journal of the home economics institute of australia

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Journal of the HomeEconomics Institute of

Australia

ISBN 1322 - 9974

Vol. 8, No. 3, 2001

EditorsDonna PendergastJan Reynolds

Journal addressPO Box 779,Jamison Centre,Macquarie, ACT 2614Telephone1800 446 841

No articles in this issue have been refereed

Promotional material, flyers and similar additional material are often inserted into the

journal as a service to members. Unless the material bears the HEIA name and logo,

HEIA does not necessarily endorse the product or service being promoted in the

material and cannot guarantee the accuracy of the information contained in the material.

© 2001 Journal of the Home Economics Institute of Australia

Contents

Consumers and the Internet .......................................................................... 2Constance Adams

Coles Fruit and Vegetable Index .................................................................. 12

Early experience and brain development .................................................. 16Judy Cashmore

Re-thinking home economics: From blokey blokes to virginal mothers, groovy chicks and much more! ............................... 20Donna Pendergast

A National Declaration for Education 2001 A report on the findings ......... 27Hedley Beare, Wendy Cahill, Gregory Clarke,

Richard Cotter and Cynthia Merrill

Journal Extra ................................................................................................. 45National Action Planto increase the consumption of vegetables and fruit ........................................ 45

IT in the home economics classroom .............................................................. 48

The facts about aspartame .............................................................................. 50

Book Rewiew – Food Choices the IT way.................................................... 52Miriam McDonald

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Journal of the HEIA

Vol. 8, No. 3, 2001

AbstractThe Internet is ‘no longer a curiosity, but part of

the landscape’ (Dancer, 2000, p.60). Its growth rate

has been phenomenal. According to the Australian

Bureau of Statistics, by May 2000, 54 per cent of all

Australian households had a home computer and

33 per cent of households were connected to the

Internet. This paper examines who uses the Internet

and for what purposes, and addresses associated

issues and concerns. Topics that are discussed

include various user groups, such as older adults,

women, and children; electronic mail; online

shopping; financial management; search for reliable

information; online behaviour; and consumer

protection.

IntroductionGliddon (2000, April 18) states that:

Australians have a hard-won reputation

as avid consumers and early adopters of

technology. We embraced the video

recorder faster than any country on

Earth.... We’re wild about mobile

phones...and nearly as bullish about the

Internet and personal computing (p.94).

According to the Australian Bureau of Statistics(2000), by May 2000, 54 per cent of allAustralian households had a home computerand 33 per cent of households had homeInternet access. The growth rate has beenphenomenal. In May 1998, 42 per cent ofhouseholds had a computer, while only 14 percent of households were connected to theInternet. Australia compares favourably withthe United States of America. In 2000, 51 percent of American households had a computer;41.5 per cent of households were online(computers are in half of US households, 2000).In Europe however, in 1999 only 9 per cent ofhouseholds had Internet access, ranging from3 per cent in Portugal to 23 per cent in Finland(Lynch, 1999).

The Internet is described as ‘the fourth major

communications medium after word of

mouth, the printed word, and broadcast

media’ (O’Neill, 1999). It is ‘no longer a

curiosity, but part of the landscape’ (Dancer,2000, p.60). Internet includes ‘e-mail, the

World Wide Web, mailing lists, chat rooms,

online games and newsgroups’ (Singh & Ryan,1999, p.7).

Selected user groupsThe ‘e-generation’ ranges from grandparentsat one end of the spectrum to grandchildrenat the other end (Dancer, 2000, p.62). By May2000,• Twenty-two per cent of adults 55 years

or over used a computer at home; 12 percent were online;

• Forty-three per cent of women used acomputer at home, while 24 per centaccessed the Internet; compared with 51per cent of men who had a computer athome, and 33 per cent who connectedto the Internet;

• Seventy-five per cent of households withchildren under 18 years had a computerat home; 46 per cent were connected tothe Internet (Australian Bureau ofStatistics, 2000).

Older adults

A fast-growing group of Internet users is olderadults. Many have discovered that e-mail helpsthem to keep in contact with family andfriends. Older adults also use the Internet toresearch ‘topics of interest’ (Galvin, 2000, p.6),

Consumersand the Internet

Constance Adams

Constance Adams PhD

is a consumer scientist.

Tel: 02 6931 2050

E-mail:

[email protected]

Author’s noteReaders need to be aware that the contents ofthe paper were current as of October 2000.Web sites can disappear or be upgraded. Forexample, I stated that “the Qantas Web site

supports Netscape 1.22 and above.” However,their new Web site requires version 4.Consumers Online, the CommonwealthGovernment’s one-stop shop for consumerprotection, has a new site design. The privacyamendment was passed in December 2000 andis effective from 21 December 2001.

This paper was presented at the national biennial conference of theHome Economics Institute of Australia, ‘Home economics: A new century,

a new challenge’, 11-13 January 2001, held at Rydges Hotel, Canberra.

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Consumers and the Internet

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manage finances, plan travel, read newspapersfrom all over the world, and shop online.

The Australian Seniors Computer ClubsAssociation (ASCCA), www.interweb.com.au/snug, was established in 1998 as an umbrellaorganisation that brings together computerclubs for seniors. The clubs provide mutualsupport and assist their members, who maynot have a high amount of technicalknowledge, to learn how to use computers(Galvin, 2000, p.6).

To make it easy for older adults to get online,New South Wales Seniors Card has joined withVirtual Communities, IBM, and PrimusTelecom to provide discounted computer andInternet packages. The price includes homedelivery, installation, and connection to theInternet: www.virtualcommunities.com.au.

Women

While adult males are more likely to use acomputer or the Internet at home than adultfemales, the gap is narrowing. Singh and Ryan(1999, p.12) state that

the pattern of Internet access in the home

in Australia is mimicking the career ofthe telephone (in an accelerated way),

where the technology starts off being male

dominated, but then becomes more evenly

gendered.

Wajcman (1991, p.19) comments, ‘As with

science, the very language of technology, its

symbolism, is masculine’. Singh and Ryan’sstudy (1999, p.17) showed that:

when women become comfortable with a

technology, the focus shifts from the

technology to the activity. Domestic

technologies..., such as the washing

machine, the refrigerator, the microwave

oven and the stove, are not seen as

technologies. Information commun-

ication technologies, such as the

telephone, the radio and the television...,

are also no longer seen as technologies.

They are now associated with activities –

telephoning, listening to the radio,

watching television.

Singh and Ryan (1999, p.21) also showed thatwomen tend to use the Internet as a tool for awide variety of activities, but ‘they seldom see

the Internet as an object of play or something

to fix and master’. On the other hand, mentend to be more adventurous, like to knowhow things work, and play around with thecomputer. The women in this study preferredpersonal channels of communication. If they

perceived e-mail as impersonal, they wereunlikely to use it. The majority of women usede-mail as a partial substitute for personal lettersand to a lesser extent for the telephone.

Recently, there has been an attempt to targetwomen by developing websites especially forthem. One example is the Lounge(www.theLounge.com.au), which promises tobe ‘virtually all a woman needs’. The sitecontains information on bridal, career, foodand wine (with links to suppliers), face andbody, home and living, pregnancy and baby,arts and entertainment, relationships, andshopping. Critics (Reed, 2000, p.48; Israel,2000, p.2c) argue that ‘women are interested

mostly in the same things as men and should

not be isolated’, that such sites are ‘boring’

and ‘trivial’ and that ‘they stereotype females

and perpetuate a predictable uniformity

among women’.

Children

Bagnall (2000, p.24) states that ‘the main

reason families go online at home is education,

yet what they do once they’re on the computer

is another story’. There is a tendency for thehome computer to be purchased for the sonsin the family, according to Wajcman (1991).She says that

this is encouraged by advertisements for

computer games and home computers

which are aimed at a male market and

often feature pictures of boys looking

raptly at the screen (p.153).

A study of Australian children, five to twelveyears old, revealed that

children conceive of and use the

computer as both a toy and a tool – a

“playable” tool that blurs the lines between

playing, learning and working. (Bagnall,2000, p.26).

Their most common computer activity wasgame playing.

Teenagers use computers for everything –sending e-mail, writing essays, playing games,using chat rooms, and creating personal Webpages (Gliddon, 2000, January 18). Accordingto American surveys, more than half of teensdo research on line, more than eighty per centuse e-mail, and forty per cent use chat rooms(Thomas, 1999).

The Alliance for Childhood is an internationalchild advocacy organisation of more thanseventy-five educators, child developmentand health authorities, technology experts,

There is a tendencyfor the homecomputer to bepurchased for thesons in the family.

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Journal of the HEIA Vol. 8, No. 3, 2001

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researchers, and others. These experts‘suspected that the benefits of computers for

preschool and elementary [primary] school

children were being vastly overstated’

(Alliance for Childhood, 2000). The resultsof their research have been published in areport , Fool’s gold: A critical look at

computers and childhood. Claims aboutcomputers and children that the Allianceexamined are:• Do computers really motivate children to

learn faster and better?• Must five-year-olds be trained on

computers today to get the high-payingjobs of tomorrow?

• Do computers really ‘connect’ children tothe world?

The Alliance has called for ‘time-out from the

overwhelming pressure on educators and

parents to computerise childhood’ (Alliance forChildhood, 2000).

Selected uses of the InternetIn their study of social uses of the Internet,Maignan and Lukas (1997) categorised it as:• a source of information;• a place/object of consumption;• a communication tool; and• a social system.

The Internet was perceived by its users as acomplex and versatile medium.

Electronic mail

E-mail is the overriding reason for gettingconnected to the Internet (Dancer, 2000, p.62).It was estimated that Australians would sendnearly two billion e-mail messages in 1999.Braue (1999, p.92) comments that:

e-mail addresses are exchanged as freely

as phone numbers and the little @ symbol

used in every e-mail address is seen on

the side of buses, during sports

broadcasts, on coffee mugs and just about

everywhere you look.

According to Singh and Ryan (1999), e-mailhas some of the characteristics of a letter andsome of the telephone, and as a result, it haschanged the nature of communication. Also,they state, it is ‘a more convenient and often

cheaper way of communicating across time

and distance’ (p.29). However, we arereminded that it is best to think of e-mailmessages ‘as being more like a postcard than

a letter’ (Tunstall, 2000, p.94).

Sending electronic greeting cards hasbecome a popular use of e-mail. With ‘justa few clicks,’ you can select from a variety

of cards for the particular occasion andinclude a personal message and music.Furthermore, electronic cards are free tosend and fun to receive. Even traditionalcard companies such as Hallmark offer freee-cards (Fallon, 1999, p.4). Delivery is almostinstant. Usually, ‘your recipient will receive

an e-mail containing a link to your card,

which is sitting on an e-card server waiting

for them to view it’ (Fallon, 1999, p.4). BlueMountain Arts <www.bluemountain.com>claims 60 percent of the online greeting-card traffic. During the last three months of1999, more than 130 million free electronicgreetings were sent from this company alone(Puente, 2000).

Shopping online

By May 2000, almost six per cent of Australianadults had used the Internet to buy goodsand services, an increase from five per centin 1999 (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2000).Men shop online more than women (Singh &Ryan, 1999). The most popular itemspurchased are books, magazines, computersoftware and music (Australian Bureau ofStatistics, 2000). Australia’s first electronicChristmas was in 1999, during which about$150 million were spent in online shopping(Abernethy, 1999).

The ‘trust factor’ is a concern when consumersshop online. Some stores such as Wishlistwww.wishlist.com.au are ‘true online stores’that have had to build trust and loyalty, whileothers such as Dymocks www.dymocks.com.auare ‘bricks and mortar stores that have gone

online’ (Abernethy, 1999, p.53). However, somephysical stores such as Coles Myer and DavidJones are moving slowly online (Hewett, 2000).

