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1–58

1 Understanding Speaking

2 Listening

3 Speaking Ethics

4 Overcoming Fear of Speaking

59–126

5 Planning

6 Topic Selection and Analysis

7 Audience Analysis

8 Research

127–190

9 Transforming Ideas Into Speech Points

10 Organizing Points

11 Outlining

12 Connectives

13 Introductions

14 Conclusions

191–318

15 Supporting Materials

16 Reasoning

17 Language and Style

18 Attention and Interest

19 Credibility

20 Motivational Appeals

21 Informative Strategies

22 Persuasive Strategies

319–394

23 Modes of Delivery

24 Practice Sessions

25 Vocal Delivery

26 Physical Delivery

27 Presentation Aids

28 Adapting to the Speech Situation

29 Answering Questions

395–434

30 Analyzing Speech Contexts

31 Educational Context

32 Workplace Context

33 Social and Ceremonial Context

34 Civic and Political Context

35 Leadership across Contexts

435–506

Speeches by Student Speakers

Speeches by Public Figures

507–528

Guide to Common Pronunciation and Usage Errors

Glossary of Key Terms

PART 1FOUNDATIONPART 1FOUNDATION

PART 2PREPARATIONPART 2PREPARATION

PART 3ORGANIZATIONPART 3ORGANIZATION

PART 4DEVELOPMENTPART 4DEVELOPMENT

PART 5PRESENTATIONPART 5PRESENTATION

PART 6CONTEXTSPART 6CONTEXTS

PART 7SAMPLE SPEECHESPART 7SAMPLE SPEECHES

PART 8 ADDITIONAL SPEAKER RESOURCESPART 8 ADDITIONAL SPEAKER RESOURCES

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Copyright 2008 Thomson Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved.May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.

Licensed to:

SPEAKER’S QUICK START GUIDE uuuuThe Quick Start Guide on the handbook’s inside front cover, directly to the left of this

page, is designed to help you fi nd the specifi c public speaking information you’re

looking for as quickly as possible.

BASIC CONTENT INFORMATION, COLOR-CODEDThis Guide provides only the most basic information about the handbook’s contents:

w Part numbers and titles,

w Chapter numbers and titles within each part, and

w Page numbers—both the page range for each part (identifying fi rst and last pages)

and the page on which each chapter starts.

The handiest feature of this guide is that it is color-coded: The color applied to each

part in the guide corresponds to the color used for the actual part’s tabbed section

divider and introductory pages as well as the subsection number and letter thumb tabs

that you’ll fi nd at the top of each page.

WHERE YOU’LL FIND MORE DETAILED CONTENT INFORMATIONThe handbook’s full table of contents begins on page v. Additionally, each part’s tabbed

section divider includes a detailed listing of each chapter and the chapters’ subsections

within the part. At the back of the book, on its last pages and inside back cover, you’ll

fi nd listings of the handbook’s Checklist and Key Point boxes, tables, and fi gures.

A detailed index begins on page 531.

MAPPING YOUR SKILL DEVELOPMENT PLANTo help orient you so that this book is as useful as possible, we offer these key sugges-

tions: First, read Chapter 1. Not only does it present the fi ve steps of public speaking,

those that make up the overall process of effectively preparing and delivering a speech,

but it also provides an orientation to communication and will help you crystallize your

self-defi nition as a speaker. Specifi cally, it helps you diagnose your skill level and gives

you an approach to mapping out a skill-development plan for yourself. That brings us to

the second suggestion: Prepare an actual plan. Write it down somewhere and refer back

to it. Even if you revise it as you go, we guarantee that it will help you succeed.

Why do we recommend a skill development plan? Because the approach and

format of this book are based on the assumption that speakers cannot be conscious of

everything at once. Therefore, when designing a skill development program, speakers

should not be conscious of everything at once. Trying to do everything in parallel will

frustrate your purpose and inhibit your skill building. That’s why the secret of public

speaking success lies in having a clear idea of what your priorities are and in deciding

on a limited number of goals to pursue consciously at any one time. This text’s hand-

book format lets you pick one or two important skills to work on and, when those are

mastered, move to another set.

ONLINE RESOURCES FOR THE SPEAKER’S HANDBOOK, 8TH EDITIONWhile using this text, you have the option of utilizing a rich array of resources to

enhance and extend your learning. If an instructor did not request that these digital

resources be packaged with the text, they are available to you for individual sale. Avail-

able resources include the ThomsonNOW online study system, interactive speech videos

within Thomson’s unique video interface, the Speech Builder Express program for cus-

tomized coaching throughout the speechmaking process, eAudio mobile chapter review

content for The Speaker’s Handbook, the InfoTrac College Edition periodicals database,

and a Flash-based, multimedia Interactive eBook for The Speaker’s Handbook.

For more information and to access this book’s online resources, visit

http://www.thomsonedu.com.

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FROM THE WADSWORTH SERIES IN COMMUNICATION STUDIES

Adler/Proctor Looking Out/Looking In, Twelfth EditionBacklund/Williams Readings in Gender CommunicationBaxter/Babbie The Basics of Communication ResearchBenjamin Principles, Elements, and Types of PersuasionBettinghaus/Cody Persuasive Communication, Fifth EditionBorchers Rhetorical Theory: An IntroductionBraithwaite/Wood Case Studies in Interpersonal Communication: Processes and ProblemsBrummett Reading Rhetorical TheoryCampbell/Huxman The Rhetorical Act, Third EditionConrad/Poole Strategic Organizational Communication, Sixth EditionCragan/Wright/Kasch Communication in Small Groups: Theory, Process, Skills, Sixth EditionCrannell Voice and Articulation, Third EditionDwyer Conquer Your Speech Anxiety, Second EditionFreeley/Steinberg Argumentation and Debate: Critical Thinking for Reasoned Decision

Making, Eleventh EditionGeist-Martin/Ray/Sharf Communicating Health: Personal, Cultural and Political ComplexitiesGoodall/Goodall Communicating in Professional Contexts: Skills, Ethics, and Technologies,

Second EditionGriffi n Invitation to Public Speaking, Second EditionHall Among Cultures: The Challenge of Communication, Second EditionHamilton Essentials of Public Speaking, Third EditionHamilton Communicating for Results: A Guide for Business and the Professions,

Eighth EditionHoover Effective Small Group and Team Communication, Second EditionHuglen/Clark Argument Strategies from Aristotle’s RhetoricIsaacson/Saperstein The Art and Strategy of Service-Learning Presentations, Second EditionJaffe Performing Literary Texts: Concepts and SkillsJaffe Public Speaking: Concepts and Skills for a Diverse Society, Fifth EditionKnapp/Hall Nonverbal Communication in Human Interaction, Sixth EditionLarson Persuasion: Reception and Responsibility, Eleventh EditionLittlejohn/Foss Theories of Human Communication, Ninth EditionLumsden/Lumsden Communicating in Groups and Teams: Sharing Leadership, Fourth EditionLumsden/Lumsden Communicating with Credibility and Confi dence: Diverse People,

Diverse Settings, Third EditionMetcalfe Building a Speech, Sixth EditionMiller Organizational Communication: Approaches and Processes, Fourth EditionMorreale/Spitzberg/Barge Human Communication: Motivation, Knowledge, and Skills,

Second EditionNatalle/Bodenheimer The Woman’s Public Speaking HandbookRothwell In Mixed Company: Communicating in Small Groups and Teams,

Sixth EditionRubin/Rubin/Piele Communication Research: Strategies and Sources, Seventh EditionSamovar/Porter/McDaniel Communication Between Cultures, Sixth EditionSamovar/Porter/McDaniel Intercultural Communication: A Reader, Eleventh EditionSellnow Confi dent Public Speaking, Second EditionSprague/Stuart The Speaker’s Compact HandbookSprague/Stuart The Speaker’s Handbook, Eighth EditionVerderber/Verderber The Challenge of Effective Speaking, Thirteenth EditionVerderber/Verderber Communicate!, Twelfth EditionVerLinden Critical Thinking and Everyday ArgumentWest/Turner Understanding Interpersonal Communication: Making Choices in

Changing TimesWilliams/Monge Reasoning with Statistics: How to Read Quantitative ResearchWood Communication in Our Lives, Fourth EditionWood Communication Mosaics: An Introduction to the Field of Communication,

Fifth EditionWood Communication Theories in Action: An Introduction, Third EditionWood Gendered Lives: Communication, Gender, and Culture, Seventh EditionWood Interpersonal Communication: Everyday Encounters, Fifth EditionWood Relational Communication: Continuity and Change in Personal

Relationships, Second EditionWood/Duck Composing Relationships: Communication in Everyday Life

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Licensed to:

THE

Speaker’sHANDBOOKEighth Edition

Jo SpragueSan Jose State University

Douglas StuartVMware, Incorporated

Australia • Brazil • Canada • Mexico • SingaporeSpain • United Kingdom • United States

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The Speaker’s Handbook, Eighth EditionJo Sprague, Douglas Stuart

Publisher: Lyn UhlAcquisitions Editor: Jaime PerkinsSenior Development Editor: Renee DeljonAssistant Editor: John GahbauerEditorial Assistant: Kimberly GenglerTechnology Project Manager: Lucinda BinghamMarketing Manager: Erin MitchellMarketing Assistant: Kassie TossielloMarketing Communications Manager:

Jessica PerryProject Manager, Editorial Production:

Catherine Morris, Kimberly AdamsCreative Director: Rob HugelArt Director: Maria EpesPrint Buyer: Rebecca CrossPermissions Editor: Sarah D’StairProduction Service: Newgen–Austin,

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Text Designer: Patrick Devine DesignPhoto Researcher: Kathleen OlsonCopy Editor: Debra KirkbyIllustrator: Newgen–AustinCover Designer: Brittney SingletaryCover Printer: Transcontinental Printing/

InterglobeCompositor: NewgenPrinter: Transcontinental Printing/InterglobePart-opening images: p.1, David Lassman / Syra-cuse Newspapers / The Image Works; p.59, Ralf Gerard / Getty Images; p.127, J. David Andrews / Masterfi le; p.191, Creatas / SuperStock; p.319, Royalty-Free / Corbis; p.395, Jon Feingersh / Master fi le (upper left), Bob Daemmrich / The Image Works (upper right), David Young-Wolff / PhotoEdit (lower left), Image Source / Getty-Images (lower right); p.435, Bettmann / Corbis; p.509, Royalty-Free / Corbis

© 2008, 2005 Thomson Wadsworth, a part of The Thomson Corporation. Thomson, the Star logo, and Wadsworth are trademarks used herein under license.

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this work covered by the copyright hereon may be reproduced or used in any form or by any means—graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, taping, Web distribu-tion, information storage and retrieval systems, or in any other manner—without the written permis-sion of the publisher.

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v

CONTENTSCONTENTSPREFACE xxi

PART 1 FOUNDATION 1INTRODUCTION The Value of Public Speaking Skills 3

1 UNDERSTANDING SPEAKING 61a Understand What It Means to Be a Public Speaker 61b Recognize the Theoretical Foundations of Effective

Public Speaking 71 Oral Cultures 7

2 Classical Rhetoric 10

3 Communication Studies 11

4 Dialogic Perspectives 12

1c Approach Public Speaking as Meaning-Centered 131 Communication Is More Than Information Transmission

and Reception 14

2 Communication Is the Joint Creation of Meaning 14

1d Draw on Three Familiar Communicative Resources 151 Draw on Your Conversation Skills 16

2 Draw on Your Writing Skills 16

3 Draw on Your Performance Skills 17

4 Combine and Balance These Communicative Resources 18

5 Avoid Relying Too Much on Any One of These Resources 19

1e Understand the Role of Consciousness in Skill Learning 201f Beware of Common Misconceptions 23

1 Misconception 1: Good Speakers Are Born, Not Made 23

2 Misconception 2: Good Speaking Should Be Easy Right Away 24

3 Misconception 3: Speaking Will Always Be as Diffi cult as It Is When You Are First Learning It 24

4 Misconception 4: There Are Simple Formulas for Effective Speaking 24

1g Follow Five Steps of Public Speaking 25

2 LISTENING 282a Recognize the Relationship between Effective Speaking

and Listening 282b Prepare to Listen 29

1 Banish Distractions and Get Physically Set to Listen 29

2 Stop Talking 29

3 Decide on Your Purpose as a Listener 29

2c Be Both Curious and Critical 301 Show Respect for the Speaker 30

2 Be Open to the Speaker’s Point of View 30

3 Consciously Follow the Structure of the Speech 31

4 Critically Assess the Speaker’s Claims 31

5 At the Designated Time, Ask Questions 31

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2d Provide Constructive Feedback 311 Start with the Positive 32

2 Make Important Comments First 32

3 Be Specifi c 32

4 Give Suggestions, Not Orders 33

5 Be Realistic about the Amount and Kind of Feedback a Speaker Can Receive 33

6 Use the 90/10 Principle 33

2e Listen to Optimize Your Learning 341 Paraphrase 34

2 Ask Follow-up Questions for Clarifi cation 35

3 Take Notes 35

2f Listen Holistically When Conducting Audience Analysis 351 Listen at Multiple Levels 35

2 Listen between the Lines 35

3 Listen to the Silences 36

2g Avoid Common Listening Pitfalls 361 Daydreaming, Doodling, and Disengaging 36

2 Allowing Yourself to Be Distracted by Superfi cial Qualities of the Speaker 36

3 Uncritically Accepting a Message 36

4 Prematurely or Totally Rejecting a Message 37

5 Planning Your Response or Rebuttal to a Speech Instead of Listening to It 37

6 Failing to Monitor Your Nonverbal Behaviors as a Listener 37

3 SPEAKING ETHICS 383a Be Aware of Ethical Implications of Your Choices 39

1 Recognize That Every Action Has an Ethical Dimension 39

2 Recognize That Ethical Decisions Are Rarely Clear-cut 39

3 Recognize That Ethical Decisions Vary with Context 40

3b Respect the Integrity of Your Own Core Values 403c Respect the Integrity of Your Audience 413d Respect the Integrity of Ideas 41

1 Don’t Plagiarize 41

2 Don’t Lie 42

3 Don’t Oversimplify 43

3e Weigh the Complex Factors and Competing Goals in Ethical Decisions 441 Balance the Value of Using Language in a Lively and

Forceful Manner against the Risk of Causing Pain and Offense 44

2 Balance the Importance of Appealing to Your Audience at an Emotional Level against the Risk of Abusing Emotional Appeals 44

3 Balance the Right to Use Compelling Persuasive Appeals against the Obligation to Avoid Simplistic Persuasive Techniques 45

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4 OVERCOMING FEAR OF SPEAKING 494a Put Your Fear of Speaking into Perspective 49

1 Accept Some Fear as Normal 49

2 Analyze Your Fear as Specifi cally as Possible 50

3 Reconceptualize the Role of the Audience 51

4 “Talking with” Your Listeners 52

4b Build Your Confi dence through Thorough Preparation and Practice 52

4c Manage the Physical Effects of Fear 531 Tension Release 53

2 Relaxation Techniques 54

4d Use Positive Self-Suggestion to Combat Your Anxiety 541 Visualize Success 54

2 Replace Negative Internal Statements with Positive Ones 55

4e Seek Assistance beyond This Book 56

PART 2 PREPARATION 59INTRODUCTION The First Stage of the Public Speaking Process 61

5 PLANNING 625a Allow Time for the Four Phases of Creativity 625b Make a Realistic Timetable 63

1 List the Tasks and Estimate the Time Needed 64

2 Determine the Order in which Tasks Must Be Completed 64

3 Set Intermediate Deadlines for Major Stages 65

5c Make Your Speech Preparation an Oral and Collaborative Process 65

5d Focus on Different Resources at Different Phases of Preparation and Presentation 67

5e Avoid Common Planning Pitfalls 68

6 TOPIC SELECTION AND ANALYSIS 706a Select a Speech Topic 70

1 Draw From Your Own Experience, Expertise, and Interests 71

2 Select a Topic Appropriate to the Audience and Occasion 72

3 Select a Topic That Is Both Timely and Timeless 73

6b Narrow Your Topic 751 Determine the Number of Ideas That the Time Will Allow 75

2 Select a Few Main Ideas to Cover 76

6c Clarify the Purpose of Your Speech 771 Identify the General Purpose 77

2 Determine the Specifi c Purpose 78

3 Specify the Desired Outcomes 79

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6d Develop a Clear Thesis Statement 821 Formulate a Single Declarative Sentence 82

2 Break Your Thesis Statement into a List of Questions 83

6e Select a Speech Title If Necessary 85

7 AUDIENCE ANALYSIS 897a Seek Information through Many Channels 90

1 Use Direct Observation 90

2 Do Systematic Data Collection 90

3 Conduct Selected Interviews and/or Focus Groups 90

4 Talk with the Contact Person 91

5 Use Intelligent Inference and Empathy 91

7b Analyze Audience Demographics 911 Age or Generation 92

2 Sex and Gender 93

3 Race and Ethnicity 94

7c Try to Understand What Is Meaningful to Your Audience 977d Determine the Audience’s Attitudes toward Your Topic 987e Gather Details about the Specifi c Speech Situation 99

8 RESEARCH 1028a Have a Research Strategy 102

1 Fit Your Research to the Time Allotted 103

2 Progress from the General to the Specifi c 103

3 Develop a List of Key Terms for Your Topic 104

4 Use Your Audience Analysis Questions to Direct Your Research 105

8b Use the Library 1051 Talk to a Librarian 105

2 Locate Books and Articles on Your Topic 106

8c Use the Internet 1081 Search Effi ciently 110

2 Carefully Evaluate Internet Sources 113

8d Talk to People 1151 Locate People with Information 115

2 Conduct Interviews 117

8e Keep a Complete Record of Your Sources, and Know How to Cite Them 1181 Citing Sources for a List of References 119

2 Citing Sources in Your Speech 119

8f Capture Information and Ideas in Discrete Units 1241 Notecards from Print and Electronic Sources 124

2 Notecards from Interviews and Surveys 126

3 Grouping Your Cards 126

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Contents ix

PART 3 ORGANIZATION 127INTRODUCTION Bringing Order to Your Ideas 129

9 TRANSFORMING IDEAS INTO SPEECH POINTS 1329a Assemble All Promising Ideas and Information 1329b Use a Variety of Tools to Identify Potential Points 133

1 Create a Working Outline 133

2 Use Concept Mapping 134

3 Manipulate Movable Notes 134

9c Choose Main Points That Correspond to Your Thesis 1369d Select Main Points That Are Mutually Exclusive 1379e Include from Two to Five Main Points 1409f Express Points to Refl ect Relationships 140

1 Subordinate Points Should Fit within a Larger Idea 141

2 Coordinate Points Should Be of Equal Importance 142

3 Each Subpoint Should Directly Relate to the Point It Supports 142

10 ORGANIZING POINTS 14310a Arrange Your Main Points 143

1 Using Chronological Patterns 144

2 Using Spatial Patterns 144

3 Using Cause–Effect Patterns 145

4 Using the Problem–Solution Pattern 146

5 Using Topical Patterns 146

10b Group Subpoints According to a Pattern 148

11 OUTLINING 15211a Use the Conventional Outline Format 153

1 Follow a Consistent Set of Symbols 153

2 Show Logical Relationships through Indentation 154

3 Develop Each Level of Subordination with Two or More Parts 155

4 Be Sure Each Symbol Designates Only One Point and That Every Point Has a Symbol 155

11b Use a Full-Sentence Outline 15611c Phrase Main Points to Forecast Subpoints 16111d Phrase Points in Concise and Parallel Language 162

12 CONNECTIVES 16512a Select Connectives That Refl ect the Logical Relationships 16612b Make Use of Internal Previews and Summaries 168

13 INTRODUCTIONS 17013a Project Confi dence before Starting 17013b Engage the Audience’s Attention Immediately 171

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13c Provide a Psychological Orientation 1721 Establish a Good Relationship with Your Audience 173

2 Motivate Your Audience toward Your Topic 176

13d Provide a Logical Orientation 1771 Establish a Context for Your Speech 178

2 Orient the Audience to Your Approach to the Topic 180

13e Make Your Introduction as Compact as Possible 181

14 CONCLUSIONS 18414a Provide Logical Closure 184

1 Summarize the Main Ideas 184

2 Reestablish Your Topic’s Connection to a Larger Context 185

14b Provide Psychological Closure 1861 Remind the Audience How the Topic Affects Their Lives 186

2 Make an Appeal 187

14c End Your Speech with a Clincher 188

PART 4 DEVELOPMENT 191INTRODUCTION Shaping Your Speech 194

15 SUPPORTING MATERIAL 19615a Defi ne Unfamiliar Words and Concepts 197

1 Logical Defi nition 197

2 Etymological and Historical Defi nitions 198

3 Operational Defi nition 198

4 Defi nition by Negation or Opposition 199

5 Defi nition by Authority 199

6 Defi nition by Example 200

15b Make Frequent Use of Examples 2001 Use Factual Examples 201

2 Use Hypothetical Examples 202

3 Use the Appropriate Amount of Detail 203

15c Use Statistical Evidence 2041 Test the Accuracy of Statistical Evidence 205

2 Avoid Misleading Statistics 206

3 Make Your Statistics Clear and Meaningful 208

15d Draw on Testimony from Authorities 2091 Evaluate the Credibility of the Authorities You Cite 210

2 Do Not Distort Quotations 211

15e Weave in Supporting Materials Smoothly, and Cite Your Sources 2121 Cite the Sources of Your Supporting Materials 213

2 Use a Variety of Lead-ins 213

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16 REASONING 21516a Identify Where Reasoning Is Needed to Link Points 216

1 Evidence Can Lead to More Than One Claim 216

2 People Look for Familiar Patterns 217

16b Inductive Reasoning 2181 Base Inferences on Suffi cient and Representative Cases 219

2 Recognize the Degree of Probability of Your Claim 220

3 Demonstrate Your Cost–Reward Analysis 221

16c Deductive Reasoning 2221 In a Formal Deductive Syllogism, the Major Premise Sets Up

an Absolute Relationship 224

2 Probable Premises Can Lead Only to Probable Conclusions 225

3 Lay Out All the Premises of a Deductive Argument 226

16d Causal Reasoning 2281 Test the Validity of Your Causal Relationships 228

2 Do Not Oversimplify Causal Relationships 230

3 Explain Your Causal Claims Fully and Fairly 232

16e Reasoning by Analogy 2331 Be Sure That the Two Cases Are Similar 234

2 Do Not Confuse a Literal Analogy with a Figurative Analogy 235

16f Avoid Common Reasoning Fallacies 2351 Attacking the Person (ad hominem) 236

2 Setting Up a Straw Figure 236

3 Extending an Argument to Absurd Lengths (reductio ad absurdum) 236

4 The Slippery Slope 237

5 Circular Reasoning 237

6 The Semantic Fallacy 238

7 False Dichotomy 238

8 Faulty Reversal of an If–Then Statement 239

9 Hasty Generalization 239

10 Confusing Sequence with Cause 240

16g Show How Your Reasoning Links Your Evidence to Your Claim 2411 Organize Points to Show the Logical Relationships 241

2 Select Language That Shows the Logical Relationships 243

17 LANGUAGE AND STYLE 24817a Understand How Oral and Written Styles Differ 24917b Strive for Clear Language 250

1 Be Precise 251

2 Use Specifi c and Concrete Language 252

3 Be Economical in Your Language 253

17c Use Appropriate Language 2541 Adapt Your Language to the Formality of the Occasion 255

2 Use Jargon or Slang Carefully 255

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3 Avoid Substandard Usage 256

4 Use Language That Is Respectful and Inclusive 256

17d Use Vivid, Varied Language 2581 Use Imagery 258

2 Use Stylistic Devices 259

3 Use Fresh Language 262

4 Vary the Rhythm of Your Sentences 262

17e Use the Language Style of Your Listeners 262

18 ATTENTION AND INTEREST 26618a Use Techniques That Enliven Your Speech 267

1 Be Specifi c and Use Real-life Examples 268

2 Keep Your Audience Involved 269

3 Use Variety and Movement to Energize Your Speech 270

4 Use Humor When It Is Appropriate 271

18b Convert Attention to Interest 2721 Link Your Topic to Your Listeners’ Self-Interest 273

2 Incorporate Storytelling Techniques 273

18c Avoid Common Attention Pitfalls 2741 Avoid Questionable Attention “Grabbers” 274

2 Don’t Let a Story or Joke Take Over Your Speech 274

3 Don’t Tell Jokes Unless You Can Tell Them Well 275

4 Don’t Let Audience Participation Cause You to Lose Control 275

19 CREDIBILITY 27619a Assess Your Speaking Image 27719b Build Your Credibility before Your Speech 278

1 Provide the Contact Person with Information about Your Qualifi cations 278

2 Help the Person Introducing You Set a Favorable Tone 278

3 Manage Your Image during All Contact with the Group before the Speech 278

19c Build Your Credibility through Your Speech Content 2791 Present your Credentials 279

2 Demonstrate a Thorough Understanding of Your Topic 280

3 Be Sure Your Material Is Clearly Organized 280

4 Present a Balanced and Objective Analysis 280

5 Express Your Concern for the Audience 281

19d Increase Your Credibility with Your Speech Delivery 281

20 MOTIVATIONAL APPEALS 28220a Consider the Emotional Impact You Want to Create or Avoid 28220b Relate Your Speech to the Needs of Your Listeners 283

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20c Relate Your Speech to the Values of Your Listeners 2851 Incorporate Appeals to General Values 287

2 Identify and Relate to the Core Values of Your Audience 287

3 Link the Issues of Your Speech and the Values of the Audience 289

4 Appeal to Your Listeners’ Sense of Community 291

20d Avoid Excessive and Inappropriate Motivational Appeals 291

21 INFORMATIVE STRATEGIES 29221a Help Your Listeners Grasp Your Information 292

1 Avoid Information Overload 293

2 Give Listeners a Framework for Organizing the Information 293

3 Move from the Simple to the Complex 293

4 Move from the Familiar to the Unfamiliar 293

21b Use Common Techniques of Clear Explanation 2941 Use Organizers 294

2 Use Emphasis Cues 295

3 Use Examples Liberally 295

4 Use Analogies 296

5 Use Multiple Channels and Modes 296

6 Use Repetition and Redundancy 297

22 PERSUASIVE STRATEGIES 29822a Clarify Your Persuasive Goals 29922b Analyze Your Persuasive Goals 300

1 Identify Whether You Need a Proposition of Fact, of Value, or of Policy 300

2 Use Stock Issues to Help You Analyze Your Topic 302

22c Adjust Your Content Based on Your Audience’s Attitudes 3041 Favorable Audience 304

2 Neutral Audience 307

3 Unfavorable Audience 309

22d Organize Your Points for Optimal Persuasive Impact 3121 Use the Motivated Sequence to Engage Your Audience 312

2 Compare the Advantages of Two Proposals as a Way of Organizing Your Speech 314

22e Place Your Strongest Points First or Last 31422f Consider Dealing with Opposing Arguments 315

1 Address the Opposing Arguments Directly, Using Refutation Techniques 315

2 Answer Counterarguments after Developing Your Own Position 317

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xiv Contents

PART 5 PRESENTATION 319INTRODUCTION The Natural Theory of Delivery 322

23 MODES OF DELIVERY 32623a Use Four Steps to Prepare an Extemporaneous Speech 32623b Remember Four Steps When Speaking Impromptu 328

1 Keep your Composure 329

2 Select a Theme 329

3 Select an Organizational Framework 329

4 Whenever Possible, Plan Your First and Last Sentences 330

23c Speak from a Manuscript When Precise Wording and Timing Are Necessary 3301 Prepare an Easily Readable Manuscript 331

2 Become Familiar with Your Manuscript 332

23d Memorize Certain Manuscript Speeches 3331 Memorize the Structure First 333

2 Read The Speech Aloud Several Times, and Then Learn It Paragraph by Paragraph 333

3 As You Practice, Visualize Giving the Speech 334

4 Do Not Go into a Trance When Delivering the Speech 334

5 If You Go Blank, Recall the Structure of the Speech 334

24 PRACTICE SESSIONS 33524a Get Effective Feedback 335

1 Form a Feedback Support Group 335

2 Get Guidelines for Feedback 335

24b Allow Time for Three Stages of Practice 3361 Use Early Sessions to Flesh Out Your Outline 336

2 Use Middle Sessions to Get Feedback 338

3 Use Final Sessions for Refi nements 340

24c Prepare Speech or Speaker’s Notes 3401 Include Keywords, Key Phrases, and Material That Is to Be

Cited Directly 340

2 Prepare Speech Notes in a Format That Aids Delivery 341

24d Fit Your Speech into the Time Limit 34324e Do a Final Run-Through and Get Into the Proper Frame

of Mind 34524f Avoid Common Practice Pitfalls 346

1 “Mental” Rather Than Oral Practice 346

2 Too Many Critics 346

3 Overpreparation 346

4 Self-consciousness Rather Than Audience Consciousness 346

25 VOCAL DELIVERY 34725a Speak to Be Heard and Understood 347

1 Speak Loudly Enough to Be Heard by the Entire Audience 348

2 Speak at a Rate Your Audience Can Follow 348

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3 Enunciate Words Distinctly and Naturally 349

4 Consider Making Some Adjustments If You Have an Accent 349

25b Use Vocal Variety 3501 Vary Your Pitch 351

2 Vary Your Rate of Speaking 351

3 Vary Your Volume 352

25c Use Standard, Acceptable Pronunciation 3521 Identify Words That You Habitually Mispronounce 353

2 Check the Preferred Pronunciation of Unfamiliar Words 353

25d Eliminate Distracting Vocal Characteristics 3551 Identify Problems of Voice Quality 356

2 Identify Problems of Articulation 356

3 Identify Vocalized Pauses and Other Irrelevant Sounds and Phrases 357

4 Identify Repetitious Patterns of Infl ection 358

5 Use a Systematic Self-improvement Program or Get Professional Help 358

26 PHYSICAL DELIVERY 36126a Be Conscious of Your Appearance 36126b Eliminate Distracting Mannerisms 36226c Stand or Sit with a Relaxed but Alert Posture 36226d Make Only Purposeful and Relevant Movements 36326e Make Natural Gestures 36326f Maintain Eye Contact 36526g Use Facial Expression to Refl ect Tone 366

27 PRESENTATION AIDS 36727a Plan How to Use Presentation Aids 368

1 Decide If a Presentation Aid Is Appropriate 368

2 Determine the Form and Technology That Best Suit Your Purpose 369

3 Decide on the Best Way to Represent an Object or Concept Visually 370

27b Prepare Your Aids to Be Clear and Manageable 3691 Make Sure the Entire Audience Will Be Able to See and Hear

Your Aids 373

2 Keep Visual Aids Simple and Clear 375

3 Design Visual Aids for Maximum Audience Impact 376

27c Blend Your Aids Smoothly into the Speech 3781 Practice with Your Aids 378

2 Have Your Aid Ready to Go 378

3 Maintain Eye Contact 378

4 Keep Talking while Using Visual Aids 378

5 Do Not Let Your Aids Become a Distraction 379

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27d Use Presentation Software Wisely 3801 Keep Your Text Slides Simple 380

2 Maintain Consistency 380

3 Use Clip Art Sparingly 380

4 Do Not Become Secondary to Your Slides 381

28 ADAPTING TO THE SPEECH SITUATION 38428a Prepare for and Adapt to Audience Reactions 38428b Take Steps to Prevent Distractions 385

1 Check the Room and Equipment for Possible Sources of Distraction 385

2 Ignore Fleeting or Low-Level Distractions during your Speech 385

3 Incorporate Distractions into Your Speech 387

4 Make Necessary Interruptions as Short as Possible and Then Draw Your Listeners Back In 387

28c Respond to Hecklers Calmly and Firmly 3881 The Verbal Heckler 388

2 The Nonverbal Heckler 389

29 ANSWERING QUESTIONS 39129a Come Prepared for a Question-and-Answer Period 39129b Invite and Answer Audience Questions in a

