestige. In order to become a successfulleader one should have the patience of a camel, the strength of an elephant, the during ofa lion and the persistence of a dog.

The traits or qualities of a leader are mentioned below:1) Healthy blend of assertion and submission: The roots of leadership lie in the

instincts are social in nature. Without there bring other people in the environment,no body can assert of subordinate himself. People are brought together by the herdinstinct. Some are self assertive while others are submissive. The child who hasself-assertive tendencies well developed in his has the germs of leadership in him.But unchecked self assertion makes an individual anti social instead of becomingthe leader of the community, he may become the leader of a gang. A leader shouldnot be a person without humility. Only those can command who know how to obey.

2) Intelligence: There is no gainsaying the fact that intelligent people lead an the dullare led. With his high power of thinking and reasoning he can anticipate things andhandle the people property, intelligence implies foresight, Burke wrote. A leadershould be able to look at least five years ahead of his fellow men". He must be insympathy with the group he leads yet a little advance of it. A man may be toooriginal to be a good leader. He must be an uncommon man with common ideas.

3) Hard work: A fine physique is helpful in social leadership. But size alone will notkeep much unless accompanied by mental ability. Physical endurance and energyare more important than size, height and weight all leader must be hard working, ifan ideal is conceived it must be highest rung of at he ladder because of hard workand application. Genius is one percent inspiration and ninety nine percentperspiration, remarked Addison.

Heights attained by great men were not reached and kept all of a sudden flight, butwhile their companions slept they toiled late at night.

4) Knowledge of group Psychology: A leader leads a group hence he must know theworking of the grip mind. At appropriate occasions, he can make use of the groupforces of suggestion, sympathy and imitation, to guide his followers and to win overhis opponents. By suggestion he makes. His followers accept his new plans.Sympathy operates positive feeling for the execution of the plans. Imitation makesthem behave in a way as is expected by the leader.

5) Self confidence: It is essential for leadership. He who has no confidence in himselfcannot arouse it in others. If a person does not come up to the occasion, hisfollowers will sense his wavering and call away. But to be over confidence is ofcourse to bluff.

6) Enthusiasm: Enthusiasm has an electric influence on others. The leader loves toact, lives in a world of action. His thinking is centred on people and activities. He isa "Go Getter". He challenges and likes to be challenged.

7) Power of expression: Mastery over he language of he group is very necessary. Agood orator can touch the sentiments of the masses better and thus carryconviction to their minds.

8) Organizational ability: It is characteristic of the most executive and social leader.

Thorough organization a leader can multiply himself manifold and can releasehimself for creative tasks. A true leader is one who makes his associates truly great.

9) Exemplary life: A leader puts those ideals into practice in his own life which hewishes his followers to adopt. The leader in that case has not to give sermonsbecause followers learn much by imitation.

d) Types or kinds of leader

Broadly speaking we may classic leaders into two types.Authoritarian leaderDemocratic leader

1. Authoritarian Leader: He wields more power than the democratic leader, he alonedetermines politics of the group. He alone makes major plants. He alone dictates theactivates of the member. He alone serves as the ultimate agent of rewards andpunishments for the individual members and hence of the fate of each individual withinthe group. He reinforces and protests his leadership by preventing the individualmembers from making their own decision by making them helpless without him anddependent on him. He is more or less a star of his group. Dictatorship is a form ofauthoritarian leadership.

2. Democratic leader: The democratic leader differs from the authoritarian in the amountof power but in the nature of his role in a group. He seeks a spread responsibility ratherthan to concentrate it. He seeks to strengthen and reinforce interpersonal contracts in agroup. He seeks to reduce inter group tension and conflict. The star pattern inauthoritarian group structure is replace by a net work pattern of inter group relations.He seeks to serve the public as its agent rather than as its dictator. Whereas theauthoritarian leader secretly wishes or openly advocates the helplessness of the groupwithout him, the democratic leader may judge his own success in terms of he degree towhich the group is able to carry on without him in his temporary absence. The greatestadvantage of democratic leadership is that it does not dwarf the personality of others,that it stimulates followers to become leaders according to their ability and popularity. Itis open to all mentally normal person. It is not reserved. For a selected few.

e) Training for leadership

The significant feature of democratic leadership is that it can be trained or learned. It isbelieved in democracy that nearly every person has a latent talent which if givenopportunity for developing may become the essence of democratic leadership. Thecharacteristics which could be taught are (1) broad knowledge of people and their culture(2) a special knowledge of democratic technique (3) the need for acting at certain timeswith courage (4) the maintenance of emotional self-control at all time and (5) theavoidance of impatience, with others.

The schools and colleges play an important role in providing good leaders to the nation. Todischarge this function the activities in the school should be properly guide and thebehaviour of the teacher should be an ideal one.

1. Discovery of the potential leader: The teacher should always be on the look out tospot out those students, who show germs or leadership in them. Such studentsalways show drive, initiative, intelligence and co-operation. Besides, they areassertive as well. The activities of such cases should be carefully planned.

2. Sublimation of the instinct of self-assertion: Desirable channels should be provided forthe satisfaction of the urge for self display in the student, otherwise he may organize agang an indulge in anti social activities. The monitorial system in the school is veryuseful in this respect. Scouting, games, N.C.C., A.C.C., literary societies, dramaticclubs provide good opportunities for the satisfaction of the instinct of self assertionand of sharing responsibility. Extra curricular activities in the school provide a mediumwhere such potential leaders come to light. Experiments in Muck Parliament, andMock Public Service commission' are no without their value.

3. In his social dealings particularly outside the classroom the teacher himself shouldpresent a good model of leadership.

4. The students should be encouraged to study biographies of great men, especially ofthe national heroes of one's own country and if possible of other countries also. Sucha study is very useful during the adolescent period because the adolescent is avisionary and he would himself like to become leader. The lives of great men willteach him how to make his i.e. sublime.

5. Self Government in schools affords a real opportunity for training in leadership.Monitors, proctors, captains should be properly trained in the discharge of their duties.They should then be given the chance to shoulder responsibility, to tale initiative andto make independent decisions. Proper guidance and encouragement must be givenby the teachers.

6. A leader cannot exist and function without a group. Therefore the school must havethe characteristics of an effective group life. A tutorial college or a coaching instituterun on commercial basics lacks such characteristics and consequently cannot givetraining in leadership to its students. The characteristics of an effective group havealready been discussed under the heading 'Types of group'. They are continuity ofexistence, group consciousness, traditions and customs of the group andspecialization of functions. We should make every possible effort to turn or school intocommunity type of group.

Heredity and Education

A child does not remain a child. It grows into a man. Its growth is conditioned by twoimportant actors heredity and environment or nature and nurture. The relative value ofthese two factor in the growth of a child or in the education of the child has all long been amatter of contention. With heredity all important, the task of the educator is reduced to anegligible value. But who make environment all important, then the impossible can bemade possible by the agency of education. It is prime importance to the educator todetermine what exactly is the part played by each factor in development of the child. It willdecide the question as to what type of education is to given to child and how far is he to beeducated.

There are two distinct schools of though on this point1. Environmentalists or Neo Helvitians2. Hereditarians or Neo Galtonians

The former maintains that environment is all important. The environment in which he isbrought up fixes the conduct of the child. He is the product of nurture. The latter holds thatheredity is all important. The child is what his each fore fathers were. He is the result ofnature.

Hereditarian school

The chief exponents of this school are Rousseau, Pearson, Galton and Mendel. Hereditymean 'Like tends to beget like. The child receives mental and physical traits from hisparents. His is a child of the old block. He takes after his father or mother because ofheredity. Heredity is the sum total of inborn traits of the individual. It is popular belief thatchildren of good and intelligent parents are good and intelligent while those of wicked andstupid are wicked and stupid.

Arguments

1. There is a close relation between the child's physical and oral qualities. Childrenphysically fit and healthy are morally good and commendable. Since physical qualitiesare without doubt inherited; the moral qualities must be so.

2. Researches made by Galton and other into the ancestral history of twins, scientists,judges, artists and kings fully prove the fact that distinctive mental ability is the resultof inheritance. As an example of inheritance of superior mental traits may bementioned the Wedgewood Darwin Galton family which has in every generationproduced men of high eminence. On the negative said may be quoted the notorious'Jokes' family of New York. Jukes was a vagabond fisherman about 200 years ago.His sons and grandsons married woman of very degenerate families and produced arace of invalids, imbeciles and criminals.

3. Correlation technique has been applied to investigate the relation between theintelligence of different individuals. The nearer the individuals in relationship, thehigher is the correlation co-efficient. These factors prove the innateness ofintelligence. Similarly other traits also many depend on upon heredity.

4. Such investigation seem to prove once for all that education is all paint. It does notalter the nature of the wood that is under it. It only improves its appearance a little.

Criticism

1. What we attribute to heredity may be due to traditional atmosphere (social heredity) inwhich children are born and educated. The child possesses a number of traits of thefather, not necessarily because he inherits them from his father but because he isbrought up with him. The child transferred from the cultured home to the barbariccone loses his social heredity. Social heredity is quite form biological heredity. It isanother name of environment.

2. Children are never an exact replica of any of the parents Tall parents may have shortchildren and the vice versa. Stupid parents may have gifted children and the viceversa. Great historical heroes like Babar and Shivaji, may appear in ordinary families.

3. A genius son of a genius father is an exception rather than a rule. Every family is notWedwood Darwin Galton family or Nehru family.

4. If man is the product of heredity only, he would have remained the same old primitiveman that he was twenty centuries back.

5. The researches made by the Russian Scientist, Llysanko in the field of agriculturehave revolutionized the whole theory of heredity. He has proved that the one speciesof what can be changed into another species.

Helvitan School (Environmentalists)

Helvitius of France is the main exponent of this school. He holds that heredity plays a verynegligible part in that child's development. A child is born with a great variety ofpossibilities. What a man has done a man may do if he gets favourable opportunities. Agenius is as much a product of his environment and education as the idiot is. Man growsinto what his environment, training and education make him.

Arguments

1. This school gets philosophic support from the theory of Locke which regards mind asa 'tabula rasa' or clean state on which experience and training expresses their ownform. The mind of the child is passive and plastic to which environment may give anyshape or form it likes.

2. The exponent of this school cite the examples of Babar, Shivaji, Ranjit Singh, Milton,Homer, Demonsthenes and Lincoln. They were the product of social economic andpolitical influences of the age in which they lived.

3. We know instances of reclamation and re-education like Rishi Blmiki. Wrecks in lifeturned over a new leaf and started life afresh on a better plane because ofsympathetic and right guidance.

4. Experiments of Akbar to keep children away from society and under the care of dumbnurses prove that social environment remained dumb though their parents were notdumb.

5. The case of Ramu the wolf by may be favourable cited here. A human child whichremains among wolves became wolf-like he could not speak, walk like animals onfour legs, ate raw flesh the food of wolves.

6. Children who are sent to nursery schools earlier than others show an increase of fourto five points in their intelligence quotient. Thus environments have considerableinfluence on the traits of the child.

Kinds of environment

Environments are of four types.Physical intellectual, emotional and social

a) Physical Environment: This is constituted by the home, the street, the garden, theschool building and other surroundings.b) Intellectual or mental environment: This consists of books at home; the intellectualinterest of the people around the child, the library the museum, the radio an thelaboratory.c) Emotional environment: The emotional qualities of the parents, the teachers thefriends and the playmates comprise the emotional environment.d) Social environment: The member of the family the neighbourhood, the society offriends and teacher at school and the society at large constitute the social environment.

The importance of suitable environment for the proper education of the child cannot beignored, but he view of extreme environmentalists has its serious limitations. According tothem environments are the only factors which cause difference and hence if suitableenvironments be made available every child can be as intelligent as Newton or Roman orGandhi. They further agree that high correlation between the members of the same familymay be due to fact that they lie the same environment. But they cannot explain the

difference between the traits of the children in an orphanage, who live under the sameenvironments.

It is wrong to assume that heredity and environment are to factors directly opposed toeach other. Neither of them has any meaning apart from the other. Ever growing organismwhether plant, animal or man is nit exclusively either heredity or environment but heredityand environment. Study the part played by seed and soil in the growth of a plant. The seedhas the power to grow into a certain kind of plant, but how ill or well it will grow dependupon what soil it gets. If it falls on a stone, in the sun or is crushed, it will no germinate. If itis sown in a poor soil, with too much of heat or water, it may germinate but will not thrivelong or bear fruit. If it falls on good soil and has favourable influences like manure, water,water, sun, it will grow into a very good plant. The plant cannot grow without either theseed or the soil. It needs both. Similarly the child is the product of both, heredity andenvironment. Heredity endows each child with capacities and aptitudes and it is foreducation to provide scope for their expression through favourable environment to thehighest level of development. The importance of environment becomes evident when weconsider how largely our ideas and sentiments are modified by the people we meet, thesociety in which we move, the books we read and the profession we adopt, the teachermust realize that he himself is a vital part of the child's environment and should not onlypresent a worth example but should change with the changing child an the ever changingworld.

There are certain restrictions to the education able capacity of each child and theserestrictions are provided by heredity. The feeble minded child cannot be educated to thesame extent to which the normal child can be and the latter cannot be educated to theextent to which the supernormal or the gifted child be. The teacher has no control over theheredity factor. He, however, can improve the child through determining his socialheredity.

Social Heredity

Heredity

Biological Social

We have already discussed biological heredity. Now we will study social heredity. Itmeaning and importance.