A growing category of true online stores isthe cyberspace supermarket, such as ShopFastin Sydney www.shopfast.com.au orGreengrocer in Sydney and Melbournewww.greengrocer.com.au. Who buys foodonline? An American survey showed that therewas diversity among online food shoppersregarding age and income. According to Cudeand Morganosky (2000, p.96):

While 73 per cent cited convenience and/

or time savings as the primary reason for

using the online grocer, 15 per cent

mentioned physical constraints that made

going to the store or shopping in the store

difficult.

ShopFast’s web site revealed that the store hasbeen in operation since November 1998. Around20,000 items are available, including fresh fruit

During the lastthree months of1999, more than130 million freeelectronic greetingswere sent from thiscompany alone.

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and vegetables, meat, seafood, bakery items,and alcohol. The first time you place an ordermay take an hour. For following orders, youcan repeat your last order or set up a basiclist to which you can add items. Your order isconfirmed by e-mail. ShopFast delivers from9am to 11pm. You simply choose a two-hourwindow. The delivery van has separatesections for dry, fresh, chilled, and frozenfoods. The delivery charge is $6.55 regardlessof the size of your order. You can pay theDelivery Service Operator by cash, cheque,EFTPOS, or credit card. According to ShopFast,the store has ‘about 50,000 registered

customers, of whom 20,000 are active

customers using the site regularly. The active

user spends $120 to $150 every twelve days’

(Ham, 2000, p.37).

Financial management

By May 2000, eight per cent of adults usedthe Internet to transfer funds or pay bills. Fifty-one per cent used the telephone for theseactivities (ABS, 2000). According to Abernethy(2000, p.80), together, the big four banks plusSt. George have ‘just under one million

customers...registered for online banking

services’. And these banks expected to havetwo million customers online between themby Christmas 2000.

Although the basic online services oftransferring money, paying bills and accessingold statements are used most often, consumerscan also apply for a mortgage or a loan,manage their term deposits, and buy sharesand insurance. The benefit of Internet bankingfor the consumer is convenience. The benefitfor the banks is lower costs than providingstaff-heavy branches. Westpac’s researchshows that ‘the most popular time for using its

Internet bank is between 8am and 9am on

weekdays...or at 11am on weekends’

(Abernethy, 2000, p.81). Computer Choice (E-Banking, 1999, p.16) comments:

No matter how simple Internet or phone

banking may be, it’s not a substitute for

a face-to-face meeting with a bank or

credit union employee. And neither your

computer nor your phone can give you

cash, yet.

The Australian Securities and InvestmentsCommission (2000, July 27) advises consumersto make sure that they use ‘an approved deposit

taking institution [bank, building society or

credit union] registered within Australia’.

Apparently, there is an increasing number of‘banks’ setting themselves up on the Internetusing overseas Internet service providers.

Bill-paying services BPAY and Telstra BillPayhave been joined by POSTbillpaywww.POSTbillpay.com.au. Australia Post hasadded the Internet to its over-the-counter andtelephone bill-paying options. Australia Posthandles payments for 390 billing companies,which means that consumers can pay all theirbills through one Web site. Eventually,consumers will also be able to receive billselectronically through POSTbillpay.

While ‘online trading is a relatively new

phenomenon’ (Sampson, 2000, p.71), it isestimated that twenty per cent of retail sharesare bought or sold online (Australian Securitiesand Investments Commission, 2000, May 23).The Commonwealth Bank, which launchedCommonwealth Securities (ComSec) in 1995,holds forty-five per cent market share. Onlyrecently have the other major banks offeredonline share trading (Sampson, 2000; Marriner,2000). According to Sampson (2000), ComSecsays that most of its customers are ‘long-term

investors and only trade one to three times a

year’ and the average online trade is ‘estimated

to be about $6,000, though it is rising rapidly’(p.74). Sampson adds that the relatively lowbrokerage fees make trading online attractive,but ‘newer investors have been given a false

sense of how easy it is to make money’ (p.74).

The Australian Securities and InvestmentsCommission (2000, May 23) advises consumerswho are considering share trading on theInternet or thinking about opening an Internetaccount to:• check if your broker is licensed;• do your homework about investing;• compare the online services available;• understand what happens to your online

order;• use limit trading where appropriate;• understand online confirmation

procedures;• think about trading alternatives;• consider privacy issues and online trading;

and• check out the information available from

Australian Securities and InvestmentsCommission.

Associated issues and concernsSearch for reliable information

A major use of the Internet is to findinformation. It has been estimated that from‘40 to 60 per cent of adult Internet users have

accessed online health information’ (Lowe,1999, October 1, p.37). As a result, consumersare able to make better decisions about theirhealth and maximise the quality of the time

Consumers will alsobe able to receivebills electronicallythrough POSTbillpay.

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spent with their doctor (Raskin, 2000).However, ‘if good information is the best

medicine, bad information can be lethal’

(Sweet, 1997, p.6). With more than 15,000medical websites in existence (Raskin, 2000),how does a consumer distinguish the goodfrom the bad? Some questions to keep in mindwhen visiting a website are:• Who operates the site?• Does the site give contact details?• Is a report’s author’s credentials, affiliation,

or background provided?• When was the information written and

when was it placed online?• Is the information applicable to Australian

circumstances?• Is the information written in plain English

so that it can be easily understood by thegeneral public?

(Sweet, 1997; Meddis, 1998)

Among the Web sites that were examined are:• MEDLINEplus,

www.medlineplus.gov. U.S. NationalLibrary of Medicine, National Institutes ofHealth, Department of Health and HumanServices. It includes information on healthtopics, diseases and conditions, drugs,definitions of medical terms, and links toother resources.

• MedicineNet.com,www.MedicineNet.com. It containsunbiased, 100 per cent doctor-producedmedical information on diseases andconditions, procedures and tests,medications, and healthy living.

• Quackwatch,www.quackwatch.com. A member of theConsumer Federation of America,Quackwatch is a non-profit corporation,established by a medical practitioner. Itincludes information on health-relatedfrauds, myths, fads, and fallacies;questionable products, services, andtheories; recommended and non-recommended sources of health advice;and consumer education.

Raskin (2000) advises consumers to ‘always

check two or three sites on the same subject to

make sure you’re getting consistent

information’. The consumer should also notewhether a website adheres to the HONcodeprinciples of the Geneva-based Health On theNet Foundation www.hon.ch. MedicineNetand Quackwatch state that they do. TheFoundation is a non-profit organisation whosemission is to guide both individuals andprofessional healthcare providers to reliablesources of medical information on the Internet.Raskin (2000) also warns consumers to ‘use

the information you acquire not to self-

diagnose or administer self-treatment, but only

to educate yourself about a medical condition’.

Online behaviour

As popular as e-mail has become, it does havea ‘dark side’ (Braue, 1999). According to anAmerican study (Associated Press, 1999):

Being the bearer of bad news is easier –

and the information gets delivered more

accurately – when done via electronic

mail rather than face-to-face or by

telephone… [People] just tell it like it is,..

[but] that doesn’t necessarily mean it’s

always better.

It is very easy to misinterpret e-mail messages,as there are no clues such as facial expressionsor tone of voice ‘to give the reader hints about

their true meaning’ (Tunstall, 2000, p.7).Etiquette expert Letitia Baldrige (2000) thinksthat ‘we ought to be teaching our children how

to be better mannered with their e-mail’.Among her guidelines to make e-mailmessages user-friendly are:• It may be considered ‘cute’ to abbreviate

everything, but this makes comprehensionof a message slower and more difficult.

• There should be a salutation (‘Dear Joe’)at the top of the message, as in a letter.

• Some e-mail addresses are impossible todecipher, and when there is no signature,the recipient may not be able to figureout who sent the message. ‘The message

shouldn’t just end in suspense, like a

helicopter hanging in the air overhead’. Aninformal closing such as ‘Hope all goes well’or ‘Give my best to everyone’ is suggested.

A feature built into e-mail program Eudoraversion 5.0 is MoodWatch. Weber (2000, p.2)explains that

when you’re writing an e-mail message,

a tiny icon of an ice cube remains in the

window as long as you’re on good

behaviour. If you verge into potential flame

territory [intimidating words and phrases],

you get a chilli pepper. The spiciest

messages rate three chillies plus a warning.

The jury is still out regarding the Internet’simpact on social interactions and relationships.In the United States, the Association of InternetResearchers’ inaugural conference ended withmore questions than answers. The Association‘was formed to bring together sociologists,

educators, technologists and other specialists

who study the Interne t ’ (Associated Press,2000). It appears, however, that the studies thathave received publicity present a negativepicture.

We ought to beteaching ourchildren how to bebetter manneredwith their e-mail.

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As reported in Associated Press (1998), a studyby researchers at Carnegie Mellon Universityrevealed that ‘the more hours people spend on

the Internet, the more depressed, stressed and

lonely they feel’. How sociable a user was madeno difference. This was the first study ‘toexamine the emotional impact of people’s

Internet use over time [two years]’. A survey(Surf’s up, 2000) of more than 17,000 AmericanInternet users showed that ‘nearly 30 per cent

said they used the Net as a way to escape from

problems including guilt, anxiety and

depression’. The most compulsive group spentan average of six to nine hours a day online.

Some research suggests that when people firstgo online, they tend to surf – it is moreentertainment-oriented than goal-oriented. Afterthey have been ‘in cyberspace’ a while, thenovelty wears off. Most then spend less timesurfing and tend to be more goal-oriented,visiting a few websites regularly (Weise, 1998).

Oberg (2000, p.15A) comments, ‘Let’s face it:

Anyone who accuses the Internet of taking too

much time away from “real life” must first

consider what that real life is’. Manyresearchers at the Internet Researchers’conference agreed that ‘the Internet does foster

communities around shared interests’. Forexample, cancer survivors can meet online(Associated Press, 2000). Also, older adultswho are ‘shut in and isolated by their health’can keep in contact with old friends ‘and feel

a part of the lives of their far-flung children

and grandchildren’ (Oberg, 2000, p.15A).

Consumer protection

The Trade Practices Act 1974, State andTerritory Fair Trading Acts, and the Australian

Securities and Investments Commission Act

1989 (financial services) protect consumersonline as well as offline. However, the Internethas created the need for new legislation – theBroadcasting Services Act 1992 (Online Services

Amendments) and the proposed amendmentto the Commonwealth Privacy Act 1988.

Existing legislation requires that businesses:• not engage in conduct that is misleading

or deceptive or is likely to mislead ordeceive;

• not engage in unconscionable conduct;• not make false or misleading

representations about the goods andservices they supply;

• make sure that the goods supplied are ofmerchantable quality, fit for their purpose,and correspond with the description orsample; and

• make sure that services supplied arecarried out with due care and skill, andare fit for the purpose for which they aresupplied.

Industry self-regulation codes of conduct havealso been developed – for example, InternetIndustry Codes of Practice and BuildingConsumer Sovereignty in Electronic Commerce:A Best Practice Model for Business. The BestPractice Model addresses areas where theonline environment’s ‘special characteristics’require business practices that differ from thosein the offline world. These include:

the distance between the business and the

consumer; the speed [with which]

transactions can be completed online; the

need for authentication; and information

collection practices (Consumer AffairsDivision, 2000).

The Privacy Amendment (Private Sector) Bill

2000 was introduced into Parliament in April2000. By October, it had not been passed.The Bill implements the National Principles

for the Fair Handling of Personal Information,which were developed by the PrivacyCommissioner. The Principles deal with thecollection, use, disclosure, and security ofpersonal information by private sectororganisations. Application to the electronicenvironment includes:• Websites that collect personal information

online will need to take reasonable stepsto ensure that Internet users know who iscollecting their information and how it isused, stored, disclosed, and secured.

• Since the legislation requires thatorganisations make public their privacypolicy, all websites must include a clearlyidentified privacy statement (AttorneyGeneral’s Department, 2000).