Straightforward Manner 39229c Manage Self-Indulgent Questioners 393

1 The Person Who Wants to Give a Speech 393

2 The Person Who Wants to Have an Extended Dialogue 394

3 The Person Who Wants to Pick a Fight 394

PART 6 CONTEXTS 395INTRODUCTION Adapting to Speaking Contexts 397

30 ANALYZING SPEECH CONTEXTS 39830a Take Time to Think about the Basics 39830b Identify Formats Associated with the Speaking Context 39930c Analyze the Dimensions of the Speaking Situation 400

31 EDUCATIONAL CONTEXT 40331a Oral Assignments to Develop Speaking Skill 40331b Oral Assignments to Practice for Professional Contexts 40431c Oral Assignments to Master Subject Matter 40431d Guidelines for Educational Presentations 405

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32 WORKPLACE CONTEXT 40632a Approach Training Sessions as a Kind of Informative

Speaking 4071 Conduct a Needs Analysis to Develop Training Objectives 407

2 Design a Varied and Engaging Program 408

3 Develop a Tightly Organized Plan with a Realistic Agenda 408

4 Plan an Introduction That Establishes a Contract between the Trainer and the Trainees 409

5 Save Time for a Two-Part Conclusion 409

32b Make Project Proposals Concrete and Persuasive 4091 Become Thoroughly Familiar with the Evaluation Criteria 410

2 Use the Introduction to State Your Proposal Clearly 410

3 Use the Body of the Presentation for a Detailed Description of Your Proposal 410

4 End on a Positive Note 411

32c Follow Common Guidelines for Project Status Reports 4111 Begin with an Overall Statement of the Project’s Status 411

2 Give a Detailed Description of the Progress in the Body of the Report 411

3 End by Assessing the Project Status 412

32d Follow Common Guidelines for Employment and Other Interviews 4121 Analyze Your Audience 412

2 Prepare an Opening Statement 413

3 Answer Questions Directly and Concisely 413

4 Prepare a Repertoire of Problem–Solution–Result (PSR) Statements 413

5 Maintain Effective Delivery Skills throughout An Interview 415

32e Follow Common Guidelines for Team Presentations 4161 As a Group, Establish an Overall Preparation Plan 416

2 Create a Content Outline That Includes Speakers’ Responsibilities 416

3 Agree on Unifying Elements 418

4 Practice the Presentation 418

5 Debrief after Each Presentation 419

33 SOCIAL AND CEREMONIAL CONTEXT 42033a Cover the Expected Bases 42033b Identify the Needs of the People Involved 42133c Follow Common Guidelines for Various Contexts 421

34 CIVIC AND POLITICAL CONTEXT 42434a Tailor Your Individual Presentation to a Group Format 425

1 Confi rm the Format and Clarify Expectations 425

2 Prepare as Carefully as for a Speech 425

3 Be Aware of Your Nonverbal Communication 426

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34b Follow Common Guidelines for a Public Debate 4261 Consider the Opposing Point of View 426

2 Organize Your Ideas, Arguments, and Evidence 427

3 Prepare Your Opening Speech Carefully 427

4 Address Major Issues during the Refutation Phase 427

5 Save Time for a Summary of the Argument 427

6 Maintain a Calm and Professional Demeanor 427

35 LEADERSHIP ACROSS CONTEXTS 42835a Prepare before You Chair a Program or Meeting 428

1 Plan the Agenda Carefully 428

2 Be Sure All Participants Understand the Agenda and Their Roles 431

3 Be Prepared for All Contingencies 431

35b Establish a Positive and Helpful Environment 4321 Model Appropriate Communication 433

2 Set Communication Ground Rules 432

3 Deal Promptly and Diplomatically with Violations of Rules and Norms 433

PART 7 SAMPLE SPEECHES 435INTRODUCTION Because There’s No Substitute for a Concrete Example 437

SPEECHES BY STUDENT SPEAKERS 443Guide Dogs for the Blind, Informative Speech by Peter Ballard 443Eye Chip, Informative Speech by Vanessa Harikul 445The Assault on Your Ears, Outline for an Informative Speech with Presentation Aids by Patrick Wong 449The Assault on Your Ears, Informative Speech with Presentation Aids by Patrick Wong 452Ethanol Production Plant, PowerPoint Slides for a Technical Presentation by Khe Dinh 455Overconsumption of Sugar, Persuasive Speech by Hans Erian 462Rain Forests Are in Need of Defense, Outline for a Persuasive Speech with Presentation Aids by Karen McNeil 465Rain Forests Are in Need of Defense, Persuasive Speech with Presentation Aids by Karen McNeil 471What You Can Do for the Homeless, Persuasive Speech by Michelle Zajac 477

SPEECHES BY PUBLIC FIGURES 482Women’s Rights Are Human Rights, Hillary Rodham Clinton 482Acceptance of the ESPY Award, Cathy Freeman 488All Hands, Norman Mineta 489

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Contents xix

Address to the Democratic National Convention, 2004, Barack Obama 493The Centrality of Oral Communication in Secondary Education, John Poulakos 499

PART 8 ADDITIONAL RESOURCES 507INTRODUCTION Just in Case 509

GUIDE TO COMMON PRONUNCIATION AND USAGE ERRORS 511

Problems in Pronunciation 511Word-Choice Errors 512Some Grammar and Usage Problems 514

GLOSSARY OF KEY TERMS 517

NOTES 529

INDEX 531

LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES 548

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xxi

PREFACEPREFACEAs a fl exible compendium of principles and examples that cover the entire pro-cess of preparing and delivering a speech, the eighth edition of The Speaker’s Hand-book is, like its earlier editions, both a reference guide for individual speakers and a textbook for use in public speaking courses. What distinguishes The Speaker’s Handbook from other books on public speaking, though, is not just that it was the fi rst handbook of public speaking but that it was originally conceived and written as one, too. From the start, each of its chapters was designed to stand by itself so that speakers may directly consult only those sections of the book that present the specifi c help they need. This text’s origins are still evident, offering the greatest fl exibility and ease of use for all kinds of public speakers.

WHY WE WROTE THE SPEAKER’S HANDBOOK

In a sense, a book about public speaking is a contradiction. Public speaking is a lived, performed, embodied event that draws its special qualities from the immedi-ate context, the personality of a particular speaker, and the response of a certain audience. Is there really any useful general advice about so specifi c an act?

Apparently so. For as long as people have felt the need to speak in public, they have turned to others for advice on how to do so more effectively. Early evidence from Egyptian tombs shows that leaders gave serious thought to the choices they faced in speaking to their followers. The oral tradition captured in Homeric leg-end hints that the giving and taking of this advice predated the written word. The increasing supply of information about the ancient cultures of China, India, and the Americas shows that these peoples had culturally distinctive ways of speaking, which some analyzed and discussed. These observers then formulated advice for others in their culture. Such advice usually came in two forms: Those who had vast experience as speakers told stories about what worked for them; others looked beyond what worked and theorized about why it worked.

Both forms of guidance are still present. Leading platform speakers write books about their experiences. The popularity of such books year after year suggests that people fi nd benefi t in the personal and experiential approach. At the same time, university libraries continue to accumulate academic treatises on rhetoric and com-munication. Here, too, the vitality of these lines of research after thousands of years suggests that much is left to be said and investigated.

There is a third form of guidance, one that we differentiate from both those kinds of books and place within another venerable tradition that is over 2,000 years old. This form is neither a narrative account of personal success stories nor a schol-arly theoretical tome. It is the handbook. The fi rst written handbooks for speakers were probably produced by the Sophists in the Greece of 200 bce. In any fi eld, a

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handbook represents a particular blending of theory and practice displayed in a concise format.

There are scouting handbooks, birding handbooks, management handbooks, and meditation handbooks. In all these cases, a handbook is a distillation of the experience and theory of many people and many eras.

The particular usefulness of handbooks can be found in their distinctive char-acteristics, and the value of this handbook can be found in its unique features.

HANDBOOKS ARE BRIEF

They fi t in a person’s hand. They are supposed to be as small as practicable to remove the impediment of size for easy carrying, storing, and referencing. The Speaker’s Handbook is true to this basic characteristic. In it, we have tried to distill the most meaningful advice, provide the most useful examples, and avoid bulk-ing out the book. However, sample speeches abound: This edition includes a new part (Part 7) that presents annotated sample speeches by both student speakers and public fi gures, and we’ve increased the number of speech videos with interactive activities available among the book’s online resources. We call on these sample outlines, transcripts, manuscripts, and videos throughout the text in both examples and exercises. Interspersing sample speeches throughout the body of the book, as is usual in standard textbooks, would defeat the advantages offered by the handbook format. Cartoons and photographs would likewise have taken up too much space.

HANDBOOKS ARE REFERENCE BOOKS

The contents of a handbook are meant to be used in any order. The progression of this handbook’s chapters, as we have arranged them, is not random, but a reader or teacher does not necessarily have to follow that order. We have written the chap-ters to be as self-contained as possible so that the book is adaptable to the differ-ing needs of its various users. Long before the information superhighway or menu-driven computers or the invention of the term random access, people liked to learn things as they needed them.

Because of our particular backgrounds, The Speaker’s Handbook proceeds from the premise that people like to focus fi rst on the area of greatest concern and then design their own learning experience outward from that point. In her decades of teaching public speaking, visiting the classes of other teachers, and consulting, Jo Sprague has observed that there are many “right ways” to approach a course. Doug Stuart, in positions ranging from technical writer to head of a technical and mar-keting publications department to director of a creative development department, has learned how to take even the most complex material and make it clear and ac-

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cessible to readers. It became evident to us that there was a need for a different kind of book on speaking, one based on what we knew about how adults learn.

Adult learners have their own way of designing their learning programs, whether they are setting up a computer or understanding a new job. Most people who buy a computer do not take a course on how to use it. They try a few things, glance at the manual, and work until they get into trouble. Then they look at the manual again, but only for the specifi c information they need to get beyond the current problem. In effect, they don’t worry about the things they don’t have to worry about, and they often don’t know that a thing to worry about exists until it becomes a problem for them. Public speaking is like that. Until people start speak-ing, they cannot be sure of all the areas in which they may need improvement. Therefore, students and individual users should take what they need from this book in the order they need it. Likewise, teachers—who bring to the classroom differ-ent experience and an understanding of the values, needs, and capabilities of their specifi c students—may choose to assign chapters in any order that fi ts their percep-tions of the best way to increase the skills of their students. There’s some benefi t for everyone in every chapter of this handbook, but we avoid dictating the order in which anyone fi nds it.

HANDBOOKS ARE HANDY

When people open the documentation that came with their computer, they want to fi nd the section on changing printer types quickly, not read about the architecture of the system to fi nd the bit that refers to communications between the computer and printer. A good user guide compartmentalizes related information and then tries to make that information as accessible as possible through a variety of point-ers and references, using design tools to make things easy to fi nd: the hallmark of handiness. We have included aids to help users get to where they want to be as quickly as possible, from elements such as the new QuickStart Guide on the inside front cover to the new color-coded parts, from the tabbed part openers that include directories of each part’s content to the thumb tabs at the top of each page, from the checklists to the tables, fi gures, and straightforward cross-references provided throughout the book.

With this compartmentalization, users do not have to read everything at once. A student may be preparing to give an informative speech for a class and is thinking of including some humor. The student could jump ahead and read section 18a.4. It is not that long. A businessperson may be giving a presentation to the board on the adoption of new technology but may feel uncertain about whether he or she has covered everything and in the most effective order. That person could read chapter

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9 on transforming ideas into speech points and chapters 21 and 22 on informative and persuasive strategies.

ABOUT THE EIGHTH EDITION

We have been gratifi ed by the response to the fi rst seven editions of The Speaker’s Handbook, and we are pleased that the handbook format has worked for so many students and their instructors as well as for people who give presentations in their business or community. In this edition, we have once again responded to user sug-gestions on how to make the information even more timely and accessible.

w A new full-color design highlights new visual elements found throughout the text, including additional fi gures and tables, to engage users in the material more thoroughly and further improve the book’s ease of use.

w A new durable comb-binding makes it easy for users to quickly locate the ma-terial they need, when they need it, yet still have a book that can withstand its time in a crowded backpack or briefcase and that will endure to be the lifelong resource it’s intended to be.

w To better meet users’ classroom and workplace needs, this edition features a new part covering contexts of public speaking (Part 6), including educational, workplace, social and ceremonial, and civic and political contexts. The part opens with a chapter on analyzing speech contexts and concludes with one on leadership across contexts.

w To provide even greater context, more models, and more opportunities for analy sis, this edition includes a new Part 7, Sample Speeches, which pre-sents a diverse collection of annotated outlines, transcripts, and manuscripts of speeches by both student speakers and public fi gures, making the book an even better resource for all speakers. Most of the student speeches include vi-sual aids, and all of the speeches for which a video is available include video captures of the speakers with captions focusing on aspects of delivery. This edition also offers more speech videos with interactive activities, all available among the book’s online resources.

w Substantial new coverage of the theoretical foundations of effective public speaking has been added to Chapter 1, and the handbook’s coverage of key areas such as research and presentation aids has been thoroughly updated and expanded. Additionally, examples have been updated throughout the book, and we now provide note references at its end.

w New Checklist and Key Point boxes appear throughout the handbook. The Checklists help readers better understand—and apply—chapter concepts; the

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Key Points note important information that might otherwise be overlooked and highlight information that will often benefi t speakers.

w Those familiar with earlier editions will notice that this edition features sim-plifi ed chapter titles and section headings. Similarly, to further improve the book’s ease of use, many discussions have been streamlined.

w A new part (Part 8) that provides additional resources that speakers and users of the handbook will fi nd practical and helpful: a Guide to Common Pronun-ciation and Usage Errors for native and nonnative speakers of English, and a Glossary of Key Terms.

w New Speaker’s Workshop boxes appear throughout the handbook. These ac-tivities are updated and revised versions of the exercises that have been inte-grated throughout previous editions. Boxing the activities gives them greater visual appeal and also highlights the fact that many of them direct students to the book’s interactive speech videos.

w This edition is further enhanced by a robust suite of online resources, including a fully interactive electronic version of the text and an integrated online study system that provides personalized learning plans designed to help students use their study time as effi ciently and effectively as possible. You’ll fi nd more infor-mation about these and many other new online resources on pages xxvi–xxx.

HALLMARKS OF THE SPEAKER’S HANDBOOK

The great strength of oral communication is that its many dimensions offer people ways to seek out connections in the midst of difference; its immediacy allows for on-the-spot adjustments. The following features of the text have therefore been retained.

w Communicative Approach. Public speaking is consistently presented as a blend of communicative resources: writing, performance, and conversation.

w Distinctive Coverage of Audience Analysis. Not just audience members’ traits and characteristics are analyzed but also the processes by which they make sense of messages (Chapter 7).

w Extensive Coverage of Reasoning. Reasoning (Chapter 16) is discussed through an examination of the links people draw between data and conclu-sions. The text discusses how people can “logically” reach opposite conclusions from the same evidence, emphasizing the need to spell out and justify the links in one’s reasoning.

w Emphasis on Language. Language (Chapter 17) is presented as a primary communicative process and style as an essential communicative element

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(rather than an adornment or frill) in order to emphasize the need for sensitive and appropriate use of words and symbols.

w Full Chapter on Ethics. “Speaking Ethics” (Chapter 3) draws together key points and provides guidelines for responsible speaking. The ethical decisions speakers make are treated as a series of careful compromises, not as clear-cut dos and don’ts.

w Full Chapter on Practicing Speeches. Chapter 24 provides detailed guide-lines for practicing speech presentations, including concrete suggestions and timetables for this important dimension of speech preparation.

w Consistent Attention Paid to Social and Cultural Diversity. We strive to con-tinue attuning the handbook to the diversity of contemporary life. In our treat-ment of language, reasoning, and vocal and physical delivery, we attempt to show how social forces shape—and are shaped by—speech. What is appropriate or clear or persuasive constantly changes as society changes, and we emphasize that effective speakers are open to the subtle cultural variations in speech situ-ations. If there were no differences between people, communication would be unnecessary. If there were no similarities, it would be impossible.

RESOURCES FOR STUDENTS AND INSTRUCTORS

Accompanying this book is an integrated suite of resources to support both stu-dents and instructors. Many of the student resources are available free of charge when you order them (or access to them) for your students bundled with the text. Other users or students whose instructors do not order these resources as a package with the text may purchase them or access to them individually at www.thomsonedu.com.

INSTRUCTOR RESOURCES

Instructors who adopt this book may request a number of resources to support their teaching.

The Instructor’s Resource Manual, written by Tina Lim of San Jose State Univer-sity, offers guidelines for setting up your course, sample syllabi, chapter-by-chapter outlines of content, suggested topics for lectures and discussion, and a wealth of class-tested exercises and assignments. It also includes a test bank with questions marked according to varying levels of diffi culty.

Instructor’s Web site. The password-protected instructor’s website includes electronic access to the Instructor’s Resource Manual, downloadable versions of the book’s PowerPoint slides, and a link to the Opposing Viewpoints Resource Center. To gain access to the

website, simply request a course key by opening the site’s home page.

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ExamView® Computerized Testing enables you to create, deliver, and customize tests and study guides (both print and online) in min-

utes using the test bank questions from the Instructor’s Resource Manual. Exam-View offers both a Quick Test Wizard and an Online Test Wizard that guide you step-by-step through the process of creating tests, while its “what you see is what you get” interface allows you to see the test you are creating on-screen exactly as it will print or display online. You can build tests of up to 250 questions using up to 12 question types. Using the complete word processing capabilities of ExamView, you can even enter an unlimited number of new questions or edit existing ones.

online study system. Using chapter-by-chapter diagnostic pre-tests that identify concepts students may not fully understand, this

system creates a personalized study plan for each chapter. Each plan directs your students to specifi c resources designed to improve their understanding, including pages from the text in eBook format. Chapter post tests give them an opportunity to measure how much they’ve learned and let them know if they are ready for graded quizzes and exams. ThomsonNOW is also available for use through the WebCT® and Blackboard® interfaces.

JoinIn™ on TurningPoint® Thomson Wadsworth is now pleased to offer you JoinIn™ content for Response Systems tailored to The

Speaker’s Handbook, Eighth Edition, allowing you to transform your classroom and assess your students’ progress with instant in-class quizzes and polls. TurningPoint® software lets you pose book-specifi c questions and display students’ answers seam-lessly within the Microsoft® PowerPoint® slides of your own lecture and in con-junction with the “clicker” hardware of your choice. Enhance how your students interact with you, your lecture, and each other.

Turn-It-In. This proven online plagiarism-prevention software promotes fairness in the classroom by helping students learn to correctly cite sources and allowing instructors to check for origi-

nality before reading and grading papers and speeches. Turn-It-In quickly checks student work against billions of pages of Internet content, millions of published works, and millions of student papers and speeches, generating a comprehensive originality report within seconds.

Thomson Wadsworth Communication Video and DVD Library. Thomson Wadsworth’s video and DVD series for Speech Communication includes Commu-nication Scenarios for Critique and Analysis (Volumes I–IV), Student Speeches for Critique and Analysis (Volumes I–VIII), and ABC News videos and DVDs for Hu-man Communication, Public Speaking, Interpersonal Communication, and Mass Communication.

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Election 2004: Speeches from the Campaign. This CD-ROM allows students to see the power and importance of public speaking and its relevance in our society; it includes both full and excerpted speeches from the 2004 United States presidential campaign. Students can view speeches from the Democratic and Republican con-ventions as well as a variety of other speeches delivered throughout the campaign. After students view these speeches, they have the option of evaluating them based on specifi c speech criteria.

The Teaching Assistant’s Guide to the Basic Course is available to instructors who adopt this textbook. Katherine G. Hendrix, who is on the faculty at the Uni-versity of Memphis, prepared this resource specifi cally for new instructors. Based on leading communication teacher training programs, this guide discusses some of the general issues that accompany a teaching role and offers specifi c strategies for managing the fi rst week of classes, leading productive discussions, managing sensi-tive topics in the classroom, and grading students’ written and oral work.

STUDENT RESOURCES

Students and other individuals have the option of utilizing a rich array of resources to enhance and extend their learning while using The Speaker’s Handbook. These print and digital resources are available for individual sale to students through www.thomsonedu.com.

is an online study system designed to help students put their time to the best use. Please see the full description of this resource on

page xxvii.

Interactive eBook for The Speaker’s Handbook, Eighth Edition. This version of the handbook is a Flash-based, multimedia text in which students are able to read the book’s content, listen to audio clips, watch videos of speeches by both students and public fi gures, link out to websites, and complete interactive activities and as-sessments. Offering ease of use and maximum fl exibility for students and other users who truly want to create their own learning experience, the Interactive eBook for The Speaker’s Handbook also includes advanced book tools such as an audio glossary, hypertext index, bookmarking, notetaking, and search capabilities. The note taking feature allows students to make annotations right on the electronic page.

Speech Builder Express™. This online program coaches students through the entire process of preparing speeches and provides the additional support

of built-in video speech models, a tutor feature for concept review, and direct links to InfoTrac College Edition and an online dictionary and thesaurus. Equipped with their speech type or purpose, a general topic, and preliminary research, stu-dents respond to the program’s customized prompts to complete interactive activi-ties that require critical thinking about all aspects of creating an effective speech.

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Students are able to specify a specifi c speech purpose, identify an organizational pattern, write a thesis statement or central idea, establish main points, integrate support material, craft transitions, plan visual aids, compose their speech introduc-tion and conclusion, and prepare their bibliography to complete formal speech out-lines. Students are also able to stop and start work whenever they choose. They can complete, save online, export to Microsoft® Word®, or e-mail up to fi ve outlines.

Interactive Speech Videos. Presented within Thomson’s unique inter active user interface, the speech videos help students gain experience evaluating

and critiquing introductory, informative, persuasive, and special occasion speeches, so that they can more effectively provide feedback to their peers and improve their own speeches and delivery. Features of this highly praised resource include the following:

w Transcripts for all speech videos

w Full-sentence and key word outlines, as well as notecards, for full-length stu-dent speech videos

w A scrolling function that students may choose to turn on or off for full-length speech videos. When the scroll feature is on, synchronized highlighting tracks each speaker’s progress through his or her outline or transcript as the video of the speaker’s delivery plays along side

w A “notes” function that lets students insert written comments while watching the video. At a student’s command, the program pauses, enters a time-stamp that indicates where the video was paused, and offers the student prewritten notes to choose from or modify as well as the option of composing completely original notes.

eAudio Mobile Content for The Speaker’s Handbook, Eighth Edition. Prepared by Tasha Souza of Humboldt State University, this text’s mobile

content provides short chapter summaries to give students the opportunity to re-view chapter content in audio format. For each chapter of the text, students will have access to a 3-minute review consisting of a brief summary of the main points in the text and about six review questions. A passcode can be packaged with the text (or purchased individually) so that students can download these digital audio fi les to their computers or MP3 players.

InfoTrac College Edition with InfoMarks™. This online library provides access to more than 18 million reliable, full-length articles from over 5,000

academic and popular periodicals. Students also have access to InfoMarks—stable URLs that can be linked to articles, journals, and searches to save valuable time when doing research—and to the InfoWrite online resource center, where students can access grammar help, critical thinking guidelines, guides to writing research

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papers, and much more. For more information about InfoTrac College Edition and the InfoMarks linking tool, visit http://www.infotrac-college.com and click on “User Demo.”

VMentor gives your students access to virtual offi ce hours: one-on-one, online tutoring help from a subject-area expert at no additional

cost. In vMentor’s virtual classroom, students interact with the tutor and other stu-dents using two-way audio, an interactive whiteboard for illustrating the problem, and instant messaging. To ask a question, students simply click to raise a “hand.” With vMentor your students can connect to experts who will assist them in under-standing the concepts covered in your course when you’re not available.

The Art and Strategy of Service-Learning Presentations, Second Edition, is avail-able bundled with The Speaker’s Handbook. Authored by Rick Isaacson and Jeff Saperstein of San Francisco State University, this handbook provides guidelines for connecting service-learning work with classroom concepts and advice for working effectively with agencies and organizations.

A Guide to the Basic Course for ESL Students is also available bundled with the book. Specifi cally for communicators whose fi rst language is not English, it fea-tures FAQs, helpful URLs, and strategies for managing communication anxiety.

These resources are available to qualifi ed adopters, and ordering options for student supplements are fl exible. Please consult your local Thomson sales representative for more information, to evaluate examination copies of any of these instructor or student resources, or for product demonstrations. You may also contact the Thom-son Wadsworth Academic Resource Center at 800-423-0563 or visit us at http://www.thomsonedu.com. Additional information is also available at http://www.thomsonedu.com/communication/sprague.

We think that these new resources add value to the book. We do not, however, think that the online supplements should function as an electronic leash. This is still The Speaker’s Handbook. You can still take it along as light reading on a seven-day bicycle tour or take it off your bookshelf seven years from now; you will fi nd it to be the same complete resource for speaking that it has been through its previous seven editions.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Many thanks to the team at Wadsworth who accommodated us, challenged us, and ultimately made us better—true synergy. Instrumental in the transition from sev-enth to eighth edition were Jaime Perkins, Acquisitions Editor for Communication Studies, and Renée Deljon, Senior Development Editor—enthusiasts for the hand-

xxx Preface

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book approach and invaluable partners in this project. Also invaluable are Wads-worth colleagues, immediate and extended, who brought their expertise to this edi-tion: Kimberly Adams, Senior Content Production Manager; Barbara Armentrout; Lucinda Bingham, Associate Technology Project Manager; Eric Carlson, Collin County Community College; Erin Mitchell, Marketing Manager; and Catherine Morris, Content Production Manager. Jamie Armstrong at Newgen–Austin and copy editor Debra Kirkby provided expert production guidance. As always, we want to mention and thank Peter Dougherty, who initially approached us with the idea for The Speaker’s Handbook. Likewise, we owe special thanks to the students who have granted us permission to use their speeches as examples. And to the students who have given us video of their speech performances we are especially thankful.

We are grateful to the reviewers and survey respondents who took the time to help us further improve this text:

Matt Abrahams, De Anza CollegeChristenia Alden-Kinne, University of Southern MaineDr. Joel L. Bailey, Mountain Empire Community CollegeArt Barnes, Urbana UniversityKathy Berggren, Cornell UniversityDenise Besson Silvia, Gavilan Community CollegeDebbie Chasteen, William Jewell CollegeDeanna L. Fassett, San Jose State UniversityRenea Gernant, Concordia University NebraskaDr. Laura Hahn, Humboldt State UniversityElizabeth S. Harris, San Jose State UniversityLisa Hebert, Louisiana State UniversityJan Hoffmann, Georgia College & State UniversityLisa Kawamura, California Polytechnic State UniversityKaren Lada, Delaware Community CollegeDouglas Long, DePaul UniversityColleen McMahon, Gonzaga UniversityNicki L. Michalski, Lamar UniversityJohn D Olson, Everett Community CollegeMaurine Orwa, University of IowaTushar R. Oza, Oakland University & Macomb Community CollegeSusan Poulsen, Portland State UniversityDavid Price, Iowa Wesleyan CollegeWilliam Scott, Green River Community CollegeNeeley Silberman, Saint Mary’s CollegeBeatriz Torres, Keene State College

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Steven S. Vrooman, Texas Lutheran UniversityClay Warren, The George Washington UniversityRichard J. Webb, San Jose State UniversityDr. David Weinandy, Aquinas CollegeFredel M. Wiant, University of San Francisco

We remain grateful to the reviewers of previous editions for their helpful comments and suggestions. We are indebted to the many loyal users of the Hand-book who have generously shared their comments with us and who, along with our reviewers, give us an enhanced feel for the conditions “on the ground” and make it easier for us to embrace change for improvement and avoid change for change’s sake.

Family and friends provide the love and support that serve as the foundation of completing a writing project. That they have continued with that love and support through eight editions without “revision fatigue” leaves us thankful and appreciative.

Jo SpragueDouglas Stuart

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THE

Speaker’sHANDBOOKEighth Edition

Jo SpragueSan Jose State University

Douglas StuartVMware, Incorporated

Australia • Brazil • Canada • Mexico • SingaporeSpain • United Kingdom • United States

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The Speaker’s Handbook, Eighth EditionJo Sprague, Douglas Stuart

Publisher: Lyn UhlAcquisitions Editor: Jaime PerkinsSenior Development Editor: Renee DeljonAssistant Editor: John GahbauerEditorial Assistant: Kimberly GenglerTechnology Project Manager: Lucinda BinghamMarketing Manager: Erin MitchellMarketing Assistant: Kassie TossielloMarketing Communications Manager:

Jessica PerryProject Manager, Editorial Production:

Catherine Morris, Kimberly AdamsCreative Director: Rob HugelArt Director: Maria EpesPrint Buyer: Rebecca CrossPermissions Editor: Sarah D’StairProduction Service: Newgen–Austin,

Jamie Armstrong

Text Designer: Patrick Devine DesignPhoto Researcher: Kathleen OlsonCopy Editor: Debra KirkbyIllustrator: Newgen–AustinCover Designer: Brittney SingletaryCover Printer: Transcontinental Printing/

InterglobeCompositor: NewgenPrinter: Transcontinental Printing/InterglobePart-opening images: p.1, David Lassman / Syra-cuse Newspapers / The Image Works; p.59, Ralf Gerard / Getty Images; p.127, J. David Andrews / Masterfi le; p.191, Creatas / SuperStock; p.319, Royalty-Free / Corbis; p.395, Jon Feingersh / Master fi le (upper left), Bob Daemmrich / The Image Works (upper right), David Young-Wolff / PhotoEdit (lower left), Image Source / Getty-Images (lower right); p.435, Bettmann / Corbis; p.509, Royalty-Free / Corbis

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ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this work covered by the copyright hereon may be reproduced or used in any form or by any means—graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, taping, Web distribu-tion, information storage and retrieval systems, or in any other manner—without the written permis-sion of the publisher.

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7PART

7 S

AM

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E S

PE

EC

HE

S

SAMPLE SPEECHES

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PART 7PART 7SAMPLE SPEECHESINTRODUCTION: BECAUSE THERE’S NO SUBSTITUTE FOR A CONCRETE EXAMPLE

SPEECHES BY STUDENT SPEAKERSGuide Dogs for the Blind, Informative Speech by Peter Ballard 443Eye Chip, Informative Speech by Vanessa Harikul 445The Assault on Your Ears, Outline for an Informative Speech with Presentation Aids by Patrick Wong 449The Assault on Your Ears, Informative Speech with Presentation Aids by Patrick Wong 452Ethanol Production Plant, PowerPoint Slides for a Technical Presentation by Khe Dinh 455Overconsumption of Sugar, Persuasive Speech by Hans Erian 462Rain Forests Are in Need of Defense, Outline for a Persuasive Speech with Presentation Aids by Karen McNeil 465Rain Forests Are in Need of Defense, Persuasive Speech with Presentation Aids by Karen McNeil 471What You Can Do for the Homeless, Persuasive Speech by Michelle Zajac 477

SPEECHES BY PUBLIC FIGURESWomen’s Rights Are Human Rights, Hillary Rodham Clinton 482Acceptance of the ESPY Award, Cathy Freeman 488All Hands, Norman Mineta 489Address to the Democratic National Convention, 2004, Barack Obama 493The Centrality of Oral Communication in Secondary Education, John Poulakos 499



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INTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTIONBECAUSE THERE’S NO SUBSTITUTE FOR A CONCRETE EXAMPLE

We stress the power of examples in chapters 15, 18, and 21, and we rely

on them throughout this handbook because, no matter how clearly a gen-

eral concept or precept is explained, an example almost always aids un-

derstanding. This part of The Speaker’s Handbook presents sample speech

outlines, transcripts, manuscripts, and presentation aids, so that you have

a handy collection of complete sample speeches. These speeches are also

annotated; you’ll fi nd our comments in the margin next to each speech,

along with arrows and highlighting that ensure you will know which sec-

tion of the speech we are discussing. Videos of most of these speeches are

also available among the book’s online resources. The icon next to a

speech title indicates those for which video is available, and we provide at

least one video capture from those videos here, along with a caption that

highlights an aspect of each speaker’s delivery.