Social heredity is a form of educational environment that affects more than a singlegeneration. It is the sum total (civilization and culture) of the past achievements of morethan one generation. Each generation utilizes its, renders it richer for the cominggeneration. It includes social etiquettes, law, customs and traditions, mother tongue,system of philosophy religious books, pictures work Art, architectural monuments like theTaj, the Qutab Minar, the Ajanta and Ellora Caves, our social heritage consists of all that isbodily, incidentally and determinedly passed on to us by the generations gone before. Weare born with biological heredity but into social heredity.

If the doctrine the acquired traits are not passed on to the next generation is accepted, theonly possible means of improving the are is adding to or improving social heredity. Aparent who surrounds his children with good books and good pictures in a tasteful home.Provides them with opportunities for travel, at atmosphere of peace good behaviour an

family affection and converses with them intelligently providing them with social heritage ofthe highest value. The importance of social heredity is so great that without it man wouldbe quite powerless in spite of all his biologically good traits of intelligence. This is underthe control of the educator. Parents, teachers and the state should see that each child issurrounded with the proper environment so that he might benefit himself by acquiring thesocial heritage which has been coming don for ages. The parent providing at home a goodlibrary suited to the interest of the child. A suitable set of mechanical toys and otherinstruments, a collection of good pictures and paintings, an atmosphere of peace, goodbehaviour and family affection etc, tries to make the child live in the best conditions thatsocial heritage offers him.

Learning: Nature, Law and Method

Every living organism, humans well as animal, is in active relation with his environment.He not only changes and modifies his environment but is, turn, changes and modified by it.The original behaviour of every organism is changed through its contact with theenvironment. It reflexes are conditioned and instincts modified. This modification ofbehaviour which results from interaction, form activity and experience is learning. Thisprocess of change which enables an organism to adjust it self to the environment is calledlearning.

Learning is a process of modification. It grown through experience in the words ofHarriman. 'It is the improvement in efficiency of adjustment as a result of practice, insight,observation, imitation and conditioning. Man of all animals is most capable of learning. Heis more educable than the rest. Learning is purposeful, intelligent and creative. It is bothindividual and social. True learning affects the conducts of the acquire virtues as well asvices. It is the responsibility of education to direct them into desirable and efficientlearning.

Laws of learning

Thorndike conducted experiments in the learning process of animals and after gathering avast amount of data he formulated laws. According to him the major laws learning are:1. The law of readiness2. The law of exercise and practice3. The law of effect

The minor laws are:1. The law of maturity2. The law of purpose3. The law of selection4. The law of association5. The law of recency6. The law of transistorizes7. The law of multiple learning

1. The law of Readiness: Mind set if the leaner is ready to act or to learn, he will learnmore quickly and effective. Readiness or preparedness of for the tanks is half thebattle. Learning take place best when a person is ready to learn, Woodworth uses theword mind set for this preparatory attitude. When we are ready to act along a certainline, acting gives satisfaction, but being prevented from acting gives annoyance.When we are not ready to act, being forced to act also gives annoyance. The boy,who is checked from answering a question which he can answer very well, feels

annoyed. He feels satisfied or pleased when he is allowed to answer. Learning cannever take place through constant annoyance. It must be a process in which series ofvictories are won.

Much of the waste in education is due to the teachers neglect of this principle. Pupilsare not prepared forth lesson and they do not learn it easily. A wise teacher willexploit a solar eclipse, the death of a great statement, an earth quake shock or even arailway accident to teach very useful facts of geography, history and industry. Pupilscan be as much ready or unready for certain studies of school work as they are readyor unready to et at certain times. The project method makes the fullness use of thislaw.

Mind set simply means a general readiness of the person for a certain type of activity.It is very important for effective learning. When a child has set his mind onaccomplishing a certain thing, he will meet and overcome any difficulties in his way. Ifthe purpose to make, for instance, a kite or to dress a doll or set up a dream is, orbecomes fully his own, his whole mind and body will set on it. He will be ready to takean interest in anything that helps him on with his purpose and unready for anythingthat the thwarts or hinders him.

2. Law of Exercise or Practice or Repetition or Use or Frequency: We learn that wepractice. We do not learn what we do not practice. We learn by doing. We will studythat law of Exercise as (i) the laws of use and (ii) the law of disuse

a) Law of use: Repetition of any response tends to confirm or establish it. Wheneverany activity is repeated it becomes prompt, easy and definite. Practice make a manperfect. Skill in games, music, craft, typing, etc. is gained by constant exercise andpractice. With the law of practice are associated two factors: (i) intensity and (ii)regency. The more intense the stimulus the deeper is its impression. Hence to makesuch an impression lasting, constant repetition. Necessary. A factor of recently isreally a form of the law of use. Repetition should be for all subject every week and donot do a great deal of work at one subject and then drop it for a term of a year. Wekeep on working at it steadily.

b) Law of disuse: We learn and retain by use an forget by disuses. A good part of whatwe learn is lost because we don't get any further opportunity to use it. How often weapologise for out poor performance on a hockey ground, at a musical instrument inswimming or rowing by saying, "I am sorry, I am out of practice."

"we learn what we practice we do not learn what we do not practice. The law seemsto be very simple, but most schools do not apply it in teaching. We are ready to agreethat we learn Arithmetic by doing Arithmetic, not be memorizing rules, but we do notrealize that the way to learn accuracy in counting is to sue actual money and dothese things really in schools. We learn hygiene when we daily practice healthyhabits. A pupil does not learn to make decisions unless he practices makingdecisions.

3. The Law of effect or law of satisfaction an annoyance: This law is based on feeling,Activities which are accompanied by a feeling of pleasure or satisfaction are morereadily learnt that activates which are unpleasant or annoying. Learning ansatisfaction are very closely related. Experiments have established the generalizationthat greater the reward the more it facilitate learning. For men as well as animalsreward (may be simple rebuke or blame) is annoying. Reward and punishment are

being frequently used the teacher. For good conduct, honesty, industry andpunctuality the child is praised. He gets satisfaction there and these forms ofbehaviour or virtues become fixed. Dishonesty, laziness and irregularity are blames.The child does not get satisfaction through these from of behaviour Hence they tendto be eliminated. The teacher should never associate anything good or useful to thechild with something annoying. School task should be given as a punishment.

In certain cases satisfaction or annoyance accompanies the very activity itself. If wholelearning success is achieved then there is satisfaction, otherwise there is annoyance.Success leas to further success and failure is often a forerunner of further failure. Nothingsucceeds like success, is an old man.

Besides these major laws of learning, we have a few minor laws as well. They arecovered by the major laws in one way or the other, hence they are called minor laws. Nowwe will discuss these laws one by one.

1. Law of maturity: This is really a particular instance of the law of readiness. At certaindefinite stages in their development, children are ready to learn different subjects andskills. At such periods training and instruction produce very rapid gains in learning ascompared with other periods. There is a definite stage of development at which achild will learn to walk. To try to get him to walk before this stage has been reached,not only gives no advantage but is definitely harmful. It is the same with learning totalk.

2. Law of selection: This follows as a corollary form the law of satisfaction or effect.When we are stimulated we can make a number of responses. We select theresponse which we think will best achieve our purpose and which we will, therefore,learn. This selection is determined by the law of selection or effect. It is the teacher'stask to keep his students to select the right response, so that learning may takesplace more quickly than by a continuous process of trial and error.

3. Law of recency: This is particular instance of the law of use. Of two experienceotherwise equal we are more likely to recall the more, Recent one. This law requiresus to keep up practice a much as we can until knowledge is so ingrained that it ishabitual or automatic. Hence in our teaching work frequency revision is verynecessary.

4. Law of Association: When we are learning, new ideas tend to become associated withideas already in the mind. When an idea comes into our mind it calls other ides withwhich the first idea has been associated or connected. New knowledge should belinked up with knowledge already possessed by the child. There is nothing morecharacteristic of the mind than its sympathetic activity or the power of cohesion. It isconstantly employed in combining sensation.

There are several different ways in which association takes place.

i. Association by contiguity: Ideas tend to be connected which occur together. Bookand its author, college and its principle, Chief Minister and his cabinet.

ii. Association by similarity: We tend to think of thins together when they are alike insome way. We as a person and are reminded of some one who looks very muchalike him.

iii. Association by contrast. We tend to think of things which are opposite to each other

such as black and white, virtue and vice, good and bad.iv. Association of cause and effect. Cause reminds us of effect and vice versa.

5. Law of purpose. The stronger a person's purpose to do a thing, the greater is hisreadiness to learn what is connected with the carrying our of his purpose. This law isthe basic of project method. We are made ready to learn by the stimulating of ourinstinctive tendencies and there is always a purpose before us when our instincts arefunctioning.

6. Law of multiple learning or concomitant learning or attendant learning. Learning isnever single. We always learn a number of thins together. This is called the law ofconcomitant learning.

During school honours the child is not simple learning the things which come in his lesson.He is also learning from the character of the teacher, from his words, actions, from theteachers attitude to his work and his students. He will be learning to be sincere, to cheat orto work honesty, to depend on himself for things, to be courteous or discourteous, to bepeaceful or quarrelsome, etc. Many of these concomitant learning are far more importantthan the mere attainment of intellectual knowledge. Yet we very easily forget them and payno attention to them, as all our attention is riveted on the intellectual knowledge, shouldkeep this law constantly in mind and do our best to see that the concomitant learning ofour children need to provide pupils with large opportunities for practising good attendantlearning's with success.

Theories of Learning:

(Method of Learning of Types of Learning)various theories have been advanced about learning but the following are the chief ones.

1. Trial and Error Theory.2. Conditioned Learning Theory or Contiguous Conditioning or Associative Learning or

Conditioned Response view of Learning3. Insight learning or Conceptual learning or learning through intelligence.4. Imitation TheoryWe will not take up the discussion of these theories one by one.

Trial and Error Learning-Hit or Miss Learning: This is one of the chief methods oflearning of both lower animals an man. It consists in trying, failing, varying the procedureand gradually attaining success in a series of trials. It is just like finding the appropriate keyfor a lock out of a bunch in the dark, if we merely try one key after another withoutexamining them all until we find the right key, we are using the trial and error method. It isblind and mechanical in nature, just a hit or miss affair. This method is as characteristic orman as of the animal, of the adult as of the child. The baby learning to eat with a spoon, towalk or put on shoes, the adult learning to drive a car, to give a knot to his tie, the rat tryingto get into the Tiffany box, the dog learning to open the gate-are all following the methodsof trial and error. This method is slow and tiresome.

We can divide such trial and error learning into the following stages for understanding.

1. Driver - persistent stimulating conditions in the- environment

2. Block - obstacles3. Random movements - Various responses

4. Chance success5. Selection - Random movement disappear6. Fixation - hesitant and halting behaviour is replaced

by smoothly executed while.

Conditioned Response view of learning

This view of learning comes form the behaviourist school of Psychology and the pioneerwork in this field has been done by Watson and Pavlov. The classical experiment on theconditioned reflex was performed by Pavlon, using a dog as his subject. If food ispresented to a dog, its salivary glands begin to secrete. This is known as an unconditionedreflex. If now a bell is rung several times at the same time as food is presented to it, it isfound at the end that the secretion of saliva will take place when the bell is rung withoutthe presentation of food at all. The mere ringing of the bell is now sufficient stimulus tocause the secretion has become conditioned to the new stimulus the bell. The essentialprinciple underlying the formation of conditioned reflexes is that of association bycontiguity in time'. Conditioned reflex can be de-conditioned also. It dies out tough disuse.Do not give food to the dog when you ring the bell, for one month or so and there will beno flow of saliva at the ringing of the bell.Similar experiments have been performed on human subject by Watson. He conditionedfear responses of children. He found that a neutral subject could be made frightening bythe conditioning technique. Most of the fear of human beings are learnt throughconditioning or are conditioned responses. The child has three original fears.

1. Fear of the dark,2. Fear to lack of support and3. Fear of loud noise.

All other fears are due to conditioned stimuli. Many of the adult phobias (fear of object andplaces) are traceable to an unfortunate pairing of a stimulus with an unpleasantexperience. Sometimes such a phobia can be removed by extinction, once the relevantstimulus is discovered and isolated. The child's fear of the rat is due to conditioning. A childis represented a rat and just as the hand of the baby touches the rat, a steel bar is struckwith a hammer near his ear. The child is originally afraid of laud noise. But now loud noiseand appearance of the rat are combined for a number of times and we find that the child isafraid of the rat as well. But ear reactions of this type can be deconditioned as well.

According to the behaviourists all learning is the result of conditioned response. But theexperimental findings are that in case of animals almost any response can be conditionedto almost any stimulus. Human children can be conditioned only in limited situation.Human adults are less suitable for conditioning. They can be easily deconditioned as well.Thus it is not proper to attribute all human learning to conditioning. Conditioned responseview explains only a part of four learning (mostly emotional fears). No single theory oflearning explains the whole of learning. All these theories are complementary.

Insight learning: The insight view of learning came from the Gestalt School of Psychology.The chief exponents of this school are Kohler, Koffla and Wolfgang, Gestalt is a Germanworld and means pattern i.e. while in which different parts are definite relation with eachother and with the whole. Thus for insight perception of the Gestalt is necessary.

Kohler has made maximum contribution in this direction. He carried his studies in learningamong chimpanzees. He described many of his interesting experiment in his famous book"Mentality of Ages.