Threats to privacy on the Web include ‘spam’and ‘cookies’. Unsolicited or junk e-mail,commonly known as spam, has become thevehicle of the twenty-first century: ‘snake-oil salesmen’ offering get-rich-quick schemesor pornography. Sent to a large number ofrecipients, ‘spam clogs up e-mail in-boxes,

slows down Internet traffic and overloads the

systems of Internet service providers ’(Morrison, 2000, p.40). How do spammersget your e-mail address? Blatchford (1999,p.14) explains that your address ‘could have

been given to a Web page when you filled out

some feedback form, signed up to receive a

free weekly e-mail newsletter or added your

thoughts to a message board’, or even boughtsomething online.

If you havereceived spam,what should youdo?

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If you have received spam, what should youdo? The Australian Consumers’ Association(1999) warns, ‘Don’t touch that mouse: don’t

click any links, don’t reply, don’t open any

attachments and, above all, don’t respond to

an invitation to remove yourself from the list’.Sending a reply lets the spammer know that‘your e-mail address works and is used’. Youcan report the spammer to your Internetservice provider (ISP). Some ISPs filter or blockspam. You can also set the filtering option onyour e-mail program (Microsoft OutlookExpress or Netscape Communicator) to blockspam (Blatchford, 1999).

The Australian Competition and ConsumerCommission (ACCC) (2000) states that ‘spam

as such is not illegal in Australia, but it is

often used to promote schemes and scams

which are illegal’. An example is pyramidselling schemes.

The Privacy Commissioner (2000) explains that‘a “cookie” is a piece of information that an

Internet website sends to your browser when

you access information at that site’. Thebrowser then saves the information on yourcomputer’s hard disk. A cookie indicates thatyou have visited a website previously. SomeWeb users object strongly to cookies, as theyfeel that they are invasive.

ShopFast’s privacy and security policy statesthat

ShopFast uses the cookie to track your

clicks as you browse and shop.... The

cookie also helps us greet you personally

and keep track of items in your shopping

trolley without taking extra time to re-

verify your password on each page. We

do not use cookies to retrieve personal

information about you from your

computer. To shop, you need to have the

cookies option of your browser turned

on.

The Broadcasting Services Act 1992 (Online

Services Amendments) came into effect onJanuary 1, 2000. Its purpose is to regulateAustralian-sourced material on the Internet thatis illegal, highly offensive, or harmful tochildren. Internet service providers (ISPs) andInternet content hosts have certain obligationsunder the legislation, which are explained inthe required Internet Industry Codes of

Practice.

Each Internet service provider must:take reasonable steps to provide users with

information about:

• supervising and controlling children’s

access to Internet content;

• procedures which parents can

implement to control children’s access

to Internet content;

• their right to make complaints to the

ABA [Australian Broadcasting

Authority] about online content; and

• procedures by which complaints can

be made

(Internet Industry Association, 1999).

With the Industry’s emphasis on user choiceand control, ISPs must provide one or moreapproved filter software products or services,usually by an Internet link. For example,Dragnet www.dragnet.com.au, one of themore than 650 ISPs, provides links to Kidz.net.Cyber Patrol, Net Nanny, and Surf Watch. Theonus is then on parents to install the softwareon their children’s computer.

The Australian Broadcasting Authority haspublished What every family should know –

Tips for parents www.aba.gov.au. One of theguidelines is that close supervision is stronglyrecommended. A survey of 500 Australianhouseholds revealed that ‘half the parents took

no role at all in monitoring or involving

themselves in their children’s use of the Internet’

(Bernoth, 1999, p.7).

Consumers are concerned about security,especially when transmitting their credit cardnumber over the Internet. A widely-usedsecurity system is Secure Socket Layer (SSL),which is built into Netscape and Explorer. Thewebsite should indicate that ‘you are entering

a secure online environment before you

provide your credit card details’ (AustralianCompetition and Consumer Commission,2000). A locked padlock or solid key willappear on the status bar. The AustralianPrivacy Commissioner (2000) warns that ‘while

SSL may provide protection during the

transmission of credit card numbers [by

encryption, like a secret code], there are also

concerns about the secure storage of credit card

numbers’ by the merchant.

The ACCC (2000) includes some importantconsumer protection advice in their Online

shopping checklist. In addition to knowingwhom you are dealing with; what you arebuying; how much you are paying, includingshipping costs and in which currency;expected delivery date; privacy and securityissues, consumers should also consider:

ShopFast uses thecookie to track yourclicks as you browseand shop.

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• Applicable law. If you are buying from abusiness in another country, Australia’slaws may not apply to your transaction.

• Print out details. Be sure to print out acopy of your filled-in order form beforeyou send it. Also, keep a copy of e-mailcorrespondence.

• Refunds and warranties. Find out thetrader’s return, exchange, refund andwarranty policies.

Conclusions and implicationsThe digital divide

Burrell (2000, p.101) points out that ‘a digital

divide is emerging in Australia, splitting the

nation into technological haves and have nots

– the Connected and the Unconnected’.Variables include income, employment,education, age, and where one lives.Australian Bureau of Statistics (2000) data forhousehold income and regions reveal that:• In the $49,999 and under income category,

37 per cent of households had a computerand 18 per cent of households wereconnected to the Internet;

• In the $50,000 and over category, 75 percent of households had a computer and51 per cent of households had access tothe Internet;

• In metropolitan areas, 56 per cent ofhouseholds had a computer and 37 percent of households were connected to theInternet, whereas in other areas, 51 percent of households had a computer, butonly 26 per cent of households had accessto the Internet.

Access to the Internet from work or other sitessuch as a public library ‘can make up for some

- but not all - of the disadvantages of not being

connected at home’ (Burrell, 2000, p.101).However, employees may not be permittedto access the Internet for personal use or thelibrary may be too far away. As moregovernment departments, banks, communityorganisations, and professional associations goonline, ‘traditional ways of delivering these

services are superceded’ and the disadvantagesof being ‘the Unconnected’ intensify (Burrell,2000, p.101.

Cost is an important contributor to the digitaldivide. Companies such as Ford Australia haveoffered their employees an attractive packagethat includes a computer, printer, and homeInternet access. The Australian Council of TradeUnions has a similar arrangement with VirtualCommunities (Burrell, 2000). Concerned aboutproviding an advantage for their children, someparents have been lured into buying low-cost

computers which turned out to be poor quality.As a result, there have been many consumerproblems with warranties and after sales service(Marchionni, 1999).

In regional Australia the Internet may be slowbecause of a problem in the telephone line,and expensive because consumers may haveto pay STD rates in order to log on (Stevenson,2000). The Federal Government has committed$250 million over five years to a project itcalls ‘Networking the Nation’, which aims toprovide less expensive and improved Internetaccess in the bush (Griffin, 2000).

Even if a household has a computer and isconnected to the Internet, not having the latesttechnology can be a disadvantage. Accordingto Lowe (1999, September 9), personalcomputers do not have long lives – aboutthree-and-a-half to four years for a homecomputer. In 1998, 34 per cent of homecomputers were IBM or IBM compatible with486 or less processor capacity (ABS, 1999).While this percentage would likely be lowertoday, the point is that not everyone has thelatest browser, word processing program, oroperating system.

Web design

Singh and Ryan (1999, p.42) state that Webdesign is ‘an important concept that connects

the use and supply of technologies’. This meansthat ‘the user is led in easy steps to the

completion of the activity without having to

tussle with the technology’.

Unfortunately, ‘technology-loving, design-

engrossed Web developers’ live in a differentworld from ordinary users who want simple,low-graphics sites that are quick and easy tonavigate (Walker, 1998, p.5c). Web viewersalso want text that can be easily read withoutsquinting. However, according to Walker(1999, p.8c), ‘Designers like small print because

it makes their designs look better’.

Griffin (2000, p.28) points out that ‘while

federal and state governments have been quick

to set up websites, it’s too difficult for people to

find the information they need’. One exceptionis Consumers Online www.consumersonline.gov.au, the Commonwealth Government’sone-stop shop for consumer protection inAustralia. This site was designed to be easy tonavigate and accessible to a range of users.In addition to the graphics version, there isalso a text version, which is easier to use witholder computers and Internet browsers or ifthe images have been disabled.

Personal computersdo not have longlives – about three-and-a-half to fouryears for a homecomputer.

10


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”

Many websites require late version browsers.For example, for online booking, GreyhoundPioneer specifies Explorer 5 only. POSTbillpaybrowser requirements are Netscape 4.0 or lateror Explorer 4.0 or later; Netscape 3.0 andExplorer 3.0 are not sufficient. On the otherhand, the Qantas Web site supports Netscape1.22 and above or Explorer, and gives viewersthe opportunity to test their browser.

The problem in designing websites is that theyhave to be easy for new surfers to use and ‘at

the same time..., challenging for the

experienced users’ (Weise, 1998). A study ofbank Web sites concluded that ‘the experts in

usability are the first-time users who enter a

site expecting things to make sense, only to

become lost in a jungle of poorly labeled,

curiously organised or simply unsupplied

information’ (Manners, 2000, p.18).

Consumer education

A major use of the Internet is to gatherinformation. However, it is easy to experience‘information overload.’ Also, as O’Neill (1999)points out, not everyone has time to searchfor websites. Consumers need help in locatinguseful and reliable information – a possiblerole for educators. Several websites have beenidentified in this paper. Two excellent sourcesthat have not been mentioned are:• Shopping on the Internet: Facts for

Consumers. A series of fact sheetsproduced jointly by the Department ofCommunications, Information Technologyand the Arts’ National Office for theInformation Economy and the ConsumerAffairs Division, Department of theTreasury. www.dcita.gov.au/shoponline

• Online Shopping: What You Need to Know.A series of fact sheets produced by theAustralian Consumers’ Association.www.choice.com.au

The New South Wales Fair Trading AdvisoryCouncil Computer Retail Inquiry found that aconsumer’s computer knowledge is a strongdetermining factor in their purchasingdecisions. Inexperienced consumers did notunderstand computer technology nor werethey able to ‘specifically know what

applications they wanted to perform with their

computer, the software required and hardware

needed’ (Marchionni, 1999, p.59). The InquiryReport recommended that a comprehensivestrategy be undertaken to educate consumersabout computer product purchases and theirlegal rights. However, people are likely to beas ‘secretive’ about their lack of computerknowledge as they would be about being

illiterate. Also, they find the technology ‘veryintimidating,’ but they do not want to admit it(Griffin, 2000).

Parents need to understand the implicationsof the new legislation that regulates Internetcontent and their responsibility for involvingthemselves in their children’s use of theInternet. This includes obtaining and installingfilter software.

There are many opportunities for basic, non-technical computer education programs thatfocus more on the activity than on thetechnology. As Singh and Ryan (1999, p.46)say, ‘The goal should not be a competency

certificate vouching for technological skills but

an ability to use services and technology to

achieve what the user wants to do’.

ReferencesAbernethy, M. (1999,December 7). Twas on the

net before Christmas. The Bulletin, pp.50–53.Abernethy, M. (2000, April 18). Fast bucks. The

Bulletin, pp.80–82.Alliance for Childhood (2000). Fool’s gold: A critical

look at computers and childhood.www.allianceforchildhood.org

Associated Press (1998, August 31). Study: MoreNet use is more depressing. USATODAY.com

www.usatoday.com/news/nds1.htmAssociated Press (1999, June 28). Study: Giving

bad news easier by e-mail. USATODAY.com,www.usatoday.com/news/ndsmon05.htm

Associated Press (2000, September 17). Webresearch: Many questions, so little time.USATODAY.com. www.usatoday.com/news/ndssun02.htm

Associated Press. (2000, October 17) Computersare in half of U.S. households. USATODAY.com,

www.usatoday.com/money/digest/md1.htmAttorney General ’s Department (2000).