The speech videos are provided to help you gain experience in evaluat-

ing and critiquing informative, persuasive, and special occasion speeches,

so that you might be able to give more effective feedback to your peers

and improve your own speeches and delivery. The online speech video in-

terface includes the following features.

w Transcripts of the videos for all full-length speeches by student speak-

ers and public fi gures.

w Full-sentence and key-word outlines, as well as notecards, for all full-

length student speeches.

w A scrolling function that you may choose to turn on or off while watch-

ing the full-length speech videos. When the scroll feature is on, syn-

chronized highlighting tracks each speaker’s progress through his or

her outline or transcript as the video of the speaker’s delivery plays

alongside.

w A “notes” function that lets you insert written comments while watching

the video. At your command, the program pauses, enters a time-stamp

that indicates where the video was paused, and offers you prewritten

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notes to choose from or modify as well as the option of composing

your own completely original notes.

The sample speeches in this part of the handbook and their corre-

sponding videos, together with the many other full- and clip-length video

examples available and referenced throughout the text (primarily in Speak-

er’s Workshops), give you numerous opportunities to see different mod-

els of how the principles you encounter throughout the book are put to

use. The term model should not be taken to suggest either that all these

speeches are perfect or that you should try to imitate exactly what you see.

Instead, these speeches show you the many different ways in which the

task of speaking can be approached. Even those you admire may not fi t

your speaking personality, but you will probably get one or two good ideas

from each speech. Finally, though we have included speeches that we think

are good exemplars of the principles from this text, not one is perfect. You

can take comfort in noticing how a speaker might have a stiff delivery or

lack perfect transitions yet still have an effective overall presentation.

SPEECHES BY STUDENT SPEAKERS

The student speeches are drawn from two main situations, classroom as-

signments and forensics competition. Patrick Wong gave his informative

speech as the second assignment in an introductory class. It was an extem-

poraneous speech, never written out in manuscript form, so the transcrip-

tion that you read will be very much as a beginning student might phrase

things. Karen McNeil’s speech was also an extemporaneous speech, but it

was the fi nal assignment in an advanced persuasive speaking class. As a

result, it has gone through more drafts of a detailed outline, more polishing

of language, and more rounds of practice. The level of detail in her outline

almost makes it a manuscript speech.

Khe Dinh fi rst gave her speech in an engineering class and then re-

vised it for presentation in another class to fi t an assignment on technical

speaking. That assignment included a great deal of emphasis on preparing

and using presentation aids and in making a technical topic clear for an

audience outside one’s area of specialty. Because of the importance of the

presentation’s digital slides, we omitted the text of the speech for this ex-

ample to highlight reproductions of its slides.

The remaining speeches were written and delivered by students who

compete in forensics, or competitive speaking, events. Often the speeches

they use for speech tournaments are written and revised several times



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based on feedback they receive from coaches and judges. These speeches

are memorized and practiced over and over. In fact, for forensics speakers,

the challenge is sometimes to keep a speech from sounding too memo-

rized or over-rehearsed. The informative speech by Vanessa Harikul and

the persuasive speech by Hans Erian were transcribed from videotapes of

their actual performances. The informative speech by Peter Ballard and

the persuasive speech by Michelle Zajac were provided fi rst in manuscript

form, and the speeches were later recorded especially for this book. It is in-

teresting to notice the small differences in manuscripts (what one planned

to say) and the transcripts (what one actually said). Observing this differ-

ence should give you assurance that outlines and manuscripts are impor-

tant tools for various kinds of speech preparation but need not be strait-

jackets to stifl e a level of spontaneity at the moment of speaking.

SPEECHES BY PUBLIC FIGURES

Speeches in this second group were given by people in the public eye: a

politician at a national political convention, a fi rst lady at an international

conference, a cabinet member speaking to his department, an Olympic

athlete receiving an award, and (though not a public fi gure in the media

sense) a professional leader giving the keynote address at an academic

conference.

Senator Hillary Clinton was fi rst lady in 1995 when she made this pre-

sentation to the Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing, China.

Delegates from around the world were convened by the United Nations

to discuss the status of women, with special emphasis on human rights.

Ms. Clinton faced the challenges of speaking to a multicultural and multi-

lingual audience and, as a representative of a privileged nation, of com-

municating her solidarity with all women while offering recommendations

for action. This speech, like the one by student Michelle Zajac, is also inter-

esting in that Ms. Clinton’s delivery of it deviates from the manuscript on

which it’s based.

Australian track star Cathy Freeman, the fi rst Aboriginal Australian to

win an individual Olympic gold medal, is well known for her efforts to raise

awareness of the plight and achievements of her people. This is the speech

she gave as she accepted the prestigious 2001 ESPY Awards’ Arthur Ashe

Courage and Humanitarian Award.

Norman Y. Mineta was serving as U.S. secretary of transportation on

July 16, 2003, when he summoned the members of the Department of



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Transportation to an “all hands” employee meeting. He used the occasion

to focus their attention on a new initiative that he wanted to launch, plac-

ing the reduction of highway accidents as a top priority for the unit. This

department had been called to extraordinary duties during the aftermath

of the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks and during the military actions

in Afghanistan and Iraq. Although still participating in these monumental

projects, the members of this audience were being called upon to make

additional efforts to improve highway safety.

Barack Obama, then a state senator from Illinois and a candidate for

the U.S. Senate, gave the keynote address to the 2004 Democratic National

Convention in Boston. He faced the challenge of activating the thousands

of delegates of his own party present at the convention while reaching out

to millions of television viewers—Democrats, Republicans and Indepen-

dents—and unifying them behind his party’s platform and candidate. The

speech has been called one of the most effective in history and immedi-

ately brought this young state senator to international attention.

About two hundred speech communication teachers from universities,

colleges, and secondary schools gathered in Springfi eld, Missouri, for the

1989 convention of the Missouri Speech and Theatre Association. At an

after-dinner meeting, John Poulakos, professor of communication at the

University of Pittsburgh, delivered the keynote address. Although recog-

nized as a scholar of classical rhetorical theory, Dr. Poulakos has devoted

substantial time and energy to a task force of educators committed to en-

hancing the status of K–12 speech education in Pennsylvania.



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441

SPEECHES SPEECHES BY STUDENT BY STUDENT SPEAKERSSPEAKERS

GUIDE DOGS FOR THE BLIND

INFORMATIVE SPEECH BY PETER BALLARD

Ever wondered how a guide dog could be reading a traffi c light while licking a paw or scratching an itch? Aren’t dogs color-blind anyway? How can a dog know that tree branches hang lower in the rain? As you may or may not have guessed, all of these are myths. But, what guide dogs actually do is no less spectacular or complex, but the means of training may sur-prise you in its simplicity.

As a former puppy raiser and current guide dog volunteer, I will

w First, reveal the life of a guide dog from birth to place-ment as a guide. A process developed to produce the true top dog.

w Second, I will be showing you how a blind person and dog are paired and trained to tackle the dog-eat-dog world that surrounds us.

w Third, I will be opening your eyes to the truth of what a guide dog really provides.

Days after being whelped at Guide Dogs for the Blind’s San Rafael, California, location, training begins in the form of recorded household noises. Vacuum cleaners, dishwashers,

Using a question to start a speech is certainly the most overused form of attention getter in student speeches, and it is almost never used in speeches outside classrooms and contests. Nonethe-less, the technique seems to be effec-tive and uncon-trived in this case.

Peter’s speech needed to fi t a very short time period. Notice how he gets all three steps of the introduction accomplished in a very concise man-ner before moving to his fi rst main point.



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442 Part 7 Sample Speeches

and car noises are all familiar sleeping tracks by the time the dogs are introduced to the outside world.

At just four weeks, the puppies are placed in new dog runs where overhead whirligigs teach dogs to notice the world above them. Socialization at this stage involves walking on leash, be-ing handled, interaction with humans, and proper interaction with fellow dogs.

At eight to twelve weeks the dogs are placed in homes of puppy raisers. For the next year to 15 months, this will be the dog’s home. Puppy raisers train proper house manners, basic obedience, and introduce the dogs to the world in which they will serve. Nearly all public facilities can be visited, with the exception of kitchens where food is prepared and the zoo.

At 15 months the dogs are returned to San Rafael to be trained by a professional instructor for six months. This train-ing process involves nine steps, each becoming increasingly more diffi cult. Overall, only 50 percent of the dogs that en-ter advanced training will pass the program. The number-one most diffi cult lesson for dogs to learn, and consequently the reason most dogs fail, is “intelligent disobedience”: the ability to distinguish whether a command can be safely carried out or should be ignored. Surprisingly, this is the fi rst lesson to which dogs are introduced. Prospective guides, now trained to be loyal and obedient, are walked to the edge of an 8½ -foot-drop loading dock, and then given the command “FORWARD!” The dilemma is obvious. So is the importance. Consider a dog instructed to cross an intersection at a time that isn’t safe. The critical decision is the dog’s to make. For this reason it is not surprising that the top dog is often the submissive one who chooses to let the car go rather than take it on.

At about two years old, if dogs have successfully completed all nine phases of training, they are prepared for placement with a blind person.

This brings us to the next—and likely most impor-tant—step in a guide dog’s life. Visually impaired individuals throughout the U.S. and Canada apply to receive a guide dog. If accepted into the program, guide dog candidates are brought to the San Rafael or Boring, Oregon, facility for a 40-day stay in on-campus dormitories. Though part of the contingency of acceptance of a candidate is having a dog that the staff feels

Peter is making use of note cards to provide cues for his speech. Notice that he does not let the cards interfere with his gestures or intrude between him and the listeners. However, he consults them regularly and directly without apology.

A brief transitional statement like this really helps to make the organiza-tion of the speech clear to the listener. Connectors do not have to be lengthy or intrusive.



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Speeches by Student Speakers 443

would be a good choice for him/her, it may surprise you that the fi rst seven days of classes and orientation on using a guide dog involve no dogs at all. Instead, “Juno,” an instructor holding a dog harness and mimicking the movements of a guide dog, is used to familiarize the student with proper dog handling.

After demonstrating ability to work with a dog in the dog’s absence, day eight fi nally arrives: “Dog Day.” One at a time, students are introduced to their dog. Dogs are placed with in-dividuals based on lifestyle, activeness, personality, experience with a dog, as well as a student’s preferred breed. The rest of the evening is spent bonding with a new companion, but it’s back to business the next morning. Literally, since “doing one’s busi-ness” is Guide Dog slang for going to the bathroom . . . and . . . days start with a 6:00 a.m. dog relieving, followed by loading into vans and traveling to the city to work diffi cult streets in San Francisco and downtown San Rafael. Days often don’t end until 11:45 p.m. Not an easy schedule, and after 40 days students are often ready to go home but are also sentimental about the time spent on campus with newfound friends. If goodbyes between students are not emotional enough, gradua-tion day holds an even more heartfelt goodbye.

For six months puppy raisers have waited to hear how their dogs have done in training, excited and proud of their puppy but secretly hoping to get the dog back if it fails. If, however, a dog passes training and completes the 40-day program with a student, the puppy raiser is invited to the graduation to offi -cially present the puppy they raised to the graduating student.

If you think that 40 days of training and bonding with a blind student ha[ve] erased 15 months of living with a raiser, you are mistaken. When I attended graduation to present my dog, six months had not erased the sound of my voice or the fa-miliar pace of my walk. When I found him, he was sitting bolt upright looking at me with a gleam of recognition in his eye. A million kindly meant disciplining words from me or Jake’s new owner couldn’t have kept him from jumping up on me, and licking my face in excitement that I had returned for him.

As I presented my dog during the ceremony, I had four years of high school public speaking training behind me, but no training could have held back my tears as I recalled some of my favorite moments with my dog. That day, as a gift to me,

Peter shows emo-tion at this point by combining facial expression, gestures, and using a lively vocal tone to simulate the dog’s enthusiasm.

This is a powerful use of emotional appeals. Who has not had to say goodbye to a pet and experienced the mixed emo-tions of knowing it was the right thing to do but also feeling full of loss? Delivery of such a section of a speech is very important. The speaker must show his own emo-tions to a certain degree, not going overboard but not rushing through the words, allowing the audience mem-bers to access their own memories and share the feeling.



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Jake’s new owner displayed for me some of Jake’s new guide dog talents. Which brings me to the third topic. What do guide dogs actually do?

Answering this question requires some background in blindness. As of 2003 the CDC reported that less than 10 per-cent of the legally blind population of the United States is ac-tually completely blind as we would often think of it. The rest of the legally blind and visually impaired population retains some sight. Which begs the question, why do people who are partially sighted need a guide dog?

Because guide dogs don’t learn complex commands like “go to Safeway” or “go to work”; guide dogs learn commands like forward, right, left, and hop-up (meaning show me the reason you stopped me). A blind individual must be indepen-dently mobile prior to being accepted as a student. The dog, therefore, replaces the cane or a loved-one’s arm. You have to know where you are going, the dog only helps you get there safely. You may, for instance, be able to tell that the light is changing, but you may not be able to see the car running that light.

Speaking of . . . you may have guessed, guide dogs don’t read traffi c lights, intersections, traffi c patterns, road signs, or short novels; they listen to their companion. Also, they don’t know that tree branches hang lower in the rain; they do, how-ever, know how to “work a clearance,” meaning ensuring that their person can fi t under, around, or through a possible ob-stacle. If an obstacle becomes familiar, for instance a car or a tree branch, the dog must still check if clearance around it has changed.

Guide dogs often serve their companion until physically incapable of doing so. Sometimes this relationship lasts 12 to 15 years. What does 15 years of service cost? Absolutely noth-ing. Dogs, the 40 days of training, travel expenses to and from the facility, an annual check-up from a professional instruc-tor, and even an annual stipend for dog food and expenses are provided at absolutely no cost to the blind person. Volunteer service and private and corporate donations are the means of the organization’s existence since 1942.

Still, to me, the most intriguing thing about guide dog work is that they know when obeying a forward command

Even in an informa-tive speech there is some persuasion. Though Peter does not make a direct appeal for support for these services, you can be sure that many who hear the speech, or even read it, are more inclined to make contribu-tions to guide dog organizations. In-formation provided in a concrete and emotionally power-ful way becomes persuasion.



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would mean loss of safety, when going right would take their companion into a wall, and when “hopping-up” (that is, pick-ing up the pace) could mean meeting a tree branch in less than pleasant circumstances; a process that begins, if you re-call, as early as six weeks and as simply as noticing a banner fl apping in the wind in a new puppy socialization run.

Guide dogs for the blind: Training starts at birth, and ser-vice lasts a lifetime.

EYE CHIP

INFORMATIVE SPEECH BY VANESSA HARIKUL

From 1987 to 1994, Lieutenant Geordie La Forge stood be-hind his post following the orders of Captain Picard helping to navigate the Starship Enterprise through mission after danger-ous mission—a feat made even more remarkable by the fact that Geordie was completely blind. But as fans of the series will remember, Geordie wore a pair of high-tech “sunglasses” that enabled him to see and just look cooler than any other crew member. Of course, such miracles in technology are easy in the world of television. In the real world they are a little more complicated, right? Perhaps not. For this generation’s blind may not have to wait for the “next generation” for a tech-nological wonder that will restore their sight.

According to Business Week on January 31 of 2000, re-searchers have developed technology that could enable people with certain types of blindness to one day be able to see, a feat that the October 28, 1998, issue of the Technology Review calls the Holy Grail of eye research. This technology comes to us in the form of the intraocular retinal prosthesis, also known as the eye chip, a tiny microchip implanted inside the eye, not unlike the cochlear implant, which has returned thousands of deaf individuals to the world of the hearing. The June 24, 1999, New York Times argues that for the 30 million people worldwide, including 6 million Americans, that are affected with diseases such as retinitus pigmentosa or macular degen-eration, this is the realization of a long-awaited dream. And the May/June 1999 issue of The Technology Review adds that

Vanessa uses three sources in this paragraph and is able to blend them in without breaking the fl ow of her ideas. This is partly due to economical word choice and, as the video shows, partly accomplished by maintaining her conversational delivery.



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these two diseases together account for 25 percent of all in-stances of blindness.

But in order to understand the promises that the eye chip holds for the visually impaired, we must fi rst open our eyes to the background of this technology. Next we’ll focus on who exactly the eye chip can help. And fi nally we’ll process how the chip works.

Well, from eyeglasses to contacts to laser surgery, people have always been trying to fi nd ways to improve their vision, but for the completely blind, there has been little hope. Un-til now. And for them the eye chip represents that hope. The Washington Post of May 4, 1999, explains that this Holy Grail is being pursued by fi ve main research teams. However, the Times of London of October 28, 1998, notes that the team that is leading the race is based in Maryland at Johns Hopkins Uni-versity. Led by Dr. Mark Humayun and Dr. Eugene de Juan, professors at the university’s Wilmer Eye Institute, this team has been working on this project for over a decade. The May/June 1999 issue of Technology Review explains that these two doc-tors met in the late 1980s at Duke University and there began investigating the potential for restoring eyesight using an elec-tronic chip. Dr. Humayun wrote a paper in January of 1999 in which he explained that 15 blind human volunteers have been tested, each of which have been able to see yellow, blue, and green spots of light including simple geometric shapes and let-ters. Now while that may not sound like a lot to you or me, 72-year-old Harold Churchey, who had been blind for 15 years, said that it was just like switching a light on. Churchey told the Washington Post on December 9, 1999, “I have never looked at the face of my grandson, but now I believe I will before I die.” The Houston Chronicle of December 4, 1999, continues that the eye chip moved from the laboratory to the national stage when Motown legend Stevie Wonder met with Dr. Humayun to discuss the possibilities that the eye chip held for him. He was told however that he would not be a good candidate for the chip because it is geared to help those with specifi c types of blindness. But if Stevie Wonder can’t be helped, who can? Well, before we can understand the kinds of disorders that can be helped by the eye chip, a basic understanding of the way the eye works is needed.

Vanessa uses several gestures and these are mostly quite natural. For instance, when she mentions fi ve research teams, she holds fi ve fi ngers out but does not exagger-ate the move to make it seem overdone.

This is an interest-ing sort of internal preview. She makes us wonder about a later point but then explains why another point will be covered fi rst. Still, we know that this is a struc-tured speech and that this speaker is taking us on a carefully planned journey.

After presenting some detailed history of the research, Vanessa shifts to a emo-tional story, pulling her listeners back as they feel how exciting it must be for a blind or sight-impaired person to have sight restored.



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Dr. Humayun explains this process . . . [as follows]. Light enters the eye through the cornea and the crystalline lens. [Re-veals visual aid—poster board #1.] Which then focus it onto the retina. Now the retina, a delicate tissue lining the inside of the eye, is made up of several different cell layers. The fi rst is the photoreceptor cell layer, also known as the rods and cones because of the cells’ shapes. This layer captures light en-ergy and converts it into electrochemical signals. These signals then stimulate the next layer of neurons, which then transmit the information to the ganglion cells, which form the optic nerve. Now the optic nerve is basically the bridge between the eye and the brain. It transmits the information from the eye to the visual centers of the brain, which then process it and form the images that we see. A disruption in any one of these areas can impair sight.

But Dr. Humayun explains that this eye chip is geared to help those whose retinas have been damaged. Specifi cally, he told the New York Times on June 24, 1999, “Some patients are blind because of photoreceptor cells that have degenerated or died but the rest of the retina is made up of neurons that are relatively intact. Our idea was to jumpstart those retinal neurons that are waiting in the dark.” The two main disor-ders that fi t this description are retinitus pigmentosa, or RP, and age-related macular degeneration, or AMD. The Decem-ber 13, 1999, issue of the New York Daily News explains that retinitus pigmentosa is an inherited disorder affecting over 100,000 people yearly. This disease causes a degeneration of the rods that control peripheral vision and vision in poor light-ing. Consequently, RP sufferers are left with restricted night vision, severe tunnel vision, and eventual blindness. AMD, on the other hand, is the leading cause of blindness in people over the age of 50, with over half a million new cases reported every year worldwide according to the February 12, 2000, is-sue of the Toronto Star. This disease attacks a small portion of the retina known as the macula, which is responsible for sharp central vision. The February 2, 2000, issue of the Detroit News explains that vision becomes blurred or distorted and a blind spot develops that gradually expands. Because the researchers at Johns Hopkins University recognized that in each of these disorders only one component of the vision process is dam-



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aged, they built the eye chip to bypass that one component and stimulate the rest of the network. The May/June 1999 issue of Technology Review explains that a small camera is mounted on a pair of glasses not unlike the ones worn by Geordie La Forge. [Reveals visual aid—poster board #2.] This camera cap-tures images and converts them into a series of electric signals. It then sends those signals wirelessly to a microchip implanted inside the eye on the retina. From there, according to the No-vember 7, 1998, New Scientist, this chip translates those signals into tiny electric signals which then stimulate the ganglia in the optic nerve. Basically the chip does the work that the dam-aged retinal cells would otherwise be doing. The October 28, 1998, Times explains that from there the image processing then proceeds as it would in a person with normal vision.

It is important to note, though, as Dr. Humayun does to the New York Times on June 24, 1999, that this chip cannot be expected to replicate the complexities of natural vision. He explains that the human eye is an incredibly sophisticated im-age processing system complete with nearly a hundred million photoreceptors that allow us to enjoy high resolution imagery full of color. The eye chip in its currently crude stage is only able to stimulate about a hundred electrodes. But, he said, the ability to provide mobility type vision or to distinguish be-tween dark and light to people who are completely blind will have far-reaching consequences. This research marks the start of more research and the reality is, he says, that we have no idea of the limits of this technology.

Now, while we may look at many of the gadgets on Star Trek’s The Next Generation as light years away, as we have seen today—by looking at the development of the eye chip, who it can help as well as how it works—one of those gadgets may be a part of our immediate future. And I for one would agree with Captain Picard and say, “Make it so.”

In her conclusion, Vanessa returns to the Star Trek example from her introduction, signaling that the speech is ending and providing an elegant sense of unity to the entire speech.



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THE ASSAULT ON YOUR EARS

OUTLINE FOR AN INFORMATIVE SPEECH WITH PRESENTATION AIDS BY PATRICK KAN WONG

Organizational Pattern: Topical

Specifi c Purpose: To inform the audience about the damage “everyday” noises can do to the human ear.

Primary Audience Outcome: I want the audience to become conscious of the noises that our ears come in contact with and be aware that some of the noises can cause permanent damage.

Thesis Statement: We are surrounded by noise, much of which may be causing damage to our ears.

Introduction

Attention Getter: How many of you have ever left a musical event like a concert and found that your ears were ringing when it was over?

Psychological Orientation: A couple of years ago when I fi rst started working these events [gigs with the deejays], my ears would ring constantly. I thought that I was just getting used to it, but in reality, I never did get used to it.

Logical Orientation: I now realize that what I’ve experienced—what I am still experiencing—is a slight case of hearing loss. This is not unusual today, even among people our age. The same technology that makes our modern lifestyle so nice also puts our hearing at risk.

Body

I. Many everyday sounds reach a dangerous level of loudness.

A. Anything over 90 dB is damaging. 1. OSHA data [visual aid—Chart A] a. My voice—62dB b. Convertible—95dB c. Gun—140dB 2. OSHA Employee Guidelines [visual aid—Chart B] a. 85dB—hearing devices and/or rest periods b. Risk based on intensity of sound and duration

of exposure



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B. Hearing loss can occur doing everyday things. (familiarity)

1. Driving a car with the window rolled down. a. Wind noise b. Road noise 2. Listening to a Walkman a. 110dB b. Equal to an auto horn three feet away c. Ruining the hair cells in the inner car

Transition: That brings me to a real simple and brief explana-tion of how our ears react to the different noises or sounds.

II. There is a medical explanation for how our cars react to different noises or sounds.

A. Hair cells play an important role in our hearing. (Miller)

1. The cochlea a. Spiral, fl uid-fi lled tube in our inner ear b. Contains 20,000 hairs (novelty) 2. Nerve endings transmit perceived sounds to our

brain a. Intense sound can cause hairs to bend or

collapse b. Highly intense sound can permanently damage

the hair cells B. Losing hair cells affects hearing. (vital) 1. Tinnitus is a warning. a. Ringing sensation can last for an indefi nite

amount of time b. Depends on how severely your ears exposed to

loud volume 2. Temporary ringing is called Temporary Threshold

Shift. 3. Permanent ringing is called Permanent Threshold

Shift. (Silverman) a. Conductive loss b. Sensorineural damage

Conclusion

Logical Conclusion: In order to prevent words from sounding the same, or from blending into the background, or to avoid



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tinnitus, every one of you should be aware of the noise levels around you. It helps to remember the general decibel levels of these noise sources from the chart.

Psychological Conclusion: If you work in a place that is danger-ously noisy . . . it is up to us as individuals to be really careful when participating in recreational activities. . . . The hearing loss I have is not too bad, but it could have been avoided.

Clincher: I hope you remember that your ears are a very deli-cate part of your body and that once you lose your hearing you can’t get it back. So don’t take it for granted!

VISUAL AIDS

Chart A: Typical Sound Levels

Sound Level (in decibels, dB) Source 140 Gunshot 130 Air raid siren 120 Live rock music 110 Auto horn (3 feet) 100 Diesel truck 95 Ride in convertible 90 Motorcycle 80 Hair dryer 70 Freeway traffi c 60 Conversation 50 Light auto traffi c 40 Quiet offi ce, home

Chart B: Permissible Noise Exposure According to OSHA

Daily Duration (hours) Sound Level (dB) 8 90 6 92 4 95 3 97 2 100 1½ 102 1 105 ½ 110 ¼ 115 1 ⁄8 120



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THE ASSAULT ON YOUR EARS

INFORMATIVE SPEECH WITH PRESENTATION AIDS BY PATRICK KAN WONG

How many of you have ever left a musical event like a concert and found that your ears were ringing when it was over? I know I have, especially after a major gig with the deejaying group I belong to. A couple years ago when I fi rst started working these events, my ears would ring constantly, sometimes for as long as three days afterward. I had trouble going to sleep. I’d lie there and hear this sound like eeeeeee all the time; it’s like, God, right? Since I’ve been working around amplifi ed music for a while, it seems that loud noise doesn’t affect me anymore. I thought that I was just getting used to it, but in reality, I never did get used to it. Instead, after doing some research, I now realize that what I’ve experienced—what I am still experienc-ing—is a slight case of hearing loss. This is not unusual today, even among people our age. The same technology that makes our modern lifestyle so nice also puts our hearing at risk. Not everyone is aware of how much noise is around us and what it may be doing to our ears. So that’s what I am going to talk about today.

Every day all of us experience some type of noise, whether it’s the alarm clock that we have to turn off in the morning or the speech I’m giving to you right now. It’s not the noise that really hurts our hearing, but rather it’s the loudness or the volume that can damage our ears. Scientists express the different levels of noise in terms of units called decibels, ab-breviated as dB. On this chart [visual aid—Chart A] I display some data compiled by OSHA (which stands for Occupational Safety and Health Administration) to give you an idea of the decibel levels of some different sources of noise. For instance, right now I’m probably talking to you at about a 62-decibel level. As you see, that’s a little bit louder than a conversation, yet it’s lower than freeway traffi c noise. If you own a convert-ible and you’re driving down a freeway with the top down, the noise level would probably be around 95 dB. And if you’ve ever fi red a gun, the magnitude of the noise could have been as great as 140 decibels.

In this introduction, Patrick gains atten-tion and builds his own credibility by mentioning the re-search he has done and his own experi-ence. Though there is not an formal statement of his thesis or preview of his exact points, it is clear what he is going to cover in his speech.

Fine examples here of using the de-vices of familiarity and immediacy to gain his audience’s attention.



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Basically anything over 90 decibels can be damaging to the ears, so all of us need to be aware of the noise level around us. Surprisingly enough, even the government cares about our ears. In the workplace, the Department of Labor, or specifi -cally OSHA, is charged with monitoring the environment that we work in. In a work setting where the noise level is around 85 decibels, the employee must be provided with hearing pro-tection devices and/or rest periods. The requirement of a rest period makes an important point about how noise affects our hearing. The overall risk of damage is based on the inter action between the intensity of the sound and the duration of the exposure. That’s what this other chart [visual aid—Chart B] shows you. These are the lengths of time that OSHA says that it’s safe to be exposed to various sound levels. Notice that if you work in an environment that’s around 90 decibels, you could be in that area for a period of eight hours. But look at the last line here. If you’re where the noise level is 120 decibels, you should only be in that room or environment for seven and a half minutes. Now most concerts—referring back to this fi rst chart—play at around 120 decibels. And everyone knows that a concert doesn’t last for seven and a half minutes! It’s usually more like two hours. So you can imagine what kind of damage is being done to your ears.

Even everyday things like driving your car with the win-dow rolled down can produce a little bit of hearing loss. The ear that is closest to the window suffers a slight hearing loss just due to wind noise and road noise. Listening to your Walkman with the headphones on could produce up to 110 decibels, and that’s pretty much equivalent to an auto horn three feet away. When you see people around campus with their Walkmans blasting they may think that they are acting real cool, but what they’re actually doing is ruining the “hair cells” in their inner ears. That brings me to a real simple and brief explanation of how ears react to the different noises or sounds.

According to Dr. Maurice Miller of Lenox Hill Hospital, we have 20,000 hair cells in our cochlea, the spiral, fl uid-fi lled tube in our inner ear. It’s from the nerve endings here that the sounds we perceive get transmitted to our brain. When the sound reaches this part of the ear, it sweeps across the hair cells,

Patrick makes a clear transition from the harms of noise to a more technical explana-tion of how our hearing works.



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and if the sound is intense enough the hair cells in your ear can bend or collapse. If the noise is really intense, the sound can either stiffen or permanently incapacitate the hair cells. Right now you are thinking, “Oh, yeah, well, if I have 20,000 of these hair cells, I can lose a couple here and there, right?” In fact, if you lose just a small number of them, you’ll begin to notice a difference in your performance in hearing. But, your ears are kind of nice because they give you a warning sign to let you know whether you’re in an environment that’s too loud. You’ll get that ringing sensation in your ears that most of you said you have experienced. It’s called tinnitus.

This ringing sensation can last for an indefi nite amount of time: It all depends on how severely your ears were exposed to a loud volume. So, if you’re lucky enough, the ringing will soon be gone. The range of sounds that you can hear, or your auditory threshold, has returned to its normal level. The medi-cal term for what you have experienced is Temporary Thresh-old Shift or TTS. But, if you’re not so lucky and you don’t re-cover from the hearing loss in from seven to fourteen days, you’ve probably lost some of the hair cells in your ear. If the threshold of what you can hear is irreversibly altered then you suffer from Permanent Threshold Shift, which is called PTS.

Permanent hearing losses are of two main types: conduc-tive loss or sensorineural damage. An article written by Lee Silverman in Audio magazine explains the difference. The fi rst, conductive loss, has to do with how well the sounds are passed through the outer and middle ear. But sensorineural loss affects the nerve endings in the inner ear, and that’s the kind of problem I just described to you when hair cells get damaged. Sensorineural hearing loss is generally more serious. This is not only a matter of having people talk louder. The actual reception of sounds is limited, not just the way they are conducted through the ear: No matter how loud people talk, you will have trouble discriminating the sounds. You might not hear the difference between “laugh” and “gaffe” or “cake” and “bake.” Even more distressing than any cake and bake confusion is not being able to tell the difference between the sounds coming from the dishwasher, the TV, and a person talking to you.

The technique of having an imagi-nary dialogue with your audience members, based on what they are probably thinking, is a way to incor-porate style and create a sense of participation.

Here Patrick is defi ning terms by contrasting them and by using famil-iar examples.



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In order to prevent words from sounding the same, or from blending into the background, or to avoid tinnitus, every one of you should be aware of the noise levels around you. It helps to remember the general decibel levels of these noise sources from this chart and to relate those to the lengths of time that it is safe to be exposed to various levels, indicated over here. If you work in a place that is dangerously noisy, that is a problem for OSHA. But they cannot monitor levels or enforce standards outside the workplace. It’s up to us as individuals to be really careful when participating in recreational activities such as drag racing or listening to amplifi ed music. The hearing loss I have is not too bad, but it could have been avoided. I hope you remember that your ears are a very delicate part of your body and that once you lose your hearing you can’t get it back. So don’t take it for granted.

ETHANOL PRODUCTION PLANT

POWERPOINT SLIDES FOR A TECHNICAL PRESENTATION BY KHE DINH

Slide 1



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This slide helps in providing the logi-cal orientation of a speech introduc-tion. With this as a roadmap, the listeners can bet-ter assimilate new information as Khe presents it.