In one of his experiments Kohler put his most intelligent Chimpanzee Sultan by name in anexperimental situation. A banana. A box was placed in a corner of the room, two or threeyards from the lure. Sultan leaped repeatedly to get the banana but in vain. He ceasedjumping, paced up and down, moved the box quickly towards the objective, jumped asecured the banana.

Another more interesting experiment was performed. Sultan was let loose in the roomwhere a banana was suspended from its ceiling. Instead of ox, three separate sticks wereplaced in the room. These sticks could be fitted on into the other. Sultan made manyattempts to catch the banana but failed. He used stick on by one but in vain. Then heprepared on long stick by combining the three sticks and ultimately got his reward.

On the basis of such experiments Kohler concluded that learning at particular stag ofmental development was more difficult and complicated situation the only type of learningthat is involved is 'Insight Learning. Human learning is essentially learning through insight.

Teaching and insight learning: If learning by insight is to encourage, cramming and spoonfeeding will have to be discouraged spoon feeding leaves no scope for higher potentialitiesif student form being developed into their full. In teaching science, the teacher should useHeuristic method. It would develop the reasoning power of the students. The problem ispresented to the student and he is to think and reason out the solution.

Insight learning is cultivated if while teaching, emphasis laid one encouraging, helping andguiding the behaviour of the child. This is done in project method and Delton plan. Thechild is not a positive listener, but is actively engage din finding out solutions of problems,these methods develop problem. Solving attitude'. This attitude can be cultivated moreeasily in subject like Mathematics. Geography and Science.

Insight learning is possible if the situation is perceived as a whole. Thus the class lessonshould form an integrated unit.

Learning by Limitation,

This kind of learning is most common among human beings. Writing, reading, habits,modes of dress, etc. are mainly imitative.

Note: further see a detailed not on imitation in chapter V.

Animal and Human Learning

a) Points of similarity1. Trail and error method is common to both2. In both the presence of reward an punishment works as a strong incentive.3. Both build habits and show progressive improvement4. Both profit by their experience of similar situation in the solution of new

problems

b) Points of difference1. Most of the animal learning is trail and learning. No doubt man also employs trail an

error method but unlike the animal he is not limited to it. Human learning isessentially learning though insight. This is due to the fact that human beings arecapable of thinking with the help of ideas. Animal learning in other words, is mostly

carried on through imagination.2. Imitation plays a very unimportant role in animal learning carried, but is very vital to

human learning.

Efficiency in Learning

Efficiency in learning depends on a number of conditions.1. Intention to learn: This has been explained under 'the law of readiness'. One man

may take a horse to water but even twenty cannot make him drink. There must first bethe desire to learn and hen knowledge will come speedily.

2. Learning by doing: Doing is learning. This is covered by the law of exercise orpractice. The teacher should not make students passive listeners to what he says. Heshould always keep them active. They should take down notes, answer questionsprepared hearts, draw sketches, etc. all this activity will help learning.

3. God working conditions: Learning is helped by good working conditions. Whendistractions are too man learning become difficult. Noise coming from the street,excessive heart or cold, suffocating rooms, etc. hinder learning.

4. Vigorous application: Put you're heart and soul into your work. It always pays to workvigorously, when you are learning your mind should not go wool gathering.

5. Length of the working period: The working period should be neither too short nor toolong. The three stages in the working period, warming up full working and falling off,should be clearly recognized.

In learning a new activity, we do not make progress at an even rate. Generally ourprogress is very rapid at the beginning but it gets gradually slower, until we come to a timein which we make no progress at all. A period during which there is little or no progress inlearning is called a plateau.' If the learner continues practising the activity, period of rapidprogress again course and this is followed by a period of slower progress until a secondplateau is reached. There may be several such periods of progress followed by plateausbut finally the learner comes to a stage when practice, however, much it is engaged inresults in no further progress. The learner is then said to have reached his physiologicallimit.

Progress of the learner in learning something when shown graphically is known as thelearning curve. In a school for typing, the progress reports of different students werecollected from week to week for several months. The graphs showed an interestingcharacteristic. The progress followed, by period of little or no progress. In a graph progressin achievement is marked by a rise of the curve. So we find the curve rising steeply at first,followed by a relatively flat stretch which in its turn is followed by a fairly, sharp rise, andthis too finishes in an other flat stretch. Usually there are two or three such flat periods. Onthe graphs each flat stretch papers like a plateau above hillocks, so each of these flatintervals is known as a plateau. Each plateau is interpreted as indicating the maximumefficiency possible for a condition employing a particular method of performance.

Plateau, why does it occur?Various explanations have been given.1. Perhaps the learner gradually loses interest in the new activity and as interest lessens

progress becomes more slow. Moderate practice with interest can achieve betterresults then prolonged practice without interest.

2. Plateau may be due to shifting back and forward between rival methods. It mayrepresent the learner's physiological limit for the method he is present using and the

new period of progress means that he is adopting a new method.3. Plateau does not necessarily represent a halt in the learning process. It may well be

that consolidation of engram complexes is going on beneath the surface.

Remedies:

The learner must get away from the plateau if his skill is to improve.1. Fresh effort and interest. Take to task with renewed vigour. Change your method of

attack or approach to the subject.2. Practice of any skilled action should be carried out when the subject is feeling in good

form i.e. when he is not bored or fatigued.3. Introduce new motivation. Form time to the teacher has to make appeal to child's

curiosity, pugnacity, play impulse or emulation, boys or higher age have to bereminded of the gain they would make in completing a task.

The teacher can easily know that his class has reached the plateau and then he has touse some special device to spur the children.

A problem that has considerably attracted attention is that of transfer of training. Doestraining in one kind of performance led to improvement in some other kind ofperformance? If any student learns Mathematics or History, how far will the study of any ofthese two improve his capacity to learn poetry and Sanskrit? This is a very importantquestion for the education to solve. How can we train the mental powers of the child? Hasthis training a permanent value? This problem has an important bearing on school work.Only such subjects are to the taught in the school as have disciplinary value.

In this connection we will discuss the following three different views.1. Doctrine of formal discipline or Transfer of training2. The theory of common elements or identical components.3. Two factor theory of intelligence.

1. Doctrine of formal discipline or Transfer of training: This doctrine is based onFaculty Psychology analysed mind into separate watertight compartments of facultiesindependent of each other of observation, memory, imagination, reasoning, etc. Onekind of materials trained some powers beer that others. A faculty may be improved aunit. A person may possess a good memory but a bad judgement

According to this view memory is trained best by language and history, taste is trainedby English literature, imagination mainly be Greek and Latin poetry, observation byscience work in the laboratory, abstract reasoning by Mathematics, concretereasoning by Science and Geometry and social reasoning by general history.Supporters of this Doctrine of Formal Discipline mention a long list of eminentadministrators, doctors, educationists and public men who were taught Latin andMathematics and given liberal education in public schools and who did remarkablywell in life. But this agreement does not appeal to the critically selected by theSelection Boards. They were not the result of Latin and Mathematics. The doctrine offormal discipline stands completely discarded today because the view of facultypsychology is entirely mistaken.

2. The theory of common elements or identical components: The chief exponent ofthis view is Thorndike. That there is some transfer of raining while studying differentsubjects cannot be denied. According to Thordike transfer is possible if there is somesimilarity between the two situations or the two subjects. The student who scored high

marks in one subject, scores high marks in another subject also simply because thissecond subject has many element in common with the first or example learningMathematics and learning Civics will help learning Political Science and Historybecause there are many elements which are common to these branches ofknowledge.

But if there are two subjects which have nothing in common, i.e. they are absolutelyunrelated to each other, then the mastery of the one will not help in gaining masteryover the other. Learning poetry will not help in learning Mathematics or Chemistry.Thus the transfer takes place to the extent to which there are identical components inthe old and new tasks. Hence the direct learning of s subject is always to beadvocated. The study of Economics is recommended for businessman, of Drawingand Science for an Engineer, of Logic for a debater, of La, politics and History forpolitician of Sanskrit and Ethics for a Sage and a religious and N.C.C. training forinculcation in us a sense of discipline and cleanliness.

3. Spear-man's Two factor theory of intelligence:

a) Spearman's holds that the learning of any thing exercises the pupil's(i) general ability and his (ii) specific ability. Every subject gives a training, which isuseful in learning some other subject or for becoming successful in life generally. It, atthe same time develops special abilities, which are need only to do a particular task.There is transfer of training insofar as the exercise of 'general ability' in a subject isconcerned. There can be not transfer of training insofar as special ability isconcerned, unless another task of similar nature is taken in hand.

b) Spearman believers that there are certain subject which require more of "G" (generalability) than of 'S' (specific ability) factor for learning them. Spearman believes thatthere are certain subject which require more of "G" (general ability) than of 'S'(specific ability) factor for learning them. Thus Mathematics, Science, Language,History, Classic, etc. require the exercise of 'G' more than the 'S' Music, manualtraining painting and drawing require the exercise of 'S' more than 'G'. Hence thetraining gives in the former class of subject is always of grater value than traininggives in the latter class, for we require in general life greater exercise of generalintelligence rather than of special intelligence.

Thomson reconciles the views of Thorndike and Spearman. According to him a largenumber of subject should be chosen for the child's study at the school stage. Tooearly specialization is not desirable. Though every subject exercises the intelligenceof the child, it is exercised in its own characteristic way. The larger the number ofsubjects the better would be the exercise of the ability required for general use in life.

MEMORY

The power of the mind to retain and conserve the pat is known as 'mneme' Mneme risento the level of consciousness or apprehension is memory. It means the revival of thins andevents which we have experienced before. It is the recall of an old personal experiencewhich had temporarily dropped from our consciousness. A witness giving evidence in acourt is a typical example of memory. He recalls, as far as possible, the past objects andevents which he had witnessed in the order and manner of their original occurrence. Theteacher prepares his lesson at home. The next day he produces the same lesson beforethe class without the help of any book. He does it with the help of memory. Memory thus,is an exact reproduction of the pas experiences in the same form and order. If the form or

order is changed, it becomes imagination.

Stage of Memory:

1. Memorizing of learning or registration2. Retention or conservation3. Recall or reproduction or revival4. Recognition

Memorizing: memory is a psycho-physical phenomenon. When a new response isacquired or a new experience gained, new connections are established in the brain. Thesenew connections are called traces or engram complexes. This is termed as the learning orthe registration of the new experience or the reasons.

Method

Experiments have been performed to discover the best methods of learning meaningfulmaterial.

There are three different methods.1. Part of section or piecemeal method2. Whole or Entire method3. Progressive method

In part of section method material to be learn is divided into parts. These parts areseparately learnt and after mastering them separately they are repeated to make thewhole part method is better in the case of children. They find a glow of satisfaction when apart of the poem is memorized. It serves as an incentive to further effort.

The whole or the entire method consists in repeating the whole from the beginning to theend till it is learnt. It is a superior method when the whole is not very lengthy.

In progressive method the poem to be learnt is divided into parts. The first part is learnt.The second part is learnt. Then both parts are combined and made perfect. Then the thirdpart is learnt separately, after which all the three are learnt together and so on. Thus thewhole poem is learnt. This method removes the disadvantages of the two other methods. Iteliminated the difficulty of learning too much at a time and also the discouragement arisingout of that.

a) Age of the subject: Learn young, learn fair, children learn faster by the apartmethod, adults by the whole method.b) Ability of the learner: Bright children learnt better with the whole method, les bright,the part methodc) Length of the material to be learnt: If the assignment is of moderate length, thewhole method is superior, if it is lengthy, part method is superior.d) Practice: At first better results are obtained with the apart method, but after practicethe whole method usually proves to the more effective.e) Speed learning is bear that unspaced learning: It has been found that the youngerthe students, the greater should be the number of short periods. Thus for primaryclasses, it will certainly be better to have a subject twice a day that devoting the samenumber of minutes a stretch. Obviously it is better to devote one hour daily for thewhole week than devoting six hours continuously on the same day. Spaced learning isdefinitely better than continuous learning. It has been found that even a series of

nonsense syllables is retained better if read four times a day over six days rather thantwenty four times at one sitting. Two repetitions a day for twelve days give even betterresults.

Retention: Every experience leaves behind it certain dispositions or traces which areretained. This fact is called retention. It is a resting stage of impressions received by themind. It means the persistence of after effects or trace of an experience. Forgetting is theirdecay or disappearance. The after effects of our cognition of a particular person or objectcombine with similar after effects and make the apperception masses for that person orobject. These apperception masses are called cumulative "disposition" by Stout and'Engram Complexe' by Ross. The apperception masses for an individual say Mohan maydifferent from individual. Mohan may mean a brother, father, husband, teacher master,servant, good, bad, useful friend or hated enemy to different persons.

There are three important conditions of retention1. Frequency: We retain those experiences which are repeated. We come across those

experience frequently.2. Recency: Recent experiences are easily retained. Time hinder retention.3. Interest: Not only attention but memory is also selective. We retain things I which we

are interested. Lawyers retain law cases and clients, sportsman retains facts aboutsports and matches, scholars retain facts about books.

Children generally have more retentive power than adults. The impressions of infancy aredeep.

Children generally have more retentive power than adults. The impressions of infancy aredeep.

Recall, Recall is the mental revival of a past experience. The experience that retained isnow revived or brought back to consciousness in the same form, order an connection inwhich it was originally experienced. The real criterion of all learning and of retention is thepossibility of recall.

Recall is of two kinds:Spontaneous recall.Deliberate recall

Spontaneous recall: In bath room or after dinner period our mind is generally filled withrecollections of old past experiences such as hopes and disappointments joys andsorrows. One idea leads to another. One picture fades into another. This is calledspontaneous recall.