Introduction of the Privacy Amendment

(Private Sector) Bill 2000. www.law.gov.au/Privacy/Welcome.html

Australian Bureau of Statistics (1999). Household

use of information technology Australia, 1998.Catalogue No. 8146.0. Canberra: ABS.

Australian Bureau of Statistics (2000). 8147.0 Useof the Internet by householders, Australia:Summary of findings; and Media release,August 25. www.abs.gov.au

Australian Competition and Consumer Commission(2000). Internet – new terri tory forenforcement; E-commerce – advice forbusiness; E-commerce – advice for consumers.ACCC Update, Issue 6, May.

Australian Consumers’ Association (1999,December). Spam – an online epidemic.

www.choice.com.auAustralian Privacy Commissioner (2000). Protecting

your privacy on the Internet. IT and Internetprivacy issues. www.privacy.gov.au/issues

In the $49,999 andunder incomecategory, 37 percent of householdshad a computerand 18 per cent ofhouseholds wereconnected to theInternet.

11


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Australian Securities and Investments Commission(2000, May 23). Buying and selling shares

online. www.watchdog.asic.gov.auAustralian Securities and Investments Commission

(2000, July 27). Online banking.

www.watchdog.asic.gov.auBagnall, D. (2000, August 15). Born to be wired.

The Bulletin, pp.24–26, 28–29.Baldrige, L. (2000, May 5). Let’s put some humanity

into e-mail. USATODAY.com.

www.usa today . com/news/commen t /columnists/baldrige/manners1.htm

Bernoth, A. (1999, September 9). Parents fail tonanny children snared in the Net. Sydney

Morning Herald, p.7.Blatchford, S. (1999, November 13). Bin and gone.

Sydney Morning Herald ICON, p.14.Braue, D. (1999, October 19). @ is for access. The

Bulletin, pp.92–93.Burrell, S. (2000, February 12). The great digital

divide. Sydney Morning Herald, pp.101, 105.Consumer Affairs Division, Department of Treasury

(2000). Building consumer sovereignty in

electronic commerce: A best practice model for

business. www.treasury.gov.au/publicationsCude, B.J. & Morganosky, M.A. (2000). Online

grocery shopping: An analysis of currentopportunities and future potential. Consumer

Interests Annual, 46, 95–100.Dancer, H. (2000, January 18). Rise e-generation.

The Bulletin, pp.60–62.E-Banking (1999, March/April). Computer Choice,

pp.14–17.Fallon, D. (1999, December 18). Dreamin’ of a

wired Christmas. Sydney Morning Herald

ICON, pp.4–5.Galvin, N. (2000, June 17). Seniors are doing it for

themselves. Sydney Morning Herald ICON,pp.17, 6.

Gliddon, J. (2000, January 18). Jump, flip, TURNON. The Bulletin, pp.66–67.

Gliddon, J. (2000, April 18). On the chip’s back.The Bulletin, pp.94–95.

Griffin, J. (2000, May). Digital divide. Sydney

Morning Herald EMAG, pp.26–28, 30.Ham, P. (2000, July 10). Old-style values: Shopfast

rings up the sales. Sydney Morning Herald,pp. 33, 37.

Hewett, J. (2000, April 1). From retail to e-tail, butwill it work? Sydney Morning Herald, pp.101,107.

Internet Industry Association (1999). Guide for ISPs:

Information about online conten; Guide for

Internet users: Information about online

content, December. www.iia.net.auIsrael, J. (2000, July 4). Pret-a-portal. Sydney

Morning Herald I.T., pp.1c–2c.Lowe, S. (1999, September 9). Renewable PCs draw

a crowd. Sydney Morning Herald, p.29.Lowe, S. (1999, October 1). GPs PC-shy, report

finds. Sydney Morning Herald, p.37.Lynch, D. (1999, July 16). Fishing for customers.

USA TODAY, pp.1B-2B.Maignan, I. & Lukas, B.A. (1997). The nature and

social uses of the Internet: A qualitativeinvestigation. Journal of Consumer Affairs, 31(2), 346–371.

Manners, E. (2000, March 10–12). How useableare bank web sites? Report 2: Impressions.Consumer Directions, p.18.

Marchionni, P. (1999). Computer retail inquiry. InS. McCullough (Ed.) Computers, information

technology and customer service: A

contradiction in terms? (pp.53–68).Melbourne: SOCAP.

Marriner, C. (2000, October 5). Net cast wider asthe dream run ends. Sydney Morning Herald,pp. 25, 30.

Meddis, S.M. (1998, September 28). Reality checkfor online health info. USATODAY.com,www.usatoday.com/life/cyber/cc.htm

Morrison, K. (2000, August 28). Telstra on blacklist because of spamming. Sydney Morning

Herald, p.40.Oberg, A.C. (2000, March 13). Internet instills family

values – really. USA TODAY, p.15A.O’Neill, B. (1999). Teaching consumers to use the

Internet to make consumer decisions. Journal

of Extension, 37 (3). www.joe.org/joe/1999june/iw4.html

Puente, M. (2000, February 11). E-Valentines: Notexactly romantic. USATODAY.com.www.usa today . com/ l i f e / cybe r / t e ch/cth340.htm

Raskin, R. (2000, September 27). Using the Web tokeep your family healthy. USATODAY.com.www.usatoday.com/life/cyber/bonus/qa/ans033.htm

Reed, C. (2000, June 20). I am woman, hear meclick. The Bulletin, pp.48–49.

Sampson, A. (2000, April 22). Now it’s death bydiscount. Sydney Morning Herald, pp.71, 74.

Singh, S. & Ryan, A. (1999). Gender, design and

electronic commerce. Research Report No. 25.Melbourne: CIRCIT at RMIT.

Stevenson, A. (2000, October 13). Speed limit slowscountry traff ic on the informationsuperhighway. Sydney Morning Herald, p.8.

Surf’s up (2000, February 14). WHO Weekly, pp.54–55.

Sweet, J. (1997, July 19). No referral necessary.Sydney Morning Herald ICON, pp. 6–7.

Thomas, J. (1999, April 27). Kids plug in to dotheir homework. USATODAY.com, April 27.w w w . u s a t o d a y . c o m / 2 0 0 0 / m o n e y /money004.htm

Tunstall, J. (2000). Easy e-mail. St. Leonards, NSW:Allen & Unwin.

Wajcman, J. (1991). Feminism confronts technology.St. Leonards, NSW: Allen & Unwin.

Walker, D. (1998, March 31). The simple Web getsthe user. Sydney Morning Herald I.T., p.5c.

Walker, D. (1999, June 22). Small print can be abig problem. Sydney Morning Herald I.T., p.8c.

Weber, T. (2000, October 10). In the mood for ared-hot chilli pepper. Sydney Morning Herald

I.T., p.2.Weise, E. (1998, September 16). The death of

surfing? USATODAY.com. www.usatoday.com/life/cyber/tech/ctd478.htm

In the $50,000 andover category, 75per cent ofhouseholds had acomputer and 51per cent ofhouseholds hadaccess to theInternet.

12

Journal of the HEIA

Vol. 8, No. 3, 2001

SummaryAustralians aren’t eating enoughvegetables – and they are aware theyneed to eat more.Welcome to the third Coles Fruit and Vegetable Index

(November 2000). This research was commissioned

by Coles Supermarkets and carried out by Roy

Morgan Research in October and November 2000.

The research showed most Australians are eating

enough fruit but still not eating enough vegetables

every day for optimum health.

The results indicate that on average, Australians

are eating 4.5 serves of fresh fruit and vegetables

on a weekday, significantly up from 4.1 serves in

the 1998, and 4.3 serves in the 1999, Coles Fruit

and Vegetable Index.

Fresh fruit consumption has significantly increased

from 2.0 serves in 1999 to 2.1 serves, and fresh

vegetable consumption has also increased from the

1998 result of 2.2 serves and the 1999 result of 2.3

serves, to 2.4 serves in 2000.

Australians aged 14+ report that their consumption

of total fruit and vegetables – including fresh,

canned, frozen and dried forms – is 6.1 serves. This

is made up of 3.0 serves of fruit and 3.1 serves of

vegetables. For Australians aged under 14 years,

total fruit and vegetable consumption is reported to

be 5.2 serves. This is made up of 2.9 serves of fruit

and 2.3 serves of vegetables.

Fruit consumption appears to exceed the two serves

a day recommended by dietitians. Vegetable

consumption remains well below the recommended

five serves a day.

A significant increase has occurred in the amount

of fruit and vegetables people believe they should be

eating. Over one fifth (21%) of Australians (aged

14+) believe they should be eating seven or more

serves of fruit and vegetables a day. This figure is

over double that recorded in 1998 (10%) and is a

continuation of the significant increase recorded

in 1999 (18%).

Dietitians recommend we eat at least seven serves

of fruit and vegetables a day (two of fruit and five

of vegetables) for better health and to reduce the

risk of disease.

MethodologyThe Coles Fruit and Vegetable Index wascarried out over four weeks, by telephone.Each week, on a Wednesday and Thursdayevening, a representative sample ofAustralians aged 14 years or over wasinterviewed about their perception of healthylevels of fresh fruit and vegetableconsumption, the benefits of that, and theirown consumption on the day before. A totalof 2,602 respondents was interviewed, and621 respondents were asked about therelevant eating habits of 1,110 children.

The facts• On average, all Australians eat 4.5 serves

of fresh fruit and vegetables per day – 2.1serves of fruit and 2.4 serves of vegetables.

• Australians (aged 14+) report that theirconsumption of total fruit and vegetables– including fresh, canned, frozen anddried forms – is 6.1 serves. For Australiansaged under 14 years, this is 5.2 servesper day.

• Twenty-one per cent of Australians (aged14+) believe they should be eating 7 ormore serves of fruit and vegetables. Thisis a significant increase (compared to 10%in 1998 and 18% in 1999).

• For Australians (aged 14+), the averagenumber of serves of fresh fruit andvegetables they report should beconsumed equals the average number ofserves they say they consume.

• Australians (aged 14+) believe the mainhealth benefits of eating fruit andvegetables are because they are‘nutritionally valuable’ (55% in 2000 and1999), ‘good for health’ (drop from 48%in 1999 to 42%, but an increase on the1998 figure of 38%) and ‘good fordigestion/regularity’ (drop from 33% in1999 to 24% in 2000).

• In the 14+ age group, females eat morefresh fruit and vegetables than males (5.0compared with 4.6). On average, femalesbelieve that they should eat more servesof both fresh fruit and vegetables thanmen (5.2 versus 4.4).

Coles Fruit and Vegetable Index(November 2000)

This article is printed with permissionfrom Coles Supermarkets

Contact

Penny Gamble,

Coles Supermarkets

Tel: 03 9829 6367

13

Coles Fruit and Vegetable Index

“

”

• South Australians and Tasmanians (aged14+) eat less fruit and vegetablescompared with other states (4.1 comparedwith the national mean of 4.8).

• Most fruit and vegetables appear to beeaten as fresh fruit and vegetables, withsmaller amounts eaten as canned, frozenor dried forms.

The definition of a serve of fruit and vegetablesused in the Coles Fruit and Vegetable Indexis based on the sample serves from theAustralian Guide to Healthy Eating (1998). Aserve of fruit and vegetables is any of thefollowing:• One medium piece of fruit (e.g. an apple)

or two small pieces of fruit (e.g. twoapricots)

• One cup of fruit salad• One half cup fruit juice• One half cup cooked vegetables (e.g.

broccoli)• One cup of leafy salad greens (e.g. lettuce

mix).

Consumption of fresh fruit andvegetablesOn average, Australians report they eat 4.5serves of fresh fruit and vegetables on aweekday – 2 serves of fresh fruit (2.1) andjust under 2.5 serves of vegetables (2.4). Thereare variations in consumption, according toage and gender (Table 1).