A good, simple slide that defi nes the project at a high level and is not meant to be a “read-along” for Khe’s speech as she elaborates on the process description.

Slide 2

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Slide 6

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The Proposed Schematic slide demonstrates one potential problem with importing graphics from another source. In this case, the object callouts are in a font too small to read easily when projected, although they might have been fi ne in a printed document. Also, this schematic is a black-and-white two-dimensional illustration, but the earlier schematic in slide 5 of the con-ventional process, having some of the same components, is in color and is three-dimensional. The relationship between the two illustrations would be more immedi-ately clear if they both had been pro-duced to the same specifi cations.

Slide 8

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Like the previous slide, the Block Flow Diagram slide has a read-ability problem as a result of using an imported image. In this instance, it probably would have been better to recreate the fl ow diagram us-ing the shapes and drawing tools available in the pre-sentation software application.

This slide is par-ticularly useful because it presents dense data that the listeners might have trouble fol-lowing if they only heard it. Being able to see the num-bers and compare them makes them more meaningful and memorable. However, this could have been more effective if the material had been spread over three slides, one for the plant and tank in-formation, one for the starting materi-als, and one for the end products. With each slide then being less visually busy, the numbers would be easier to read.

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Having an Ac-knowledgments slide is a nice touch: Khe can graciously thank her contributors and support her credibility at the same time.

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OVERCONSUMPTION OF SUGAR

PERSUASIVE SPEECH BY HANS ERIAN

General Purpose: To persuade

Specifi c Purpose: To persuade my audience that overconsump-tion of sugar is contributing to obesity and related diseases, but something can be done about it.

Central Idea: Too much sugar can lead to obesity and Type II diabetes, but national awareness, plus personal commitment to good health, can help.

Introduction

I. Fifteen-year-old Arnold Scott weighed 300 pounds; he developed symptoms that led to a diagnosis of Type II diabetes.

A. Type II diabetes, usually associated with adults, is increasing among children and leaving them vulner-able to blindness, heart and kidney disease, and stroke at ages as young as 30 (Newsday).

B. Dr. Barbara Lindner of the National Institute of Dia-betes, Digestive Diseases, and Kidney Diseases linked the rise in diabetes to a rise in obesity, and obesity is on the rise because of sugar.

1. The Nationwide News of August 21, 2001, reported that, of the ten most-bought foods bought at the supermarket, most are sugar-fi lled junk foods.

2. A Georgetown University study showed that 25 per-cent of adult calories come from sugar; for kids, it’s closer to 50 percent.

II. The average person in this room consumes about 125–150 pounds of sugar per year.

A. Consumer Reports on Health of August 2001 says that increases in blood sugar levels lead to increases in disease and death.

B. Americans are consuming too much unhealthy sugar without realizing it.

III. Today we will explore two major causes of sugar over-consumption, then we’ll examine negative effects, and fi nally we’ll look at ways to nationally and personally deal with the problem.

It is common to assume that evidence belongs in the body of the speech. Generally, it’s true that statis-tics and quotations are given to sup-port some specifi c point and therefore come in after a speaker is into the part of the speech where the points are spelled out. It’s frustrating to hear a lot of evidence without knowing what the speaker is trying to prove. However, in this case, Hans uses a couple of statistics right after his com-pelling opening story in order to orient the audience to the seriousness of the problem. Then, he state his thesis and previews his points.



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Body

I. The two main reasons for increased consumption of sugar are ignorance and increased consumption of soda pop.

A. The FDA and the sugar association have been fi ght-ing a linguistic tug-of-war since about 1970 over the defi nition of sugar.

1. Fructose is the good sugar, the kind found natu-rally in fruit.

2. Bad sugar, the kind in most foods, comes under names like sucrose, dextrose, and high fructose corn syrup, which may be confusing because of the word “fructose” in it.

3. Common items in local stores can lead to confusion.

a. Here’s a cranberry-tangerine juice drink that we’d expect to be healthy, but the second ingre-dient is high-fructose corn syrup.

b. Wheaties ingredients include whole wheat, sugar—and also corn sugar and brown sugar, other bad sugars; can this be the breakfast of champions?

B. The second reason is the increased consumption of soda.

1. Coca Cola contains sucrose and has about 10 tea-spoons of sugar per pint.

2. The consumption of soda increased by 43 percent to 85 gallons per year since 1987; that’s 555 cans an-nually for every American (San Jose Mercury News).

Transition: Now that we’ve seen the increased use of sugar be-cause of ignorance and soda pop, we will see the negative ef-fects this is having on our health.

II. This amount of sugar is having a negative impact on our health.

A. There is convincing new evidence between weight gain in children and the consumption of soda pop (New York Times).

1. Obesity is directly linked to soda pop consump-tion, regardless of the amount of food you eat or lack of exercise.

Observe that defi -nitions are crucial not just with tech-nical or unusual terms but with common everyday terms like sugar. Hans sets a clear foundation us to understand the rest of his speech.

While watching the video of this speech, notice how clearly Hans’ transitions, though brief, lead us along through this rapid-fi re speech.

Hans always gives a claim that he is setting forth and then provides evidence. There’s lots of data in this speech, but it’s not just spewed forth: Hans always an-chors it to a point he is developing.



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2. Perhaps this is because the body has trouble adapt-ing to intense concentrations of sugar taken in liquid form.

B. Obesity is linked to many diseases, including high blood pressure, high cholesterol, and heart disease, as well as cancer and diabetes.

1. Obesity is now considered the number-two killer in the United States because it causes cancer and other problems.

a. Obese people are 70 percent more likely to get pancreatic cancer, which has a 95 percent mortality rate (New York Times).

b. The U.S. Department of Health links it to post-menopausal breast cancer and colon cancer.

2. Obesity is linked to diabetes. a. Since 1991, adult obesity has increased by

60 percent and the percentage of overweight kids has doubled (Hartford Courant).

b. Children and adolescents are developing Type II diabetes, a disease associated with people over 45 years of age.

c. Dr. Gerald Bernstein predicts that, if left un-checked, there will be 500 million diabetics worldwide in 25 years, leading to a tidal wave of suffering and an avalanche of health-care bills.

Transition: Now that we see that Americans are consuming too much sugar and it’s destroying our health, we need to decrease our sugar intake.

III. We can do something on a national and a personal level. A. On a national level, we need to increase our aware-

ness and decrease soda pop consumption. 1. Kelly Brownwell, director of Yale University’s Eat-

ing and Weight Disorders, recommends regulation of ads aimed at children to provide equal time for nutritional and pro-exercise messages.

2. She also suggests changing the price of foods to make healthier foods less expensive than sugar-laden ones.

Because this speech uses so much evidence, Hans has made a real effort to intro-duce it smoothly into his sentences and also to avoid always using the same terms, such as “according to. . . .” In the video for this speech, Hans uses the phrase “affi rms this claim” here. Such phrasing adds in-terest and variety.

Here is a case of a speaker using both an internal summary of the two points he has covered and an internal preview of two upcoming points. Such sign-posting is essen-tial in a complex and data-backed speech like this.



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3. Schools could disable the school vending ma-chines during class time, strip them of sweets, or put a new tax on them, which may discourage students from buying sweets (New York Times).

4. We might also impose a tax on soft drinks in general.

Transition: These are just a few ways to provide incentives for people to get healthy and eat less sugar.

B. We would like to have someone else help us get healthy, but what is really needed is a personal com-mitment to health.

1. Start off slow and follow Dr. Robert Owen’s advice; he wrote Optimum Wellness, and he suggests you have dessert a few times a week or a can of pop a couple of times a week.

2. In fact, the World Health Organization suggested that up to 10 percent of calories can come from sugar, but try to stick to healthy sugars.

3. In addition, be a label reader.

Conclusion

I. Now that we have looked at the misconceptions regard-ing sugar and what they lead to, you can decrease your sugar intake.

II. This will prevent more people from ending up like Ar-nold Scott, who must take insulin injections just to stay alive.

RAIN FORESTS ARE IN NEED OF DEFENSE

OUTLINE FOR A PERSUASIVE SPEECH WITH PRESENTATION AIDS BY KAREN MCNEIL

General Purpose: To persuade.

Specifi c Purpose: To persuade the audience that the tropical rain forests are important to the world in many ways, that they are being threatened with destruction, and that people

Though Hans has a lively and expressive style of delivery and generally makes good use of gestures, some may seem a little forced. Pantomiming “tug of war” seems less spontaneous, perhaps creating an impression of having practiced the speech so many times that he found ways to insert gestures with almost every phrase.



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in the United States have the responsibility and infl uence to protect them.

Primary Audience Outcome: I want the audience to take action to preserve the tropical rain forests.

Contributing Audience Outcomes: I want my audience to:

w understand the importance and beauty of the tropical rain forests

w understand the fragile nature of the rain forests

w realize the threats faced by the rain forests

w be aware of the role of the World Bank

w recognize the U.S. infl uence in the World Bank

w evaluate the impact our behavior has on the global ecology

w read books on the rain forests and ecology

w take classes that increase environmental awareness on the local and the global levels

w boycott products that endanger the rain forest

w support efforts for reform of the World Bank

w stop by the Art Quad today and buy a scoop of Ben and Jerry’s Rainforest Crunch ice cream

Thesis: The continuing and accelerating destruction of the tropical rain forests, due largely to the policies of industrial-ized nations, poses a serious threat to the global environment and community—a threat that must be met by immediate ac-tion from concerned individuals.

Introduction

Attention Getter: “Save the rain forest!” But for what and from whom? The rain forest issue has had great media coverage, and we are all too familiar with this slogan. I’m not sure, though, that we’re actually aware of what is at stake.

Psychological Orientation: I know I wasn’t, even being re-ally concerned about the environmental issues that face this planet, until I came across the orangutan. I’m an anthropol-ogy minor, and this semester I’m taking a class that details the habitats of primates. This is where I got to know more about the orangutan, the threats they face, and what it means to the



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rest of us. Do you know where orangutans live? In the wild, these great apes live on two Indonesian islands: Borneo and Sumatra. Their habitat is exclusively tropical rain forest. They are frugivorous, which means that they rely on fruit as their source of nutrition. Because of this, they need a wide range of habitat to provide them with fruit year-round. Orangutans used to free-range in Southeast Asia, but development has pushed them out of these areas. The primary threat to these animals is habitat destruction, destruction of the tropical rain forests. I was alarmed to see that almost all of the primates live exclusively in tropical rain forests. Suddenly I had a new perspective on what we stand to lose as we continue to destroy these tropical zones.

Logical Orientation: These, then, are the questions that I want to address today: What are we saving when we save the rain for-ests? Who[m] are we saving them from? What can we do that can actually make a difference? First, I’ll briefl y outline the threats to the ecology of the rain forest and then detail some of the investment policies of the World Bank, which is the insti-tution that contributes to major destruction of the tropical rain forests. And then fi nally I have some suggestions of what you can do to ensure the well-being of our planet.

Body

I. Tropical rain forests, important to the well-being of the planet, are being subjected to rampant destruction, with irreversible effects.

A. Rain forests are an important component of the planet.

1. Ecologically complex systems a. Towering forests divided into layers b. More plant and animal species than rest of

world 2. Thousands of tribal groups live there. a. Hunters and gatherers/small agriculture b. Irreplaceable ancient cultures 3. Rain forests affect weather patterns. 4. Economically important a. Rubber, hardwood, food products b. Medicines for heart disease and cancer



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B. Rain forests are in serious danger. 1. They are fragile. a. Need dense canopies to protect inhabitants of

lower layers b. When exposed, laterite soil turns to clay, erodes c. Topsoil swept away, affects rivers d. Damage is irreversible 2. Rain forests are being destroyed. a. By farming, logging, ranching b. Half of world’s rain forests already gone c. 35 million acres a year, size of New York d. Rate of destruction is doubling e. Tribal people powerless to resist II. Short-sighted economic policies of the industrially ad-

vanced countries, carried out through multilateral devel-opment agencies like the World Bank, are responsible for the destruction. [Reveal visual aids #1 and #2.]

A. The World Bank’s policies tend to serve the industri-alized nations.

1. History a. Formed to rebuild after WWII b. Later took on Third World development 2. U.S. plays major role in the World Bank’s policies a. Of the 148 member nations, U.S. funds

20 percent b. President, Barber C. Conable, is U.S. citizen c. Directed by U.S. Department of Treasury and

Congress B. World Bank policies are destructive to the rain forests. 1. Tends to fund huge projects such as hydroelectric

dams 2. Half of its loans have gone to projects that endan-

ger rain forests C. Reforms of World Bank have been suggested. 1. Public access to records 2. Staff should include ecologists 3. Should collaborate with environmental organiza-

tions and representatives of indigenous peoples 4. Should consider more than economic criteria in

selecting projects



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III. Concerned individuals can help save the rain forests through education and collective action.

A. Education is a key to saving the rain forests. 1. Read books 2. Educate children 3. Take courses 4. Travel B. Boycott products that cause destruction to rain

forests. 1. Need to label meat so we can tell if it is “rain

forest beef” 2. Wood from tropical lumber a. Chopsticks from light wood could have built

11,000 houses b. List of exotic woods to avoid will be on handout C. Support organizations to save the rain forests. 1. Several national and international groups listed on

handout 2. Campus organization SAFER a. Ice cream social today until 3 at Art Quad b. Ben and Jerry’s Rainforest Crunch saves nut

trees

Conclusion

Logical Closure: Since I began this presentation, 1,000 acres of rain forest have been destroyed or degraded severely. These fragile ecosystems need to be protected; once they’re destroyed they’re gone forever. My studies about the primates intensifi ed my interest in the rain forest because I realized how fragile they are and that these precious creatures have become very close to extinction. It isn’t the Brazilian or Malaysian or In-donesian farmers who pose the real threat to these areas. It is the governments of the developed countries in cooperation with multinational development banks that initiate large proj-ects and create real havoc in these areas. As Americans we contribute to the problem in a number of ways. As we drive the world market through our obsessive consumption, we en-tangle developing nations in outrageous debts. As American taxpayers we’re helping to fund the World Bank’s destructive policies through the taxes we pay. There are other organiza-



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tions worldwide that we could support, groups that are com-mitted to grassroots development. These smaller projects often are far more benefi cial to the local people in other countries. The only way that we can hope to get a realistic picture of this problem is through education and involvement.

Psychological Closure: We can no longer afford to think merely on a local or national level. We must learn to think on a global level and feel that the well being of humanity and this planet is a responsibility we all share. Although the problem is a huge one, we as individuals should not feel powerless.

Clincher: By taking even a small step, you can begin to make a difference. Please, don’t wait. Take a step now.

REFERENCES

Durning, A. “Cradles of Life.” Worldwatch, May–June 1989, 30–40.

Lewis, S. The Rainforest Book. Venice, CA: Living Planet Press, 1990.

Myers, N. (ed.) Gaia: An Atlas of Planet Management. New York: Doubleday, 1984.

Rich, B. “Multilateral Development Banks and Tropical Deforestation.” In Lessons of the Rainforest, edited by Suzanne Head and Robert Heinzman. San Francisco: Sierra Club Books, 1990. 118–130.

Survival International. “Financing Ecological Destruction.” N.p., n.d.

VISUAL AIDS

Visual Aid #1 (mounted on board and placed on easel)

*Avoid buying tropical lumber products unless you can be sure they are not endangered species and have been logged using sustainable methods. The following tropical hardwoods all come from rain forests:*

Apitong BubingaBanak CocoboloBocote Cordia



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Ebony PaduakGoncalo avles PurpleheartGreenheart RaminIroko RosewoodJelutang SatinwoodKoa TeakLauan VirolaMahogany WengeMeranti Zebrawood

From The Rainforest Book, page 89

Visual Aid #2 (mounted on board and placed on easel)

*Organizations involved in saving tropical rain forests:*

GREENPEACE, 1436 U St. NW, Washington, DC 20009

CULTURAL SURVIVAL, 11 Divinity Ave., Cambridge, MA 02138

WORLD WILDLIFE FUND/CONSERVATION FOUNDA-TION, 1250 24th St. NW, Washington, DC 20037

SURVIVAL INTERNATIONAL USA, 2121 Decatur Pl. NW, Washington, DC 20037

RAINFOREST ACTION NETWORK, 301 Broadway, Suite A, San Francisco, CA 94133

from The Rainforest Book, page 89

RAIN FORESTS ARE IN NEED OF DEFENSE

PERSUASIVE SPEECH WITH PRESENTATION AIDS BY KAREN MCNEIL

“Save the rain forest!” But for what and from whom? The rain forest issue has had great media coverage, and we are all too familiar with this slogan. I’m not sure, though, that we’re ac-tually aware of what is at stake. I know I wasn’t, even being really concerned about the environmental issues that face this planet, until I came across the orangutan. I’m an anthropol-ogy minor, and this semester I’m taking a class that details the



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habitats of primates. This is where I got to know more about the orangutan, the threats they face, and what it means to the rest of us.

Do you know where orangutans live? In the wild, these great apes live on two Indonesian islands: Borneo and Suma-tra. Their habitat is exclusively tropical rain forest. They are frugivorous, which means that they rely on fruit as their source of nutrition. Because of this, they need a wide range of habi-tat to provide them with fruit year-round. Orangutans used to free-range in Southeast Asia, but development has pushed them out of these areas. The primary threat to these animals is habitat destruction, destruction of the tropical rain forests. I was alarmed to see that almost all of the primates live exclu-sively in tropical rain forests. Suddenly I had a new perspective on what we stand to lose as we continue to destroy these tropi-cal zones.

These, then, are the questions that I want to address today: What are we saving when we save the rain forests? Who are we saving them from? What can we do that can actually make a difference? First, I’ll briefl y outline the threats to the ecology of the rain forest and then detail some of the investment poli-cies of the World Bank, which is the institution that contrib-utes to major destruction of the tropical rain forests. And then fi nally I have some suggestions of what you can do to ensure the well-being of our planet.

To understand the seriousness of the current threat to the rain forests, we need to recognize what they represent ecologi-cally, culturally, and economically. These elaborate ecosys-tems are a kaleidoscope of biological diversity. The vegetation in these towering forests is divided into dozens of layers, each of which provides a distinct habitat for different plants and animals, literally thousands of species. Within the tropical belt that circles the equator there exist more plant and animal spe-cies than in the rest of the world combined! The rain forests are also home to millions of indigenous people. Thousands of tribal groups exist in rain forests throughout the world. Most of these peoples live as hunters and gatherers or they conduct small agricultural projects that fi t the cycle of the land. Their centuries-old cultural practices have grown up in harmony

Karen has estab-lished interest and a sense of the signifi cance of her topic, and she has given the audience some sense of her own passion for the subject. Having fulfi lled these fi rst two functions of the introduction, she next moves to a specifi c preview of the main points she will cover in the body of the speech.



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with their environment. Another value of the rain forests is the important role they play in our weather patterns, both locally and globally. In fact, they are often referred to as the lungs of our planet. Economically, these regions are a bountiful source of rubber, hardwood, food products, and essential medicines for heart disease and cancer.

Although lush, these ecosystems are really quite fragile. Similar to the old-growth forests that run from the northern part of our state up through the Pacifi c Northwest, these in-terdependent biological systems took centuries to develop. Without the constant renewal of the protective overgrowth and dense canopies the inhabitants of the lower levels—plants, animals, birds—die from exposure to the sun. The laterite soil on which the forests are built turns to clay and erodes quickly when cleared, as many farmers and ranchers are beginning to discover. Topsoil is swept away by fl oods. Sediment fl ows into the rivers and affects fi shing. Most of the damage is irrevers-ible. You can see why deforestation for farming, ranching, and logging has such a devastating effect.

Yet it goes on, and worsens, even as we speak. To give you some sense of the scope and urgency of the situation, let me cite some statistics from The Rainforest Book by Scott Lewis. Half of the earth’s rain forests have already been destroyed. Thirty-fi ve million acres a year are eliminated. That’s an area the size of New York State gone forever. The rates of deforesta-tion have doubled in the last decade and they are continuing to rise. In the name of progress, the industrialized Western world destroys these irreplaceable plants and animals. It alters the environment of the region and the climate of the world. It wipes out indigenous cultures of rain forest peoples with-out even realizing the rich traditions that they have to offer us. These tribal people are not in a position to resist change that others defi ne as progress. Imagine what it would be like if you had to defend your own home against lawyers of a multi-national logging fi rm. Would you have any chance of win-ning? If it would be an uphill fi ght for someone like you, think what it would be like for someone from a community that has no grounding in Western-style law and that has no connection to the Western economic system [visual aids #1 and #2].



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Profi ts are the major factor that lead to rain forest destruc-tion. My next point highlights the destructive investment practices that lead to environmental ruin. One investment in-stitution that can be credited with funding a majority of the environmental devastation is the World Bank. After World War II the world community assembled the World Bank to help war-torn countries rebuild. After they completed that work, they turned to the Third World. The Rainforest Action Net-work of San Francisco argues that the World Bank has turned the Third World into a resource colony for the Western indus-trialized nations. The World Bank has become a power that dictates what’s developed and created by countries—and also even at times how governments treat their own people. The World Bank is an organization that is funded by money that is borrowed on international markets and also money contrib-uted by 148 member nations. The United States is the most in-fl uential of these members: We have 20 percent of the overall vote. The president of the World Bank, Barber C. Conable, is a United States citizen. U.S. members of the World Bank are given direction by the United States Department of Treasury and the Congress. The money the United States supplies to the World Bank comes from the taxpayers. The World Bank pre-fers to fi nance huge megaprojects: hydroelectric dams, massive relocations and resettlements, agricultural and industrial proj-ects that involve building roads into areas that have previously been inaccessible. Bruce Rich of the Environmental Defense Fund states that over half of the loans given by the World Bank and its three regional counterparts in recent years has gone to support projects in sectors that can seriously affect tropical for-ests. Survival International, an organization that advocates the rights of tribal people and serves as a watchdog of the World Bank, makes these recommendations for the bank’s reform. First, they want public access to all information regarding the bank’s projects. They want the World Bank’s staff to include people that are trained in ecology as well as in socioeconomic analysis. Systematic involvement of organizations representing the environment and indigenous people should be a part of all projects. The bank should increase its proportion of ecologi-cally benefi cial programs. These Survival International rec-

The next section of the speech contains a dense discussion of the statistical signifi -cance of the threat she is discussing and also lays out the rather complex political and eco-nomic forces that contribute to the problem. It is an ideal point to use a visual aid to pro-vide structure and clarity for all the information packed into this section.



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ommendations refl ect their analysis that the World Bank has been developing projects solely on economic criteria without regarding or understanding the environmental effects of their actions. If you’re shocked that these practices continue, and with our country’s support, I’m glad. I want you to see how important it is that we understand these issues. I have some recommendations that I want you to consider adopting in your own lives.

My suggestions begin with learning more about this com-plex problem and then taking action both individually and collectively. Education is the key to bringing about change. Read some of the books that discuss the rain forest. Here is one concise (and inexpensive) one: The Rainforest Book by Scott Lewis, published in 1990. Share your knowledge about envi-ronmental subjects with children and support them as they try to make sense of these issues. Take some classes that are of-fered here at San Jose State that promote a global perspective on environmental issues. For instance, I know that many of you are communication studies majors or minors. You might be especially interested in a course that Dr. Dennis Jaehne will be offering next fall called Communication and the Envi-ronment. I took it the fi rst time it was offered and it was excel-lent! Whenever you possibly can, travel to other countries and see for yourself what’s going on. I’ve traveled four times around the world, and I wouldn’t trade those experiences for anything. It’s one thing to understand intellectually that our industrially advanced lifestyle and Western values are not universal. But it becomes meaningful in a different way when you have the chance to experience fi rsthand the incredible diversity of this planet. You realize how privileged we are in terms of material goods and political freedom. Yet you also see that there are places in this world of unbelievable physical beauty and cul-tures of such depth and richness that they must be preserved and cherished. Travel, especially off the beaten path of the usual tourist spots, really dramatizes the choices before those of us who live in rich and powerful societies. We can either expand our consumerism more and more by exploiting other parts of the world or we can start evaluating the impact of our economic policies on the rest of the world. Through educa-

In the four sections that follow, Karen provides very concrete steps that listeners can take, and she is specifi c enough that it is easy for them to take actions. This is a particularly ef-fective persuasive strategy if you be-lieve that you have a favorably inclined audience.



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tion, as you continue to learn about how we are all complicit in the problems of the rain forest, you will want to take some direct action. There are several ways to do this.

First, you can boycott products that are known to cause de-struction of the rain forest. A typical four-ounce fast-food ham-burger that’s been made from “rain forest beef” took 55 square feet of rain forest to produce. Is one hamburger worth that destruction? We can insist on clearer labeling of meat so that we know where it comes from. Disposable chopsticks are of-tentimes made from tropical timber, or in some cases whole stands of rain forest are cleared to plant trees that produce a color of wood more popular for chopsticks. In 1979 Japan used enough disposable chopsticks to build 11,000 timber-frame family dwellings. You can imagine what those statistics would be today. You may not use many chopsticks, but you can be aware of the exotic wood products that are being stripped from these regions. I’ve included a list of these woods on a handout that I’ll give you in a few minutes.

Next, you can support organizations that are involved with saving the rain forest. I’ve listed several of them on the same handout. It is only through collective action in organized groups like these that we have any chance of infl uencing the policies of government and of the World Bank. The decision makers will continue to listen to business interests unless we show them how many of us there are that value long-term so-cial and environmental goals over short-term material gains.

Finally, I encourage you all to stop by the Art Quad be-fore 3 o’clock today and buy a scoop of Rainforest Crunch ice cream. Representatives of Ben and Jerry’s Ice Cream are going to be here today, and they are going to donate the proceeds of the ice cream sales to SAFER, Students Affi liated for Environ-mental Respect, the campus environmental group. Rainforest Crunch is made from Brazil nuts, thus making it advantageous for the trees in at least one rain forest to be left standing. You’ll fi nd the address of the Rainforest Action Network printed on every carton of Rainforest ice cream they sell. This is just one example of how business organizations can take steps to be socially responsible while still making a profi t and offering a quality product.

The attention fac-tors of familiarity and proximity are used extensively in this speech as Karen mentions particular classes, faculty mem-bers, and campus events. And ice cream!



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Since I began this presentation, 1,000 acres of rain forest have been destroyed or degraded severely. These fragile eco-systems need to be protected; once they’re destroyed they’re gone forever. My studies about the primates intensifi ed my interest in the rain forest because I realized how fragile they are and that these precious creatures have become very close to extinction. It isn’t the Brazilian or Malaysian or Indonesian farmers who pose the real threat to these areas. It is the govern-ments of the developed countries in cooperation with multina-tional development banks that initiate large projects and create real havoc in these areas. As Americans we contribute to the problem in a number of ways. As we drive the world market through our obsessive consumption, we entangle developing nations in outrageous debts. As American taxpayers we’re help-ing to fund the World Bank’s destructive policies through the taxes we pay. There are other organizations worldwide that we could support, groups that are committed to grassroots devel-opment. These smaller projects often are far more benefi cial to the local people in other countries. The only way that we can hope to get a realistic picture of this problem is through education and involvement. We can no longer afford to think merely on a local or national level. We must learn to think on a global level and feel that the well being of humanity and this planet is a responsibility we all share. Although the problem is a huge one, we as individuals should not feel powerless. By taking even a small step, you can begin to make a difference. Please, don’t wait. Take a step now.

WHAT YOU CAN DO FOR THE HOMELESS

PERSUASIVE SPEECH BY MICHELLE ZAJAC

We see them everywhere—they walk up and down our street corners carrying all of their possessions in a plastic bag or shop-ping cart, and they commonly live under our large freeways. “They” are the homeless, the less fortunate, those that can-not afford the many luxuries that most of us are blessed with. Sadly, we pass by their worn, sun-beaten faces that silently cry

The conclusion of this speech reiterates the seriousness of the problem and reminds the listen-ers that, although it is an interna-tional problem, the United States bears special re-sponsibilities. She ends, as a good persuasive speech often should, with a direct appeal for action.

Michelle starts her speech with a vivid description of a scene that must be familiar to her audience.



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for help each day. Most of us will look the other way and pre-tend that we didn’t notice their presence because we feel that we can’t make a difference.

I stand before you this afternoon to analyze and solve a dual problem our society is constantly faced with—homeless-ness, and the idea that many do not think they can make a difference.

Brothers and sisters, surely you and I cannot change the entire world. That would be an impossible goal! But, you and I can change the world of one life!

In the next few minutes, I am going to share some his-tory, facts, and causes of homelessness so that we may under-stand the best solution to the problem, and in return make a difference.

What is homelessness? “It is the condition of people who have no permanent place to stay. Millions of people in the world today are homeless, and millions more are considered to be in a state of ‘relative homelessness.’” Although people that are labeled under this category do have a place to live, their housing may not protect them from weather, have clean water, sanitation, or personal safety (World Book Encyclopedia, 2003). “People have long experienced homelessness because of war, political unrest, fi res, or such natural disasters as earthquakes, hurricanes, and fl oods. Since 1900, changes in the availability of jobs have been major causes of homelessness” (World Book Encyclopedia, 2003).

Up to 600,000 men, women, and children go homeless every night in the United States alone (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services). One out of four homeless peo-ple will be a homeless child (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services). Families with children are now the fastest-growing group of the homeless population, being 40 percent of the people who become homeless each year. This percentage has increased by 150 percent since 1985 (Facts and Statistics). More than 33 million people in the United States do not have access to enough food to meet their basic needs (Food Bank of the Rockies).

According to the World Book Encyclopedia, the three

Notice that Michelle often uses movement from one spot to another to signal a transition to a new point. Movement also releases energy and provides emphasis to an important idea.

Michelle is a very expressive and animated speaker. Even though she is dealing with a serious topic, she smiles at her memory of being caught in the rain. She uses facial expression and gestures to portray her sincerity and the depth of her passion for the topic of her speech.



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main causes of homelessness in the United States are poverty, joblessness, and a shortage of affordable housing.

Metropolitan Ministries also suggest the following causes of homelessness: low-paying job, limited life skills, domestic violence, physical and mental health-care needs, drug and al-cohol addiction, and insuffi cient education.

I wanted to curse the rain just the other day. I was walk-ing to school and my body and feet were soaking wet from the pouring rain. It was terribly windy, and shivery cold. As I felt sorry for my saturated self, I noticed a man on the street corner of downtown. He was much wetter than I, for he was probably soaking up the rain since it fi rst started—45 days ago. He smelled bad, and it looked like he hadn’t taken a shower in months. He sat there, hunched over, numb to all that was around him. I’m sure he was cold too.

What can we do about this? Unfortunately, you and I may not be able to give everyone a job or bless them with a home, which were some of the main causes of homelessness. We as humans cannot fi x all problems. But, there are many things that we can do; the thing that we must make sure of is that we must do something. Surely we can supply someone with ba-sic needs to help them through their daily survival. A solution that I personally feel is benefi cial and helpful to those in need is a “care package.”

It can be anything you want it to be, whether it is a col-lection of store-bought items or things that you have laying around your house. It could cost you virtually nothing if you rummage through your home!

Some things that can be included in package: hygiene items such as toothbrush, deodorant, nail clippers, soap, or shampoo and conditioner. A fi rst-aid kit can come in handy. Nonperishable foods are always a necessity of life (grab that old veggie can in your cabinet that is just collecting dust!). Blankets and sweatshirts can also be most helpful in the win-ter and even on summer nights; it can get uncomfortably cold in the evening!

Above everything, we all need love. Make them feel like they do have value. Take the extra time to write a small note

An explicit transi-tion would help tie these two sections together.

This brief anec-dote illustrates the attention device of familiarity and the motivational appeal of pathos, appeals to the core value of compas-sion, and estab-lishes credibility by showing concern. Speakers are well advised to take time to craft ex-amples that serve multiple functions.

These concrete examples make it easier for her audi-ence to take action. This is especially important with an audience who is favorable to your general position but may not be suffi ciently moti-vated to act.



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inside your care box. Enclose a fl ier that gives the location of the closest shelters and food banks in the area.