Deliberate recall: When we are called upon to meet a new situation, to make a newadjustment or to solve a new problem, we recall our past experiences to help us and fromthem we select only those which have got direct bearing on the present. Recall of answersto various questions in the examination is a case of deliberate recall.

a) Factors which favour recall:b) Frequency of an experiencec) Recency of an experienced) Vividness with which the experience was gone throughe) Interest

Recognition, Recall must be tested and confirmed by recognition before memory iscomplete. Recall provides the materials in memory, recognition is the process of acceptingor rejecting it. Recognition means the consciousness that we have experienced therecalled, it must be recognized to be our own. There are various degree of recognitionraging from vague and indefinite acquaintance to clear and definite knowledge.

Two forms of recognition have been observed by investigators in this field.

i. Definite and indefinite.ii. Implicit and Explicit

Definite recognitions is a feeling of assurance as to the place where the object was seenbefore an recall of all circumstance of that earlier experience. In indefinite recognition oneis aware that things is familiar but can assign no definite place to it. Many familiar factsarouse no name and cannot be referred to a specific time or place. The cause of indefiniterecall seems to be slight familiarity.

On implicit recognition there is too much familiarity and because of too much familiaritythey are again referred to no definite place. This daily happens with intimate friends, withthe furniture of well-known room and with events which are frequently recalled.

Explicit recognition is opposed to implicit recognition in definiteness.

• Kinds of types of memory• Broadly speaking we have the following types of memory.

Habit or Rote Memory and True or pure or Logical Memory: In the former case there is nointelligent apprehension or proper understanding of the matter that is memorized.

Personal and impersonal memory: Memo is personal when personal experience arerecalled. In the latter case only fact is remembered, without any reference to personaldetails.

Immediate and Permanent Memory: Memory immediate when the material learnt isrecalled immediately after is learnt. It is permanent when the material learnt can berecalled after a lapse of time.

Active and Passive Memory: It is active when the past experience is recalled with an efforton our part and it is passive when the recall of past experience is spontaneous.

Cramming or Rote Memory: Cramming or mugging is still very popular method of learning.Repetition helps the pupils to make the material his own. But repetition is not enough. Itmust be accompanied by understanding and interest, there must be a motive to learn. Theold method of drill was ineffective because in it repletion was not meaningful.

Memorization lays an important role in school work. Some memorized information isindispensable. In arithmetic, numbers and multiplication tables cannot be dispensed withthe English, alphabet an elementary Grammar are the first requisite of further learning. Butcramming should not become an end in itself. Although there are certain vocations werecramming is indispensable an actor and a musician has to memories many selections ofdry factors-yet it should not be encouraged as a method of learning.

Defects of Cramming

a) This method is adopted by those who have subnormal intelligence. They are unableto earn the matter logically. It is a method of blind, unintelligent and dull repetitionwithout caring to understand the same and spirit of the text.

b) It is not serviceable. There is no intelligent understanding of the subject, hence thecrammer is unable to recall the right thing at the right moment.

c) If this method is once adopted, the individual cannot get rid of it.d) A crammer may be a quick learner but he is a quick forgetter as well. Because onlya few brain processes are excited, crammed mater is son forgotten. Cramming,therefore, does not make any solid contribution to our knowledge.e) A crammer needs spoon feeding and is always in search of a ready made answer.Cramming, therefore, discourages inquisitiveness and problem saving attitude in thelearner.f) It has undesirable effects on the character of the crammer who becomes negligentand dependent

The teacher hold encourage pupils to understand things clearly and then alone to find outwhat degree of repetition each one of them will need to learn any item.

Signs of good memory.A memory has the following criteria.1. Rapidity with which the material is learnt2. The length of time for which it is retained3. The rapidity with which it is revived or recalled4. The accuracy of revival.5. Serviceableness: It is the rapidity with which it reproduces only what is relevant to the

present purpose, A person may have an extremely extensive memory but if he cannotignore what is superfluous and reproduce what is relevant to the moment, he will besaid to posses a poor memory.

Importance of memory

A question is usually asked whether a memory can be improved or not. Memory pills areadvertised near the examination days and some of the ignorant students go in for them.Experiments have been performed on the improvement of memory but no definiteconclusions regarding the extent or nature of improvement have been arrived at.McDougal is of the view that our of the four stages of memory the first and the third, i.ememorizing and recall, can be improved by practice. We can learn anything and can alsoreproduce it by repeating it for a number of times. Actor learn their parts and reproducethem with marvelous accuracy by long practice. Recall can by improved by removingobstacles in its way, such as nervousness stage fright, worry, etc. speakers, even they arewell prepared experience successfully. The second stage retention is a physiologicalquality and is given once for all, hence it cannot be improved.

The following are the general conditions which are favourable to memory.

a) Freshness and health of the body: We memories better when we are fresh andvigorous that when we are ill and fatigued. Sound and well nourished brain, mentalvigour, fresh air, freedom form fatigue help us in learning things quickly. Difficult subject

should be studied in the early hours of the morning.

b) Carefully observation keen study of the material: When we closely attend to andobserve something, we retain it more tenaciously. Passing or faint attention is nothelpful in remembering facts and events. Cramming is bad because a crammer doesnot make a keen study of the material. He commits the matter to memory on the sheerforce of repetitions. He may be a quick learner but he is a quick forgetter also.

c) Interest: This is the principal mental condition of memory. If the learner has generalinterest in the material to be memorized, his mind is set to receive the new impression.When the learner has no interest, the attention of the learner should be secured byusing audio-visual aids. Visual aids are more useful and hence they should bepreferred.

A boy, who cannot remember over night a short lesson in Geography, can rememberfor year all the details of a hockey or cricket match which interested him. A layer knowsabout laws and clients, the merchant about the prices of commodities and customersand the scholar about books, because of their interest. Each excels in remembering theclass of ideas in which he is interested. A learner should take interest in what he islearning.

d) Repetition: We should not merely go on repeating and reading the same matterover and over again. We should close the book and then recite the mater to ourselves.Thereby we come to know how far we have mastered he passage and also correctourselves when we go wrong.

e) Freedom from excitement, fear, distraction, doubt and stage fright: Excitement andfear hinder recall. We know the answers to the questions but the heat and worry of theexamination hinders recall. Doubt blocks reproduction. Stage fright checks the recall ofa well-prepare speech. Attitude of confidence is essential to recall.

f) After memorization the learner should not engage himself in active mental task.New task weakens the earlier impressions. This phenomena is called retro activeinhibition.

g) The learnt matter should be connected with the earlier experience and linked withthe daily life. This helps recall.

h) The process of memorization should be purposive when the larger is conscious ofthe purpose, he takes part in the process willingly. This can be done by making allteaching informal through projects than crafts.

i) Forgetfulness is not a disease or a defect of memory the contrary it is a necessarycondition of the health of memory. To remember well we must forget a great deal. Tomemory is judicious forgetting' write Adams, 'we must select a few relevant detail andforget the rest'. If we remember ever incident of every day-at what time we got up, thatletters we received, what we had to eat and drink, what exercise we took, what workwe did etc., we should be lost in the wealth of our won ideas" writes Titchner. Considerthe fate of a student whose memory is crowded by problems of logic, while he isanswering his Psychology paper. Thus a good memory must involve a certain amountof forgetting. That is why we say, 'forgetfulness is an aid to memory.

Forgetfulness may be of two kinds:i. Natural of normal forgettingii. Morbid or abnormal or significant or active or pathological or Freudian forgetting.

Natural or Normal forgetting: We do not remember all our past experiences. Forgettingis opposed to retention. Retention is the persistence of after-effects or traces of anexperience, while forgetting means there decay or disappearance. Old people complain ofbad memory. The ability to remember new facts definitely goes down with age but theevents of childhood and early adulthood are still clearly retained. Memory is said todevelop gradually upto 13, rapidly unto 16 and then more slowly unto the age of 25 afterwhich it begins to decrease relatively slowly unto the age of 25, after which it begins todecrease relatively slowly unto 45 and then more rapid decrease follows.

The main causes of forgetting are:i. Lapse of timeii.Lack of interestiii. Retro active inhibition

(i) and (ii) Forgetting is due to fading away of the traces of past experiences with the lapseof time. Yet intensely interesting events can be vividly remembered long after they havehappened. The time factor counts when interest is at a minimum. The curve of retentionfalls rapidly at first.

CHAPTER FOUR

ATTENTIONThere are three levels of mind Conscious, pre conscious and unconscious in discussingattention we are primarily concerned with the conscious mind. Conscious mind is the mind'now and here'. The filed or consciousness of the individual consists of all objects that arebefore his mind at any given moment. Take the case of the field of consciousness of astudent who is attending a class. It consists of the charts, pictures and maps hanging onthe walls of the class. It consists of the charts, pictures and maps hanging on the wall ofthe class room his class fellows, table, chair and the black board, the teacher, his dressand the worked spoken by him, doors, windows and ventilators of the class room. All thesethings, does not attend to all of them. He only attends to the words spoken by the teacher.Thus consciousness is a wider field and includes that of attention.

We may define attention as the process of narrowing of the field of consciousness. It is thecentral and not the marginal part of it. It is the focusing of consciousness on an idea orobject of though. According to McDougall it is merely conation or striving considered fromthe point of view of its effects on cognitive process. Attention is conation determiningcognition, writes Stout. It is essentially a conative attitude of the mind. The stronger thecontain, the more intense the attention,

Nature of attentionCharacteristics or marks of attention.

a) Attention is selective: We do not attend to ever object that comes I our away. Onlythose stimuli which have some advantage are able to attract or attention, others areignored. Even when we attend to the same object for some time, we attend to someobjects of it more carefully and clearly than others. "To attend to is to discriminate, tonote this rather than that, to decide, to prefer in a world to select".b) Shifting nature of attention: Attention is constantly shifting from one object toanother. It cannot remain fixed to one point of more than seven or eight seconds.Objects are constantly passing from the margin to the centre of the focus ofconsciousness. When were are attending to a lecture, we are really attending tosuccession of fifes and impression.c) Narrow range of attention: This follows from the firs characteristic that attention isselective. At any moment it is limited to a narrow range. We cannot at the same timeattend to two unrelated object. We cannot mourn and rejoice at the same time.d) The process of attention has all there aspects of a mental process knowing, feelingand willing. Not only does it help us to and know object clearly but it is also a kind ofstriving and is accompanied by some feeling in the form of interest.e) Increase in the clearness of a stimulus: Through attention the details of a object areknown better. It always aims at the increase of knowledge of the object we areattending to.f) Motor adjustments: Attention affects motor adjustment. Craned necks of theaudience can be observed whenever they are listening discourse. A class absorbed ina lecture gives a good picture of the general attentive attitude. We can notice that someof the students are looking fixedly towards the Professor and some are learningforward as if to get just a closes possible.

Conditions of attentionAttention is selective: What is the law of selection? What object do we attend to? What arethe conditions of attention? Why do we attend to some objects and not to other? Why dowe attend to a particular object our of a number of objects that are there at the same time?

The answer is that we are compelled to do so. Because of certain conditions.

These conditions of attention are of two kinds:i. Objectiveii. subjective

i. Objective conditions: These conditions are formed in the object which attracts ourattention. This has been termed by some Psychologists as passive attention. The objectsattended to have one or more of the following characteristics.

1. Intensity of the Stimulus: Woodworth says, "Other things being equal a strongstimulus will attract attention before a weak one. 'Laud noise, dazzling light and brightcolours

2. Size: A large building will be more readily attended to then a small hut. A full pageadvertisement in newspaper attracts our attention easily. The blackboard sketch forthis reason should be large.

3. Novelty: A new or unusual object attract our attention more easily than a familiar one.Common household objects are not attended to because they are too familiar. Thechild is attracted by a new toy, new book, and a new pair of shoes. A newly marriedgirl attracts the attention of the whole locality or village. A new professor attracts theattention of the students.

4. Contrast: A tall man by the side of the short man, white man in the company of darkcoloured men or vice versa, a boy in the company of girls or a girl in company ofboys, white teeth of a black person, will attract attention. Wooden tuck shop by theside of the grand front of the jat college, Rohtak, is bound to attract attention becauseof contrast.

5. Strangeness: A strange object awakens our curiosity and thus attracts attention.Cinema posters carried by men in multicoloured dress attracts the attention of thepublic. If we put on an unusual dress such as that with dhoti, tie with a pajama, astudent attending a college with blanket on people will take notice of it.

6. Change: We take no notice of the steady ticking of a clock, but let it suddenly stop orring an alarm and it at once catches our attention. The more suddenly the change,the more it attracts attention. Change whether in size or intensity attracts attention.Change whether in size or in intensity attracts attention.

7. Movement: If an object which is not attended to begin to more, it is at once noticed.Shooting star, a flying bird, a galloping horse and a standing bus when it begins tomove, draw our attention.

8. Repetition: Ring a call bell repeatedly and after a while it will come to be noticed,through not at first. If, however anything is repeated for a long time, it becomesmonotonous and ceases to hold our attention.

ii. Subjective conditions of attention

They are present in the individual attending to.1. Freshness: One must be fresh and wide awake in order to be able to pay attention to

something. When we are sleepy, drowsy and tired, even strongly stimulating objectsfail to arouse our attention.