There is an indication that:1. Fresh fruit and vegetable consumption has

increased for each adult age bracket.2. Older adults (35–44, 45–54 and 55+)

continue to eat more serves of fresh fruitand vegetables than do younger adults.

3. Older children (8–11 and 11–13) havedecreased consumption of fruit andvegetables from 4.7 to 4.0 serves and 4.2 to4.0 serves respectively from 1999 to 2000.

Consumption of all fruit andvegetablesOn average, Australians report they eat mostof their fruit and vegetables in fresh forms(Table 2).

Gender & Age Fresh fruit & Fresh fruit & Fresh fruit & Fresh fruit Freshvegetables vegetables vegetables consumed vegetablesconsumed consumed consumed 2000 consumed

1998 1999 2000 2000

GenderMale 3.9 4.1 4.3 2.1 2.3Female 4.3 4.5 4.7 2.2 2.5

Age0–2 2.6 2.8 3.0 1.5 1.53–4 3.6 3.7 3.7 2.1 1.65–7 3.8 3.9 4.0 2.3 1.88–10 3.7 4.7 4.0 2.0 1.911–13 3.9 4.2 4.0 2.0 2.0Total under 14 3.5 3.9 3.8 2.0 1.8

14–24 4.3 4.1 4.4 2.1 2.325–34 4.2 4.3 4.5 2.0 2.435–44 4.2 4.5 4.8 2.1 2.645–54 4.4 4.6 5.1 2.2 2.955+ 4.6 4.9 5.2 2.3 2.8Total 14+ 4.4 4.5 4.8 2.2 2.6

Total 4.1 4.3 4.5 2.1 2.4

Table 1. Serves of fresh fruit and vegetables consumed in relation to gender and age:1998, 1999 & 2000 (All Australians)

Table 2. Serves of total fruit andvegetables consumed in relation to agegroup in 2000

Age Group (Years)

Fresh Fruit

Other Fruit

Total Fruit

Fresh Veg.

Other Veg.

Total Veg.

Total Fresh Fruit and Veg.

Total Fruit & Veg.

Older children havedecreasedconsumption offruit and vegetablesfrom 1999 to 2000.

Totalunder 14

2.0

0.9

2.9

1.8

0.5

2.3

3.8

5.2

Total14 years +

2.2

0.9

3.0

2.6

0.5

3.1

4.8

6.1

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”

Belief versus actual consumptionThe results of the Coles Fruit and VegetableIndex (November 2000) indicate that ingeneral, adult Australians (aged 14+) believethat they are already eating sufficient freshfruit and vegetables for their diet to beconsidered healthy and balanced (Table 3).On average, Australians believe that theyshould eat almost five serves per day (4.8),and they do (4.8).

Women (aged 14+) believe they should eat moreserves than do men (5.2 serves versus 4.4).

The number of serves of fresh fruit andvegetables Australians (aged 14+) living inmetropolitan areas believe they should eatincreased from 4.2 (1998) to 4.8 serves perday, and for those living in regional areas,this increased from 4.3 (1998) to 4.8 servesper day.

Highlights• Australians’ average weekday consump-

tion of fresh fruit = 2.1 serves.• Australians’ average weekday consump-

tion of fresh vegetables = 2.4 serves.• Australians’ average weekday consump-

tion of total fresh fruit and vegetables =4.5 serves.

• Australians’ average weekday consump-tion of total fruit and vegetables = 5.8serves.

• Recommended intake for adults = at least2 serves of fruit and 5 serves ofvegetables.

Fresh fruit % Vegetables %Apple 52 Potato 47Banana 51 Carrot 41Orange 19 Broccoli 25Mango 8 Tomato 17Strawberry 7 Pumpkin 15Pear 7 Bean 14Kiwi Fruit 5 Peas 14Watermelon 5 Lettuce 14Rock Melon 4 Cauliflower 13Peach 4 Onion 11

Table 3. Serves of fresh fruit and vegetables consumed and serves believed should beconsumed in relation to location (Australians aged 14+)

1998 1999 2000State

NSW 4.2 4.4 4.5 4.5 4.6 5.0

Victoria 4.6 4.5 5.0 4.4 4.9 4.7

Queensland 4.1 4.5 4.5 4.7 4.7 4.9

SA 3.9 3.7 4.3 4.6 4.6 4.1

WA 4.1 4.2 4.4 4.1 5.3 4.9

Tasmania 4.5 4.9 5.2 4.2 5.0 4.1

Metro 4.2 4.3 4.6 4.4 4.8 4.7

Regional 4.3 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 5.0

Total 4.2 4.4 4.6 4.5 4.8 4.8

Servespeoplebelieve

should beconsumed

(mean)

Actualserves

consumed(mean)

Servespeoplebelieve

should beconsumed

(mean)

Actualserves

consumed(mean)

Servespeoplebelieve

should beconsumed

(mean)

Actualserves

consumed(mean)

Consumption varies aroundAustraliaWhere you live continues to have an impacton the amount of fresh fruit and vegetablesyou eat.

Western Australians (aged 14+) believe theyshould eat more serves of fresh fruit andvegetables than other Australians (5.3 versus4.8). Western Australians are also included inthe states consuming the most serves (4.9)along with New South Wales (5.0) andQueensland (4.9). Tasmanians and SouthAustralians consume the least number ofserves of fruit and vegetables (4.1).

Metropolitan and regional areas both believethat they should eat almost 5 serves of freshfruit and vegetables a day (4.8) serves. However,consumption is higher for regional areas thanmetropolitan (5.0 serves versus 4.7 serves).

Australia’s top tenTable 4. The Coles Fruit and VegetableIndex’s ten most popular types of freshfruit and vegetables

Australians (aged14+) believe thatthey are alreadyeating sufficientfresh fruit andvegetables.

15

Coles Fruit and Vegetable Index

Table 5. Average serves of fresh fruit andvegetables consumed per day

Male Female2000 2000

Fresh Fruit 2.1 2.2

Fresh Vegetables 2.3 2.5

Total Fruit 2.9 3.0

Total Vegetables 2.8 3.0

• While fruit consumption is now slightlyabove recommended levels, vegetableconsumption needs to increase to reachthe recommended 5 serves per day.

• There are variations according to gender(Table 5).

Table 7. Respondents’ beliefs about the main health benefits of eating fruit andvegetables

Nutritionally valuable Good for health Digestion/regularity

55% 42% 24%

(up 10% from 1998) (up 4% from 1998) (sustained 1998 figure)

(sustained 1999 figure) (down 6% from 1999) (down 9% from 1999)

• There are some variations according tolocation (Table 6).

Table 6. Average serves of fresh fruit andvegetables consumed per day, 2000(aged 14yrs+)

Location Average serves

New South Wales 5.0Victoria 4.7Queensland 4.9South Australia 4.1Western Australia 4.9Tasmania 4.1

Metropolitan 4.7Regional 5.0

Roy Morgan Research – Commissioned by Coles Supermarkets

16

Journal of the HEIA

Vol. 8, No. 3, 2001

In the last Clearinghouse Newsletter (vol 8,no. 2, pp.6–11), Paul Drielsma’s article ‘Hardwiring young brains for intimacy’ drewheavily on Bruce Perry’s work to establish acase for the importance of children’s earlyexperience and brain development inbuilding social capital. His argument can besummarised in the following quote:

. . . the implication of the development

of an infant’s capacity to connect and

relate is that the creation of social capital

is largely dependent on early healthy

childhood experiences. . . .

We cannot hope to build strong

sustainable families and communities

without the members of the community

having this critical experience-mediated

capacity for social affiliation and

connection (p.7).

While it is gratifying to see at last more interestand recognition of the vital importance of agood foundation for children’s developmentand capacity to contribute to the communitiesin which they live, we are at an early stagein understanding how the brain develops, andwhat influence experience, particularly earlyexperience, has on the remarkable changesin its circuitry and functioning.

Perry’s work has been very helpful in gettingthe message about the need to invest in earlybrain development on to the public agendaand in encouraging funding for earlyintervention projects. There are, however,several concerns about the materialpromulgated by Perry and by Drielsma, andthe possibilities for under-estimating thecomplexities and for unfortunate orunintended consequences. There are otherviews and other evidence about earlyexperience and brain development that needto be considered.

‘Zero to Three’ – too late and tooearlyThe first concern is that, in the words ofDeborah Phillips (2000), the focus on the ‘zeroto three’ age group ‘starts too late and endstoo early’. Phillips is the co-editor withShonkoff of the recent reputable report, From

Neurons to Neighborhoods: The Science of

Early Childhood Development. ‘Zero’ is toolate because it ignores the prenatalenvironment and the well-established andincreasing empirical evidence about theeffects of the pre-natal environment onchildren’s development, including their braindevelopment. ‘Three’ suggests that the die iscast at a very early age, ignoring the evidenceof continuing brain plasticity well beyond theage of three, and even into adulthood,especially for some of the more complexfunctions. The danger of an unbalancedemphasis on the first three years is that itimplies that there is little point in interveningafter this time.

In Drielsma’s terms, this is because there arecritical periods or ‘windows of opportunity’

which, if missed, mean that it will not bepossible to ‘meet the genetic potential of that

system’ (Drielsma, p.8). There are, however,alternative views on what is meant by ‘early’and new and different conceptions of ‘critical’periods’ and the plasticity of brainfunctioning. For example, ‘early’ may meaneither ‘early in life’ or ‘early in the pathway’.Both are important and have their place

Early experience and braindevelopment

Judy Cashmore

This article is reproduced from the National Child ProtectionClearinghouse Newsletter, Volume 9, Number 1, Winter 2001 with kind

permission from The Australian Institute of Family Studies.

Dr Judy Cashmore

is an Honorary

Research Associate,

Social Policy Research

Centre, University of

New South Wales.

This article was written in response to anarticle by Paul Drielsma (Hard wiringyoung brains for intimacy) about theimportance of children’s early experiencein building social capital, published inthe National Child ProtectionClearinghouse Newsletter Vol. 8, No.2.

17

Early experience and brain development

depending on the issue or problem. Different‘problems’ are likely to require differentstrategies and different timing.

A focus on intervening early in the pathway

and at particular transition points arises fromconcern about the cumulative effect of variouslife events and risk and protective factors onlater development. The key here is to interruptthe chain of negative events and to divert thechild from a pathway leading to an adverseoutcome, to a more positive one.

The emphasis on intervening early in life isbased on concerns about the impact of earlyexperience on brain development and whatKeating and Hertzman (1999) have referred toas the ‘biologically embedding’ of behaviourand developmental health. This presumes thatthere are ‘critical’ and ‘sensitive’ periods inearly development, during which particularexperiences are crucial and have an impact onlater development ‘independent of intervening

experience’ (Keating & Hertzman 1999, p7).

The example Drielsma cites of children whonever develop normal vision if they have hadcataracts during the early months of liferepresents one type of ‘critical period’ ordevelopmental process – what Greenough andBlack (1992) call ‘experience-expectant’synaptogenesis. In this process, brain growth,including the growth of synaptic connections,relies on particular forms of environmentalexposure or species specific experience. Inthe cataract example, the visual cortex ‘expects’and ‘needs’ exposure to light and patternedvisual information to develop normal visualfunctioning.

Greenough and Black (1992) contrast this with‘experience-dependent developmental processesor synaptogenesis in which idiosyncraticexperiences throughout life help to trigger braingrowth and refine existing brain structures’(Shonkoff et al., 2000, p. 54). The otherexample Drielsma cites to support theargument for early experience concerns thesubtle changes in brain functioning of peoplewho have become stringed instrumentmusicians. This is an example of ‘experience-dependent’ development but does not relyon the experience occurring before the ageof three, as Drielsma’s quote implies.