How does this care package eliminate the causes? The care package does not get rid of the causes of homeless exactly, but it does help them through daily struggles.

w It gives the homeless the basic needs to survive. (Giving something else like money can promote the wrong needs, such as alcohol or drug addiction.)

w It shows the homeless an act of kindness and love, some-thing they may not see often.

w It allows the homeless to communicate with others (us) and feel better connected with society.

w Lastly, it makes us as givers feel important, and more satis-fi ed with our lives. It will prove to us that we did make a difference, which is the best feeling in the world.

How is this care package workable and practical? It is easy to put together. To create my care package, it only took 10 min-utes of my time.

It is inexpensive to put together. All of the items that I used were things from my house that I’ve gotten for free, or will probably never use. It is a safe way for you to help another. You don’t even have to leave your car! Keep one underneath the passenger seat, so when you are driving around and you see a homeless individual pacing up and down the center di-vide, take a moment to reach over and offer him/her your box. You don’t even need to open your driver’s door; simply hand the individual your gift through the window.

How you can get involved: Start rummaging through your house for bags and old boxes, and start fi lling them up with items you no longer have use for.

You can donate your package to shelters or churches that promote helping the homeless. There are probably dozens of places in your area that can deliver your gift to someone in need, making it very convenient for you. Donate it to my church, Lincoln Glen Church! I’m in the midst of promoting the idea to our college group, so you know that your care pack-age will be in good hands.

Notice that this speech addresses two of the “stock issues” of a problem solution speech. It shows that the solution will actually solve the problem that was developed and it justifi es the practicality of the proposed action.



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In the last few minutes I have shared with you about homelessness (the history, facts, and causes) and that we truly can make a difference in their lives! I’ve also shared with you how easy it is to help—such as making a care package like this one!

Please, do not let another day go by without rummaging through your kitchen and bedroom drawers to collect items that you don’t want, use or need. Don’t wait, because for them, tomorrow might be too late.



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482

SPEECHES BY SPEECHES BY PUBLIC FIGURESPUBLIC FIGURES

WOMEN’S RIGHTS ARE HUMAN RIGHTS

BY HILLARY RODHAM CLINTON, UNITED STATES SENATOR

Mrs. Mongella, Under Secretary Kittani, distinguished del-egates and guests:

I would like to thank the Secretary General of the United Nations for inviting me to be a part of the United Nations Fourth World Conference of Women. This is truly a celebra-tion—a celebration of the contributions women make in every aspect of life: in the home, on the job, in their communities, as mothers, wives, sisters, daughters, learners, workers, citizens and leaders.

It is also a coming together, much of the way women come together ever day in every country.

We come together in fi elds and in factories. We come to-gether in village markets and supermarkets. We come together in living rooms and board rooms.

Whether it is while playing with our children in the park, or washing clothes in a river, or taking a break at the offi ce water cooler, we come together and talk about our aspirations and concern. And time and again, our talk turns to our chil-dren and our families. However different we may be, there is far more that unites us than divides us. We share a common future, and are here to fi nd common ground so that we may



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Speeches by Public Figures 483

help bring new dignity and respect to women and girls all over the world. By doing this, we bring new strength and stability to families as well.

By gathering in Beijing, we are focusing world attention on issues that matter most in the lives of women and their families: access to education, health care, jobs and credit, the chance to enjoy basic legal and human rights and participate fully in the political life of their countries.

There are some who question the reason for this con-ference.

Let them listen to the voices of women in their homes, neighborhoods, and workplaces.

There are some who wonder whether the lives of women and girls matter to economic and political progress around the globe.

Let them look at the women gathered here and at Huai-rou—the homemakers, nurses, teachers, lawyers, policymakers, and women who run their own businesses.

It is conferences like this that compel governments and people everywhere to listen, look, and face the world’s most pressing problems.

Wasn’t it after the women’s conference in Nairobi ten years ago that the world focused for the fi rst time on the crisis of domestic violence?

Earlier today, I participated in a World Health Organiza-tion forum where government offi cials, NGOs, and individual citizens are working on ways to address the health problems of women and girls.

Tomorrow, I will attend a gathering of the United Nations Development Fund for Women. There, the discussion will fo-cus on local—and highly successful—programs that give hard-working women access to credit so they can improve their own lives and the lives of their families.

What we are learning around the world is that if women are healthy and educated, their families will fl ourish. If women are free from violence, their families will fl ourish. If women have a chance to work and earn as full and equal partners in society, their families will fl ourish.



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And when families fl ourish, communities and nations will fl ourish.

That is why every woman, every man, every child, every family, and every nation on our planet has a stake in the dis-cussion that takes place here.

Over the past 25 years, I have worked persistently on is-sues relating to women, children, and families. Over the past two-and-a half years, I have had the opportunity to learn more about the challenges facing women in my own country and around the world.

I have met new mothers in Indonesia who come together regularly in their village to discuss nutrition, family planning, and baby care.

I have met working parents in Denmark who talk about the comfort they feel in knowing that their children can be cared for in creative, safe, and nurturing after-school centers.

I have met women in South Africa who helped lead the struggle to end apartheid and are now helping build a new democracy.

I have met with the leading women of the Western Hemi-sphere who are working every day to promote literacy and bet-ter health care for the children of their countries.

I have met women in India and Bangladesh who are tak-ing out small loans to buy milk cows, rickshaws, thread, and other materials to create a livelihood for themselves and their families.

I have met doctors and nurses in Belarus and Ukraine who are trying to keep children alive in the aftermath of Chernobyl.

The great challenge of this conference is to give voice to women everywhere whose experiences go unnoticed, whose words go unheard.

Women comprise more than half the word’s population. Women are 70% of the world’s poor, and two thirds of those are not taught to read and write.

Women are the primary caretakers for most of the world’s children and elderly. Yet much of the work we do is not val-ued—not by economists, not by historians, not by popular cul-ture, not by government leaders.

Ms. Clinton builds her credibility by alluding to the special opportuni-ties she has had as fi rst lady but also makes clear that she has feminist credentials of her own that go back far before her husband’s rise to prominence.

Notice the effective use of repetition or anaphora through-out the speech, as exemplifi ed with the repetition of the phrase “I have met . . . ” leading up to this fi nal use of it.



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At this very moment, as we sit here, women around the world are giving birth, raising children, cooking meals, wash-ing clothes, cleaning houses, planting crops, working on as-sembly lines, running companies, and running countries.

Women also are dying from diseases that should have been prevented or treated. They are watching their children succumb to malnutrition caused by poverty and economic deprivation. They are being denied the right to go to school by their own fathers and brothers. They are being forced into prostitution, and they are being barred from the bank lending offi ce and banned from the ballot box.

Those of us who have the opportunity to be here have the responsibility to speak for those who could not.

As an American, I want to speak up for those women in my own country—women who are raising children on the minimum wage, women who can’t afford health care or child care, women whose lives are threatened by violence, including violence in their own homes.

I want to speak up for mothers who are fi ghting for good schools, safe neighborhoods, clean air, and clean airwaves; for older women, some of them widows, who have raised their families and now fi nd their skills and life experiences are not valued in the workplace; for women who are working all night as nurses, hotel clerks, and fast-food cooks so that they can be at home during the day with their kids; and for women every-where who simply don’t have time to do everything they are called upon to do each day.

Speaking to you today, I speak for them, just as each of us speaks for women around the world who are denied the chance to go to school, or see a doctor, or own property, or have a say about the direction of their lives, simply because they are women. The truth is that most women around the world work both inside and outside the home, usually by necessity.

We need to understand that there is no formula for how women should lead their lives.

That is why we must respect the choices that each woman makes for herself and her family. Every woman deserves the chance to realize her own God-given potential.

The style of delivery in this speech is straightforward and moderately animated. The speaker uses no gestures and must speak in a measured tone because of the number of audience members who do not have English as their fi rst language. She also speaks without a teleprompter and refers to her manu-script. Nonetheless, her facial expression shows the depth of her concern for the topic.

Here Senator Clin-ton makes effective use of contrast by fi rst listing a number of posi-tive acts associ-ated with women and then abruptly shifting to the ways women are suffer-ing or oppressed. Also, observe the stylistic device of alliteration using all these words in close succession: being, barred, bank, banned, bal-lot, box.



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We also must recognize that women will never gain full dignity until their human rights are respected and protected.

Our goals for this conference, to strengthen families and societies by empowering women to take greater control over their destinies, cannot be fully achieved unless all govern-ments—here and around the world—accept their responsibil-ity to protect and promote internationally recognized human rights.

The international community has long acknowledged—and recently affi rmed at Vienna—that both women and men are entitled to a range of protections and personal freedoms, from the right of personal security to the right to determine freely the number and spacing of the children they bear.

No one should be forced to remain silent for fear of reli-gious or political persecution, arrest, abuse, or torture.

Tragically, women are most often the ones whose human rights are violated.

Even in the late twentieth century, the rape of women con-tinues to be used as an instrument of armed confl ict. Women and children make up a large majority of the world’s refugees. When women are excluded from the political process, they be-come even more vulnerable to abuse.

I believe that, on the eve of a new millennium, it is time to break our silence. It is time for us to say here in Beijing, and the world to hear, that it is no longer acceptable to discuss women’s rights as separate from human rights.

These abuses have continued because, for too long, the history of women has been a history of silence. Even today, there are those who are trying to silence our words.

The voices of this conference and of the women at Huai-rou must be heard loud and clear:

It is a violation of human rights when babies are denied food, or drowned, or suffocated, or their spines broken, simply because they are born girls.

It is a violation of human rights when woman and girls are sold into the slavery of prostitution.

It is a violation of human rights when women are doused with gasoline, set on fi re, and burned to death because their marriage dowries are deemed too small.

This is clearly the thesis statement of the speech, which is developed with many examples in the following para-graphs.



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It is a violation of human rights when individual women are raped in their own communities and when thousands of women are subjected to rape as a tactic or prize of war.

It is a violation of human rights when a leading cause of death worldwide along women ages 14 to 44 is the violence they are subjected to in their own homes.

It is a violation of human rights when women are denied the right to plan their own families, and that includes being forced to have abortions or being sterilized against their will.

If there is one message that echoes forth from this confer-ence, it is that human rights are women’s rights—and women’s rights are human rights. Let us not forget that among those rights are the right to speak freely—and the right to be heard.

Women must enjoy the right to participate fully in the so-cial and political lives of their countries if we want freedom and democracy to thrive and endure.

It is indefensible that many women in nongovernmental organizations who wished to participate in this conference have not been able to attend—or have been prohibited from fully taking part.

Let me be clear. Freedom means the right of people to as-semble, organize, and debate openly. It means respecting the views of those who may disagree with the views of their gov-ernments. It means not taking citizens away from their loved ones and jailing them, mistreating them, or denying them their freedom or dignity because of the peaceful expression of their ideas and opinions.

In my country, we recently celebrated the 75th anniver-sary of women’s suffrage. It took 150 years after the signing of our Declaration of Independence for women to win the right to vote.

It took 72 years of organized struggle on the part of many courageous women and men. It was one of America’s most di-visive philosophical wars. But it was also a bloodless war. Suf-frage was achieved without a shot being fi red.

We have also been reminded, in V-J Day observances last weekend, of the good that comes when men and women join together to combat the forces of tyranny and build a better world.

The listing of so many violations with a strong emphasis on the word human in each case, culmi-nating in this fi nal use, drives home the point that women’s rights is not a narrow issue of gender.



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We have seen peace prevail in most places for a half-century. We have avoided another world war.

But we have not solved older, deeply rooted problems that continue to diminish the potential of half the world’s population.

Now it is time to act on behalf of women everywhere.If we take bold steps to better the lives of women, we

will be taking bold steps to better the lives of children and families, too.

Families rely on mothers and wives for emotional support and care; families rely on women for labor in the home; and, increasingly, families rely on women for income needed to raise healthy children and care for other relatives.

As long as discrimination and inequities remain so com-monplace around the world—as long as girls and women are valued less, fed less, fed last, overworked, underpaid, not schooled, and subjected to violence in and out of their homes—the potential of the human family to create a peace-ful, prosperous world will not be realized.

Let this Conference be our—and the world’s—call to action.

And let us heed the call so that we can create a world in which every woman is treated with respect and dignity, every boy and girl is loved and cared for equally, and every family has the hope of a strong and stable future.

Thank you very much.May God bless you, your work, and all who will benefi t

from it.

ACCEPTANCE OF THE ESPY AWARD

SPECIAL OCCASION SPEECH BY CATHY FREEMAN, AUSTRALIAN TRACK STAR

On behalf of all Australians and especially my own people, the Aboriginal Australians, please accept my sincere thanks for this unique and exceptional award.

Throughout the speech Sena-tor Clinton often deviated slightly from the prepared manuscript. In this conclusion, she adds several new sentences. Speak-ers can learn from this example that a manuscript is a guideline but that, in the moment of delivery, one should be free to go with word choice that feels natural and phras-ing that is com-fortable to the ca-dence and breath pattern that seems to work best. And it is instructive to note that the mes-sage of the speech was so familiar, both because of her passion for the subject and her practice with the manuscript, that a listener cannot tell when she modifi es the written text somewhat.

Notice that Ms. Freeman made some comments before reaching this introduction of her planned remarks. The comments surely resulted from her deep emotions on actually receiving the honor and on receiving a stand-ing ovation.



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I come from a small but very multicultural, country—we have only about 19 million people but we speak more than 200 languages, which do not count the many distinct tribal languages of my own indigenous people. So, you can appreci-ate that any Australian who excels on the international stage—be it the Olympics or any other form of human endeavor—in-evitably becomes a role model.

That is why I value this award so highly. It fi lls me with both personal and national pride to realize that somewhere out there—perhaps now in Australia—someone is saying, “If Cathy can do it, I can do it.”

The fact that my name has been mentioned in the same breath as the great Arthur Ashe transfers to me, as representa-tive of my people and my sport, both an honor and a great responsibility.

To my family here tonight and those at home—wherever you are in the crowd—I love you and I thank you. I promise you that I will always honor this award, and I accept the full measure of challenge and responsibility that it presents: to continue the legacy of Arthur Ashe.

For myself and for Australia, thank you.

ALL HANDS

BY NORMAN MINETA, FORMER SECRETARY OF THE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION

Thank you, John. Thank you, everybody. Thank you very, very, very much. John, thank you for your great introduction. I always have to be careful, what John’s going to say, since we’ve known each other for such a long period of time and have had a good working relationship over this long period of time.

I am very, very proud to be standing here with our three administrators on the dais, because they are without a doubt a very good working trio of all of our operating administrations.

In one sense, the awkward physical actions and partial sentences seemed to take away from her credibility and clearly illustrated a major introduction pitfall. Yet her spontaneous and fl ustered reaction also seems charming and humble.

Coughs happen! Whether its a sudden tickle of the throat, a dryness of the mouth, or (as in this case) a slight irritation remaining from the tube inserted in a recent surgery, a speaker should handle this distrac-tion with a simple “excuse me.”



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I also want to thank all of your for taking time from your own busy schedules to join us here this afternoon.

This event has been called an “all-hands” meeting. Now, in the maritime tradition, when a commanding offi cer has something of the utmost importance to convey, he then would call all hands to muster and then address the ship’s crew, and that’s what I would like to do today, talk to you about some-thing very vitally important and to make a request of each of you.

I look back at my two-and-a-half years leading this depart-ment and I see how much we have accomplished, how hard we have worked over this period of time. We have fought not one, but two wars. We sent Department of Transportation per-sonnel to every location where those wars were being fought—from Ground Zero to Afghanistan to Iraq—and as I speak to you, we have DOT personnel in Baghdad working to open air-ports, dredge harbors, and retool rail lines.

Now, this is not the agenda that we wrote for ourselves, but it is the one that history has given us, and now it is time to acknowledge that history is calling us to another important task. It is no less important than others that we’ve had, and the stakes are no less signifi cant, and it is the battle, however, to stop the deaths and the injuries on our roads and highways.

Now this is a battle for which many of you have volun-teered. It is one many of you have been fi ghting. For many of you, it is the calling that has brought you to this department, and it is the passion that fuels your work here.

Well, the rest of us are going to join you in that passion, and that calling. This is an all-hands muster, because I want everyone to know in your agencies, in this department, that our top priority for the next 18 months is to use every tool available to reduce death and injury on our highways.

The Department of Transportation has performed mag-nifi cently in providing for the security for Americans traveling. We now have to pivot and shift that energy and passion to pro-viding for the safety of the traveling American.

The mission is very simple: reduce death and injury. The measure of success is just as simple: increase the number of

Secretary Mineta uses a historical defi nition showing what this phrase means by tracing it back to its origins.

Instead of stating his thesis immedi-ately, the speaker builds suspense about what issue can be as impor-tant as the war against terrorism and the war in Iraq.



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people using seatbelts, and reduce the number of impaired drivers.

Now if we do that, we win. If we fail, Americans will con-tinue to die on our nation’s roads in unnecessary and prevent-able crashes.

To accomplish our goal, we must choose to end the accep-tance of death on our roads. More than 40,000 people last year died on our watch. We have newcomers to the statistics of this slaughter try and describe it in a way that startles the listener.

They say, it’s like a 737 crashing every day of the week, or it’s a small American town wiped out every year. Now, while both of those comparisons are tragically true, those of us who have worked on this issue know there is something more in-sidious about this battle. It is the banality of these events that works to defeat our efforts.

It is the every-day, every-minute crash that happens so of-ten, so steadily, that it is no longer newsworthy—except to the people whose lives are devastated.

It is not the drama of a 737 airplane crash every day; it is the crashing of a thousand cars a day. Every day, across the na-tion, the alarm sounds in a thousand fi rehouses. A radio call goes to a thousand police offi cers and the doors to the emer-gency departments and trauma centers swing open thousands of times.

And every day, right this minute, this afternoon, late to-night, a telephone will ring, a doorbell will be rung, a police offi cer will show up at an offi ce or at a home to tell someone that the person they kissed good-bye that morning is not com-ing home ever again.

My colleagues, providence has given us an opportunity to change that history, and if we do our jobs, fewer calls will be made. If we succeed, thousands will never know this pain and headache, and that’s the job that is before us. Excuse me.

We do not fool ourselves into thinking that we can stop all crashes. We accept the reality of our world, where vehicles will crash into one another unintentionally, and people will be killed and people will be injured, but what we do not accept is that people can drive without buckling up or that they can

Notice how power-ful it is to compare the statistics on highway deaths to these catastrophic events.

Secretary Mineta coughs a few more times during this speech, but he never lets it make him—or his audi-ence—uncomfort-able. This is a fi ne example of keeping composure and handling any inter-ruption in a way that does not stop the momentum of the speech.



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drive impaired, and that is something we intend to do some-thing about.

We are going to work to pass laws that require Americans to buckle up. We are going to work on methods and practices that lower the number of impaired drivers. Enforcement works; we’ll support it. We know it works. Excuse me.

And at the same time, we intend to educate drivers to buckle up and to drive sober, and we intend to engineer and use innovative new ways to reduce death and injury on the road. Excuse me.

As someone who’s been in public service for over 40 years, whether as a mayor or as a member of Congress or as a cabinet secretary, I have learned that the team you are working with has but a brief moment to create a legacy for the public that we serve.

Colleagues, let me make this one of our legacies. Let our accomplishment be that we reduce the number of times those fi refi ghters, those troopers, those paramedics, those doctors, and those nurses have to look at another broken body.

Most of you know that I have spent a fair amount of my time in a hospital this past year, and I have seen the pain and the suffering of those unnecessary casualties of car crashes. We can change that. I pledge my remaining time as your sec-retary in helping you fi ght this fi ght.

And I am asking for your commitment, a promise from you to spend your time, and your energy, in this fi ght. It will not be easy. We will not be given every tool there is for this fi ght. We may not be even given the best tools, but that should not stop us, for it cannot stop us because too much is at stake.

Now, I started out these remarks not by coughing, but I did start out these remarks saying that this was an all-hands meeting in the maritime tradition. Let me fi nish my remarks to you by changing that description: This is not an all-hands meeting; it is a call to general quarters: All hands, man your battle stations.

God bless each and every one of you as we begin this fi ght in earnest. God continue to bless the United States of Amer-

This speech is organized in a problem—solution format, and here Secretary Mineta concisely states the two parts of his proposed solution.

This reference to another common military term might be an effective example to use with his audience of government workers. It would probably be less effective with a general audience.

It is effective for the leader of this huge organization to call his subordi-nates colleagues. It unites them in the mission of bringing a halt to the common sce-narios of highway tragedy he previ-ously described.



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ica, and I know that with your commitment and with your en-ergy you will not let this great nation down. Thank you very, very much.

ADDRESS TO THE DEMOCRATIC NATIONAL CONVENTION, 2004

BY BARACK OBAMA, UNITED STATES SENATOR

Thank you so much. Thank you. Thank you. Thank you so much. Thank you so much. Thank you. Thank you. Thank you, Dick Durbin. You make us all proud.

On behalf of the great state of Illinois, crossroads of a na-tion, Land of Lincoln, let me express my deepest gratitude for the privilege of addressing this convention.

Tonight is a particular honor for me because, let’s face it, my presence on this stage is pretty unlikely. My father was a foreign student, born and raised in a small village in Kenya. He grew up herding goats, went to school in a tin-roof shack. His father—my grandfather—was a cook, a domestic servant to the British.

But my grandfather had larger dreams for his son. Through hard work and perseverance my father got a scholarship to study in a magical place, America, that shone as a beacon of freedom and opportunity to so many who had come before.

While studying here, my father met my mother. She was born in a town on the other side of the world, in Kansas. Her father worked on oil rigs and farms through most of the De-pression. The day after Pearl Harbor my grandfather signed up for duty, joined Patton’s army, marched across Europe. Back home, my grandmother raised a baby and went to work on a bomber assembly line. After the war, they studied on the GI Bill, bought a house through FHA, and later moved west all the way to Hawaii in search of opportunity.

And they, too, had big dreams for their daughter. A com-mon dream, born of two continents.

In this introduction, Senator Obama es-tablishes credibility not by drawing upon his creden-tials as a public leader but by refer-ring to the unlikeli-hood of a person of his background being in that situa-tion. Then, instead of providing an overview of his points, he uses the powerful technique of narrative and sets up an inspi-rational story that will be a touch-stone throughout his speech.



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My parents shared not only an improbable love, they shared an abiding faith in the possibilities of this nation. They would give me an African name, Barack, or “blessed,” believ-ing that in a tolerant America your name is no barrier to suc-cess. They imagined—they imagined me going to the best schools in the land, even though they weren’t rich, because in a generous America you don’t have to be rich to achieve your potential.

They’re both passed away now. And yet, I know that on this night they look down on me with great pride.

They stand here—and I stand here today, grateful for the diversity of my heritage, aware that my parents’ dreams live on in my two precious daughters. I stand here knowing that my story is part of the larger American story, that I owe a debt to all of those who came before me, and that, in no other country on earth, is my story even possible.

Tonight, we gather to affi rm the greatness of our Nation—not because of the height of our skyscrapers, or the power of our military, or the size of our economy. Our pride is based on a very simple premise, summed up in a declaration made over 200 years ago:

“We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with cer-tain inalienable rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.”

That is the true genius of America, a faith—a faith in sim-ple dreams, an insistence on small miracles; that we can tuck in our children at night and know that they are fed and clothed and safe from harm; that we can say what we think, write what we think, without hearing a sudden knock on the door; that we can have an idea and start our own business without paying a bribe; that we can participate in the political process without fear of retribution, and that our votes will be counted—at least most of the time.

This year, in this election we are called to reaffi rm our val-ues and our commitments, to hold them against a hard reality and see how we’re measuring up to the legacy of our forbearers and the promise of future generations.

This gesture to his heart at the mo-ment he talks about blessings shows the warmth and dyna-mism that charac-terize his physical actions throughout the speech.

These sentences work as the thesis of Senator Obama’s speech. From his sense of gratitude for the opportunities of being part of this nation, he claims implicitly a special insight into the basic principles that underlie dif-ferences among groups.



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And fellow Americans, Democrats, Republicans, Indepen-dents, I say to you tonight: We have more work to do—more work to do for the workers I met in Galesburg, Illinois, who are losing their union jobs at the Maytag plant that’s moving to Mexico and now are having to compete with their own chil-dren for jobs that pay seven bucks an hour; more to do for the father that I met who was losing his job and choking back the tears, wondering how he would pay $4,500 a month for the drugs his son needs without the health benefi ts that he counted on; more to do for the young woman in East St. Louis, and thousands more like her, who has the grades, has the drive, has the will, but doesn’t have the money to go to college.

Now, don’t get me wrong. The people I meet—in small towns and big cities, in diners and offi ce parks—they don’t ex-pect government to solve all their problems. They know they have to work hard to get ahead, and they want to. Go into the collar counties around Chicago, and people will tell you they don’t want their tax money wasted, by a welfare agency or by the Pentagon. Go in—go into any inner city neighborhood, and folks will tell you that government alone can’t teach our kids to learn; they know that parents have to teach, that chil-dren can’t achieve unless we raise their expectations and turn off the television sets and eradicate the slander that says a black youth with a book is acting white. They know those things.

People don’t expect—people don’t expect government to solve all their problems. But they sense, deep in their bones, that with just a slight change in priorities, we can make sure that every child in America has a decent shot at life, and that the doors of opportunity remain open to all.

They know we can do better. And they want that choice.In this election, we offer that choice. Our party has cho-

sen a man to lead us who embodies the best this country has to offer. And that man is John Kerry.

John Kerry understands the ideals of community, faith, and service because they’ve defi ned his life. From his heroic service to Vietnam, to his years as a prosecutor and lieuten-ant governor, through two decades in the United States Sen-ate, he’s devoted himself to this country. Again and again,

This litany of spe-cifi c people with specifi c problems has become com-monplace in most important political speeches. Though it may be some-thing of a cliché, it still illustrates the importance of infusing our speeches with concrete and hu-man examples. Real people with names and home-towns have an im-pact that can’t be achieved by talking about general situ-ations like poverty or unemployment.



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we’ve seen him make tough choices when easier ones were available.

His values and his record and affi rm what is best in us. John Kerry believes in an America where hard work is re-warded; so instead of offering tax breaks to companies ship-ping jobs overseas, he offers them to companies creating jobs here at home.

John Kerry believes in an America where all Americans can afford the same health coverage our politicians in Wash-ington have for themselves.

John Kerry believes in energy independence, so we aren’t held hostage to the profi ts of oil companies, or the sabotage of foreign oil fi elds.

John Kerry believes in the Constitutional freedoms that have made our country the envy of the world, and he will never sacrifi ce our basic liberties, nor use faith as a wedge to divide us.

And John Kerry believes that, in a dangerous world, war must be an option sometimes but it should never be the fi rst option.

You know, a while back—a while back I met a young man named Shamus in a VFW Hall in East Moline, Illinois. He was a good-looking kid—six two, six three, clear eyed, with an easy smile. He told me he’d joined the Marines and was head-ing to Iraq the following week. And as I listened to him ex-plain why he’d enlisted, the absolute faith he had in our coun-try and its leaders, his devotion to duty and service, I thought this young man was all that any of us might ever hope for in a child.

But then I asked myself, “Are we serving Shamus as well as he is serving us?”

I thought of the 900 men and women—sons and daugh-ters, husbands and wives, friends and neighbors, who won’t be returning to their own hometowns. I thought of the families I’ve met who were struggling to get by without a loved one’s full income, or whose loved ones had returned with a limb missing or nerves shattered, but still lacked long-term health benefi ts because they were Reservists.

In this section, the stylistically effective repeti-tion of “John Kerry believes . . . ” allows Senator Obama to touch on several ways his party’s candidate em-braces important core values. Inter-estingly, he never attacks the Repub-lican candidates.



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When we send our young men and women into harm’s way, we have a solemn obligation not to fudge the numbers or shade the truth about why they’re going, to care for their fami-lies while they’re gone, to tend to the soldiers upon their re-turn, and to never ever go to war without enough troops to win the war, secure the peace, and earn the respect of the world.

Now—Now let me be clear. Let me be clear. We have real enemies in the world. These enemies must be found. They must be pursued. And they must be defeated. John Kerry knows this. And just as Lieutenant Kerry did not hesitate to risk his life to protect the men who served with him in Viet-nam, President Kerry will not hesitate one moment to use our military might to keep America safe and secure.

John Kerry believes in America. And he knows that it’s not enough for just some of us to prosper—for alongside our famous individualism, there’s another ingredient in the Ameri-can saga, a belief that we’re all connected as one people. If there is a child on the south side of Chicago who can’t read, that matters to me, even if it’s not my child. If there is a senior citizen somewhere who can’t pay for their prescription drugs, and having to choose between medicine and the rent, that makes my life poorer, even if it’s not my grandparent. If there’s an Arab American family being rounded up without benefi t of an attorney or due process, that threatens my civil liberties.

It is that fundamental belief—It is that fundamental belief: I am my brother’s keeper. I am my sister’s keeper that makes this country work. It’s what allows us to pursue our individual dreams and yet still come together as one American family.

E pluribus unum: “Out of many, one.”Now even as we speak, there are those who are prepar-

ing to divide us—the spin masters, the negative ad peddlers who embrace the politics of “anything goes.” Well, I say to them tonight, there is not a liberal America and a conservative America—there is the United States of America. There is not a Black America and a White America and Latino America and Asian America—there’s the United States of America.

The pundits, the pundits like to slice-and-dice our coun-try into Red States and Blue States; Red States for Republi-

Several times in this speech, Sena-tor Obama uses the technique of clarifying what he means by con-trasting it to what he is not saying. This also protects against misin-terpretation or overinterpretation of one’s remarks.

These paragraphs are replete with pathos—appeals to compassion for soldiers killed and maimed in war, for children and old people and oppressed people. Yet there is also an underlying rational argument driving this section of the speech dealing with the notion of interdependence.



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cans, Blue States for Democrats. But I’ve got news for them, too. We worship an “awesome God” in the Blue States, and we don’t like federal agents poking around in our libraries in the Red States. We coach Little League in the Blue States and yes, we’ve got some gay friends in the Red States. There are pa-triots who opposed the war in Iraq and there are patriots who supported the war in Iraq. We are one people, all of us pledg-ing allegiance to the stars and stripes, all of us defending the United States of America.

In the end—in the end—in the end, that’s what this elec-tion is about. Do we participate in a politics of cynicism or do we participate in a politics of hope?

John Kerry calls on us to hope. John Edwards calls on us to hope.

I’m not talking about blind optimism here—the almost willful ignorance that thinks unemployment will go away if we just don’t think about it, or the health care crisis will solve itself if we just ignore it. That’s not what I’m talking about. I’m talk-ing about something more substantial. It’s the hope of slaves sitting around a fi re singing freedom songs; the hope of immi-grants setting out for distant shores; the hope of a young naval lieutenant bravely patrolling the Mekong Delta; the hope of a millworker’s son who dares to defy the odds; the hope of a skinny kid with a funny name who believes that America has a place for him, too.

Hope—hope in the face of diffi culty. Hope in the face of uncertainty. The audacity of hope!

In the end, that is God’s greatest gift to us, the bedrock of this nation. A belief in things not seen. A belief that there are better days ahead.

I believe that we can give our middle class relief and pro-vide working families with a road to opportunity.

I believe we can provide jobs to the jobless, homes to the homeless, and reclaim young people in cities across America from violence and despair.

I believe that we have a righteous wind at our backs and that, as we stand on the crossroads of history, we can make the right choices and meet the challenges that face us.

This is the most cited section of the speech. Senator Obama’s rejection of the red and blue distinction had great resonance with the vast num-ber of people who did not feel a sense of identifi cation with the polarized characterization of these groups.



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America! Tonight, if you feel the same energy that I do, if you feel the same urgency that I do, if you feel the same pas-sion that I do, if you feel the same hopefulness that I do—if we do what we must do, then I have no doubt that all across the country, from Florida to Oregon, from Washington to Maine, the people will rise up in November, and John Kerry will be sworn in as president, and John Edwards will be sworn in as vice-president, and this country will reclaim its promise, and out of this long political darkness a brighter day will come.

Thank you very much everybody. God bless you. Thank you.