2. Interest: IT is an inner condition of the mind which favour attention. Id a thing interestsus we pay attentions to it and conversely if we pay attention to a thing we begin totake interest in it. Interest is latent attention and attention is interest in action. Theyare tow sides of the same coin.

Example: A newspaper contains all kinds of news. A sportsman will attend to the columnof sports news. A business man to commercial news, politician to political news, a bachelorto the matrimonial. 'They attend to different column of the same newspaper because oftheir different interests.

Interests may be:1. Inborn, instinctive or direct, or2. Learnt acquired or derived, or3. Temporary or momentary.

1. The primary source of all interest is to be found in or native desires and urges, ourinstincts. Living beings are so constituted that they are interested in certain thingsfrom their very birth because they satisfy their native desires. The chicken isinterested in pecking, the wasp in building mud house, the cock in the hen andchildren in games, because of the native dries in them. To catch and hold theattention of children we arouse their curiosity, appeal to their love of mastery andmake them compete and emulate.

2. Interest may be learnt, acquired or derived. Such interest is not instinctive but itdepends on our education and training. A tailor will notice the dress of the passers by,a barber, their hair, a book black, their shoes, a pick pocket, their pockets, a tangodriver, their hurrying pace and so on. In the curse of like and experience we allacquire purpose and goals which determine what things we are habitually interestedin. acquired interest may be traced to our habits and sentiments.

3. Our interest in the dictionary when we want to look up the meaning of a certain wordis a temporary interest. Similarly the interest of a smoker in ash tray ism momentary.

Types of attention

i. There are three types or kinds of attentiona) Passive or non-volitional or involuntary or spontaneous attentionb) Active or volitional or voluntary attentionc) Secondary passive attentiona) Passive attention: It is passive and free. Attention is passive when we attendnaturally, easily spontaneously and with out and effort of will. It depends to the strikingqualities of the stimulus. We attend to an object because of the objective conditions ofattention spontaneously.

b) voluntary attention: Attention is voluntary when an effort of willing our part isneeded. Here we attend to the more difficult and uninteresting object and situation.Beginners or learners in type writing, cycling, and during exercise voluntary attention.

c) Secondary passive attention: In the beginning it is voluntary or activity but withcontinuous practice it becomes spontaneous. Take the case of an individual who islearning cycling. A strong effort of will on his part is needed. He blunders, falls downand even hurts himself. But he continues practising and becomes an expert. Now hesimply gets on the seat and starts pedalling. He can go on talking with his friends orsinging a song and yet cycle on in proper manners. This is a case of secondarypassive attention.

ii. Other kinds of attention

Different individuals habitually attend in different ways, and no that basis have otherclassifications of attention as follows.

a) Concentrated or intensive attention: Those who concentrate on one object only suchas scientist, research scholars, mathematicians and philosophers, are said to possesintensive attention.

b) Distributive or Extensive attention: In this case the attention is spread over a varietyof object. Businessmen, political leaders and administrators posses this kind ofattention.

A similar though not identical distinction is that between 'Fixating' and Fluctuatingattention. Fixators attend carefully and perceive only what is there. Their reports areprecise, exact and objectively true. They read accurately. Fluctuates tend to embroiderthe object of attention with the figments of their own imagination. They report what theythough they saw or what they expected to see.

Difference between children's attention and adult's attention

1) Attention is very closely related to interest. Our interests differ with the growth of ourinstincts. A child is interested in the mother, the toys and the feeding bottle ad thereforehe pays attention to them. His interests are his instincts rather than his sentiments.Therefore his attention is governed by his instincts such as curiosity, construction,plays, self assertion, rather than by sentiments or the will which play a prominent role indetermining the interest of an adult.

2) Children attend to those objects which they can seem touch and hear rather than toabstract idea because they are more interested in such objects. Therefore as teacherswe should employ actual objects and pictures in our lessons to children and avoid amere stream of talk. Concrete and not abstract appeal is required.

3) Another point of difference is the difference in the span of attention, both auditory aswell as visual.

Woodworth defines distraction as a stimulus that attracts our attention away from the thingwhich we mean to attend. It interferes with the process of attention. It destroys the efficacyof attention. Noise is the main source of distraction. Schools that are situated in the interiorof the city and have no compound walls are not the proper places for the education of thechildren. When student have to fight distraction, the mind is likely to be overtaken byfatigue very soon. Other distractions are too hot or to cold room, improper lighting,uncomfortable seats, the desk or the chair may be too high, ill health and worry.

How to overcome distraction

1. Run away from the distraction stimuli: IF noise does not let us attend let us see aquieter place or time.

2. Get accustomed to the distracting factor: one may develop a habit of not attending toit. We son get used to the din and noise, hustle and bustle of the cinema hall near ourhouse an carry on our tasks without feeling distracted. What becomes habitual doesnot attract attention. The regular whistles of the water works, the thinking of the bellsfrom a nearby temple and the familiar horn will not be minded.

3. Put in extra mental effort to fix attention and apply yourself to the task in hand.Experimental studies have revealed the under conditions of distraction are oftenachieved best results in attention and learning because the subjects put in greaterenergy to keep the object before the mind.

The subject is put to work such as adding or type writing and works for a tie in quiet,after which disturbance are introduce. A bell rings, a gramophone record is played;other noises are introduced, with the curious result that the subject only momentarilydistracted, accomplished more work rather than less. The distraction has acted as astimulus to a greater effort and by this effort the distraction is overcome.

4. Finally, an alert, determined an hopeful attitude is very helpful to attention. Interest,enthusiasm, confidence, smartness brief the mental attitude of the learner is ofprimary importance in securing attention in the face of distraction. If students developa robust attitude to work and study, distraction, instead of annoying and upsettingthem, will simply help to arouse them to great effort.

To overcome a distraction you have either to side track it or to couple it with the maintalk. Thus a teacher can fight distractions to the attention of the students only bymaking his lesson more interesting.

How to make a lesson interesting

The teacher should fully realize that his success of failure as a teacher depends on thefact whether he is able to secure the attention of the class or not. There are teacher whocome to the class room with knowledge but are unable to score because of their effectivemethods. They lack the knowledge of Psychology. For securing attention the teacher mustmake his lesson interesting and for this he should make use of such devices which arePsychologically sound. Here are a few hints which a teacher should bear in mind whenplanning his lessons.

1. He should keep in view the conditions of attention, objective as well as subjective. Heshould make judicious use of visual aids. His main aim is to create the interest of thestudents in the lesson. Now interest varies with ate. The centre of teaching is thechild, not the lesson. In infant classes children acquire knowledge mostly through theirsenses. Hence the value of play way in education should be thoroughly grasped. TheKindergarten, the Montessori method and the Project method should be made use of.Instinct attention should be exploited at the beginning of education. The teachershould make an appeal to the instinct of curiosity which is a great friend of theteacher.

2. Interest is aroused when the students know the practical value and the importance ofwhat they are going to learn.

3. The teacher while planning has lesson should not forget the time honoured device ofproceeding from the known to the unknown, he should make an appeal to theapperception masses of the students. The necessary link between the old and thenew lesson should be establish in the beginning of the lesson.

4. Monotony kills interest. Interest can be kept through variety. The subject mattershould be frequently recast. The teacher should seek to weave his teaching round thehobbies an other acquired interest of his pupils.

5. Teacher's vitality, sense of humour, interest and love for the work count a great deal.There are teacher whose very presence sends a wave of enthusiasm among youngpupils. They are able to secure attention by a mere look a question or gesture.

THE UNCONSCIOUS

Psychology of the unconscious and its educational bearing. How would you distinguishbetween the conscious and the unconscious? Point out the relationship between the 'Id,'Ego and Super ego. The Psychology of the unconscious was brought into prominencesome thirty five years ago by the work of Freud and others working with him especiallyJung nad Adler who after words broke from Freud and followed independent lines. Freud'sdoctrine of the unconscious had both fanatical supporters and violent opponents.

One main idea in Freud's Psychology is that unconscious processes have a far greaterinfluence on our conscious life than has been thought of as a matter of fact, psychologistslong age recognized the influence of the unconscious, especially in regard to dispositionsand habits, but Freud went much further First of all he referred to unconscious processeswhich never rise to consciousness unless dragged up by a process of psycho-analysis.Secondly, he held that unconscious desires and impulses constantly lead to irrationalconduct without our being aware of it. Functioning of the unconscious is more evidentwhen it over power our unconscious behaviour as in slip of pen and tongues phobiaswandering mania, stammering, moralism, habitual lies, habitual thefts morbidforgetfulness, day dreams hooliganism, unnecessary fear felling compulsion to do or not toan action, neurosis, etc. Emphasizing importance of the unconscious, he compared mindwith an leeberg only one eight part of which is visible, the rest of it being below the surfaceof water.

The concept of the unconscious is one of the attempts to explain mental diseases or theabnormal behaviour Abnormal behaviour is the result of a conflict between the 'ego' on theone hand and super ego and is on the other. The unconscious is the best known conceptin the Freudian theory. It is the largest part of mind. It is a huge reservoir which contains allour primitive impulses and strings. It is that part of the mind which is normally inaccessibleto consciousness. It is the lumber room of our repressed wishes, tabooed impulses andforgotten memories which are supposed to have been lost.

Id, and Super-Ego

The 'Id' is the entirely unconscious striving aspect of personality. It is illogical and immoraland may be considered as roughly equivalent to the primitive and animal nature of man.

The 'Ego' is partly conscious and partly unconscious. It is the repression of urges that arepushed back into the Id' and in general seeks to control the primitive instincts of the latter.

The 'Super-ego' consists partly of inherited moralities and taboos and partly of the moralnotions acquired by the child from its parents. The principal unction of Super-ego' iscriticism. It tries to compel the 'Ego' to repress the tendencies of 'Id' the 'Ego' being thebattleground. The 'Super ego' corresponds to the notion of "Consciences".

Conflict, Repression and Complex

Psycho-analysts used the term 'conflict' to describe those struggles between theindividual's interest which result in the repression of many desires, fears and the like intothe unconscious. Conflicts are the rule rather than the exception and life is full ofcontradictions and conflicts. In conflict there is a crossfire of feelings and desires withinthe individual. We can not both drink in a public house and maintain our self-respect. Self-assertion tells us to throw away our job when we receive a rebuff but self-preservationwarns us against a hasty step. Conflict of motives is uncomfortable distressing stage ofmind. The only satisfactory resolution of a conflict is for the person to become aware of it,to face up to it resolutely and to unify the warring motives within his main self.

But a satisfactory resolution of conflict, however, is not always achieved. When the conflictis not resolved, it leads to Repression. The denial of direct expression of a motive is calledthe repression of that motive. A motive which is repressed is often called a "Complex".Repression is a process of storing up trouble for the future, for it is impossible to bottle upone's complexes without their causing unhappy emotions and undesirable behaviour Theirrational forms of behaviour which the person himself does not understand are amanifestation of represses motives which are thereby finding an out let.

What is unpleasant, obnoxious, embarrassing or offensive is banished fromconsciousness. It is said to be repressed and enters into the unconscious. It is notdestroyed but eliminated. There unpleasant experiences are of three kind:

a) Unfulfilled desiresb) Inferiority feeling andc) Guilt feeling

These experiences being unpleasant are repressed. Repression is unconscious forgettingof an unpleasant experience. Repressed experience forms a complex. What do thesecomplexes do? They are dynamic and very active. They play they make fun of us but wedo not know. Then how do we know the existence of complexes? Through their effects onnormal life. One person is abnormally afraid of darkness, lonely places and heights.Another shuns the society of women forgets engagements, thinks that the whole world isagainst him or loves to advertise his troubles. They admit that their behaviour is irritationand yet they are unable to explain why they do so.

Complexes or repressed experiences find expression in the following modes of behaviour

Dreams, day-dreams or fantasy, slips of pen and tongue, accidents, omission, abnormalforgetting, escape and defence mechanisms, automata, psycho-somatic ailments,excessive zeal in any one direction, neurosis, delinquency, inferiority complex and insanity.

a) Dreams: The theory of dreams has occupied a central position in psycho-analysisall dreams are meaningful. Complexes strive to make their way upward intoconsciousness but are prevented form doing so during the waking hours by thevigilance of the ego. In sleep the ego relaxes somewhat and allows the content of theunconscious to appear. The sleep of the ego is not complete, however, for thereremains considerable resistance to the unconscious wishes is the form of the dream-censor. This censorship compels the 'Id' to distinguish the dream to hide its truesignificance from the Ego'. If the 'Id' impulses appear too strongly or too thinlydisguised, the 'Ego' shows great anxiety and may awake as a protective measure, thissequence constituting the nightmare.