Drielsma then generalises from these examplesto other areas of development, saying:

This observation about learning anddevelopment applies to behavioural,mental and physical long-term health

outcomes as well (p. 8).

But there is as yet little evidence from studiesof human behaviour, learning and development(as opposed to animal studies) to support thisclaim. There is, however, evidence that theseother areas of development show moreplasticity and are open to influence from newexperience and learning across childhood andeven into adulthood. To quote Shonkoff et al.(2000, p. 216):

For the vast majority of braindevelopment, including areas of the braininvolved in cognitive, emotional, and

social development, either questionsregarding critical or sensitive periodshave not been explored or it appears thatthe brain remains open to experiencesacross broad swaths of development. Thismakes sense. Adaptation depends on the

rapid consolidation of capabilitiesessential to survival and the life-longflexibility to adjust to changingcircumstances and lean new skills. As aresult, assertions that the die has been castby the time the child enters school are not

supported by neuroscience evidence andcan create unwarranted pessimism aboutthe potential efficacy of interventions that

are initiated after the preschool years.

Premature statements about thenegative effects of some earlyexperiencesA second and related concern is the prematurenature of some of the statements about theimpact of stress on brain development andthe effect it has on restricting an individual’s‘sphere of concern’. While there is certainlyabundant evidence of the poor developmentaloutcomes for children subjected to abuse andneglect, and there is also emerging evidencesuggesting that the chronic activation of stressmechanisms may have deleterious effects onbrain development, there are few peer-reviewed studies involving humans in thisarea, and Perry’s web-site reference is notamong them.

The one peer-reviewed study by DeBellis etal. (1999), cited by Shonkoff et al. (2000, pp.256–257), did indicate significant differencesin brain volume and inter-connectionsbetween the left and right brain for childrenexposed to chronic physical and sexual abusecompared with children matched for age andsex. The effects were correlated with durationof the abuse, but not with the age of onset.As Shonkoff et al. (2000) point out, ‘there isno reason to interpret these results as indicatingpermanent impairment’ particularly in thelight of studies showing the recovery of abusedand neglected children who are then well

“

”

Chronic activationof stressmechanisms mayhave deleteriouseffects on braindevelopment.

18


“

”

cared for. It is not helpful for such children tobe treated as if they will be permanentlyimpaired and such beliefs can haveunfortunate policy consequences if they areadopted uncritically.

Parent-child relationships as thesole basis for social capitaldevelopment?The main argument proposed by Drielsma isthat social capital formation is based on anindividual’s ‘sphere of concern’, which is inturn a function of the security of children’searly attachments. Drielsma (2001, p. 9) states,for example, that:

The ‘sphere of concern’ which makes us

feel connected to and responsible for other

people is related to attachment, which is

related to reward. There is a relationship

between the reward part of our brain and

the attachment part of our brain.

The discussion that follows in Drielsma’s articlefocuses on the reward system for both motherand infant in the mother-infant relationshipand the neuro-biological underpinning of thereward and the attachment parts of our brain.

It is certainly well accepted now thatattachments with the primary care-givers setthe stage for children’s relationships withothers, and there is some preliminary evidenceabout the role of responsive care-givers inbuffering physiological stress reactions. But itis by no means certain ‘how secure

attachments function to promote and protect

early development’ (Shonkoff et al., 2000, p.237). It is certain, however, to be much morecomplex than the picture provided by Perryabout the link between the ‘reward and

attachment parts of our brains’.

However, there are several conceptual issuesin this argument that go beyond the adequacyof the scientific evidence, and they concernthe underlying model. Although Drielsmastarts with Putnam’s ideas about social capitaland later refers to Bronfenbrenner’s ecologicalmodel, the implication of his use of themother-infant relationship as the buildingblock of social capital is that we need workonly on this level. Bronfenbrenner’s model,however, involves complex transactions withinand between the individual, family,community and social levels. There is alsomuch more involved in the formation of socialcapital described by Putnam than a relianceon the parent-child relationship. A great dealin social capital formation depends on whatthe community provides or makes possible.

Further, the approach outlined by Drielsmasuggests that the influence is all in onedirection, that it is simply a matter of theenvironment providing the child with theexperiences required for children to meet theirfull genetic potential. While the way they arecared for by adults and others, especially intheir early years, can have a significant impacton the way children develop and learn toregulate their behaviour, children withdifferent temperaments and abilities presentdifferent challenges to care-givers. There isnow considerable evidence that children havea marked effect in creating and affecting theirown environment, with temperamental andother characteristics affecting the way parents,peers, and other adults relate to them. It is acomplex transactional process.

More importantly, the implication that theparent-child relationship provides an overall‘fix’, including the base for social capitalformation, has further unfortunate policyconsequences. This applies both when we askhow generational cycles of abuse and neglectcan be broken, and when we ask broaderquestions about how the social capital offamilies and communities can be promoted.

SummaryIn summary, none of these criticisms of Perry’sand Drielsma’s account are meant to deny thevalue of early intervention or the crucialimportance of warm and responsive care-giving for children. There is certainly no reasonfor complacency about the significance ofearly experience for children’s development,and it is important that we do invest inpromoting and providing optimal care foryoung children. It is important, however, notto foreclose prematurely on single solutions.

No one denies the importance of the twogoals: breaking generational cycles of abuseand neglect and the promotion of social capitalat the family and community level. It isimportant, however, to consider more thanone point of view, not to accept anyuncritically, and to be careful to consider thedata it is based on, and the likely policyimplications.

ReferencesDrielsma, P. (2001). Hard wiring young brains for

intimacy, Child Abuse Prevention, vol.8, no.2,pp. 6–11.

Keating, D.P. & Hertzman, C. (1999). Developmental

health and the wealth of nations, GuilfordPress, New York.

Perry, B. (1998). Physiological measurements inthe assessment of maltreated children: The

There is arelationshipbetween thereward part of ourbrain and theattachment part ofour brain.

19

Early experience and brain development

physical impact on the developing brain.Invited keynote presentation at the Twelfth

International ISPCAN Congress on Child Abuse

and Neglect, Protecting children: Innovationand Inspiration, Auckland, New Zealand, 6–9September.

Phillips, D. (2000). Integrating the science of earlychildhood development. Presented at theseminar, Rethinking Early Childhood

Development, Royal North Shore Hospital,Sydney, 13 November.

Shonkoff, J.P., Phillips, D.A., & Keilty, B. (Eds),Committee on Integrating the Science of EarlyChildhood Development; Board on Children,Youth and Families; National Research Council;Institute of Medicine. (2000), Early childhood

intervention: Views from the field: Report of a

workshop, National Academy Press,Washington DC.

Shonkoff, J. & Phillips, D. (Eds), Committee onIntegrating the Science of Early ChildhoodDevelopment, Board on Children, Youth, andFamilies. (2000). From neurons to

neighbourhoods: The science of early

development. National Academy Press,Washington DC.

Paul Drielsma’s response to Judy CashmoreI welcome Judy Cashmore’s comments. They provide ‘rounding’ and balance to my article,which may have seemed overly enthusiastic at times. My comments were based on a reflectionof Bruce Perry’s work, with direct reference to his 1998 ISPCAN lectures, that sparked in mea new awareness of the importance of the early years. It is gratifying to have this whole area

further highlighted and discussed through the Clearinghouse Newsletter.

Paul Drielsma is the Senior Manager, Regional Centres, UnitingCare Burnside, in New South

Wales

20

Journal of the HEIA

Vol. 8, No. 3, 2001

AbstractThis paper reports some of the results of two surveys

administered to almost three hundred home

economics teachers. The survey results contributed

to Doctoral studies and explored the question:

‘What is a good home economics teacher?’ The study

documents the disciplined body of home economics

knowledge, the governance of which works towards

normalisation of the ‘proper’ home economics

teacher. The analysis of these accounts of home

economics teachers by home economics teachers,

reveals the diversity, as well as the conformity, of

home economics teachers. The discussion that

emerges produces home economics teachers as

‘skilled’ and ‘suffering’ for their profession. The

consequences of these findings, in terms of possible

and preferred future directions for home economics

education, are explored.

IntroductionTwo surveys were administered to almost threehundred home economics teachers andexplored the concept, ‘what is a good homeeconomics teacher?’ In this way, an account ofthe area as a location of pedagogicalperformance, as expressed by home economicsteachers themselves, was generated, forminga grand picture of home economics teachers,building upon orthodox methods.

MethodologyThe surveys worked within methodologicalconventions of ‘modernist’ quantitative andqualitative modes of analysis. Surveys wereselected as an appropriate method fordocumenting a ‘realist’ account of homeeconomics teachers, given that they providean opportunity for general informationgathering. Further, surveys are ‘... particularly

useful when a complete enumeration of a

population is impractical’ (Australian Bureauof Statistics, 1993, p.1). In particular, a samplesurvey is a method of gathering informationabout a population in which direct contact ismade with a fraction of the population chosen

to represent the whole, using a collectiontechnique such as a questionnaire (Warwick& Lininger, 1975). The sampling techniqueused in the instance of these surveys wasconvenience, or, as it is sometimes called,accidental sampling. This means that captiveaudiences, as is the case in these studies, formthe sample (Cohen & Manion, 1985).

The surveys used in Study One and StudyTwo were designed for the purpose ofcollecting descriptive data, as opposed toanalytical data that are concerned to testhypotheses about relationships betweenvariables (Kidder & Judd, 1986). Descriptivesurveys are designed to ‘portray accurately

the characteristics of particular individuals,

situations or groups, and to determine the

frequency with which such behaviour or

attitudes occur in the population being

sampled (Bulmer, 1984, p.54). Since thepurpose of the surveys was to give homeeconomics teachers the opportunity todescribe their identity and role as homeeconomics teachers, descriptive surveys weredeemed appropriate. This approach has manyprecedents for use with professional groups,ranging from characterising such professionsas health information managers to scubadivers, to nurses and so on. The collectedinformation locates home economists, by wayof the language they use to name themselves.In essence, it provides a plain languageaccount of home economics teachers.

Both surveys were administered to homeeconomics teachers participating voluntarilyin professional development workshops. Theopportunity was provided by a series ofworkshops held at a large number of venuesacross the state of Queensland. Teachers wereinvited to attend a developmental programof two workshops with a time lapse ofapproximately six weeks between WorkshopOne and Two.

Re-thinking home economics:From blokey blokes to virginal mothers,

groovy chicks and much more!

Donna Pendergast

Donna Pendergast PhD

is a lecturer in education

at the University of

Queensland.

Tel: 07 3381 1531

Fax 07 3381 1515 ,

Email: d.pendergast@

mailbox.uq.edu.au

This paper was presented at the national biennial conference of theHome Economics Institute of Australia, ‘Home economics: A new century,

a new challenge’, 11-13 January 2001, held at Rydges Hotel, Canberra.

21

Re-thinking home economics

“

”

All home economics teachers in the state ofQueensland were invited to attend theworkshops, providing a large population ofhome economics teachers from which thepotential workshop participants could bedrawn. In order to determine the actual totalnumber of home economics teachers in thepublic school sector and the private schoolsector, appropriate authorities were contacted,that is the Queensland Department ofEducation, the Association of IndependentSchools of Queensland, and the QueenslandCatholic Education Commission. No specificnumber of home economics teachers couldbe determined as employed in any one sectorand the authorities suggested the difficultiesassociated with determining actual numbers ofhome economics teachers were confoundedby, for example, decentralisation of staffingmanagement; teachers not utilised in thedisciplines in which they were educated and/or for which they were employed; and mobilityof staff. However, after consultation it wasestimated that approximately seven hundred(700) home economics teachers were employedacross the authorities in the state of Queensland,and teaching home economics, at the time ofthis study. It was known that only five (5) ofthese teachers were male.