THE CENTRALITY OF ORAL COMMUNICATION IN SECONDARY EDUCATION

BY JOHN POULAKOS

When I fi rst came to this country 25 years ago, my English was minimal. I only knew a few words and how to turn them into simple sentences. I could, for example, say such things as “This is my left hand,” “That is a pretty fl ower,” “That is an ugly house.” I thought that my symbolic world was a bit limited, but at least it was safe. I soon discovered that it was very limited indeed and not very safe at all. One time I was driving a car taking directions from a friend in the passenger seat. I was doing quite well until we got to an intersection and he said, “Make a left right here.” I almost had an accident. An-other time, I found that a Mrs. Dibble was going to be my new English teacher. I asked an older fellow student to tell me what she was like. He said, “She is pretty ugly.” I thought he was al-luding to Plato’s mind–body dichotomy, but I was too proud to ask for clarifi cation. Another time, I was telling my uncle, who is from Mexico, that I could play intercollegiate football, work part-time after school, do volunteer work at the local hospital, and still get straight A’s in all my classes. He looked me straight in the eyes and said, “I am from Missouri.” “But,” I said, “I

Dr. Poulakos makes good use of humor in this section, including a reference to the state slogan of Mis-souri, “show me.”



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thought you are from Mexico.” He responded, “I am.” Need-less to say, I was a very perplexed young man. But I was deter-mined to fi nd out how the English language works. It has been an interesting 25 years, and I am still fi nding out its secrets.

Today, I fi nd myself committed to two paradoxical tasks: fi rst, teaching American college students how to speak effec-tively, and second, promoting the expansion of oral commu-nication in secondary education. The fi rst task is paradoxical because English is not my native tongue. The second task is paradoxical because oral communication should need no pro-motion. It should already be at the very center of secondary education.

Unfortunately, it is not. Why not? Let’s speculate for a mo-ment on the reasons. To begin with, it is no secret that our culture is ambivalent about speech. On the one hand, we glorify the power of oratory to forge consensus and show us better versions of ourselves. On the other, we are afraid of its capacity to lead us to catastrophes. We envy the person with polished communication skills, but we also distrust him or her. A smooth talker evokes our admiration and arouses our suspicion at the same time. As a people, we are torn between a profound sense of logophobia and an equally profound sense of logophilia.

I don’t think there is a way around this ambivalence. As the Greeks pointed out 2,400 years ago, the effect of speech upon the condition of the mind is comparable to the power of drugs over the condition of the body. Just as different drugs dispel different secretions from the body and some bring an end to disease and others to life, so too in the case of speeches: some distress, others delight, some cause fear, others make the listeners bold, and some drug and bewitch the soul with a kind of evil persuasion.

Another reason why oral communication is not a central part of the secondary curriculum is that listening and speak-ing are often taken for granted. And what is taken for granted is generally ignored or left unattended. The thinking here is that children can speak and listen adequately even before they step foot in kindergarten. By the time they are in high school, they know the whats and the hows of oral communication.

Notice the use of deductive reasoning in this paragraph.



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Therefore, we should teach them things they do not already know. Things that really matter. Useful things. Things like driver’s education, health education, drug education, sex edu-cation, wood shop, auto shop, metal shop, and how to shop. Things like accounting, typing, computing, cooking, sewing, and farming.

A third reason for the marginal status of oral communica-tion is that it is messy. Speech classes are noisy, full of students talking, discussing, arguing. Learning is supposed to take place in the mind, quietly, and should leave the sound waves undisturbed. Students should pay attention silently, and the only source of talk should be the teacher or the TV monitor or the fi lm projector. Besides, speech cannot be measured . . . [by] true and false or right and wrong answers. And, as we all have been trained to think, evaluation should be objective.

A fourth reason is that the mastery of oral communica-tion frees a person from seeing the world according to norma-tive societal prescriptions. Masters of speech are accomplished artists whose vision of the world is subversive if only because it is new and unprecedented. Eloquent speakers are agents of change. And change is a mortal enemy to traditional vested interests. Effective spokespersons always demand more than the status quo can deliver. They always point to the indecency, the incompetence, and the corruption of the powers that be. They always offer more attractive options, they raise our level of expectations, and they promise higher levels of satisfaction. Because they are eloquent they can persuade us to believe oth-erwise, to think in other words, and to act in other ways. For all these reasons, master orators are regarded as revolutionaries and subversives.

There you have it. Oral communication has been margin-alized because we are ambivalent toward it, because we take it for granted, because we cannot measure it with the tools of measurement we have devised, and because it can turn doc-ile people into demanding, inquisitive, critical human beings. But despite its current marginalization, speech will not go away. It has been around for at least as long as we have, and it will be around as long as we are. That is the nature of the animal.

This transitional paragraph includes an internal sum-mary of what has been said so far and a more general preview of what is to come.



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Consider what Isocrates said in 375 bc:“In the powers which we possess we are in no respect su-

perior to other living creatures; nay, we are inferior to many in swiftness and in strength and in other resources; but, because there has been implanted in us the power to persuade each other and to make clear to each other whatever we desire, not only have we escaped the life of wild beasts, but we have come together and have founded cities and made laws and invented arts; and generally speaking, there is no institution devised by man which the power of speech has not helped us to establish. Through speech we educate the ignorant and appraise the wise; for the power to speak well is taken as the surest index of a sound understanding, and discourse which is true and law-ful and just is the outward image of a good and faithful soul. And if there is need to speak in brief summary of this power, we shall fi nd that none of the things that are done with intelli-gence take place without the help of speech but that in all our actions as well as in our thoughts speech is our guide. . . .”

Well, a great deal has changed since 375 bc. However, at least two things remain the same. First, orality still remains an indispensable part of literacy. Second, the ideal of participatory democracy continues to be, at least in principle, a signifi cant goal of this country. Regarding the fi rst continuity, it is self-evident that all people are born into language. Among other things, this means that they are spoken to even before they can speak. Soon, they join the perplexing, exhilarating, debili-tating, empowering, depressing, and joyful world of discourse. But they will never come to know what they can do with lan-guage. Nor will they ever come to know what language is do-ing to them. Malcolm X was the exception. . . .

As I have already suggested, speakers are not born. They are made. And if this is so, it is we, their teachers, who must make them. This means that we must instruct students in the properties of language, the rules of its operation, the possibili-ties of its structure, and the conditions of its impact. Our mis-sion, as I see it, is to reclaim speech for all students. Not just the academic kind. The time has come, ladies and gentlemen, when we can no longer be accomplices in the conspiracy of the electronic media to take from our students their voice.

This is another example of using deductive reason-ing: setting up a general premise and then explor-ing its inescapable implication.



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The time has come for us to enable the young people of this country to tell it like it is, to speak their minds, to voice their objections, to say what they have to say, and to say it well. The time has come to help our students listen not to the Heartbeat of America, but to those around them who have something to say, and who can say it well. The time has come to make stu-dents understand that they are part of an immense discursive network, a network that they can affect and that affects them profoundly.

Of course, the scary thing about this idea is that it is we who must take the initiative and serve as their example. But serving as an example of eloquent speech is no mean task in a culture that says: “Talk is cheap,” “Actions speak louder than words,” “Speaking is silver but silence is golden,” “A picture is worth a thousand words,” “If you don’t have anything nice to say, don’t say anything at all.” In my judgment, this string of clichés betrays an ideological predilection intent on manufac-turing unrefl ective human beings, compulsive consumers of discourse trained to look at things uncritically and to follow directions quietly. In short, this string of clichés is intent on keeping people silent regardless of the state of affairs in their life. But we all know that to be reduced to silence is to be hu-miliated, to be gagged, to be cut off from one’s vital connec-tion to the world of other people. We also know that to be a member of a silent majority is to belong to a population that is ignored and left out of account. By contrast, a vocal minority always gets attention and, in many cases, results. Signifi cantly, those who are vocal are hard to control. And the powers that be prefer . . . silent subordinates.

Let’s turn now to the second continuity since the time of Isocrates: participatory democracy. We all know that the Greeks were the fi rst people in Western history who tried to govern themselves democratically, by the will of the people. This meant most fundamentally that all the citizens of the city-state were both free and obligated to partake of political decision making. In turn, this meant that all citizens had to have some training in public speaking. Today, we are suppos-edly the carriers of the promise of democracy and political freedom. However, it is simply hypocritical to tell students that



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they are guaranteed the freedom of speech in this country and then leave their potential for speech uncultivated. What good is freedom of speech if one is brought up to believe that one has nothing to say? What good is freedom of speech when one has something to say but does not know how to make it count? I would contend that when the speaking and listening facul-ties of our students are left uncultivated, the result is despair in the private domain and apathy in the public domain.

Now I do not mean to suggest that instruction in oral communication will turn all our students into John Kennedys, Mario Cuomos, and Jesse Jacksons. Nor that it will reverse, overnight, public apathy toward this country’s political affairs and social issues. Nor that it will put an immediate end to the widespread feeling of alienation, aimlessness, and disorienta-tion among today’s youth. However, it can provide students of all walks of life with a few good hints: that all people are capa-ble of and subject to persuasion; that language has the capac-ity to liberate them from the bondage of political, social, and religious institutions. Furthermore, instruction in oral com-munication can make them realize that in a humane society there has to be tolerance for individual differences, allowance for the thoughts we most despise, and respect for even those with whom we disagree. Moreover, instruction in oral com-munication can show them that confl ict, which is inherent in a pluralistic society, must be resolved not through automatic assault weapons but through debate, negotiation, and compro-mise. Finally, instruction in oral communication can com-pel them to refl ect on themselves as speakers and listeners, to see themselves in relation to those they address and those by whom they are addressed. In short, education in speech can help students break out of their confi ning walls of egocentric-ity and enter the circle of their interlocutors. I offer you these potential benefi ts, ladies and gentlemen, not as guarantees but as articles of faith tested by 2,500 years of human experience and refl ection.

What I am proposing here tonight is not original. During the last decade, a host of task forces, commissions, and founda-tions have argued the same thing: Good listening and speaking skills are essential for everyone. In their 1983 report, A Nation

An excellent tech-nique, in both in-formative and per-suasive speaking, is to explain what you are saying by explicitly contrast-ing it to what you are not saying. This also adds to credibility in that it shows your audi-ence that you are not oversimplifying a complex topic and are very clear about what you are willing to defend.



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at Risk, the National Commission on Excellence in Education addressed “the essentials of a strong curriculum” thus: “The teaching of English in high school should equip graduates to . . . listen effectively and discuss ideas intelligently.” Also in 1983, the Task Force on Education for Economic Growth recommended speaking and listening competencies as part of their plan for improving education in this country. Specifi -cally, they highlighted the following: (1) the ability to engage critically and constructively in the exchange of ideas; (2) the ability to answer and ask questions coherently and concisely, and to follow spoken instructions; (3) the ability to identify and comprehend the main and subordinate ideas in discussions and to report accurately what others have said; and (4) the abil-ity to conceive and develop ideas about a topic for the purpose of speaking to a group; to choose and organize related ideas; to present them clearly in standard English. Also in 1983, the College Board of New York published a volume entitled Aca-demic Preparation for College: What Students Need to Know and Be Able to Do. In its report, the board listed speaking and listening among the basic academic competencies. For the most part, the board endorsed the specifi c recommendations of the Task Force on Education for Academic Growth. Also in 1983, the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teach-ing published High School. Its author, Ernest Boyer, said . . . :

“The high school curriculum should . . . include a study of the spoken. As humans, we fi rst use sounds to communi-cate our feelings. Very early, we combine phonemes orally to express complex ideas. In our verbal culture we speak much more than we write. We use the telephone more frequently than we send letters. Talk is everywhere. Throughout our lives we judge others, and we ourselves are judged, by what is said. We need to be as precise in speaking as we are in writ-ing. Therefore, we recommend that high schools give priority to oral communication, requiring all students to complete a course in speaking and listening.”

There you have it. Arguments. Recommendations. Sug-gestions. Solutions. Proposals. It’s all there. And that is pre-cisely the trouble. Millions of dollars and millions of hours have been spent by prominent people to publish millions of

After paragraphs that include a number of lengthy recommenda-tions, Dr. Poulakos switches to a series of short statements of just one or a few words. This contrast in style not only provides interest, it also emphasizes the importance of what he is saying in this important paragraph.



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copies of their work. And where is it? In the bookshelves, under piles and piles of paper, somewhere in a corner, silent and ne-glected. Exactly where the opponents of oral communication would like to see it. But as I have suggested throughout my talk, arguments that are written down and stay written down are useless. The only way they can make a difference is when they are spoken up. And who is going to speak them up? We are the ones. We are the ones who must call attention to the urgency of oral illiteracy in our country. If we don’t, nobody else will. Yet, it simply is not enough to agree passively with great ideas. It is not enough to contemplate weighty matters and feel indignant that the world is not as good as it could be. Activism is where it’s at. And activism means speaking out.

At the risk of sounding presumptuous, let me say that in the state of Pennsylvania I am one of a group of fi ve people who have been speaking up for four years now. We have left no stone of the educational establishment unturned. We have contacted every speech teacher, every principal, and every superintendent in the state. We have spoken to bureaucrats, administrators, legislators, decision makers, opponents, propo-nents, money holders, infl uence peddlers, you name it. And we have just started. We have traveled from coast to coast and have given talks, workshops, presentations, debates, addresses, lectures, the works. It should be obvious that we mean busi-ness. To show you how committed we are, we came to the “show me” state to tell our story. Tell the people of the “show me” state. What could be more challenging?

Well, we have come, and we have given you the word. We now hope that you will pass it on.

Clearly, ladies and gentlemen, I am happy to be here tonight.

He ends with an-other reference to the Missouri state motto: “show me.”



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ADDITIONAL RESOURCES



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PART 8PART 8ADDITIONAL RESOURCESINTRODUCTION: JUST IN CASE

GUIDE TO COMMON PRONUNCIATION AND USAGE ERRORSProblems in Pronunciation 511Word-Choice Errors 512Some Grammar and Usage Problems 514

GLOSSARY OF KEY TERMS 517



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INTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTIONJUST IN CASE

This last part of the handbook provides two additional resources that you

may fi nd helpful as you use this text and prepare speeches: The fi rst is

a Guide to Common Pronunciation and Usage Errors, and the second is

a Glossary of Key Terms. Both resources are intended to be references—

compilations of specifi c information that you may choose to consult as

needed.

We created the Guide to Common Pronunciation and Usage Errors for

both native and nonnative speakers of English. Many English words are

used and pronounced incorrectly every day, and often we encounter them

courtesy of popular media. Because we tend to think that media fi gures

must know how to say things correctly, and because we hear incorrect

forms over and over, we sometimes even adjust our usual way—which had

been the correct way—of saying things to the incorrect ways that are so

prevalent. If you’re going to give a public presentation, you may want to

play it safe and check this guide to ensure that you are understood and are

perceived to be as credible as possible.

If you are uncertain about the pronunciation of words not included in

this guide then you may want to visit the Merriam-Webster website, which

provides audio pronunciations for about 105,000 English words—just look

for the icon. Other online dictionaries also provide audio pronuncia-

tion, and you can fi nd guides to English usage online as well. The American

Heritage Book of English Usage, for example, is available at bartleby.com.

[WEBLINK]k To access these sites, go this book’s online resources and

click on Web Link Part 8.1 (for Merriam-Webster) and WebLink Part 8.2 (for

Bartleby).

The Glossary of Key Terms pulls together all of the words and phrases

that appear in bold throughout the chapters. Here those “key,” or essential,

terms are presented with defi nitions of each. Even though we defi ne most

terms in the context of using them in the chapters, you may fi nd this al-

phabetical compilation helpful. A few of the words we use while discussing

communication concepts and precepts throughout the book are rather ex-

otic—for example, enthymeme and assonance. Possibly as challenging are



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the words that are used in a specialized way when related to communica-

tion theory: rhetoric, style, and credibility are not new words, but the way

they are used in everyday conversation may be somewhat different from

the way they are used in the context of helping you to prepare and de-

liver a public speech. We hope you’ll consult the glossary for clarifi cation

as often as you need. Also, keep in mind that the book’s online resources

include fl ashcards and crossword puzzles to help you learn the key terms

and the concepts they represent.



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GUIDE TO COMMON PRONUNCIATION AND USAGE ERRORS

For a speaker, pronunciation and usage errors are impediments to intelligibility and credibility. Well-reasoned points and lively descriptions can lose their impact if a mispronounced or misused word lands with a clunk to interrupt the concentra-tion and attention of your listeners. Here we list just a few of the common errors that can crop up; references at the end describe many more usage and word-choice snares to which you should be alert. You can fi nd pronunciation references in 25c.

PROBLEMS IN PRONUNCIATION

Word Proper Improperget get gitjust just jistacross a cross a crostnuclear nu clee ar nu cyou larperspiration pers pir a tion press pir a tionstrict strict strickescape es cape ex capecompulsory com pul sory com pul so raryrecognize rec og nize reck a nizelibrary li brar y li berrymischievous mis che vous mis chee vioustheater THEE a ter thee A terpicture pic tchure pit chure



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surprise sur prise sup prisecomparable COM per able com PARE ablelarynx lar inks lar nixrelevant rel a vant rev a lantdrowned drowned drown dedet cetera et cet era ek cet eraFebruary feb roo ary feb you arytemperature temp per achure temp achureathlete ath leet a thuh leeterr ur air

WORD-CHOICE ERRORS

Wrong Use Commentsadverse/averse

“I would be adverse to adopting this plan.”

Because the speaker is talking about an aversion to something, the proper adjec-tive is “averse.” When describing feelings, use “averse”; when describing things, use “adverse”—for example, “Without restruc-turing, we shall end up working in adverse conditions.”

affect/effect

“The affect of the plan could be very benefi cial.”

Usually “affect” is a verb. Properly, this sen-tence should use “effect” in its defi nition of “result.”

bi/semi

“Under this plan, paychecks will be distributed bimonthly on the 1st and 15th.”

One should use “bi” for “every two” and “semi” for “twice a,” so in this case it should be “distributed semimonthly on the 1st and 15th.”

disinterested/uninterested

“Some of you may be disinter-ested in the workings of this plan.”

“Disinterested” means having no stake in the outcome or being neutral, as in “a disinter-ested third party will judge the results.” If you instead mean “lack of interest” then use “uninterested.”

512 Word-Choice Errors



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nonplussed/nonchalant

“The opponents of this plan seem remarkably nonplussed in their calm acceptance of the status quo.”

When one is nonplussed, one is bewildered or perplexed, not “nonchalant” or “calm.”

tortuous/torturous

“The torturous logic of the op-ponents of this plan is hard to fathom.”

Because the speaker means “twisted or com-plex”—not “painful”—in this context, “tortu-ous” would have been the correct choice.

imply/infer

“I’m not inferring this plan will solve everything.”

Imply means to suggest something that has not been stated explicitly and infer means to draw a conclusion from something not stated explicitly. So, correct use would be either “I’m not implying this plan will solve everything,” or something like, “You may have inferred that I think this plan will solve everything, but that is not the case.”

less/fewer

“There are less opponents to this plan than supporters.”

If something can be counted in discrete units then it should be modifi ed by “fewer,” not by “less.” So, “there are fewer opponents” is correct. Note that changing to “there is less opposition than support” makes the usage correct, too.

ironic/coincidental

“It’s ironic that, after work-ing on this plan, Alexis and I discovered we both changed our original positions.”

Irony is more than mere coincidence. Irony requires that there be some incongruity rising from a result that was different from the one expected. So, unless the speaker and Alexis had both vowed repeatedly that they were go-ing to be steadfast in their original positions, it would be more accurate to say: “Coinci-dentally, Alexis and I discovered we both changed our original positions after working on this plan.”

Word-Choice Errors 513



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514 Grammar and Usage Problems

comprise/compose

“Let’s look at the three actions that comprise this plan.”

A whole comprises its parts, so this sentence is backward with “comprise” used in this way; “compose” or “constitute” would be correct. For “comprise” to be correct, the sentence should read: “The plan comprises three ac-tions; let’s look at them now.” Also, using “is comprised of” is not correct.

fl aunt/fl out

“One thing about this plan is that it makes it less easy for us-ers to fl aunt our guidelines.”

“Flaunt” means to show off; “fl out” means to treat with disregard or scorn. These words are not interchangeable.

i.e./e.g.

“Some parts of this plan, i.e., restructuring, won’t take place immediately.”

This choice is wrong at two levels. First, “i.e.” is an abbreviation of the Latin id est, meaning “that is.” It does not mean “for example”—that role is taken by “e.g.,” from the Latin exempli gratia. Second, a speaker should not use these abbreviations orally and instead use plain English “that is” and “for example.”

SOME GRAMMAR AND USAGE PROBLEMS

Wrong Use CommentsDangling/Misplaced Modifi er

“Having failed twice before, I wouldn’t support any more at-tempts by the Baker committee to come up with a plan.”

As constructed, this sentence makes the speaker the one who has failed twice. To be grammatically correct, and certainly less con-fusing, the sentence could be: “Having failed twice before, the Baker committee won’t get my support for any more attempts to come up with a plan.” or “I wouldn’t support any more attempts by the Baker committee to come up with a plan because they have failed twice before.”



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Grammar and Usage Problems 515

Subject–Verb Agreement

“The source of these failures are to be found in the incomplete research done.”

“Of these failures” is a phrase that modifi es the singular subject of the sentence, “source,” and the fact that the noun in the phrase is plural has no impact on the verb. Because the subject is singular, the verb should also be singular: “The source of these failures is to be found in . . .”

Misuse of Refl exive Pronoun

“The people who looked over the plan were David, Carla, and myself.”

“Myself” is the refl exive form of the pronoun, and the refl exive ordinarily is used only where the object of a sentence is the same as the subject (“I overworked myself on this project”), as an object of a preposition that refers to the subject (“I worked on this project by myself”), or to emphasize the subject (“Although others helped with the research, I wrote the plan myself.”) The sentence in this case should use the objective case for the pro-noun: “The people who looked over the plan were David, Carla, and me.” Be alert to the misuse of other refl exive pronouns like “him-self,” “herself,” “yourself,” and “themselves.”

Misuse of Pronouns in the Subjective Case

“The composition of the Baker committee came as a surprise to Alexis and I.”

“I” is a subjective pronoun and so is reserved for use as the subject of a sentence: “Alexis and I were surprised by the composition of the Baker committee.” For a sentence in which the speaker is the object of the verb, the objective case is appropriate: “The com-position of the Baker committee came as a surprise to Alexis and me.” A preposition (to, by, from, etc.) is usually a dead giveaway to use the objective case of a pronoun.

A good resource for information on correct usage and word choice is Paul Brians, Common Errors in English Usage (Wilsonville, OR: William, James & Co., 2003); www.wsu.edu/~brians/errors/index.html.



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GLOSSARY OF KEY TERMS

A

acronym A device of explanation based on creating a word from the fi rst letters of a phrase to aid in memory.

ad hominem fallacy An error in reason-ing that consists of attacking a person identifi ed with a position instead of refuting the position itself.

affi rming the consequent The most common form of the faulty reversal of an if–then statement. A person reasons that because X necessarily follows Y the opposite is also true. Just because “if there is a rainbow, it is raining” it does not mean that every time it is raining there is a rainbow.

agenda A specifi c predetermined plan for the conduct of a meeting or a group event. It provides structure for groups and helps minimize confl ict over what will be discussed, in what sequence, and, perhaps, for how long.

alliteration A stylistic device that consists of the repetition of a conso-

nant sound. “Big, brutal bullies” will be more memorable and have more impact than “large, mean bullies.”

antithesis A stylistic device that con-sists of two contrasting ideas set up in opposition.

appeal Any part of a speech specifi -cally designed to evoke a response from the audience. A direct appeal is often found in the conclusion of a speech when the speaker asks the audience to take some action.

articulation The ability to produce the sounds of speech correctly so that words are understandable.

assonance A stylistic device that con-sists of the repetition of a vowel sound. “People are dreaming of pie in the sky, bye and bye” repeats the long I sound and is likely to have an impact.

attention getter The opening one or two sentences of a speech introduction designed to immediately engage the

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518 Glossary of Key Terms

listeners’ interest and make them want to listen.

authority values Beliefs about right or wrong that are held because they are connected to an individual or group that is a strong reference point for the individual. These values are moderately diffi cult to change.

B

bar graphs A format for displaying data that compares related items by having them represented by bars of different lengths or heights.

C

causal reasoning The justifi cation for an argument claiming that one thing is the direct result of another. A causal claim should not be confused with mere coincidence or correlation.

cause–effect pattern A way of orga-nizing speech points that begins by discussing the origins of a situation and moves to discussing the consequences that follow those antecedent conditions.

central idea A more informal designa-tion for the thesis of a speech. Even if one’s major point is not fully developed into a subject–predicate assertion as required for a thesis sentence, this core idea provides a touchstone for develop-ing the speech.

chronological pattern A way of orga-nizing the points of a speech that fol-lows a time order; it might be historical or it might follow steps in a process, for example.

circular reasoning An error in reason-ing that occurs when a speaker assumes the truth of the conclusion and uses that as the starting point for developing an argument, instead of building a case for the conclusion by creating a valid line of reasoning.

claim A proposition that a speaker advances as a conclusion. The claim might be the thesis of the speech, a main point, or a subpoint. Typically, a claim is a controversial statement that does not earn automatic acceptance but needs to be proven by the development of an argument.

clincher The closing sentence of a speech conclusion that gives a sense of fi nality and has a powerful impact. A carefully thought out clincher replaces the “trailing off” phenomenon that can ruin a good speech.

cognitive restructuring A treatment for communication apprehension that involves discovering the under lying statements that are driving one’s fear, analyzing the logic of these, and replac-ing them with more realistic state-ments. Regularly repeating the state-ments can eventually restructure the way you think about speaking.

concept mapping An organizational technique for marshalling ideas. Before a speaker settles on main points, it is often helpful to use circle diagrams or movable components to pull similar ideas together and show how clusters relate to each other.



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Glossary of Key Terms 519

connectives Sentences, phrases, and words that serve as bridges between points.

context The features that surround the core message of a speech and shape its meaning. General contextual features involve time, space, degree of formality, and the like. Specifi c contexts such as the workplace or the political sphere have sets of norms and expectations that shape speaking in those settings.

coordinate points Points of equal im-portance that cannot be nested under each other. For example, points I, II, and III are coordinate to each other. Points A, B, and C under each of these are also coordinate to each other.

core values Beliefs about right or wrong that are so deeply held that they are central to the identity of the person who holds them. These values are very diffi cult to change.

credibility The perception that a certain speaker is believable, over and above the logical message and the emo-tional impact. The persuasive power of credibility comes from being able to project qualities such as competence, trustworthiness, concern, and dyna-mism. Other things being equal, speak-ers perceived as having these qualities will be more persuasive.

D

debate A structured argument in which participants speak for and against a preannounced proposition. There

are strict rules about the phrasing of the proposition, the location of burden of proof, and the timing and order of speeches. Usually a winner and loser are determined by a judge or audience.

deduction A form of reasoning that demonstrates how the relationships among established premises lead to a necessary conclusion.

defi nition A kind of supporting ma-terial that clarifi es the meaning of key terms as they will be used in the context of a speech. In addition to using dictionary (genus–species) defi nitions, it is helpful to also defi ne terms in at least one other way: through opera-tional defi nitions, examples, negation, authority, or etymology.

defi nition by authority Explaining the meaning of a word by calling on an expert in the fi eld or by some authorita-tive ruling, such as in a court.

defi nition by example Explaining the meaning of a word by giving familiar instances of the concept.

defi nition by negation or opposition Explaining the meaning of a word by contrasting it to its opposite or telling what it is not.

denying the antecedent A form of faulty reasoning that is related to but less common than affi rming the consequent. It assumes that, because X necessarily follows from Y, the absence of Y means the absence of X. However, there may be other causes for Y. (If a



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major premise states “if and only if Y is present, X will be present,” then deny-ing the antecedent is not fallacious.)

E

enhanced conversation A way of think-ing about public speaking that encour-ages speakers to rely heavily on the same resources they use daily in con-versation but to amplify these, pro ject them more enthusiastically, and pay a bit more attention to crafting details of style and organization.

enthymemes The classical term for the more informal, conversational, often shortened form that reasoning takes in actual persuasion. For example, a complete logical syllogism might state: Anything our president does is in the national interest. This policy is initi-ated by our president. This policy is in the national interest. An enthymeme would be shorter and more natural sounding, such as: “Of course this is in the national interest; the president introduced it.” Enthymemes are harder to dissect and analyze. However, they can be powerful in that they call on the listeners to “fi ll in the blanks” and thus involve them in making the case.

etymological defi nition A way of ex-plaining the meaning of a term by look-ing at the historical roots of the word or at its linguistic origins.

evidence Data or supporting material offered to establish a point. Statistics, testimony, and examples can be used as evidence in a speech.

evocative A speech with the purpose of evoking is designed to call forth an emotion or shared feeling. This is sometimes called the speech to enter-tain, but evocative speaking is a broader term that can include arousing feelings of sympathy or grief as well as feelings of happiness or amusement.

extemporaneous A mode of delivery that consists of preparing the organiza-tion of a speech and becoming familiar with the structure and some of the phrases where language is important, although the speaker does not write out or memorize the speech. It is delivered in a conversational manner from gen-eral notes. This is the most common form of delivery.

F

factual examples Specifi c instances used to illustrate a more general point. Brief examples are used when the audi-ence is assumed to be familiar with the case, such as “it hurts about as much as a pinprick.” Extended examples are used when the audience is not famil-iar with the case, so more details are required to make the point, such as “let me tell you about my Uncle George’s experience . . .”

fallacies Errors in reasoning that make a particular argument or position invalid.

fallacy of the absurd extreme An error in reasoning that makes a potentially sound argument appear groundless by extending it to a point where it can be easily ridiculed.



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false dichotomy An error of reasoning that results from assuming that there are only two clear-cut alternatives in a situation when there are, in fact, many intermediate alternatives.

forum Essentially a question-and-answer format. One of more experts might be questioned by a panel of other experts, journalists, and/or the audience.

full-sentence outline A detailed logi-cal plan for a speech that states each main point and at least the fi rst level of subpoints in complete subject–predicate sentences. This attention to detail provides a test to be sure that every part of the speech is logically related to each other. The outline is an important planning tool but it is not the same as a speech manuscript or as speaking notes.

H

hasty generalization An error in induc-tive reasoning that results from making a premature inductive leap and basing a generalization on insuffi cient data.

heckling A practice of audience mem-bers to challenge or distract the speaker by calling out uninvited questions and comments (usually confrontational in nature) during the body of the speech.

historical defi nition Explaining the meaning of a term by tracing how it has been used in the past, perhaps showing how the meaning has evolved.

holistic listening Listening to another person in an open, nonjudgmental

way—not just analyzing his or her points, but trying to take in all the verbal and nonverbal cues, silences, and omissions to get some sense of the full message that is available to be interpreted.

hypothetical example A plausible story created by the speaker to illustrate a point. As with factual examples, these may be either brief or extended. In contrast to factual examples, though, hypothetical examples can only be used to clarify a point, not to prove it.

I

impromptu A mode of speaking that does not allow for any formal prepara-tion but requires the speaker to speak “off the cuff.” Impromptu speaking can still draw on many of the principles of other kinds of speaking, such as having a clear fi rst and last sentence, involv-ing the audience, and using lots of examples.

inductive reasoning A pattern of reasoning that consists of combining a series of specifi c observations that lead to a probable general conclusion.

internal preview At some point after the fi rst point has been developed, a speaker forecasts the remaining points to be covered.

internal summary At some point before the last point is developed, a speaker re-states the points that have been covered so far.

introduction The opening section of a speech that serves to get attention and



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orient the audience before beginning to develop the fi rst main point.

J

jargon Informal or technical terms that relate to a particular activity or group; the use of jargon sets apart the prac ti-tion ers or group members.

K

keyword or key-phrase outline A preliminary organizational tool that consists of just words and phrases to be used. It is more developed than brainstorming tools like concept map-ping but less elaborate than a topic outline or a full-sentence outline.