Fundamentally dreams are wish fulfilling, devices, but they draw their manifest contentfrom may sources. This our dreams are a valuable index to our repressed motives.Freud does not give all dreams a sexual meaning. Some gratify thirst, hunger or adesire for liberty. But disguised and distorted dreams are mainly sexual.

b) Day-dreams or fantasy: Day-dreams in general admit of a similar explanation, forthey too are a manifestation of these motives which are being denied properexpression in real life. When the real world is so difficult and severe that we arediscouraged by defeat and are unhappy, we escape by dreaming about what we wantfor ourselves that we do not have the poor dream for riches. Living in fantasy ranges

from occasional mild day-dreaming where the dreamer known perfectly well what he isdoing, to the state of insanity where there is complete retirement form the real. World.The child who dreams maybe of any capacity, but there is a likelihood that he finds thework too hard or too easy. This is kept busy and experiences success and gets theapproval if his teacher and classmates, he well probably be cured of day-dreaming.

c) Slips, accidents ad omission: Our slips accidents and omissions are frequently dueto the activity of our repressed motives and are, in fact, these motives in action. Therecan be no slips without a cause, unless of course, one is tired. The purpose here is thefulfilment of a repressed desire. Accidents take place when we are very careful. Anarticle slips from our fingers when we are cautious. We usually get blot on the letterwhich we write every carefully. Slips of pen and tongue are also caused by represseddesires.

d) Active or abnormal or morbid or pathological or Freudian forgetting: It has alreadybeen discussed in the chapter on 'Memory under heading abnormal forgetting.

e) Defence mechanisms: The various forms of behaviour such as fantasy,rationalization, repression and negativism are mechanisms for either against theconditions that tend to lesson one in the eyes of others. When a person, day dreams,he is trying to escape. Rationalism is a common defence mechanisms. Negativism is atendency of effuse to act in accordance with a suggestion or a request. Pollyana, orsweet lemon is also a form of rationalization. A sweet reasons in made to a bitter orsour situation. Thinking of misfortune or failure as a blessing in disguise is helpful tomental health if one has done his best and will continue to do so. But it is unwholesomewhen it is merely a glossing over of avoidable failure. People of all ages rationalize inorder not to reduced in the opinion of others and to keep a feeling of worth.

f) Automata: The several forms of automata too much washing of hand the rhythmicmovement of legs, mannerisms such as a peculiar twist of the face, holding a batonwhile thinking, scratching the head peculiar movement of shoulders are all caused byrepressed wishes.

g) Psycho-somatic ailments: Physical ailments are sometimes cause by complexes.People inflict ailments for a name. Charonic headache of a wife may be due to herneglect by her husband. Adler has aptly remarked, Humanity weeps through itsorgan's.

h) Compensation: A person may exhibit excessive and unreasonable zeal in anydirection. Here the self is, as it were, fortifying itself against the promptings of therepressed sense of guilt. Excessive prudery may be the compensation for a morbidinterest in sex which the person will not admit even to himself. The rash undertaking ofwork which, both in quality and quantity, which is beyond the capacity of person may bea fortification against a hidden sense of inferiority and competence. The bully in theschool is probably compensating for some inadequacy. He may feel inadequatebecause he is not doing well in school or because of home back ground.

i) Neurosis: A neurotic person is not insane, queer and eccentric. In many respects heseems normal. He holds a job and does his work like the rest of us. But he isshadowed by fears, anxieties and obsessions. He is nervous and often has physicalupsets like headache, giddiness and indigestion. Neurosis arises from severeemotional conflict not properly dealt with. It differs form insanity in that the suffer is

perfectly in touch with reality. An insane person loses all touch with reality. A neuroticperson is perfectly aware of reality but his reaction to reality are at fault. According topsychoanalysis neurotic symptoms are substitutes for the gratification of repressedurged. A prominent trait of neurotics is that of 'ambivalence' of emotions, love and hatebeing directed towards the same person. Hysteria, psychosthenia (phobias such asfear of high paces or closed paces, obsessions etc.) neurasthenia (abnormal weaknessand fatigue with numerous pains) anxiety neurosis (chronic worry) are some of theclassifications of neurosis.

j) Insanity: complexes upset the balance of mind, and may lead to insanity, Numerouscases are reported from the front line of soldiers who collapse mentally because of therepression of fear. To show fear is a great military sin an yet it is very natural. Thesolider in order to save his face tries to repress it. The strain of repression unhinges hismind and he becomes insane.

k) Delinquency: Delinquent behaviour is anti social behaviour. It is manifestation ofrepressed motives in action. In adolescence, for example, the powerful sex drivedenied a direct outlet finds expression in rebellion against the society whose taboosrepress it. Similarly the self assertive motive, it denied legitimate outlet, findsexpression in anti social conduct such as bullying, etc. many young delinquents do notknow why they commit their misdemeanour's Four common forms of juveniledelinquency are truancy, hooliganism, lying and stealing. For a detailed discussion ofthese forms please refer to a separate chapter on 'Delinquency'.

l) Inferiority Complex: It is discussed at the end of this chapter.

Psycho-analytic Technique

Psycho-analysis employs several special techniques for discovering the content ofunconscious. The two principal methods used are those of free association an dreamanalysis. These procedures are carried out in combination rather than separately.

The free association method is employed by having the patient lie down and relax andthen relate everything that comes to his mind. The relaxation and the reclining posturetend to minimize the influence of repression through their similarity to the state of sleep.Starting with some idea connected with his difficulties, patient is made to tell everythingthat he thinks of, no matter how painful it may be, on the other hand, how trivial orapparently irrelevant. Psycho-analysis are strict in enforcing the conditions of freeassociation. Through his training in psychoanalysis, the physician penetrates the disguisesand recognizes repressed complexes that are unintelligible to the patient himself. Whenthe patient hesitates in the association process or when he protests that the idea broughtup are either too private or too trivial to tell the presence of resistance and repression isindicated. A transference to the analyst progress, the resistance are broken down and thepatient tell us the analyst everything.

The dreams of the patient are interpreted in two ways. In some cases the dream contentconsists of fixed symbols immediately recognizable by the analyst. More frequentlydreams serve as a point of departure from the association technique. The patient gives anaccount of his association to the dreams as a whole and to all its details. The latentcontent of the dream, discoverable only by the combination of the analyst's knowledge andthe patient's association is the real meaning sought. In the later stages of the analysis, thephysician interprets the associations and dreams to the patient, according to the psycho-analytic theory. This process of interpretation plays a large part in the treatment. The

object of interpretation is to break down resistance by convincing the patient of their originin the infantile complexes. Patients are well on the road to recovery when they haveassimilated the notion of the childhood causes of their troubles.

Psycho-analysis and Education

The reception accorded to the psycho-analytic theories has varied from extremes ofuncritical acceptance, to equal extremes of emotional motivated rejection. Some personshave regarded Freud's theories as divine revelations, other see them as a hideous sexualperversion. All competent and informed persons, however, acknowledge Psychologyhistorical debt to psycho-analysis for some of its problems and concepts.

Obviously with all the elaborate methods of the psycho-analyst the teacher has nothing todo. Not only do they demand a technical training that no practising teacher can hope toattain, but they involve an expenditure of time in their application that puts them for everbeyond the reach of ordinary professional teachers. But certain incidental application ofpsycho-analysis may be made by all teacher's attitude towards the psychology of theunconscious.

1. To begin with he ought to know it. He ought to be aware of what has been done theway of developing the new doctrine of the unconscious. It is his business to know thispupils as thoroughly as possible and he cannot afford to neglect whole reservoir ofthe pupils' experience. The content of the unconscious is an essential part of pupils'nature and must be known in a general way if the pupil is to be intelligently handled.Even without applying any of the technical methods such as free or the directedassociation or time reaction, the modern teacher who is acquainted with this subject isin a favourable position to study his pupils with advantage. He knows what sort ofthings to look for. He knows that the pupil may with perfect honesty give a wrongreason for an action.

2. Should the teacher have himself psycho-analysed in order that he may betterunderstand the whole process in the interest of his pupils? Even if the teacher'snormality is conceived, he is not yet out of the wood. Every on is abnormal in one wayor the other, according to Freud. Thus the teacher can practice rough and ready selfanalysis without the least need of having turned himself into a 'case'.

3. Teachers do extremely well if they can apply the knowledge of the Psychology of theunconscious to their work in such a way as to avoid the formation of complexes. Sofar from resolving complexes already formed, the ordinary teacher is very apt to formfresh complexes during the pupil's school course. The unnecessary restraint of schoollife, the anxieties resulting from over stimulated emulation, the strain of examinations,the humiliations that accompany the teachers thoughtless sarcasms all these havetendency to produce unwholesome repressions with consequent complex formation.In the poorer areas children in elementary schools have often additional sources ofdanger form their bad home conditions. It is obviously greatly to the interest of thepupils that the teacher should have clear idea of the possibilities of the harm that maybe done by sheer ignorance and misinterpretation. On the other hand, the teachermust be fore ever on their guard against reading too much into ordinary reactions ofthis pupils.

4. Complexes develop form wrong doing and unhappy experiences. One can saveoneself for some of these by clean living and being failure in school work etc. that willalmost inescapably cause complexes. Dealing with complexes produced by unhappy

circumstances in the school room it should be remembered that a teacher who gainsthe confidence and goodwill of his pupils will be talked with by them. His pupils mayunburden themselves and rid themselves of there repressed complexes. In talkingabout a pupil's problems, the pupil is encouraged to bring his complexes out theopen, analysis them and dispose them of. A teacher in order to be effective must beliked by his pupils and have their confidence. The personality of the teacher and theattitude of the parents is the most helpful factors. If both meet the problems of lifefrankly and try to help children in a friendly and sympathetic manner, the emotionalproblems of young pupil will be better solved.

5. Repression should be avoided. The teacher and parents should realized that if a childis checked to behave in a particular way, he may not have in that way, but thisimpulse may become a part of the unconscious. Repression is not a solution of theproblem, it is creating problems. For the future. The repressed desires come to thesurface more vigorously and in a disguised form and thus the individual is unable todeal with them at the conscious level. Thus for normal development of the childrentheir impulses should be recognized outlet provide for them in the form of curricularactivities.

6. Children learn by imitation: Therefore the behaviour of the persons around themshould be free form all abnormalities. This is possible if there are no problems ofadjustment and the unconscious is free from all repression. A neurotic teacher or aneurotic parent creates many problems for children in the class or at home. Such ateacher is inconsistent in his behaviour and hinders the normal development ofchildren. Such a teacher or a parent may have temper tantrums, dislike for certainstudents dislike for other teacher and he may disregard moral and social code. Theknowledge of the unconscious will help such an individual to mend his ways and thusattain mental health.

Inferiority Complex

An early disciple of Freud broke away and set up a rival school called 'IndividualPsychology. Alfred Adler disagrees with Freud's emphasis on sex and his distinctionbetween the conscious and the unconscious. For Adler the basic urge is striving forsuperiority of self assertion. In normal individuals this is adjusted to reality and integratedwith social drives, thus leading to reasonable satisfaction through achievements. Inchildhood the urge to superiority is thwarted in many directions because of child'sweakness and helplessness and the omnipotence of his parents. This situation may beaggravated by the presence of actual physical defects, by imagined defects, by excessiveparental severity or by other factors. In such circumstances the individual acquires aninferiority complex. Thus when the basic urge for superiority is thwarted as frequentlyhappens, the person feel inferiority and an inferiority complex results. A genuine inferioritycomplex implies a repressed idea of some real defect (or of some imagined weaknesswhich the person's strong self assertiveness will not allow him to recognize.

The development of inferiority complex depends on:a) Inferiority feeling because of some physical or intellectual deficiency, andb) A strong self assertive impulse that prevents the individual from reconciling himselfto a position of inferiority he cannot bear the thought of it.

The feeling of inferiority. It may be due to either of the following causes:1. Physical defect: Adler remarked that feelings of inferiority often developed in persons

having a physical handicap. Lame, undersized, ugly or deformed, very thin or very fat

children may fee inferior and attempt to compensate for their defects. Actually theinferiority felling does not arise from the defect itself but from the unfortunatecomparison with normal reason. If every one were cripple, none would feel inferior.Thus physical factors influence personality only because social factors make themimportant.

2. Intellectual defect: Physically the child maybe quite fit and normal but he may be dullheaded. He is weak in studies and is ridiculed by teacher and taunted by students. Hefeels inferior in the class.

3. Social Inferiority: There are various grades in our society. We do not have a classesand caste-less society. Some are considered as high born and others as low born.These low born have to experience social inequality every not and them slaves and theuntouchables were looked down upon by others. Even in mid twenties we find strongracial discrimination in South Africa. Those who are socially inferior come to haveinferiority feeling in them.

Now this inferior feeling does not always lead to inferiority complex. An individual may bephysically or intellectually deficient, yet he may not feel it so much. He may have acceptedit for good and may no longer be troubled on that account. In the case of such anindividual inferiority felling will not lead to inferiority complex in him. But when the defect inthe individual proves a standing trouble for him the inferiority feeling develop into inferioritycomplex.

How does this complex satisfy itself? How does it express itself? It will express itself inexaggerated talk, walk and laugh, laud manners, laud colours, all mannerism, habit orcriticizing others, always, always looking to the bad points of others and ignoring theirgood point, telling psychological lies, eagerness to find one's name and photo in print,wearing gaudy clothes, etc. Thus this complex give rise to over compensation.

Negative behaviour of the following kind may also be caused by this complex.1) Retirement from Society: An individual suffering from this complex may not like toattend meetings and functions and to face people. He would like to lead a solitary life.2) Self pity: He indulges in self pity for inviting sympathy of other people. He usuallysays Who am I? I am no body. I am the most unfortunate person. In this way he wantsto be the sympathy of others. So much so that for getting this sympathy he wouldcontract some physical ailment as well so that the people may come to him andenquire about his health and this will give him importance.

How to cure inferiority complex

1. Inferiority complex is due to inferiority feeling and this feeling can be traced back tosome inferiority in the individual. The individual should first try to discover the inferiorityin him. He should try to find out in what respect he is inferior to others.

2. He should try to overcome that inferiority. He should try his best to remove the defect inhim. Demonsthenes a stammer, overcome stammering and became one of thegreatest orators of the world.

3. He should find out whether other individuals have the same inferiority or not. Othersmay have it also and he may feel solaced or consoled.