Surveys were administered to all of theparticipants attending the professionaldevelopment workshops. Survey One wasadministered in the first round of workshopsto all three hundred and two (302) homeeconomics teachers in attendance at thetwenty-six (26) venues, and Survey Two inthe second round was administered to all threehundred and two (302) home economicsteachers at twenty-five (25) venues (one venuewas dropped after poor attendance at theprevious workshop). It is important to notethat although the number of home economicsteachers participating in both rounds is thesame, this is coincidental, and the same peopledid not necessarily attend both phases.

Each survey included an overview of the studyand a consent form. Respondents were assuredof confidentiality and were not asked toprovide identifying information. Reply paidenvelopes were provided for the return of eachsurvey. There were no follow-up proceduresused as workshop participants remainedunknown to the researcher. Permission wasgranted from all relevant professional bodiesto conduct the study.

Study OneThis study used a survey to collectdemographic information, including years ofteaching experience, gender, location ofworkplace (country/metropolitan), and thenumber of teachers in the department in whichthe respondent worked. This information wasanalysed using the computer program,Statistical Package for the Social Sciences(SPSS). Next, the survey asked respondentsto list up to five adjectives they would use todescribe a home economics teacher. Thesedata were also analysed using SPSS and formedthe foundation for the development of SurveyTwo. This technique has been used by othergroups to enable them to gain anunderstanding of their members and how theirmembers perceive their profession (Wilks &Austin, 1991). This methodology is also usedto determine stereotypes – that is, behaviourfor certain groups (Wilks & Austin, 1991).

The final section of Survey One askedrespondents to list advantages anddisadvantages of being a home economicsteacher; and finally, how they could recognisea ‘good home economics teacher’. These datawere analysed using content analysis togenerate a picture of overall trends throughthe identification of categories of responses.

Survey One was administered to all threehundred and two (302) participants of thephase one professional developmentworkshops. Ninety-nine (99) surveys werereturned within the collection period of eight(8) weeks, with a response rate ofapproximately thirty three (33) per cent.

Findings of Study OneDemographic information about the

respondents in this study

Number of years teaching experiencein home economicsAlmost eighty per cent of the respondents inthis study had five or more years of teachingexperience, and more than half had at leastten years teaching experience. The full detailsare provided in Table 1.

Table 1. Number of years teaching experience in homeeconomics.

Number of years teaching Frequency Percentage experience in home economics (n = 99)

Less than 1 year 2 2.01–2 years 5 5.1

2–5 years 13 13.1

5–10 years 25 25.3

10–15 years 22 22.2

More than 15 years 32 32.3

TOTAL 99 100.0

Median = 10 - 15 years

Produces homeeconomics teachersas ‘skilled’ and‘suffering’.

22


“

”

Gender of the respondentsAll of the respondents in the survey werefemale.

Location of the schoolThe location of the school in which therespondent teachers were working wasreasonably equally split between country andmetropolitan, with 44 from the country and55 metropolitan.

Number of home economics teachersin the school home economicsdepartmentOver half of the respondents were in largeteaching departments with four or more homeeconomics teachers. Full details are providedin Table 2.

Table 2. Number of home economicsteachers in the department school ofhome economics

Number of home Frequency Per-economics teachers (n = 99) centage

One 7 7.1Two 17 17.2Three 23 23.2Four or more 52 52.5TOTAL 99 100.0

Median = Four or more

Adjectives used to describe a homeeconomics teacherRespondents were asked to list up to five (5)adjectives they would use to describe a homeeconomics teacher. This was the first of theperceptions data and was used to developSurvey Two. The data were analysed usingSPSS. The 99 respondents used a total of 458words. They included 146 different adjectives.

Table 3 lists the most frequently usedadjectives in their order of frequency of use,with at least four respondents having statedthe word. This generated a list of thirty-oneadjectives.

The index of uniformity is a measure thatindicates the number of adjectives needed toaccount for fifty per cent of the participants’responses and gives an indication of thetendency to stereotype (Callan & Gallois,1983). The index of uniformity shows that only4.41 adjectives (of the total 146) were requiredto account for half of the participant’sresponses and this is considered to be a highindex of uniformity. The words included inthe first 4.41 are: creative, hardworking, andorganised; with the remaining one to two

Adjective to describea ‘home economics

teacher’(n=31)

creative

hardworking

organised

caring

dedicated

practical

innovative

flexible

multi-skilled

versatile

committed

enthusiastic

professional

resourceful

adaptable

motivated

patient

skilled

busy

conscientious

informed

energetic

approachable

efficient

supportive

up to date

dynamic

friendly

fun

overworked

understanding

26

25

24

17

17

17

16

14

13

13

11

10

9

9

9

8

8

8

7

7

7

6

5

5

5

5

4

4

4

4

4

Percentage ofrespondents using theadjective (rounded)

(n = 458)

Index of uniformity = 4.41

Table 3. Most frequently used (by 4 or morerespondents) adjectives (31) to describe ahome economics teacher.

adjectives from caring, dedicated andpractical, each of which scored the samepercentage of selection (17%). It is interestingto note that approximately 25 per cent of therespondents each used the words: creative,

hardworking and organised.

An interesting finding from this study emergedwhen the number of years of teacherexperience was used to group the fiveadjectives to describe a home economicsteacher. It was found that with increasing yearsof teaching experience, there was increasedconsensus around certain words to describea home economics teacher (See Table 4).

25 per cent of therespondents eachused the words:creative,hardworking andorganised.

23


Advantages and disadvantages ofbeing a home economics teacherContent analysis of the data focused on theidentification of broad categories of responses.There is no intention to provide examples ofthese responses in this paper, but to simplystate the categories generated from the data.

In response to the request to state up to threeadvantages of being a home economicsteacher, participants made three main typesof responses and these were categorised as:1. advantages emerging from the nature of

the subject itself;2. advantages seen to offer benefits for the

teacher; and3. advantages seen to offer benefits for the

students, and thereby have a positiveeffect on teachers of home economics.

For each of these categories, a number ofcommon themes emerged and these weregrouped into sub-categories. For advantagesrelating to the subject itself, the five sub-categories included: the relevance of homeeconomics for life; its vocational links; thechallenging content; the variety and interestof the subject; and the practical, ‘hands-on’nature of the subject.

With respect to the second category, theperceived benefits to the teacher, six sub-categories were generated from the data.These were: positive student interaction withthe teacher; the opportunity to engage inpractical aspects in which the teacher isinterested; the variety the subject offersteachers; the linkage between theory andpractice; pride for teachers seeing studentsachieve; and the opportunity to consume food.

With respect to the third category, that is,perceived benefits to the student, six sub-categories were generated from the data.These were: students freely choose the subjecttherefore they want to be there; students seethey can achieve; students enjoy the practicalcomponents; students develop positiverelationships with teachers; students developa sense of satisfaction and pride; and studentsare positive about home economics.

In response to the request to state up to threedisadvantages of being a home economicsteacher, six main types of responses wereidentified in the data and categorised as:1. physical demands of the job;2. continual change and disruption;3. gender issues and politics associated with

the gendered nature of the field;4. negative perceptions of the field;5. safety, hygiene and legal issues; and6. resource problems.

For some of these categories, a number ofthemes emerged and these were grouped intosub-categories. In some instances, furtherbreakdown of these sub-categories was alsopossible. For other categories – that is: continualchange and disruption; gender issues andpolitics associated with the gendered natureof the field; and safety, hygiene and legal issues– there were no further sub-categories.

For the disadvantage, ‘physical demands of thejob’, the four sub-categories were: theexhausting nature of practical classes; thephysical demands of lifting heavy weights;stress; and demands associated with limitedtime. Time issues were further categorised intofour types of time demands: professional

Table 4. Group agreement of adjectives to describe a home economics teacheraccording to years of home economics teaching experience.

Years of home Words used with Frequency ofeconomics teaching the greatest words used Index of Uniformity*

experience frequency

Less than 5 innovative 7patient 4 20

5–10 hardworking 8creative 8 16

10–15 hardworking 7creative 7 15

more than 15 organised 12hardworking 9

creative 8dedicated 8 12

* The lower the index the greater the group consensus of the stereotype.

“

”

Vocational links; thechallenging content;the variety andinterest of thesubject; and thepractical, ‘hands-on’ nature of thesubject.

24


development; preparation for practical classes;lunch and after school demands; and timedemands associated with expectations ofrunning functions for administration and forclasses.

For the disadvantage, ‘negative perceptionsof the field’, the five sub-categories were: thepublic perception of the field as cooking andsewing; the perception by others that the fieldis not academic; the perception that homeeconomists are ‘jack of all trades, master ofnone’; the constant need to justify the existenceof the field; and negative attitudes to homeeconomics. The negative attitudes sub-categorycan be further broken into negative attitudesby school principals; students; and others,including parents and other teachers.

For the disadvantage, ‘resource problems’, thefour sub-categories were: the demands placedon teachers due to the maintenance ofequipment; the need for specialised rooms;lower ability students were often enrolled inthe subject; and the high financial cost of thesubject.

Recognising a ‘good homeeconomics teacher’.Content analysis of the data focused on theidentification of broad categories of responses.There is no intention to provide examples ofthese responses in this report, but to simplystate the categories generated from the data.

Survey respondents were asked to completethe following statement ‘I could recognise agood home economics teacher by …….’Three main types of responses were identifiedin the data and categorised as:1. personal dimensions of the teacher;2. looking to the students; and3. other.

For responses related to personal dimensionsof the teacher, there were two sub-categories:specific characteristics and descriptions of theteacher; and secondly, the teacher as a rolemodel. The specific characteristics of theteacher were further classified into tencategories: physical appearance; respect;outgoing personality; management andorganisational skills; positive approach; pridein their work; confidence; caring nature;enthusiastic approach; and a high degree ofprofessionalism, evident in the areas of acommitment to and willingness to change, acommitment to students, a commitment to thephilosophy of home economics, and acommitment to accepting difference.

For responses related to recognising a goodhome economics teacher by looking to thestudents, there were five sub-categories: theteacher’s capacity to cater for the range ofstudents; success for all students is possible;quality end products; enthusiastic students;and happy, enjoyable learning relationshipsbetween students and teacher.

Study TwoThe purpose of Study Two was to consolidate,refine and validate findings from Study Oneregarding home economics teachers’perceptions and understandings ofthemselves. This second survey comprised anoverview of the study, a consent form, andtwo questions.

Respondents chose from a given list of twenty-one adjectives, five words they would use todescribe a home economics teacher. This listwas generated from Survey One which askedteachers to suggest up to five adjectives theywould use to describe a ‘home economicsteacher’. The frequency of the one hundredand forty-six (146) different adjectivesgenerated from Survey One determinedwhether the adjective appeared on the list inSurvey Two, with any adjectives being usedby seven or more respondents being assignedto the master list. This approach follows themethodology used in previous studies onstereotypes and perceptions studies (Wilks &Austin, 1991). The advantage of a structuredlist is that the choice of specific attributes canbe compared over time (if desired), and anIndex of Uniformity (the definitiveness) of thestereotype can also be calculated (Wilks &Austin, 1991). The Index is the number ofadjectives required to account for half of thehome economics teachers responses each time.

Survey Two also asked respondents tocomplete a semantic differential bi-polarcomparison measure (Kane & Snyder, 1989)to describe their perception of a ‘homeeconomics teacher’. A semantic differentialwas chosen to assess current perceptions ofhome economics teachers by home economicsteachers because it is a recognised andeffective technique for measuring attitudesand perceptions of particular topics, issuesor people (Kane & Snyder, 1989). In thismethod, respondents were asked to examinea list of adjective pairs and, using a Likertscale, indicate which word in the pair bestdescribes a home economics teacher and theextent of agreement with this word byplacement on the Likert scale. This method isoften used to characterise the perceptions and

”

“

Continual changeand disruption;gender issues andpolitics associatedwith the genderednature of the field;and safety, hygieneand legal issues.