L

line graphs A format for displaying data that uses points connected by lines to indicate changes over time or distance.

logical defi nition The most common and precise way of defi ning terms, which begins by placing the term in its broad category (genus), and then listing the qualities that differentiate the term from all other members of that category (species).

logical orientation A section of the in-troduction that provides the intellectual framework for the speech, often stating the thesis sentence and previewing the main points.

M

major premise The basic assump-tion that underlies a line of deductive argument. If the argument is laid out

as a formal syllogism, then the major premise is the fi rst statement and it lays out an absolute relationship such as either/or, if/then, or the classic “all men are mortal.”

manuscript speaking A mode of deliv-ery that involves writing out a speech fully (in the oral style preferably) and then practicing it until it is familiar and sounds conversational when delivered.

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs A sys-tematic arrangement of human needs based on the assumption that people will give priority to more basic needs and fi ll these at a minimal level before attending to higher needs. The hier-archy proceeds from security needs to belongingness needs to esteem needs to self-actualization needs.

memorized A mode of delivery that involves writing out a speech fully (in the oral style preferably) and then prac-ticing it until it can be delivered word for word.

metaphor A stylistic device that uses language as if there were an identity between two things that belong to dif-ferent categories—for example, “my job is a nightmare.”

minor premise The part of a deductive argument that introduces some data about the actual state of affairs into the reasoning. In an either/or or if/then syl-logism, for example, it asserts that one of the alternatives is or is not true. In a categorical syllogism, the minor prem-



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ise places a specifi c case into a general category as in “Socrates is a man.”

motivated sequence An organizer for persuasion that echoes the mental stages through which listeners progress as they hear a speech.

O

operational defi nition A way of ex-plaining the meaning of a term by explaining how it works or what it does.

P

panel A group of experts publicly discussing a topic among themselves. Individual speeches, if any, are limited to brief opening statements.

peripheral values Beliefs about right or wrong that are more or less inciden-tal beliefs and generally can be easily changed if good reasons are given.

persuasive speaking Speech that has the purpose of changing behavior or attitudes of the listeners.

pictorial reproductions Presentation aids that use a visual depiction (e.g., a photograph, sketch, or video) of an object in two dimensions.

pictorial symbols Presentation aids that consist of representations of abstract concepts.

pie charts A format for displaying data that compares related items by having them represented by pie segments, all of which add up to 100 percent of some category.

pitch How high or low a speaker’s voice is. It is helpful to fi nd a pitch that is natural and also to vary one’s pitch.

post hoc fallacy the error in reason-ing that results from assuming that, because one event followed another event, it is caused by that event. The tests of causation must be met or the relationship might be coincidental or correlational.

presentation aid An object or thing that adds another communication dimension beyond a speaker’s content and delivery.

presentation software Computer soft-ware specialized for creating presenta-tion aids.

preview An organization tool that gives listeners a road map of what is to follow: “Today I will cover these three points.”

primacy The persuasive effect that sometimes comes from placing a point fi rst or early in a speech to give it greater impact or make it memorable.

primary audience outcome The most important result that a speaker wants to achieve, phrased in terms of what the audience will actually do after the speech.

probability The condition that exists when a conclusion is likely to be true but cannot be established with absolute certainty. In psychological and social matters, most claims are discussed in terms of some degree of probability. When speakers try to persuade listeners



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on these topics, the task is to show the likelihood of certain costs and benefi ts coming about so that the “odds” favor the speaker’s position.

problem–solution pattern A way of arranging the main points of a speech that begins with creating an awareness of some issue requiring change and then moves to explaining what should be done to remedy the concerns raised.

project proposal A kind of workplace presentation in which a speaker or a group provides a plan that should be undertaken and then gives the rationale for this approach. These presentations can range from a research proposal to a sales presentation to a proposal for under taking some technical project.

project status report A kind of work-place presentation that updates listeners on the progress being made of a project that is already under way. This sort of interim report serves to reassure col-leagues or customers about what is be-ing done, to alert them to any problems encountered, and to seek feedback.

proposition of fact A claim that some-thing is or is not true.

proposition of policy A claim that a certain course of action should or should not be adopted.

proposition of value A claim that something is good or bad (in the broad-est sense).

PSR statement A Problem–Solution–Result (PSR) statement is a brief but

memorable personal success story that states a problem, describes a solution, and lists the results; it should be deliv-ered in 90 seconds or less.

public speaking A communication set-ting in which one person has primary control and direction of the resources of communication. It may happen in a formal or informal setting, but it involves preparation and the focus is on the speaker for at least much of the time.

Q

question-and-answer period A time al-lotted after the conclusion of the main speech in which audience members can ask for clarifi cation or elaboration on the speaker’s position.

quotation The words of another person used in a speech. Quotations may be chosen because the language is more powerful than the speaker could create or because the person being quoted has some special credibility. See testimony. Direct quotations use the exact words of another and indirect quotations involve paraphrasing; both should be attributed to the source.

R

rate The speed or pace at which one speaks. Ideally, rate must be fast enough to hold attention, slow enough to be understood, and varied to empha-size meaning.

reasoning by analogy A form of rea-soning in which people can draw con-



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clusions about unknown events based on what is known about similar events.

recency The persuasive effect that sometimes comes from placing a point last or late in a speech to give it greater impact or make it memorable.

refutation A structured challenge to an opposing point of view that consists of showing exactly how the evidence and reasoning are faulty. One can refute a point in a debate where another speaker is present or refute a position that is widely held in the society and that audi-ence members may have heard about.

rhetoric The art of fi nding the avail-able means of persuasion in any given situation. The emphasis is on the thoughtful decisions speakers make in adapting their points to audiences. This classical use contrasts with some con-temporary suggestions that “mere rheto-ric” is superfi cial or tricky persuasion.

S

secondary orality Sound-based com-munication that, unlike the primary orality of preliterate cultures, is based in literacy and fi nds its outlet in electronic media.

semantic fallacy An error in reason-ing that occurs when a word is used in different senses in different parts of the argument.

signposts Organizational techniques that keep the listener informed about how the speech is unfolding. They tell what has been covered, what remains to

be covered, and when changes in direc-tion are occurring.

simile A stylistic device that compares two things from different categories, such as “managing a group of scientists is like herding cats.”

slang Nonstandard words and expressions.

slippery slope fallacy An error in reasoning that claims the fi rst step in some direction must result in going to dangerous lengths in that direction.

spatial pattern A way of organizing the main points of a speech according to some relationship in space. This might be by geographical regions or by rooms in a museum, for example.

speech or speaker’s notes These are working notes designed for quick reference and easy readability during a speech. They are not the same as a manuscript or a full-sentence outline, but they contain key words, phrases, organizational cues, and perhaps some specifi c details that must be cited exactly.

statistical evidence Data that has been systematically collected and coded in numerical form so that speakers can capture a broad number of cases or make formal comparative statements.

stock issues A set of standardized ques-tions to which a speaker can refer in order to be sure that a proposition has been fully established. These can be the basis of building a strong persuasive



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case or they can be points of refutation for a speaker who opposes a proposi-tion. The stock issues vary in con-text—such as the legal context, where each kind of charge raises particular points of controversy—but in a general policy proposition the stock issues are: Is there a need? Is the need inherent to the current system? Does the proposal meet the need? Is the proposal work-able? Does the plan have disadvantages that outweigh the advantages?

straw fi gure fallacy An error in reason-ing that stems from stating an argu-ment in a much weaker form than is fair to those advocating the view and then proceeding to demolish that weak argument.

style The use of language to make speech effective. Style consists of being clear and concise and also of using various devices to enhance the impact of language.

subordinate points The lesser points that fall beneath main points of a speech—either to elaborate on the main points or to support them.

supporting materials The parts of a speech that expand on or prove the claims made in main points or sub-points. These examples, defi nitions, statistics, and testimony serve as the actual building blocks of a speech.

symposium A series of short speeches, usually informative, on various aspects of the same general topic. Audience questions often follow.

systematic desensitization A treat-ment for communication anxiety that consists of imagining the frightening situation and then interposing a relax-ation response, doing this repeatedly until relaxation becomes linked with the speech situation and a speaker is less anxious.

T

team presentation A speech given by a small group of presenters who have worked collaboratively to prepare a uni-fi ed statement and to make sure that all the requirements of an effective speech are present. Presumably, the present-ers all bring some special expertise or perspective to the presentation.

testimony A form of supporting ma-terial that reports the experience or opinions of another person. Usually the testimony is helpful because the person cited either is an expert or has direct experience with the topic.

text A message captured in words. Thus, all the nonverbal and psychologi-cal and cultural factors that surround this core message and help shape its meaning are called the context.

topic outline An outline that identifi es the points that will be covered and the relationships among them but that may not spell out all of the logical connec-tions that would be present in a full-sentence outline.

topical pattern A way of organizing the main points of a speech that grows nat-urally out of what is being talked about



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and does not have sequential, spatial, or logical rules for how it is arranged.

training presentations A form of infor-mative speaking that is in an extended and focused format. Associated with the workplace, it will often take the form of a series of workshops or seminars in which the goal is to help people learn a rather specifi c set of skills or body of knowledge.

V

values Beliefs about what is good or bad (wise or foolish, just or unjust, pretty or ugly, etc.).

vocal variety Altering the tone and pitch of one’s voice to provide for inter-est and emphasis. It’s the opposite of a monotone.

vocalized pauses Filler phrases such as “um,” “er,” “y’know,” and “like” that break the fl uency of speaking and can be distracting to listeners.

volume The loudness (or softness) with which one speaks.

W

warrant The part of an argument that links the evidence to the claim. Because the same data can be used to prove multiple (even opposite) points, a speaker must show explicitly the kind of reasoning that links data to a particular conclusion.

whiteboard A board with an erasable shiny surface for making temporary markings, such as drawings or words.



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CHAPTER 11. W. J. Ong, Rhetoric, Romance, and Technol-

ogy: Studies in the Interaction of Expression and Culture (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1971).

2. Marshall McLuhan, Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1964).

3. Claude E. Shannon and Warren Weaver, The Mathematical Theory of Communica-tion (Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 1949).

4. Sonja K. Foss and Cindy L. Griffi n, “Beyond Persuasion: A Proposal for an Invitational Rhetoric,” Communication Monographs 62 (March 1995): 2–18.

CHAPTER 31. Adapted from Alfred McClung Lee and

Elizabeth Briant Lee, The Fine Art of Propa-ganda (New York: Harcourt and Institute for Propaganda Analysis, 1939), 23–24.

CHAPTER 51. Based on Catherine Patrick, What Is Cre-

ative Thinking? (New York: Philosophical Library, 1955), 1–48.

CHAPTER 61. Richard J. Mohoney, Vital Speeches of the

Day 60, no. 8 (1 Feb. 1994): 236–37.2. Malcolm S. Forbes, Jr., Vital Speeches of the

Day 60, no. 11 (15 March 1994): 336–38.3. Jeff Davidson, Vital Speeches of the Day 68,

no. 3 (15 Nov. 2001): 87–91.4. Carol Koehler, Vital Speeches of the Day 64,

no. 17 (15 June 1998): 543–44.

CHAPTER 71. See, for example, Erik Erikson, Identity and

the Life Cycle (New York: Norton, 1980), and Gail Sheehy, Passages: Predictable Crises of Adult Life (New York: Dutton, 1976).

2. Susan Pizarro-Eckert, “Ethnicity–Defi nitions of Key Race Relations Terms,” http://racerelations.about.com/od/skillsbuildingresources/g/ethnicityrace.htm (accessed Sep tem ber 8, 2006).

CHAPTER 81. Leslie Walker, Washington Post (27 July

2006): D01.

CHAPTER 121. Ernest L. Boyer, “Lifelong Learning in the

Arts,” Vital Speeches of the Day 61, no. 1 (15 Oct. 1994): 15–18.

CHAPTER 131. William A. Dimma, “Corporate Ethics

Revisited: Ten Thoughts.” Vital Speeches of the Day 56, no. 9 (Feb. 15, 1990): 283–286.

2. Jeanne Wakatsuki Houston, “A Tapestry of Hope: America’s Strength Was, Is, and Will Be Its Diversity,” San Jose Mercury News, 19 June 1994: 1C, 4C.

3. Carol W. Kinsley, “What Is Community Service Learning?” Vital Speeches of the Day 61, no. 2 (Nov.1, 1994): 40–42.

CHAPTER 141. Congressional Record, 6 Aug. 1967.2. Peter M. Gerhart, “The Future of the Legal

Profession,” Vital Speeches of the Day 60, no. 11 (15 March 1994): 347–52.

CHAPTER 151. Margaret Mead, “Anthropology and Educa-

tion for the Future,” Readings in Anthro-pology, 3rd ed., ed. Jesse D. Jennings and E. Adamson Heobel (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1972), 3–6.

2. Jessica Mitford, Kind and Usual Punish-ment: The Prison Business (New York: Knopf, 1973), 265–66.

CHAPTER 181. Bruce E. Gronbeck, Kathleen German,

Douglas Ehninger, and Alan H. Monroe, Principles of Speech Communication, 12th brief ed. (New York: HarperCollins, 1995), 145–49.

CHAPTER 201. Helen Caldicott, Nuclear Madness (Brook-

line, Mass.: Autumn Press, 1978), 29.2. Abraham Maslow, Motivation and Person-

ality, 2nd ed. (New York: Harper & Row, 1970), 35–58.

3. Sandra J. Ball-Rokeach and Joel W. Grube, The Great American Values Test: Infl uencing Behavior and Belief through Television (New York: Free Press, 1984), 90.

4. One resource for poll information is the inter-University Consortium for Political and

NO

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530 Notes

Social Research (ICPSR) databank in Ann Arbor, Mich. (www.icpsr.umich.edu).

5. This approach to values is adapted from Mil-ton Rokeach’s method of classifying beliefs by their centrality: Rokeach, in collaboration with Richard Bonier and others, The Open and Closed Mind (New York: Basic Books, 1960).

CHAPTER 221. Richard E. Petty and John T. Cacioppo,

Communication and Persuasion: Central and Peripheral Routes to Attitude Change (New York: Springer Verlag, 1986), 5.

2. Wallace C. Fotheringham, Perspectives on Persuasion (Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 1966), 32.

3. F. T. Giles, The Criminal Law: A Short Intro-duction (Harmondsworth, England: Penguin Books, 1967), 197.

4. Douglas Ehninger, Alan H. Monroe, and Bruce E. Gronbeck, Principles and Types of Speech Communication, 8th ed. (Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman and Company, 1978).

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The index identifi es chapter sections as well as page numbers. Sections appear fi rst, printed in boldface type. Page numbers immediately follow the colon.

Aabsurd extreme, fallacy of, 16f.3:236– 237accents

compensating for, 25a.4:349– 350listening with respect, 2c.1:30

accuracy, of statistics, 15c.1:205– 206acronyms, 21b.1:294– 295adapting to speech situation, 28:384

audience reactions and, 28a:384– 385, 386distractions and, 28b:385, 387– 388hecklers and, 22c.3:311, 23:326, 28c:388– 390

ad hominem fallacy, 16f.1:236adoption, 22a:299– 300, 22b.2:303affi rming the consequent, 16f.8:239agenda, 35a.1:428– 430, 35a.2:431age of audience, 7b.1:92– 94alliteration, 17d.2:260alternative proposals, comparing, 22d.2:314analogies

fi gurative vs. literal, 16e.2:235in informative speeches, 21b.4:296reasoning by, 16e:233– 235, 16g.2:245– 246

anticlimax arrangement of arguments, 22e:314antithesis, 17d.2:261anxiety. See fear of speakingAPA style, 8e.1:119, 120– 122appeals

in conclusion, 14b.2:187– 188See also emotional appeals; motivational

appealsappearance, 26a:361– 362appropriate language, 17c:254– 258Aristotle, 1b.2:10– 11, 19:276, 22:298articulation problems, 25a.3:349, 25d.2:356– 357,

25d.5:359– 360associations, as information sources, 8d.1:116assonance, 17d.2:260attention getter, 13b:171– 172attention of audience, 18:266

converting to interest, 18b:272– 274introduction and, 13b:171– 172neutral audiences and, 22c.2:308pitfalls with, 18c:274– 275techniques for getting, 18a:267– 272

audience analysis, 7:89attitude toward topic and, 7d:98– 99for ceremonial speeches, 33b:421context of speech and, 30a:398demographics and, 7b:91– 97expectations and, 7e:99– 101for informative speeches, 21a.4:294for interviews, 32d.1:412

language style and, 17e:264– 265listening holistically in, 2f:35– 36meaning construction and, 7c:97– 98organization of speech and, 10a:147for project proposal, 32b.1:410references to audience in speech and,

18a.2:269research focus and, 8b.4:105sources of information for, 7a:90– 91during speech, 28a:384– 385for training sessions, 32a.1:407values and, 20c.1:287

audiencesactive involvement of, 18a.2:269– 270,

18c.4:275adapting to reactions of, 28a:384– 385, 386attitudes toward topic, 7d:98– 99classifi cation of, 22c:304concern for, expressing, 19c.5:281demographics of, 7b:91– 97emotional impact on, 20a:282– 283establishing relationship with, 13c.1:173– 176expectations of, 7e:99– 101favorable, 7d:99, 22c.1:304– 307fear of speaking and, 4a.3:51– 52fl attery of, 13c:175hecklers in, 22c.3:311, 23:326, 28c:388– 390history as a group, 7e:100immediate or extended, 30c:402language of, synchronizing with, 17e:263– 265needs of, appealing to, 20b:283– 285neutral, 7d:99, 22c.2:307– 309one-time vs. existing community, 30c:401– 402orientation for, 13d.2:180– 181outcomes desired from, 6c.3:79– 82power differences between speaker and,

30c:401psychological closure for, 14b:186– 188question-and-answer period and, 29:391– 394referring to, in speech, 18a.2:269respect for, 3c:40–41self-interest of, 18b.1:273sense of community of, 20c.4:290– 291,

30c:401– 402thanking, 14c:189– 190topic selection and, 6a.2:72– 73, 6b.2:77unfavorable, 7d:99, 22c.3:309– 311values of, 7c:97– 98, 20c:285– 291See also appeals; attention of audience

audio aids, 27a.1:369, 27a.2:370, 27b.1:374, 27c.2:378. See also presentation aids

audio recording, of practice, 24b.2:339

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532 Index

authoritiesdefi nition by, 15a.5:199– 200testimony from, 15d:209– 212See also experts

authority values, 20c.2:288average, fallacy of, 15c.2:206– 207awards

accepting, 33c:423agenda and, 35a.1:429presenting, 23d.1:333, 33c:422

Bbandwagon, 3e.3:46– 47banquets, 35a.1:429, 35a.2:431, 35a.3:431. See also

ceremonial settingsbar graphs, 27a.3:371, 372, 27b.1:374, 375base, unknown, fallacy of, 15c.2:207beliefs

personal, topic based on, 6a.1:72See also persuasive speeches; values

biasof cited authority, 15d.1:211in examples, 15b.2:203See also ethics

bloated language, 17b.3:253– 254blogs, 8c:109– 110book catalogue, of library, 8b.2:106Boyer, Ernest L., 12a:166brainstorming, 6a.1:71, 9a:132– 133breathiness, 25d.1:356Buber, Martin, 1b.4:13burden of proof, 22b.2:302– 304, 34a.1:425business and professional settings, 32:406– 407

benefi ts of communication skills in, 4chair role in, 35a.2:431, 35a.3:431classroom practice for, 31b:404employment interviews, 32d:412– 416performance reviews, 32d:412, 32d.4:415project proposals, 32b:409– 411project status reports, 32c:411– 412, 35a.1:429sales presentations, 32d:412, 32d.2:413team presentations, 32e:416– 419training presentations, 32a:407– 409

Ccard catalogue, 8b.2:106cards. See notecardscard stacking, 3e.3:46catalogue, library, 8b.2:106catchwords, 21b.1:295causal reasoning, 16d:228– 233

fallacies in, 16f.10:240language for, 16g.2:245supporting evidence in, 16g.1:243

cause– effect patterns, 10a.3:145– 146connectives in, 12a:166, 167of subpoints, 10b:150– 151

ceremonial settings, 33:420– 423in classical rhetoric, 1b.2:10emcee in, 35a.1:429, 35a.3:431memorized speeches in, 23d:333

certainty. See probabilitychairing program or meeting, 35a:428– 431change

as persuasive goal, 22a:299– 300stock issues against, 22b.2:303– 304

charts, 27a.3:371, 27b.1:374, 27b.2:376, 27b.5:379Chicago Manual of Style (CMS), 8e.1:119chronological patterns, 10a.1:144

connectives in, 12a:166, 167of subpoints, 10b:149– 150

circular reasoning, 16f.5:237– 238citations. See sourcescivic settings, 34:424– 427claims

as propositions of fact, value, or policy, 22b.1:300– 302

reasoning from evidence to, 16a:216– 218, 16g:241– 247

restating, 16g.2:246– 247See also thesis statement

clarifi cation, supporting materials for, 15:196– 197

classroom speaking, 31:403– 405clichés, 33a:420– 421climax arrangement of arguments, 22e:314clincher, 14c:188– 190, 34b.5:427clip art, 27d.3:380– 381closure. See conclusion of speechclothing, 26a:361– 362cognitive restructuring, 4d.2:55–56collaborative preparation, 5c:65, 67common ground

in civic or political context, 34:424establishing, 13c:174with heckler, 28c.1:389with unfavorable audience, 22c.3:310, 311See also ground rules

common sense, misleading appeals to, 3e.3:46communication

information transmission model of, 1b:8, 1b.3:11– 12, 1c:14

leadership for, 35b:432– 433social construction of meaning in, 1a:7,

1c:13– 15, 7c:97– 98See also public speaking

communication apprehension, 4e:57. See also fear of speaking



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Index 533

communicative resources, 1d:15– 20, 5d:67– 68competence

skill learning and, 1e:20– 23of speaker, perceptions of, 19a:277

computer animations, 27a.3:371concept mapping, 9b.2:134conceptual context, 13d.1:179– 180. See also con-

text of topicconclusion, logical. See reasoningconclusion of speech, 14:184

clincher in, 14c:188– 190connectives and, 12a:166deductive argument and, 16c.3:227logical closure in, 14a:184– 186by moderator of forum, panel, or debate,

35a.1:430pitfalls with, 14c:189of project proposal, 32b.4:411of project status report, 32c.3:412psychological closure in, 14b:186– 188of team presentation, 32e.2:417of training session, 32a.5:409

concrete language, 17b.2:252– 253confi dence, 4b:52– 53, 13a:170– 171connectives (transitions), 12:165– 169

to supporting materials, 15e.2:213in team presentations, 32e.2:417

consciousness, skill-learning stages of, 1e:20– 23consultants, public speaking, 25d.5:360contact person

building credibility with, 19b:278– 279information about audience from, 7a.4:91

context, meaning and, 1c.2:14– 15context of ethical decision, 3a.3:40context of topic

addressing in conclusion, 14a.2:185– 186establishing in introduction, 13d.1:178– 180

contexts of speeches, 397, 30:398– 402audience expectations and, 7e:100basic elements of, 30a:398– 399civic, 34:424– 427classroom, 31:403– 405dimensions of, 30c:400– 402formats for, 30b:399– 400political, 34:424– 427social, 33:420– 423See also adapting to speech situation; business

and professional settings; ceremonial set-tings; occasion

continuance, as persuasive goal, 22a:299– 300conversation skills

drawing on, 1d.1:16, 1d.4:18– 19, 1d.5:19in extemporaneous speaking, 23a:327fear of speaking and, 4a.4:52

natural delivery and, 323– 325overreliance on, 1e:22phases of process and, 5d:67, 68style and, 17a:249

coordinate points, 9f:140– 142Corel Presentations, 27a.2:370core values

of audience, 7c:97– 98, 20c.2:287– 289of speaker, 3b:40, 6a.1:72

cost– reward analysis, 16b.3:221– 222counterarguments

dealing with, 22f:315– 317providing audience with ammunition for,

22c.1:307creative process, 129

four phases of, 5a:62– 63incubation and illumination phases, 5a:62– 63,

5e:68, 24b:336credentials, presenting, 19c.1:279credibility, 19:276

of authorities cited, 15d.1:210– 211building prior to speech, 19b:278– 279content of speech and, 19c:279– 281in debate, 34b.6:427delivery and, 19d:281establishing in introduction, 13c:173–174favorable audiences and, 22c.1:304misarticulations and, 25d.2:357neutral audiences and, 22c.2:308self-assessment of, 19a:277– 278undercutting your own, 13c:174unfavorable audiences and, 22c.3:311

critical assessment, 2d.4:31, 2g.3:36. See also feedback

critical path, 5b.2:64– 65cultural differences

context of speech and, 30c:402limits of analogy and, 16e.1:234See also values

Ddatabases, research with, 8b.2:106– 107, 8c:109data collection

for audience analysis, 7a.2:90evaluating quality of, 15c.1:205– 206See also research

deadlines. See timetablesdebates, 34a.1:425, 34b:426– 427

moderating, 35a.1:430stock issues in, 22b.2:303

declarative sentences, 11b:156– 157deductive reasoning, 16c:222– 227

language for, 16g.2:244values of listeners and, 20c:285



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534 Index

defi nitionsin introduction, 13d.1:180types of, 15a:197– 200

deliberative speaking, 1b.2:10delivery

credibility and, 19d:281defi nition of, 1b.2:11for interviews, 32d.5:415natural theory of, 322– 325See also notes; physical delivery; vocal delivery

delivery modes, 23:326, 30a:399extemporaneous, 23a:326– 328impromptu, 23b:328– 330manuscript, 23c:330– 333memorized, 23d:333– 334

demographics, audience, 7b:91– 97Demosthenes, 25d.5:359denasality, 25d.1:356denying the antecedent, 16f.8:239desensitization, systematic, 4e:57detail, appropriate amount of, 15b.3:203– 204deterrence, as persuasive goal, 22a:299– 300,

22b.2:303dialogic situations, 30c:401dialogic theories, 1b:9, 1b.4:12– 13dictionaries

online, 8c.1:112specialized, 8b.2:108

directories, Internet, 8c:108– 109, 8c.1:110– 111discontinuance, as persuasive goal, 22a:299– 300,

22b.2:303dishonesty, 3d.2:42– 43distractions

listener’s management of, 2b.1:29, 2g.2:36mannerisms as, 26b:362presentation aids as, 27c.5:379from self-indulgent questioners, 29c:393– 394speaker’s management of, 28b:385, 387– 388vocal characteristics as, 25d:355– 358

Eeconomy of language, 17b.3:253– 254educational context, 31:403– 405. See also training

presentationselocution, 322– 323e-mail

citation of, 8e.1:122discussion groups using, 8c:109– 110oral traditions and, 1b.1:9

emcee, 35a.1:429, 35a.3:431emotional appeals, 20a:282– 283

ethics of, 3e.2:44– 45, 3e.3:48, 195excessive or inappropriate, 20d:291to favorable audience, 22c.1:305to neutral audience, 22c.2:308– 309

to unfavorable audience, 22c.3:310See also appeals; motivational appeals

emotions, control of, in debate, 34b.6:427empathy, in analysis of audience, 7a.5:91, 7c:97emphasis cues, 21b.2:295employment interviews, 32d:412– 416Encyclopedia of Associations, 8d.1:116encyclopedias, 8b.2:108, 8c.1:112, 113enhanced conversation, 5d:68entertaining speech, 6c.1:78enthymemes, 16c.3:227, 22c.1:306– 307enumeration, 21b.1:294enunciation, 25a.3:349epideictic speaking, 1b.2:10errors. See pitfallsethics, 3:38– 39

context and, 3a.3:39– 40emotional appeals and, 3e.2:44– 45, 3e.3:48,

195persuasive speeches about issues of, 22b.1:301plagiarism and, 3b.3:40, 3d.1:41– 42respect for audience and, 3c:41, 195respect for ideas and, 3d:41– 44respect for own core values and, 3b:40respectful language and, 3e.1:44,

17c.4:256– 258speaker’s complex choices and, 3a:39– 40,

3e:44– 48ethnicity

audience composition and, 7b.3:94– 97inclusive language and, 17c.4:256– 257

ethos, 1b.2:11etymological defi nition, 15a.2:198eulogies, 33c:422evidence

linking to claims, 16a:216– 218, 16g:241– 247neutral audiences and, 22c.2:309statistical, 8c.1:112, 15c:204– 209unfavorable audiences and, 22c.3:310– 311See also supporting materials

evocative speechesdefi nition of, 6c.1:78standard forms of, 33:420thesis statements for, 6d.1:83, 6d.2:84– 85

examples, 15b:200– 201appropriate detail in, 15b.3:203– 204defi nition by, 15b.6:200factual, 15b.1:201– 202, 15b.3:203hypothetical, 15b.2:202in informative speeches, 21b.3:295– 296specifi c and real, 18a.1:268

expectations, audience, 7e:99– 101experience, personal, as speech topic, 6a.1:71– 72experts

as information sources, 8d.1:115– 117



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Index 535

qualifi cations of, 15d.1:210– 211See also authorities

explanationtechniques of, 21b:294– 297See also analogies; examples; repetition;

signpostsextemporaneous speaking, 23a:326– 328, 30a:399eye contact, 26f:365

for group interview, 32d.5:416heckler and, 28c.2:390for manuscript speech, 23d.2:332– 333for memorized speech, 23d.4:334for question-and-answer period, 29b:392visual aids and, 27c.3:378

Ffacial expressions, 26g:366fact, propositions of, 22b.1:300– 302factual examples, 15b.1:201– 202, 15b.3:203fallacies

in reasoning, 16f:235– 240statistical, 15c.2:206– 208

false beliefs, replacement of, 4d.2:55– 56false dichotomy, 16f.7:238family, as information sources, 8d.1:115favorable audiences

defi nition of, 7d:99, 22c:304persuasive speeches to, 22c.1:304– 307

fear of speaking, 4:49analysis of, 4a.2:50– 51confi dence building and, 4b:52– 53natural theory of delivery and, 324as normal response, 4a.1:49– 50physical techniques to cope with, 4c:53– 54positive self-suggestion techniques, 4d:54– 56professional assistance for, 4e:56– 57reconceptualizing the audience and,

4a.3:51– 52testing your level of, 4a.1:50

feedbackcommunication theory and, 1b.3:11– 12constructive, 2d:31– 34excess of, 24f.2:346eye contact and, 23c.2:333on ideas, 5c:67in practice sessions, 24a:335, 24b.2:338– 340for team presentations, 32e.4:419, 32e.5:419

fi gurative analogy, 16e.2:235fi gures of speech, 17d.2:259– 261fi lm clips, 27a.3:371, 27b.1:373fl attery, of audience, 13c:175fl owcharts

as presentation aids, 27b.1:374of speech structure, 130

focus groups, 7a.3:90– 91

forensic speaking, 1b.2:10formality

of language, 17c.1:255of situation, 30c:400

formats, for speaking situations, 30b:399– 400forums, 34a.1:425, 35a.1:430framework for speech

in introduction, 13d.1:178organizing cues as, 21b.1:295See also context of topic; organization of speech

Freelance Graphics (Lotus presentation software), 27a.2:370

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ), 8d.1:117friends, as information sources, 8d.1:115full-sentence outline, 11b:156– 161, 23a:327,

23c:331

Ggender


generalities, simplistic, 3e.3:46generalizations

demographic, 7b:92–93hasty, 16f.9:239– 240

generation, of audience members, 7b.1:93gestures, hand, 26e:363– 364goal. See purpose of speechgovernment information sources, 8d.1:116graphs, 27a.3:371, 372, 27b.1:374, 375grids, as visual aids, 27b.1:374grooming, 26a:361– 362ground rules

of meeting, 35b.2:432– 433, 35b.3:433See also common ground

group formats, 34a:425– 426. See also debates; team presentations

Hhand gestures, 26e:363– 364handouts, 27b.5:379, 27d:380, 35a.3:431hecklers, 22c.3:311, 23:326, 28c:388– 390hierarchy of needs, 20b:283– 285historical context, 13d.1:178– 179historical defi nition, 15a.2:198hoarseness, 25d.1:356holistic listening, 2f:35– 36honors. See awardshumor

appropriate use of, 18a.4:271– 272in introduction, 13c:175– 176pitfalls with, 18c.1:274– 275with unfavorable audiences, 22c.3:311

hyperbole, 17d.2:259hypothetical examples, 15b.2:202



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536 Index

Iideas

assembling, 9a:132– 133See also main points; topic of speech

illumination phase, 5a:62– 63, 129, 24b:336illustrations. See presentation aidsimage, self-assessment of, 19a:277– 278imagery, 17d.1:258, 17d.2:259, 17d.3:261impromptu speaking, 23b:328– 330, 30a:399inclusive language, 17c.4:256– 258incubation phase, 5a:62, 63, 5e:68, 129, 24b:336inductive reasoning, 16b:218– 222

examples in, 15b.1:201– 202language for, 16g.2:244

infl ection, repetitious pattern of, 25d.4:358informal situation, 30c:400information gathering

in audience analysis, 7a:90– 91listening techniques in, 2e:34– 35See also research

information overload, 129, 21a.1:293information transmission theories, 1b:8, 1b.3:11–