4. If the defect in him cannot be removed, he should humbly accept it. He should not feelagitated over it and it will not be a source of trouble to him any longer.

5. He should do something which may produce a sense of achievement in him. Hisinferiority in one sphere will thus be compensated by his achievements in some othersphere. A student who is weak in studies may be very good in sports.

GROWTH OF CHILDREN

The growth of children-physical mental and emotional from the age of infancy toadolescence. Adolescence its chief marks, its difficulties, attitudes, help and guidance forthe side of parents and teachers.

A child does not remain a child always. It grows and develops. It is a hard fact of nature. Itgrows into a man or woman. In the course of time the child may become Gandhi, Nehru,Patel, Subhash, Tagore and Daya Nand. This growth and development is not smooth andeasy. It has got its own difficulties and problems. Every parent and teacher must know howthe child grows into a man. The greatest responsibility that we can know is to be a parent.It is an onerous job and before decides to be a parent one must known what hisresponsibilities are. His basic responsibility is to keep the child grown into a man. Theteacher has also to share this responsibility with the parent.

1. Infancy - From birth to 5 yearsa) Infancy - From birth to 2% yearsb) Early Childhood - From 2% to 5 years

2. Later Childhood - From 5 to 12 yearsa) Transition period - From 5 to 8 yearsb) Later childhood - From 8 to 12 years

3. Adolescence - From 12 to 18 yearsc) Early adolescence - From 12 to 14 yeard) Later adolescent - From 14 to 18 years

4. Maturity - After 18 yearsWith regard to these stages of development we must remember the following points.

1. These stages are not very sharply marked off form one another. The characteristics ofone period are not entirely absent from the other.

2. The change from one same to another does not always occur at the time mentionedindividuals differ in their physical and mental make up. They also differ their physicaland mental make u. they also differ in the rate at which they grow and develop. Theage boundaries given in the division are simply a general guide. We cannot lay downhard and fast rules of demarcation.

3. Dr. Jones further contends that adolescence and adulthood are respectivelyrecapitulation of infancy and later childhood; the individual living over again on adifferent plane the phases he has passed through in his earlier years.

Stage of infancy

The child in infancy is like a sprouting plant. He is tender both in body and mind. These arethe most impressionable years. Neglect or wrong treatment at this stage can havedisastrous result.

a) First year of infancy

i. Feeding: The child is entirely dependent on adults, chiefly on the mother both forhis physical and emotional needs. Hence the mother is educator no 1. the childshould be fed on the mother's and not on bottle. Artificial feeing is very harmful. Ifleads to unwholesome character traits in after life. A nation brought up on the bottlewould show coarse manners and lack of tender felling. Mcgougall suggests that theinfant's bottle might be made the object of national prohibition with more goodreasons than the father's.

The child should be feed at regular intervals. Who knows the tiny kicking and cryingin the cradle, if denied satisfactions of life are very important. Every mother is theguardian of the future of mankind. She need patience and faith.

ii. Weaning: Breast feeding will continue for six months. Then it should begradually and not suddenly weaned. Weaning should be spread over here or fourmonths. No breast feeding after that.

CHAPTER FIVE

FORMATION OF HABITS

The formation of habits, sentiments, moral sentiments, the self regarding sentiment andthe formation of character. Moral training of the child.

Habit

i. Innate, inherited, unlearnt, such as reflexes and instincts of Habit has been definedas follows:ii. It is tendency of the organism to behave in the same way as it has behave before."William Jamesa) A well-learnt performance is habits, 'Woodworth.b) It is that mode of behaviour which, through repetition, has become to perfectthat it neither require nor undergo any further adaptation.c) "Fixed channels of activity are called habits".d) "Habit is the final stage of the learning process."e) "Habit consists in the facility and tendency to process."f) "Habit consists in the facility and tendency to perform over against, and more of lessautomatically actions which were at first performed with effortful attention.

A Nigerian goes to England. In Nigeria he has been eating with his finger. In England he isrequired to eat with knife and fork. At first he blunders but gradually with practice he beginsto perform the action with the ease and grace of an English man. It is because the use ofknife and fork becomes habitual.

Similar is the case with the raw young man from a distant village who is enrolled in thearmy. He is quite new to the army life-P.T., drill, weapon training and life in the lines. Hismovements are clumsy and awkward, But after his training period he looks smart anddisciplined and his movements on the parade ground are quite graceful. Why? Because heis now habituated to army life.

We are all slaves of habits, good or bad, we get up at the habitual hour in the morningdress ourselves in the habitual manner, inserting the same arm first into the sleeve, puttingthe same foot into the shoe fort, buttoning buttons, combing hair, washing hands in thesame way. We start to the college at the same hour, carry books in the usual way and walkon the usual side of the street. Out friends can recognize us from a distance by the way wetalk.

Characteristics of habits

Habitual actions have four chief characteristics. Uniformity, facility, propensity andindependence of action. Habitual actions are said to be uniform. When any action isrepeated very often, it becomes habitual an give machine like uniformity anothercharacteristic is facility. Watch person trying to learn riding a bicycle and compare hisblundering attempts with the simple grace of an expect who simply gets on the seat andstarts pedalling. Propensity is the third characteristic. We are prone to do what we areused to do. Unconsciously we begin doing things which have become habitual with us.Fourthly, habitual action take place without much attention. When one has become expertin cycling, he can go on talking with his friends or singing a song an yet cycle on in theproper manner.

How habits are formed

Few of us form completely new habits of our own. We consciously or unconsciously takeover the habits of our parent, teachers friends, brothers, sisters and society as a whole.There are three natural forces which make this possible. They are suggestion imitation andsympathy. Suggestion is the unconscious taking over of another's ideas, imitation, anotheractions and sympathy, an other's feelings. The way parents and teacher feel think and actis adopted by the child without any conscious effort on his part. The parent's life is thechild's copy book.

William James, a famous American Psychologist has mentioned four laws of the formationof habits.

1) Launch your self with a strong and decided an initiative as possible. Begin the newhabit with determination. Well began is half done. This principle justifies pubic pledgeswhich give us strong motives.

2) Seize the first possible opportunity to act on ever resolution you make. A single rightact is better that many pious resolutions. No matter how good the resolutions are, theymust be put into practice immediately.

3) Never suffer an exception an exception to occur till the new habits is firmly in life.One exception will destroy the effect of long practice. A man who is habitually a laterise makes a resolution to rise early. He rises early for a week, but on the eight day hebecomes indulgent and rises late. Thereby he wastes seven days, effort and labour.

4) Keep the faculty of effort alive in you by little exercise every day. It waspsychological truth uttered by Aristotle when he said, 'There is no holiday for virtue.Habits are formed by frequent repetition and it takes time. Thorndike calls it the law ofexercise. We learn to swim by swimming, to run by running and to write by writing.

To these four laws of William James, we may add the following two laws also.

5) Habits should be formed early in life because younger the pupils the more plasticand receptive they are. The parents and the teachers should see that boys and girlsform good habits when they are young.

6) We tend to repeat that conduct which gives us pleasure and to avoid that whichgives us pain and dissatisfaction. In order to cultivate good habits in our children weshould reward all good impulses and punish all bas ones.

Utility of habits

An individual is a bundle of habits. Our manner of walking, dressing. Eating drinking orhours of rising, bathing and sleeping, our behaviour with others are all matters of habit.Our health happiness and efficiency depend on what habits we have acquired. Habit issecond nature.

Habit simplifies our movement and makes them accurate, precise and easy to perform.Doing again and again makes doing easier. Secondly, habit reduces fatigue. You begin tolearn playing on a harmonium, it give you finger ache. But when it becomes a mater ofdaily routine, it is easier to do it. The first time is the hardest, the tenth time is easy, thethousandth the time is automatic. That is the law of habit, Thirdly, habit makes ourmovements more accurate. The typist makes no mistake in handling the several keys.Fourthly, though habit formation it is possible to do more than one thing at a time. Women

spin while they talk. Fifthly, habit is a second nature and as such it enters into theformation of our character.

Habit have also their draw back. A habit, once formed is very difficult to break. Habits,thus, tend to take away our adaptability. A character that is completely made of habit hasundoubtedly a certain amount of strength and regularity about it, but at the same time itsuffers from in-elasticity. Habits, in fact, are at one and the same time man's greatestfriends as well a his greatest foes. They are helpful as well as harmful. Fixed habits aregood servants but bad masters. The vital question about habits, therefore, is do we possesour habits or do our habits posses us.

Unlearning or breaking of habits

The formation of bad habits is so common that with most of us the chief concern is not thecultivation of good habits but the breaking of bad habits. The unlearning of a habit requiresa much more conscious effort than its learning. We should observe the following rules inorder to get rid of a bad habit.

1. We must make a strong resolve to give bad habit. Decided and honest determinationin the beginning goes a long way towards uprooting an undesirable habit. If theresolution is made in public it will be more effective than if it is made privately. Babartook a vow on the eve of the battle of Kanwaha before his army to give up drinkingand he successfully maintained that resolve.

2. We should never allow an exception to our resolution. We should never yield to anytemptation toward the habit we want to leave.

3. It is always safe to develop new habits to replace those which we want to give up. Inthe absence of a substitute there is ever likelihood that the old habit may continue.Slovenliness and negligence are tamped out by neatness and care, difference byconfidence and lying by speaking the truth.

4. Dunlap suggests another method of breaking a bad habit. He says that in certaincases by repeating the undesirable habit consciously and knowingly we can root itout. Repetition, according to him, is as good a condition for breaking a habit as forharming it. When a bad habit is repeated with the consciousness that it is bad, itsrepetition instead of strengthening it, will rather weaken it.

How is the idea of the self developed?There are three stages in the development of the idea of the 'self'.

1. To start with, trough his reaction a child learns distinguish himself from hissurrounding. He becomes conscious of the fact that his individual self is distinct fromother animate as well as inanimate objects. He realizes that he is capable ofmanipulating the environment and in turn being manipulate in it, in this process, nodoubt language comes to his aid..

2. The subjective and objective distinction arises slowly. Here we have theconsciousness of the self as 'known' and the self as 'known'. The former is "I" and thelatter is "me". He observes the behaviour of others and at the same time knows thathis behaviour is also observed by others.

3. Finally, the "I" thinks, ponders over and approves or condemns the actions of 'me'.

The 'me' comes in social contact with other individuals who approve or disapprove ofhis actions and shower praise or blames as the case may be. This influence 'I' asregards the opinion of 'me'. He forms definite ideas of himself as being a person ofsuch and such character, He accepts to do a certain action because he regard it asworthy of himself or rejects it because, it is unworthy of him. 'I' am not the person tocheat. 'I' belong to this or that type of family. A decent man does not do this. A studentof our college is always courteous and well behaved such thoughts build his prestige,self respect and character. He tries to live up to this ideal. Thus grows the sentimentof self regard which gives unit and stability to whole life.

The formation of this sentiment is a very important matter for the consideration of theteacher. This idea of 'self is a result of social interaction, mainly of what the teacher orparents or those with whom the child has lived, have formed for him. A child who has beenmade to believe that he is honest and good will end to make his conduct worthy in terms ofthat ideal of the 'self' we should, therefore, retain for calling a student a student 'a dunce','a nuisance' or undesirable. To bring about reformation in character. It is necessary to re-establish a person's self respect.

Character

To a layman character means an aggregate of virtues in the individual. It means certainpraiseworthy traits such as humility, courtesy, calmness of mind, etc. In Psychology bycharacter we mean an organized self. It is no something innate or inborn. It is what wegradually acquire, each in our own degree. We all develop character in some degree andso some sort whether good or bad, strong or weak. The development of character consistsin the sublimation of instincts, the building up of sentiments especially moral sentimentsand the welding of these into a strong, self. Character is the organization of the mind-organization of instincts, habits and sentiments under the sentiment of self-regard. If thisorganization is strong, if it is weak, character is weak. Character is thus nothing but thesentiment of self regard functioning as the controlling unit of all other sentiments. It isdefinitely a product of social interaction.

The one a man ceases to be the creature of varying and often conflicting impulses or to bedominated by the influence persons with him at the moment, and the more he builds up afew main sentiments and especially one master sentiment which dominates his conductsand the nearer he cones to controlling all his actions by some idea of conduct or ideal ofhis own self, in short the more stable and consistent he becomes, the more he revealswhat we usually call character. In moral character the moral ideal is working. A dacoit hasno moral character but he may have psychological character if he is a regular and strong-willed dacoit.

Moral sentiment

A fully fashioned character is dominated by some ideals such objective ideals generalrules of conduct are slowly formed in the child, chiefly by suggestion of person who thechild respects or love-parents, friends, teachers. First, comes the sympathetic response tostrong feeling expressed by another against a cruel action, or with a kind one. Thenactions in which a resemblance is detected to this first one, rouse a similar feeing. Finally,when the youth can grasp the abstract idea of kindness or cruelty, a general sentimenttowards the idea of kindness or cruelty may begin to grow; so that some forms of crueltymay come to rouse his antagonism because of the general sentiment, even if the particularform of cruelty alone would not behave round his antagonism directly. Such an attitudetowards a general ideal of conduct or an abstract quality such as 'justice' is usually termed

a 'moral' sentiment.

Moral training of the child

Children are neither good nor bad, neither moral nor immoral. The distinctions of right orwrong, good or bad do not apply to them. Their behaviour is mainly instinctive. It is onlygradually through knowledge and experience that they begin to appreciate what is good.

Morality

What is morality? What does it imply?1. It implies the understanding of right and wrong. The individual to be moral must know

the basis of right and wrong.2. It implies freedom of choice. The individual should be free to choose what he believes

to be right.3. It implies responsibility. We are responsible for what we do.4. It consists in actual activity and not in mere capacity. A good man is one who actually

does good actions and not one who merely can do them.5. Morality is through and through social effect. Only that conduct is moral which has a

social effect.

Moral development of the child

1) The child should have large experience and opportunity to analyse and understandthat experience. Standards of right conduct should be taught through stores andbiographies of great men, thought experiences of fair play, justice and honesty ingames and sports and through personal example of parents and teacher. If they livethrough experiences where such virtues are needed and practices, they will readilycome to acquire ideas of right and wrong.

2) One of the essential conditions for developing moral character is to create anatmosphere of freedom for the exercise of the will of the child. Give freedom, initiativeand choice to the child. Make him understand the situation in all its bearings but let theultimate decisions be his. Too many commands, too much guidance from adults, toomuch anxiety on the part of parents and teachers to help young people are fatal to thefree growth of the moral ability of the child. The teacher's duty is to build up moralsentiments in the child by presenting before him situation is that require service andsacrifice.3) Both in home and school children should be called upon to shoulder responsibilityaccording to their ability and understating. To keep themselves clean, to arrange theirclothes and things in order, to keep their rooms neat and tidy, to attend to small tasksare some of the ways, in which young people learn their early lessons in responsibility.4) Morality is essentially social in its origin and nature. Moral development andtraining, therefore, is a question of social development of the child. The three generaltendencies imitation, suggestion and sympathy provide the basis for social and moraldevelopment among children and the home and school afford healthy and variedopportunity for their exercise and expression.

a) Imitation: It is doing as others do. We copy each other's manners, modes of talkingwalking and eating. Wrong and evil habits of children are also due to the imitation ofothers. An honest, loving, sincere, hard working and courageous teacher creates a aceof noble, study men by the very fact of his presence among his pupils.b) Suggestion: Children are very suggestible to their parents and teachers. They swayof parents and teacher over the mind of children is very great and they can cause if for

both good and evil. Suggestions work better when they come from people whomchildren respect and admire. Inefficient teachers can not inspire students with noblethoughts and ideas. In several good homes and schools there is no occasion for directmore instruction. The tone of the daily routine is enough.c) Sympathy: It is feelings as others feels. When we are in a group, an emotionexperienced by one tends to be transferred to others. Children smiling when theirparents and teachers smile. The interest of the teacher in children during illness, hissympathetic enquiries about those who have left the school will endear him to hispupils.d) Characteristics is nothing isolated it is expression of all that we are. All that we do,feel and think reveals and influence our character. Literature, history, geography,science, arithmetic, playground, street, library and laboratory, teachers, parents andfriends-all contribute to build and modify character. Healthy moral sentiments formedthrough celebrations of birthdays and death anniversaries of great leaders and heroes,of festivals and national days.

We may concludes this lesson by suggesting that the main hopes for effective moraleducation seem to be as follows.

a) In infancy and early childhood the right type of conduct should be exemplified by theparents and the 'right rules suggested.b) In later childhood an adolescence there should develop a love of and admiration forsome person who thus acquires great suggestive force, which tend to lead in the firstinstance to external imitation.c) This admired and loved person should express in his life high ideals of conduct,which when clearly formulated, may through his influence he adopted by those whocome under his influence and applied widely perhaps to new conditions different fromthose in which they first learnt to adopt them.

Behaviour Defined

The word behaviour in the definition psychology includes anything a person or animal doesthat can be observed or measured in some way. Put more succinctly, any human or animalprocess or activity that can be objectively observed or measured. This implies that somebehaviour can be directly observed and measured while others cannot be observed ormeasured directly. These forms of behaviour are inferred (guessed at) because there arebehaviour that can be directly observed and/or measured that seem to be related to thoseinferred. Behaviour that can be directly observed is known as overt behaviour. Examplesare eating jumping, swimming, running, kissing and so on. Verbalizations and vocalization,such as snoring, talking and laughing that can be heard and accurately recorded are alsoovert behaviour. There are physiological responses, such as perspiration, respiration,muscle tension, brain waves, heartbeats and so on, that can be measured by electronicequipment. These also qualify as overt behaviour Farlier, it was stated that observationand measurement of behaviour should be reasonably free of value judgements, personalpreferences, and biases. Given this situation, impartial observers can accept or agree onthe description of any of the activities or processes being described.

There are mental processes that occur internally and are hidden from us but from what aperson does, that is, his or her overt behaviour, it is possible to study internal mentalprocess which may have caused the overt behaviour. Some of these sensations, needs,motives, personality characteristics, and capabilities, attitudes and so on. Thesephenomena that cannot be observed or measured directly are known as hypotheticalconstructs by psychologists. A hypothetical construct is a characteristic condition, orprocess that cannot be directly observed or measured but is assumed to exist because it

has effects that can be directly observed or measured (Davidoff, 1976). Hypotheticalconstructs are called constructs because they are formed or constructed in people'sminds. We merely hypothesize or guess that they exist, although we are not absolutelycertain that they do. For example, intelligence is not a tangible entity yet we talk about it.Although we cannot see it and we know what it is, it is only through the behaviour weobserve, such as high-scoring performance on intelligence test that we measureintelligence or assume that such behaviour reflects intelligence. The 'will to live'. Musicaltalent and emotion are some other constructs that cannot be seen or measured directly.But from overt behaviour we are able to infer that they underline such manifest behaviour.We cannot see joy, hate, sadness or fatigue. Overt behaviour that seem related to theemotion such as laughter, frowning, other gestures, facial expressions and postures; andverbal comments on convey the information that a specific construct exists, and isresponsible for that overt behaviour. Musical talent is expressed in various ways such asthe ability to sing, compose a song or songs and operate musical instruments. The will tolive can be expressed in the willingness to undergo surgery or any medical treatment,drinking of prescribed drugs and so on. Having understood what behaviour is, it isappropriate to develop an insight into how behaviour develops and the various factors thataffect the development of behaviour.

Environmental factors

The role of heredity in shaping behaviour and in explaining individual differences does notwholly account for the development of behaviour. Consequently the importance of theenvironment which interacts with genetic component for the product of behaviour becomescrucial and worthy of discussion. However, it is a truism that no organism, regardless of itspotentialities and basic quantities, can survive in the absence of a favourable environment.Two children of equal constitutional capacities or characteristics may develop in entirelydifferent ways depending on the nature of the environment in which they are reared.

A person's culture affects the development of attitudes, ideals and behaviour patterns ofindividuals. The family also influences the personality development of the child. Forexample, studies have shown that neurotic parents are often directly responsible forsimilar traits found in their children. Children who are rejected by their parents are verylikely to be aggressive, negativistic, quarrel,some, rebellious, or untruthful. Anoverprotected child is likely to be submissive, anxious, and lacking in self-reliance. KurtLewin, cited by Davidoff, noted that behaviour and development, B = F (P.E). in thisequation, the person P and his environment E have to be viewed as variables which aremutually dependent upon each other. Children reared in homes where democracy ispractised are active, outspoken, aggressive, fearless, playful, curious, nonconforming, andmore likely to be leaders than average persons. Children from authoritarian homes tend tobe quiet, well-behaved, socially unaggressive, and restricted in curiosity, originality andfancifulness. The environment in which a child grows should be stimulating. Unstimulatingenvironments during the first years of life retard the motor skills, language and intellectualdevelopment, expression of emotions and capacity for strong, lasting emotionalattachments. However, these negative effects are relative and not absolute. Thesesituations can be reversed if the environment is stimulating later.

Social interaction produces social behaviour, which can be defined as the physical andpsychological interaction of two or more persons in a common environment. Socialinteractions greatly influence our values, ideas of what is right and wrong, preferences ondaily decisions, and so on. These vary from one place to the other because even the valuejudgements of the individual's culture or subcultural patterns, cultural taboos, interests,socio-economics status and geographical location of an individual also affect behaviour.

Social Cognitive theories

Social cognitive theories express the view that cognitive capabilities of human beings suchas; reason, memory and thought (how we think about ourselves and our experiencesshape our behaviour) play significant role in determining human action. Although cognitiveprocesses are not readily observation, they can be inferred from overt behaviour orbecome known indirectly. Here again, bandura proposed that cognitive processes (internalmental events), the environment which is external an the overt behaviour (the person'smanifest behaviour) all interact and influence one another. This view is labelledRECIPROCAL DETERMINISM in other words, the environment determines behaviour,human behaviour also determines the environment (that is, human beings can act in waysthat can alter the environment) and personal factors (cognitive structures such as beliefsand expectancies) determine and are determined by both behaviours and theenvironment.

For example, if a group of students react aggressively, either in response to a particularsituation (lack of water on campus) or because of underlying disposition, may be theiractions (behaviour), cause the school authority or other workers to respond angrily. Thisangry environment may in turn lead to even more aggressive behaviour from the students.However, social cognitive theorists emphasize that cognitive events are unique for eachperson because every person perceives each situation differently. This is based on eachperson's memories, competencies, expectations, personal standards, rules and values.Again, each person can alter the situation to suit his or her own desires. This is thesituation refereed to as PERSON VARIABLES which interacts with SITUATIONALVARIABLES (condition or factor) to influence and produce behaviour

Person Variables

Person variables refer to those factors in an individual that makes one person differ fromthe other in the way react or respond to situations. Some of these are:

1) Competencies: these are factors such as intellectual abilities, social and physicalskills, and other special abilities.2) Encoding strategies: How a person selectively attends to information, encodeevents, and groups the information into meaningful categories. An event that isperceived as challenging by one person may be seen as frightening by another.3) Expectancies: People's expectations about the consequences of their behaviour willguide the person's choice of behaviour. For example, if you cheat in an examinationand are caught, the consequences of being driven away from school or whatever formof punishment that will be administered will determine you choice of behaviour.Expectations about one's own abilities will also influence the person's behaviour. Whatwill happen since I am unable (maybe unskilled) to perform a particular task suchconsideration and the anticipated consequences may make the person not to act.4) Subjective values: Each person tends to ask- what is the worth (value) of aparticular action or behaviour thus, two persons may have similar expectancies butmay choose to have different because they value the outcomes differently. Twostudents may expect that a certain behaviour may please their lecturer, however thisoutcome is important to one student but is not important to the other. Similarly twoworkers may expects a certain behaviour or please their manager, again, this outcomeis important to one staff but is not important to one staff but is not important to theother.5) Self-regulatory systems and plans: this explains how to achieve a goal. People

differ in the standards and rules they adopt for regulating their behaviour (includingself-imposed rewards for success or punishment for failures), as well as in their abilityto make plans for reaching a goal.

Walter Mischel opined that the above five concepts overlap and interlock to explain whyeach person responds or reacts to a situation in a unique way and why a person'sbehaviour is relatively consistent He also sees them as products of past learning and asguides for future learning. As each person confronts new situations and interacts, he orshe learns new things and personality develops.

Learning Theory ReviewLearningTheory

KeyTheorists Summary of Theory

Application in Teaching andLearning

behaviour Skinner, B.,Pavlov, I.,Thorndike, E.& Watson, J.

"Leaning is a response toexternal stimuli."Rewards, reinforcers, orpunishment strengthenthe response andincrease (or decrease)the likelihood of itsrecurrence.

Learning is a result ofassociations formed by pairingstimuli and responses.

Learning involves behaviourchanges

Teacher presents stimuli-students responds (classroomanswers, test answers,homework assignments, etc.)

Teacher provides reward orpunishment to shape student'sbehaviour

Focus on Stimulus andResponse, withoutconsideration of other cognitiveprocesses

Use of rewards andpunishment

Positive and negativereinforcement used to increasea behaviour

Punishment to decrease abehaviour

This may be appropriate inteaching specific tasks, such ashow to log in to MIX, how tosolder an electrical connection,and other "how to 's'.(Associated with lower levellearning in hierarchies)

Drill and practice activities.

Cognitive Bruner, J., &Ausubel, D.Also, earlyPiaget

Focuses on the mentalprocessing of informationobtained through thesense, which is then usedand is evidenced byobserved behaviours.

■ Leaving is an active mentalprocess, which is evidencedby a change in behaviour■ Considers mental processes

occurring, although theycannot be seen organization

of knowledge as newinformation is learned

■ Teacher provides a broadvariety of experiences withwhich students interact. Thisinteraction results incognitive structures in thebrain.

■ This may be appropriate inteaching kindergarten kids totie their shoe laces, teachingelementary students matconcepts via manipulationsand audiology students toconduct a hearing test.

Constructive

Piaget, J.,Gagne, R.,Vygotsky, L,and BanduraA.

Learners use existingknowledge structures tocreate new meaning andlearning.

■ Learner create or constructcognitive structures in thebrain based on theirexperiences with the world.

■ Learners construct uniqueknowledge structures basedon their individualexperiences (no twostudents have the sameknowledge structure).

■ Learners assimilate newinformation into what theyalready know, or makeaccommodations forunfamiliar information toform new knowledgestructures.

■ Learning occurs in socialcontents

■ Hierarchy of learning, fromreceiving informationthrough the senses togeneralizing and using newknowledge.

■ Teacher should providesocial learning opportunitieswithin the classroom.

■ Teachers provide theenvironment and resources-students then use these toconstruct new knowledge

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