12, 1c:14informative speeches, 21:292

defi nition of, 6c.1:78explanation techniques for, 21b:294– 297learning process and, 21a:292– 294thesis statements for, 6d.1:82– 83, 6d.2:83– 84

InfoTrac College Edition, 8b.2:107interest of audience, 18b:272– 274internal previews and summaries, 12b:168– 169Internet

citation of sources on, 8e.1:121– 122discussion groups on, 8c:109– 110, 8d.1:117,

8e.1:122effi cient searching on, 8a.2:104, 8c.1:110– 111evaluating sources on, 8c.2:113– 115oral traditions and, 1b.1:9overview of information sources on, 8c:108–

110records of sources found, 8e:118, 8f:124reference sites, 8c.1:112– 113

interruptions. See distractionsinterviews

for audience analysis, 7a.3:90– 91citation of, 8e.1:122employment, 32d:412– 416guidelines for being interviewed, 32d:412– 416listening during, 2e:34– 35records of information from, 8f.2:126for research, 8d.2:117– 118

introduction, 13:170attention-getting, 13b:171– 172broader context of topic and, 14a.2:186

confi dence before starting, 13a:170– 171connectives and, 12a:166length of, 13e:181– 183logical orientation in, 13d:177– 181motivation of audience in, 3c.2:176– 177pitfalls with, 13e:183for project proposal, 32b.2:410for project status report, 32c.1:411psychological orientation in, 13c:172– 177relationship with audience and, 13c.1:173– 176of speaker by a person, 19b.2:278for team presentation, 32e.2:417for training session, 32a.4:409

invitational rhetoric, 1b.4:13issues of speech

audience’s values and, 20c.3:289– 290thesis statement and, 6d.2:83– 85See also topic of speech

Jjargon, 17c.2:255– 256job interviews, 32d:412– 416

KKeynote (Apple presentation software), 27a.2:370keywords or key phrases

Internet searches with, 8b.2:106, 107, 8c:108outline using, 23a:327– 328, 23c.3:330in speech notes, 24c.1:340– 341of topic, 8a.3:104

Llanguage

appropriate, 17c:254– 258of audience, synchronizing with, 17e:263– 265clear, 17b:250– 253clichéd, 33a:420– 421economy of, 17b.3:253– 254formality level of, 17c.1:255fresh, 17d.3:262hurtful, 3e.1:44imagery in, 17d.1:258, 17d.2:259, 17d.3:262inclusive, 17c.4:256– 258jargon, 17c.2:255– 256key terms of topic, 8a.3:104in outlines, 11d:162– 164power of, 17:248reasoning and, 16g.2:243– 247repetitive, for effect, 17d.2:259– 260respectful, 3e.1:44, 17c.4:256– 258slang, 17c.2:255– 256substandard, 17c.3:256, 25c.1:353vivid and varied, 17d:258– 262See also communicative resources; style



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Index 537

leadership roles, 35:428– 433learning

of information, 21a:292– 294of skills, 1e:20– 23

librarians, 8b.1:105– 106, 8c:109library research, 8b:105– 108lies, 3d.2:42– 43line graphs, 27a.3:371, 372, 27b.1:374, 375listening

for audience analysis, 2f:35– 36as audience member, 2c:30– 31holistic, 2f:35– 36in information gathering, 2e:34– 35pitfalls in, 2g:36– 37preparation for, 2b:29– 30to provide feedback, 2d:31– 34purpose of, 2b.3:29– 30speaking and, 2a:28– 29

logical defi nition, 15a.1:197– 198logical relationships

connectives and, 12a:166– 168introductory orientation to, 13d:177– 181outlines and, 16g.1:241– 243See also context of topic; reasoning

logos, 1b.2:10– 11

Mmain points

arranging, 10a:143– 147as claims, 16a:216connectives and, 12a:166mutually exclusive, 9d:137– 140number of, 9e:140phrasing of, 11c:161– 162, 11d:162– 164reasoning patterns and, 16g.1:241of team presentations, 32e.2:417thesis statement and, 9c:136– 137See also outlines

major premise, 16c.1:224, 16c.3:226mannerisms, distracting, 26b:362manuscript speeches, 23c:330– 333

decision for, 30a:399memorized, 23d:333– 334, 30a:399

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, 20b:283– 285McDermott, Robert, 15b.2:202McLuhan, Marshall, 1b.1:9meaning

construction of, 1a:7, 1c:13– 15, 7c:97– 98context and, 397holistic listening to, 2f:35– 36precise communication and, 17b.1:251

memorable phrases, 21b.1:295memorial addresses, 33c:422memorized speeches, 23d:333– 334, 30a:399

metacommunication, 35b.2:432– 433metaphors, 17b.1:251– 252, 17d.2:259microphone, 25a.1:348, 28b.1:385minor premise, 16c.1:225, 16c.3:226mirror, practicing with, 24b.2:339– 340misconceptions about public speaking, 1f:23–

25misleading statistics, 15c.2:206– 208mispronounced words. See pronunciationMLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers,

8e.1:119, 120– 122models, as presentation aids, 27a.3:370– 371,

27b.1:374, 27c.5:379moderating a forum, panel, or debate, 35a.1:430monologic situations, 30c:400– 401Monroe, Alan, 22d.1:312motivated sequence, 22d.1:312– 314motivation, by introduction, 3c.2:176– 177motivational appeals

excessive, 20d:291to favorable audience, 22c.1:305, 306to needs, 20b:283– 285to values, 20c:285– 291See also appeals; emotional appeals

movement during speechaudience attention and, 18a.3:271distracting mannerisms, 26b:362effective, 26d:363hand gestures, 26e:363– 364rehearsed, 322

Nname calling, 3e.3:46narrowing a topic, 6b:75– 77nasality, 25d.1:356natural theory of delivery, 322– 325needs

ceremonial speeches and, 33b:421Maslow’s hierarchy of, 20b:283– 285motivational appeals to, 20b:283– 285

needs analysis, for training program, 32a.1:407negation, defi nition by, 15a.4:199neutral audiences


90/10 principle, 2d.6:33– 34nonnative speakers, 2c.1:30, 25a.4:349– 350nonverbal behaviors

in group presentations, 34b.3:426of hecklers, 28c.2:389– 390of listeners, 2g.6:37

notecardsfor research, 8f:124– 126for speech notes, 24c.2:342



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538 Index

notescrediting sources and, 3d.1:41– 42for identifying speech points, 9b.3:134– 135during information gathering, 2e.3:35,

3d.1:41– 42, 8f:124– 126from interview, 8d.2:118, 8f.2:126during speech, 24c:340– 343

Oobjectivity, 19c.4:280– 281occasion

formality of, 17c.1:255referring to, in introduction, 13c:174– 175topic selection and, 6a.2:72– 73See also contexts of speeches

Ong, Walter, 1b.1:9, 17a:250opening. See introductionopening statement

of chair, 35a.3:431in interview, 32d.2:413

operational defi nition, 15a.3:199opinions

personal, topic based on, 6a.1:72See also persuasive speeches; values

opposing arguments, dealing with, 22f:315– 317opposition, defi nition by, 15a.4:199oral cultures, 1b.1:7, 8, 9oral preparation process, 5c:65, 67, 5e:69oral style

simplicity in, 17b.1:251, 252written style vs., 17a:249– 250See also conversation skills

organization of speech, 129– 131answers to counterarguments in, 22f.2:317assembling ideas and information, 9a:132– 133audience analysis and, 10a:147connectives and, 12a:166– 168credibility and, 19c.3:280cues to, for listeners, 21b.1:294– 295for extemporaneous delivery, 23a:326– 328fl owchart of, 130four stages of, 9:132identifying potential points, 9b:133– 135for impromptu speaking, 23b.3:329– 330for informative speeches, 21a:292– 294,

21b:294– 297listening to, 2c.3:31logical relationships in, 16g.1:241– 243memorized speeches and, 23d.1:333, 23d.5:334motivated sequence in, 22d.1:312– 314orienting audience to, 13d.2:180– 181,

21a.2:293patterns of main points, 10a:143– 147patterns of subpoints, 10b:148– 151

for persuasive speeches, 22d:312– 314, 22e:314– 315

relationships of points in, 9f:140– 142strongest points in, 22e:314– 315writing skills in, 1d.2:17See also main points; outlines; subordinate

pointsorientation

logical, 13d:177– 181psychological, 13c:172– 177

outcome, audience, 6c.3:79– 82outlines, 11:152– 153

concise and parallel language in, 11d:162– 164conventional format for, 11a:153– 156for extemporaneous delivery, 23a:327full-sentence, 11b:156– 161, 23a:327, 23c:331keyword or key-phrase, 23a:327– 328phrasing in, 11c:161– 162, 11d:162– 164practice sessions and, 24b.1:336– 338reasoning shown in, 16g.1:241– 243speech notes vs., 24c:340for team presentations, 32e.2:416– 417topic outline, 9b.1:133– 134, 11b:159– 161See also main points; subordinate points

overhead transparencies and projector, 27a.3:371, 27b.1:374, 27b.3:377, 27c.5:379

oversimplifi cation, ethics of, 3d.3:43– 44

Ppanels, 34a.1:425, 34a.2:426, 35a.1:430parallel phrasing

in outline, 11d:162– 164in speech, 17d.2:259– 260, 17d.4:262– 263in team presentation, 32e.3:418

paraphrasingas listening skill, 2e.1:34in note taking, 8f.1:125as plagiarism, 3d.1:41of testimony, 15d:209– 210

parliamentary session, agenda for, 35a.1:430pathos, 1b.2:11patterns

connectives in, 12a:166, 167of main points, 10a:143– 147of subpoints, 10b:148– 151See also logical relationships

pauses, vocalized, 25d.3:357performance reviews, 32d:412, 32d.4:415performance skills

drawing on, 1d.3:17– 18, 1d.4:18– 19, 1d.5:20, 17a:250

overreliance on, 1e:22, 322– 323phases of process and, 5d:67– 68

periodical indexes and databases, 8b.2:106– 107



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Index 539

peripheral values, 20c.2:288personal attacks, 16f.1:236personifi cation, 17d.2:259persuasive speeches, 22:298– 299

analysis for, 22b:300– 304appeals to audience, in conclusion,

14b.2:187– 188Aristotle on, 1b.2:10– 11counterarguments and, 22c.1:307, 22f:315– 317defi nition of, 6c.1:78ethical implications of, 3e.3:45– 48for favorable audience, 22c.1:304– 307goals clarifi cation for, 22a:299– 300for neutral audience, 22c.2:307– 309organization of, 22d:312– 314, 22e:314– 315stock issues in, 22b.2:302– 304thesis statements for, 6d.1:83, 6d.2:83– 84types of propositions in, 22b.1:300– 302for unfavorable audience, 22c.3:309– 311

physical delivery, 26:361appearance, 26a:361– 362facial expressions, 26g:366hand gestures, 26e:363– 364mannerisms, 26b:362movements, 26d:363performed vs. natural, 322– 325posture, 26c:362– 363See also eye contact; nonverbal behaviors

physical effects of fear, 4c:53– 54pictorial reproductions, 27a.3:371pictorial symbols, 27a.3:371– 373pie graphs, 27a.3:371, 372, 27b.1:374, 27b.2:376pitch, varying, 25b.1:351, 25d.4:358pitfalls

attention-getting techniques, 18c:274– 275audience participation, 18c:275conclusion, 14c:189emotional appeals, 20d:291humor, 18c.1:274– 275introduction, 13e:183listening, 2g:36– 37performance, 1e:22, 322– 323planning, 5e:68– 69practice, 24f:346See also fallacies

plagiarism, 3b.3:40, 3d.1:41– 42planning

communicative resources in, 5d:67– 68creativity in, 5a:62– 63, 5e:68for impromptu speaking, 23b:328– 330as oral and collaborative process, 5c:67pitfalls in, 5e:68– 69presentation aids and, 27a:368– 373research strategy in, 8a:102– 105

stages of, 5b.3:65, 66for team presentations, 32e.1:416,

32e.2:416– 417timetable for, 5b:63– 65See also outlines; preparation

pointsassembling ideas and information for,

9a:132– 133coordinate, 9f:140– 142multiple channels or modes for, 21b.5:296– 297See also claims; main points; outlines; subordi-

nate points; thesis statementpolicy, propositions of, 22b.1:300, 301– 302,

22b.2:303political settings, 34:424– 427positive self-suggestion, 4d:54– 56post hoc fallacy, 16f.10:240posture, 26c:362– 363power

differences between speaker and listeners, 30c:401

of speaker, 194– 195PowerPoint, 27:367– 368, 27a.2:370, 27c.5:379. See

also presentation softwarepractice

for extemporaneous speech, 23a:327– 328fear of speaking and, 4b:52– 53feedback from, 24a:335, 24b.2:338– 340last run-through, 24e:345with mirror, 24b.2:339– 340pitfalls in, 24f:346with presentation aids, 27c.1:378recording of, 24b.2:339speech notes prepared during, 24c.1:340– 341stages of, 24b:336– 340for team presentations, 32e.4:418– 419time limit adjustments, 24d:343– 345timetable for, 5b.3:65, 66

precise language, 17b.1:251– 252premises. See deductive reasoningpreparation, 61

as collaborative process, 5c:65, 67communicative resources used in, 5d:67– 68for debates, 34b:426– 427excessive, 24f.3:346fear of speaking and, 4b:52– 53for group presentations, 34a.2:425– 426for interviews, 32d:412– 415as oral process, 5c:65, 67, 5e:69as phase of creative process, 5a:62, 63of presentation aids, 27b:373– 378for programs or meetings, 35a:428– 431for question-and-answer period, 29a:391– 392relaxed frame of mind, 24e:345– 346



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540 Index

preparation (continued)See also audience analysis; planning; practice;

research; topic of speechpresentation. See deliverypresentation aids, 27:367– 368

appropriate use of, 27a.1:368– 369audio, 27a.1:369, 27a.2:370, 27b.1:374,

27c.2:378blending into speech, 27c:378– 379categories of, 27a.3:370– 371chair’s responsibilities for, 35a.3:431choosing form and technology of, 27a.2:369–

371, 27b.1:373discrete or continuous, 27:367– 368distractions caused by, 27c.5:379, 28b.1:385in multiple communication channels,

21b.5:296– 297preparation of, 27b:373– 378for team presentations, 32e.2:417, 32e.3:418

presentation software, 27a.2:370oral traditions and, 1b.1:9as possible distraction, 27c.5:379PowerPoint, 27:367– 368, 27a.2:370, 27c.5:379speech notes prepared with, 24c.2:342templates of, 27b.3:376– 377, 27d.1:380wise use of, 27d:380– 383

presenting an award, 23d.1:333, 33c:422preview

internal, 12b:168– 169in introduction, 3d.2:181

primacy principle, 22e:314– 315private spheres, speaking in, 30c:400probability

causal claims and, 16d.3:232– 233deductive reasoning and, 16c.2:225– 226inductive reasoning and, 16b.2:220,

16b.3:221– 222problem– solution pattern, 10a.4:146problem– solution– result (PSR) statements,

32d.4:413– 415professional assistance

with fear of speaking, 4e:56– 57with vocal delivery, 25d.5:360

professional settings. See business and professional settings

projector, 27b.1:373, 374, 27c.5:379project proposal, 32b:409– 411project status report, 32c:411– 412, 35a.1:429pronunciation

accent and, 25a.4:350common errors in, 25c.1:354distinct, 25a.3:349standard, 25c:352– 355

proofburden of, 22b.2:302– 304, 34a.1:425supporting materials for, 15:196– 197

propaganda, 3e.3:45– 48proposal, project, 32b:409– 411propositions, types of, 22b.1:300– 302Pro Presentations, 27a.2:370PSR statements, 32d.4:413– 415psychological closure, 14b:186– 188psychological orientation, 13c:172– 177Publication Manual of the American Psychological

Association, 8e.1:119, 120– 122public speaking

benefi ts of, 4fi ve steps of, 1g:25– 27meaning of, 1a:6– 7misconceptions about, 1f:23– 25teachers of, 25d.5:360theoretical foundations of, 1b:7– 13See also communication

public spheres, speaking in, 30c:400purpose of speech, 6c:77– 82

context and, 30a:399in persuasion, 22a:299– 300

pyramidal arrangement of arguments, 22e:314

Qqualifi cations

of experts, 15d.1:210– 211of speaker, 19b.1:278, 19c.1:279

question-and-answer period, 2d.5:31, 29:391– 394

questionsasking for feedback, 24b.2:338– 339in forum format, 34a.1:425in interviews of information sources, 2e.2:35after team presentation, 32e.2:417thesis statement analyzed as, 6d.2:83– 85,

8a.4:105in workplace interviews, 32d.3:413

quotationsacceptable editing of, 15d.2:211– 212indicating boundaries of, 15e.2:214keeping records of, 8f.1:124– 125paraphrases vs., 15d:209– 210web sources for, 8c.1:112, 113

Rrace


rate of speaking, 6b.1:75, 25a.2:348– 349, 25b.2:351– 352



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Index 541

reasoning, 16:215– 216by analogy, 16e:233– 235, 16g.2:245– 246,

21b.4:296causal, 16d:228– 233, 16f.10:240, 16g.1:243,

16g.2:245circular, 16f.5:237– 238deductive, 16c:222– 227, 16g.2:244, 20c:285enthymematic, 16c.3:227, 22c.1:306– 307fallacies in, 16f:235– 240inductive, 15b.1:201– 202, 16b:218– 222,

16g.2:244language use and, 16g.2:243– 247linking evidence to claims, 16a:216– 218,

16g:241– 247in listener’s critical assessment, 2c.4:31organization of speech and, 16g.1:241– 243vs. propaganda, 3e.3:45– 48with unfavorable audiences, 22c.3:310– 311See also logical relationships

recency principle, 22e:314– 315recordings

of practice sessions, 24b.2:339See also audio aids; videotapes

reductio ad absurdum, 16f.3:236– 237references. See sourcesrefi nement phase, 5a:62, 63, 24b:336refutation techniques, 22f.1:315– 317rehearsal. See practicerelaxation techniques, 4c.2:54relaxed frame of mind, 24e:345– 346repetition

of distracting mannerisms, 26b:362of infl ectional pattern, 25d.4:358in informative speeches, 21b.6:297of meaningless sounds or phrases,

25d.3:357– 358as stylistic device, 17d.2:259– 260,

17d.4:262– 263reproductions, 27a.3:370– 371research, 8:102

human resources for, 8d:115– 118library, 8b:105– 108question-and-answer period and, 29a:392record keeping in, 8e:118– 119, 8f:124– 126strategy for, 8a:102– 105timetable for, 5b.3:65, 66See also audience analysis; Internet; supporting

materialsresources, communicative, 1d:15– 20, 5d:67–

68respect

for audience, 3c:41, 195for integrity of ideas, 3d:41– 44

for own core values, 3b:40for speaker, 2c.1:30

respectful language, 3e.1:44, 17c.4:256– 258reticence, 4e:57. See also fear of speakingrhetoric

classical, 1b:8, 1b.2:10– 11, 22c.1:306invitational, 1b.4:13

rituals. See ceremonial settingsrules of speaking

ground rules of meeting, 35b.2:432– 433, 35b.3:433

variety of contexts and, 30c:401

Ssales presentations, 32d:412, 32d.2:413schedules. See timetablessearch engines, 8c:108, 109– 111secondary orality, 1b.1:9self-assessment, of image, 19a:277– 278self-improvement, of vocal delivery, 25d.5:358– 360self-interest, of listeners, 18b.1:273self-suggestion, positive, 4d:54– 56semantic fallacy, 16f.6:238settings. See contexts of speeches; occasionseven, plus or minus two (information-

processing principle), 21a.1:293sex of audience, 7b.2:93– 94shyness, 4e:57. See also fear of speakingsignposts, 12:165– 166

in informative speech, 21b.1:294in oral vs. written style, 17a:249stating a claim, 16g.2:246

similes, 17d.2:259situations. See adapting to speech situation; con-

texts of speeches; occasionslang, 17c.2:255– 256slides, 27a.3:371, 27b.1:373, 374, 27b.3:377,

27c.5:379, 27d:380– 383. See also presenta-tion software

slippery slope fallacy, 16f.4:237slogans, 13d.1:180, 21b.1:295social benefi ts of communication, 4social construction of meaning, 1a:7, 1c:14– 15,

7c:97– 98social settings, 33:420– 423sound equipment, 27b.1:374sounds, meaningless, 25d.3:357– 358sources

citations during speech, 8e.2:119, 123, 15e.1:213

citations for reference list, 8e.1:119, 120– 122keeping records of, 3d.1:41, 8e:118– 119,

8f:124– 126



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542 Index

sources (continued)for supporting materials, 15e.1:213See also authorities; experts; research

spatial patterns, 10a.2:144– 145speaker

introduction of, 19b.2:278perceived competence of, 19a:277power of, 194– 195, 30c:401qualifi cations of, 19b.1:278, 19c.1:279respect for, 2c.1:30values of, 3b:40, 6a.1:72

speaker’s block, 5e:69, 24f.1:346specifi city

of examples, 18a.1:268of language, 17b.2:252– 253

speech strategy, 195speech therapists, 25d.5:360speed. See rate of speakingSprague, VerLynn, 194– 195stage fright, 4e:57. See also fear of speakingstandard English, 17c.3:256statistical evidence, 15c:204– 209

accuracy of, 15c.1:205– 206clear and meaningful use of, 15c.3:208misleading, 15c.2:206– 208web sources for, 8c.1:112

status report, for project, 32c:411– 412stock issues, 22b.2:302– 304storytelling

pitfalls, 18c.2:274– 275social connections and, 4techniques of, 18b.2:273– 274

strategyresearch, 8a:102– 105speech, 195

straw fi gure fallacy, 16f.2:236stridency, in vocal delivery, 25d.1:356structure. See organization of speechstyle, 1b.2:11, 17:248– 249

oral, 17a:249– 250, 17b.1:251, 252reading from manuscript and, 23c:331written, 17a:249– 250See also language

stylistic devices, 17d.2:259– 261subject. See topic of speechsubject directories, Internet, 8c:108– 109,

8c.1:110– 111subordinate points, 9f:140– 142

at least two, 11a.3:155as claims, 16a:216connectives and, 12a:166forecast by main point phrasing, 11c:161– 162patterns of, 10b:148– 151See also outlines

substandard language, 17c.3:256, 257, 258, 25c.1:353

summariesat conclusion, 14a.1:184– 185in debates, 34b.5:427internal, 12b:168– 169

support group, for feedback, 24a:335, 24b.2:338supporting materials, 15:196– 197

citing sources of, 15e.1:213defi nitions as, 15a:197– 200effective incorporation of, 15e:212– 214examples as, 15b:200– 204, 18a.1:268,

21b.3:295– 296expert testimony as, 15d:209– 212lead-ins to, 15e.2:213statistical evidence as, 15c:204– 209See also evidence

surveys, records of, 8f.2:126syllogism, 16c.1:224– 225, 16c.2:226, 20c:285symbols, pictorial, 27a.3:371– 373symposiums, 34a.1:425systematic desensitization, 4e:57

Ttables, as visual aids, 27b.1:374taping. See recordingsteachers, of public speaking, 25d.5:360team presentations, 32e:416– 419tension, techniques for releasing, 4c:53terminology

of speech topic, 8a.3:104of team presentation, 32e.3:418See also defi nitions; keywords or key phrases

testimonials, by popular fi gures, 3e.3:46testimony, from authorities, 15d:209– 212thanking audience, 14c:189– 190theme. See topic of speechthesis statement

as claim, 16a:216development of, 6:70, 6d:82– 85main points and, 9c:136– 137in outline, 11b:156, 157as proposition of fact, value, or policy,

22b.1:300– 302questions derived from, 6d.2:83– 85, 8a.4:105reasoning patterns and, 16g.1:241research notes and, 8f.3:126restatement of, at conclusion, 14a.1:184–

185time allotted

fi tting speech into, 24d:343– 345for group presentation, 34a.1:425, 35a.1:430manuscript speaking and, 23c:330narrowing topic for, 6b.1:75– 76



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Index 543

for research, 8a.1:103for team presentation, 32e.2:417, 32e.4:419

time frame, fallacy of arbitrary, 15c.2:207– 208timetables

for practice sessions, 24b:336for preparing speech, 5b:63– 65

title of speech, 6e:85– 86, 88toasts, 33c:422– 423topical patterns

of main points, 10a.5:146– 147of subpoints, 10b:148– 149

topic of speechaudience attitudes toward, 7d:98– 99audience knowledge about, 7e:100context of, conceptual, 13d.1:178– 180context of, situational, 30a:398– 399credibility about, 19c.2:280of impromptu speech, 23b.2:329key terms for, 8a.3:104narrowing, 6b:75– 77purpose and, 6c.2:79selection of, 6a:70– 74thesis statement and, 6:70, 6d:82– 85timely and timeless, 6a.3:73– 74

topic outline, 9b.1:133– 134, 11b:159– 161training presentations, 32a:407– 409transference, 3e.3:47– 48transitions. See connectives (transitions)trust. See credibility

Uunfavorable audiences


urban legends, 8c.2:114

Vvalue, propositions of, 22b.1:300, 301– 302values

of audience, 7c:97– 98, 20c:285– 291of speaker, 3b:40, 6a.1:72See also core values; ethics

varietyaudience attention and, 18a:270– 271

in language, 17d:258– 263in vocal delivery, 25b:350– 352

video recording, of practice, 24b.2:339videotapes, 27a.3:371, 27b.1:373– 374visual aids. See presentation aidsvisualization

to combat anxiety, 4d.1:54in fi nal run-through, 24e:345in memorizing speech, 23d.3:334in motivated sequence, 22d.1:312, 313in practice sessions, 24b.1:336– 337, 24f.4:346

vocal delivery, 25:347accents in, 25a.4:349– 350distracting characteristics in, 25d:355– 360enunciation in, 25a.3:349professional help with, 25d.5:360pronunciation in, 25a.3:349, 25a.4:350,

25c:352– 355rate of, 6b.1:75, 25a.2:348– 349, 25b.2:351– 352self-improvement of, 25d.5:358– 360variety in, 25b:350– 352volume of, 25a.1:348, 25c.3:352

vocalized pauses, 25d.3:357voice coaches, 25d.5:360voice quality, 25d.1:356volume, speaking, 25a.1:348, 25c.3:352

Wwarrant, 16a.1:217websites. See Internetwhiteboard, 27b.1:374, 27b.2:376Wikipedia, 8c.1:113women. See genderwordiness, 17b.3:253– 254words. See language; styleworkplace. See business and professional settingsworkshops. See training presentationswriter’s block, 5e:68– 69writing skills

drawing on, 1d.2:16– 17, 1d.4:18– 19, 1d.5:19– 20overreliance on, 1e:22phases of process and, 5d:67, 5d:68

written style vs. oral style, 17a:249– 250



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FIGURES AND TABLESFIGURES1.1 A Two-Way Communication Model 121.2 Three Communicative Resources 161.3 The Four Stages of Learning Skills 211.4 The Five Steps of Public Speaking 265.1 The Four Phases of Creativity 635.2 Speech Planning and Practice 665.3 Key Communicative Resources for Different Phases 678.1 A Search Using InfoTrac® College Edition 1078.2 Google’s Advanced Search Page 1118.3 Direct Quotations or Citations 1248.4 Paraphrased Ideas 1258.5 References for Later Use 125 Speech Structure Flowchart 1309.1 Simple Concept Map 13514.1 Relationship of the Introduction, Body, and Conclusion to the Larger Picture 18615.1 Sample Graph Showing Median, Mode, and Mean 20716.1 Reasoning Links Evidence and Claim 21716.2 Inductive Reasoning Draws Inferences from Observations 21916.3 Deductive Reasoning Finds the Patterns in What You Already Know 22316.4 Causal Reasoning Links Cause and Effect 22916.5 Analogy Compares Two Things in the Same Category 23320.1 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs 28420.2 Ranking of Values 28823.1 Easy-to-Follow Manuscript 33224.1 Speech Notes 34127.1 Pictorial Symbols 37227.2 (A) Ineffective and (B) Effective Choice of Graph to Match Data Type 37527.3 (A) Overelaborate versus (B) Clear Visual Aid 37627.4 Overworked Text Slide 38127.5 Effective Text Slide 382

TABLES1.1 Insights from Theoretical Foundations of Public Speaking 81.2 The Five Steps of Public Speaking (with chapter references) 263.1 Avoiding Plagiarism through Bad Paraphrasing 424.1 Replacement Statements 556.1 Timely and Timeless Topics 746.2 Time Allotment of Speech Elements 767.1 Relating to an Audience 988.1 Useful References on the Web 1128.2 Selected Reference List Entries in APA and MLA Styles 12012.1 Connective Words That Signal Relationship 16716.1 Language for Different Kinds of Reasoning 24417.1 Differences between Written and Oral Style 25017.2 The Simpler Oral Style 25217.3 Specifi c, Concrete Language 25317.4 Motives for Bloated Language 25417.5 Substandard and Standard English 25720.1 Issues and Value Links 28924.1 Practice Schedules for Different Types of Speeches 33725.1 Pronunciation Errors 35427.1 Using Charts, Graphs, and Tables 37428.1 Guidelines for Adapting to Various Audiences 38632.1 Subjects for Problem–Solution–Result Statements 415



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CHECKLIST BOXESBalancing Communicative Resources 19Questions for Assessing a Speaker’s Claims 32Constructive Feedback 33Finding a Balance in Ethical Decisions 45Steps for Specifi cally Identifying Your Fear 51Pertinent Demographic Questions 97Audience Expectations 100Questions for Evaluating Internet Sources 114Connecting with Your Audience 176Avoid Common Introduction Pitfalls 183Avoid Common Conclusion Pitfalls 190Tests of Factual Examples 202Tests of Statistical Evidence 206Tests of Testimony 211Verbal Devices to Make Your Language Vivid 263Attention-Getting Techniques 267Assess Your Speaking Image 277Helpful Strategies for Informative Speaking 297For a Favorable Audience 307For a Neutral Audience 309For an Unfavorable Audience 311Formatting Suggestions for Speech Notes 343Steps to Modifying Vocal Behavior on Your Own 359Design Suggestions for Effective Slides and Transparencies 377Key Tasks for Group Planning 416Key Tasks for Moderating a Forum, Panel, or Debate 431Key Tasks for Emceeing a Ceremony or Banquet 431

KEY POINT BOXESNo Simple Dos and Don’ts for Every Situation 25Listening to Nonnative English Speakers 30Specifi c Outcomes May Differ from Speech Purpose 81The Title Does Not State the Thesis 86Limitations of Demographic Generalizations 95Generational Identity 93Multiple Identities of Audience Members 96Beware of Getting Lost on the Web 110Wikipedia 113Beware of Spreading Urban Legends 114Use Unambiguous Examples of Main Points 140Use Audience Analysis to Pick the Best Pattern 147Premature Summaries 168Don’t Undercut Your Credibility before You Start 173Be Sure Your Examples Are Not Biased 203Analyze the Amount of Detail You Need 204Using Famous Quotations 212Not All Nonstandard Language Is Substandard 258Contemporary American Values 286The Smile 365Avoiding Presentation Aid Fiascoes 379Don’t Be Too Quick to Judge Your Audience 387You Don’t Have to Be on the Payroll to Need Workplace Communication Skills 406

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