25


”

“stereotypes of professional groups. Thefindings of this section of the research arereported elsewhere.

Survey Two was administered to all threehundred and two (302) participants of thephase two professional developmentworkshops. One hundred and ninety-one(191) surveys were returned within thecollection period of eight weeks, a responserate of approximately sixty-three (63) per cent.Respondents were assured of confidentialityand were not asked to provide informationfrom which their identity could be established.Reply paid envelopes were provided. Therewere no follow-up procedures sinceparticipants were unknown to the researcher.

Findings of Study TwoAdjectives used to describe a home

economics teacher

Using the refined list of adjectives generatedfrom Survey One, respondents provided somestrong preference for certain of the terms. Withthe generated list as a prompt, almost 70 percent of respondents selected multi-skilled asone of their five adjectives to describe a home

economics teacher. Just under 50 per centselected the term professional, while over athird selected the terms organised andresourceful. In the original list of adjectivesgenerated in Survey One where there was noprompt, the three terms that were mostfrequently used were: creative (26%);hardworking (25%); and organised (24%).These words were all popular choices in thesecond survey, with organised being selectedby 39 per cent of respondents; hardworking

by 27 per cent and creative by 26 per cent.Hence, hardworking and creative were selectedby approximately the same percentage ofrespondents, whilst organised was considerablymore frequently selected in Survey Two whenit appeared as a suggested term. This is truealso of the two most frequently selectedadjectives in Survey Two - multi-skilled andprofessional. Table 5 provides a detailedaccount of the frequency of selected adjectivesin Survey Two and provides reference to theiroriginal frequency in Survey One. The indexof uniformity shows that 6.37 adjectives wererequired to account for half of the participantsresponses and this is considered to be a highindex of uniformity. The six most frequentlyselected adjectives were: multi-skilled;professional; organised; resourceful; practical;

and hardworking.

DiscussionWhen looking to the data to generate ‘truthfulcategorizations’, it is necessary to bear in mindthat home economics teachers belong to thelarger category of ‘teacher’. ‘Teachers’ arealready normalised as a collective, so homeeconomics teachers exist within an alreadydiscursively produced domain. There are rulesfor performing as a teacher, and these aregoverned by folklore about what is recognisable

as a teacher. In their book, That’s funny, you

don’t look like a teacher, Weber and Mitchell(1995, p.xi) note that ‘teachers are figures of

such impossible familiarity that they are apt to

vanish beneath the general and the particular

disparagements such taken-for-granted

phenomena may attract to themselves’. Weberand Mitchell (1995) go on to demonstrate thatthe teachers’ body is culturally inscribed by‘items of clothing … glasses, hairstyles, makeup,

tattoos, body decoration, jewelry, accessories

and the like’ (p.55), explaining that throughthe use of such materiality, teachers bodiesbecome normalised:

Teachers are not supposed to look

attractive or sexy or ‘different’. They are

not supposed to look aristocratic. They are

supposed to reflect prevailing social

standards of middle class respectability.

Table 5. Frequency of selection of adjectives todescribe a home economics teacher.

Adjective Frequency Percentage*

(n = 955) (respondents = 191)

TOTAL 955 100.0

Index of uniformity = 6.37

*In brackets % in Survey One

70 per cent ofrespondentsselected multi-skilled as one oftheir fiveadjectives todescribe a homeeconomics teacher.

multi-skilledprofessionalorganisedresourcefulpracticalhardworkingcaringcreativeflexibleconscientiousinnovativeadaptablebusycommittedversatilededicatedmotivatedenthusiasticskilledinformedpatientmissing cases

12982746657515049454441393636282524232220104

70 (13)43(9)39 (9)35 (9)30 (17)27 (25)26 (17)26 (26)24 (14)23 (7)21 (16)20 (9)19 (7)19 (11)15 (13)13 (17)13 (8)12 (10)11 (8)10 (7)5 (8)

2

26


“

”

If teachers do differ from the norm, they

are expected to differ in a more negative

manner that is somehow considered to

be more true to life: teacher-as-spinster;

teacher-as-absent-minded-bumbler;

teacher-as-bossy-matron. (Weber &Mitchell, 1995, p.60)

Given that ‘teachers’ as a broad category areproduced in such ways, what are theparticularities, if any, that make a ‘homeeconomics’ teacher? In this research, homeeconomics teachers used words, descriptionsand explanations to construct themselves asprofessional home economics teachers. Thefindings revealed the words most frequentlyused by home economics teachers to be (inbrackets are the percentages of therespondents): multi-skilled (70%); professional(43%); organised (39%); resourceful (35%);practical (30%); hardworking (27%); caring(26%); and creative (26%).

These words have an important function inproducing a universalising ‘identity’ for thehome economics teacher – a norm or an idealagainst which home economics teachers canjudge themselves. In so doing, they reinforcethe existence of dualities, inferring what ahome economics teacher may not be. That is,they may not be unskilled, unprofessional,disorganised, lazy, uncaring, lackingresourcefulness, be impractical nor lackingcreativity. These descriptors are not uniquein that they privilege what would be expectedin terms of any professional, paid worker.Further, predominantly the mind of the homeeconomics teacher – not the body, is alsoprivileged in these terms. Identity is thusproduced as a result of working on thecognitive domain – and the work of teachingis thus rendered largely a mind-to-mind matter.

Furthermore, the study reveals that, whenexploring the advantages and disadvantagesof being a home economics teacher, homeeconomics teachers often lead a sort of dual

existence where there is an ideal such thatthe home economics teacher is valued andskilled, and the other end of the dualism isthe ‘real’ existence that is characterised by‘suffering’, including hard work, lack ofprestige and valuing by others, resourcingproblems, and so on. Home economicsteachers frequently explained that they wereexpected to be pure and to be good rolemodels, several describing themselves to belike a ‘virgin’ and to be ‘mothers’ to theirstudents. There were others who refused theseroles, taking on ‘blokey bloke’ and ‘groovychick’ imagery to describe their approaches.

This research adds another dimension to thelevels of understanding of what it means tobe a home economics teacher. It appears tobe true that home economics teachers have astrong identity and stereotype within theirprofession. This stimulates questions aboutwhat it means NOT to fit the typicalconstruction of a home economics teacher.

ReferencesAustralian Bureau of Statistics. (1993). An

introduction to sample surveys. Melbourne:Australian Bureau of Statistics.

Bulmer, M. (1984). Sociological research methods:

An introduction. Second edition. London:Macmillan.

Callan, V. & Gallois, C. (1983). Ethnic stereotypes:Australian and Southern European youth.Journal of Social Psychology, 119, 288–288.

Cohen, L. & Manion, L. (1985). Research methods in

education, 2nd edition. London: Groom Helm.Kane, M. & Snyder, E. (1989). Sporting typing: The

social ‘containment’ of women in sport. Arena

Review, 13(2), 77–96.Kidder, L. H. & Judd, C. M. (1986). Research

methods in social relations. Japan: CBS.Warwick, D. P. & Lininger, C. A. (1975). The sample

survey: Theory and practice. United States ofAmerica: McGraw-Hill.

Weber, S. & Mitchell, C. (1995). That’s funny, you

don’t look like a teacher. London: Falmer Press.Wilks, J. & Austin, D. (1991). An evaluation of a

strategy for changing group stereotypes of theheroin user. Drug and Alcohol Review, 10, 107–113.

Teachers are notsupposed to lookattractive or sexyor ‘different’.

27

Journal of the HEIA

Vol. 8, No. 3, 2001

IntroductionAre you really proud of Australian schools?Have you heard people praising theirachievements? Have you defined preciselywhere you would like to see improvementsin our systems of schooling and highereducation? Ten years from now, what kindof educational provisions would you like tosee in place? As we stand at the beginning ofAustralia’s second century as a nation, theseare not just interesting questions; they areimportant ones, for on the answers may hangour future prosperity. As Bismark observed,the nation that has the schools has the future.

If the Australian community were framing aConstitution for the nation now, in 2001, itwould certainly include some elementssubstantially at odds with what was put inthe Constitution one hundred years ago, andone area where the differences would bemost marked is that of education andschooling.

To ensure widespread ownership of the newConstitution prior to 1901, community forumswere held across Australia to garner citizens’opinions. The new Constitution was silenton education, for the six pre-existingsovereign states had each recently enactedtheir legislation for ‘free, compulsory andsecular’ public schooling and had just set uptheir Education Departments. Except for ahandful of special purpose grants, the nationalgovernment did not intrude on the states’residual power over education until after theSecond World War, first through post-warrehabilitation programs for returning armedservice personnel, then through funding tosalvage Australian universities. There followedCommonwealth capital grants for schoollibraries and science laboratories in the 1960s,and in the 1970s the creation of theCommonwealth Schools Commission and asurge of national funding for schools.

Constitutionally and politically, education andschooling now occupy quite differentpositions from what was envisaged at the timeof Federation.

From an international perspective Australia

is a fairly mature and long-established nation,with a distinctive culture and with its ownway of doing things. The two peak councilsfor professional educators in Australia, theAustralian Council for EducationalAdministration and the Australian College ofEducation, have tried to capture the feelingspeople have about the nation’s schoolsthrough a process similar to that of 1899/1900 and to arrive at a declaration whichencapsulates what are the aspirations ofeducators and Australian citizens as thenation enters its second century. We thereforeasked our informants to address thefollowing three questions:(1) Concerning the past achievementsof education:What are you proud about in Australianeducation over the past century? Whatachievements should we celebrate andcherish, and what things should we preserveat all costs?

(2) Concerning the current state ofAustralian education:In what ways does Australia’s educationalachievement need to be improved? What areschooling’s present strengths, inadequacies,and challenges?

(3) Concerning the future:What strong aspirations or hopes do you holdfor Australian education as the nation entersupon its second century?

To gather this information, community forumswere held in most states and territories,commentaries were invited from a numberof eminent persons whose community

A National Declaration forEducation 2001A report on the findings

This article is reproduced from Unicorn, Volume 27, Number 2, July 2001with kind permission from the Australian College of Education and the

Australian Council for Educational Administration

Members of the

writing team were:

Professor Hedley Beare,

Dr Wendy Cahill,

Mr Gregory Clarke,

Dr Richard Cotter and

Mrs Cynthia Merrill. Contact

details: The Australian College

of Education, PO Box 323,

Deakin West ACT 2600,

Tel: 02 6281 1677,

Fax: 02 6285 1262, E-mail:

[email protected]

28


activities have sharpened their views aboutschooling; submissions were received fromindividual educators and focus groups fromaround the nation, and salient points whichemerged in the Australian Education Assemblyheld in Melbourne in April 2001 have alsobeen incorporated in this report.

There already exists a recent nationalstatement about Australia’s educationalaspirations, called The Adelaide Declaration

on National Goals for Schooling in the

Twenty-First Century. It was assented to byall the Australian Ministers responsible forEducation at the Adelaide meeting of theMinisterial Council for Employment,Education, Training and Youth Affairs(MCEETYA) in April 2000, and was formedafter canvassing expert opinion in all statesand territories. Helpful though the documentis, we were disappointed to find that it isregarded as an expert or in-house document,that its existence is not widely known aboutamong the community members weconsulted around Australia, and that eveneducators, parents and leading citizens knowlittle about its content.

Declarations like this exist elsewhere. Forexample, in 1990 in the USA, an historicmeeting held at Charlottesville and called theEducation Summit, allowed all the stateGovernors to draw up a plan to ‘revitalise and

reinvent America’s schools’. Bill Clinton whowas later to become President participated asGovernor of Arkansas at the time. That processproduced six goals for American educationand an education strategy to achieve them bythe Year 2000. Although there was unevenprogress and ten years later none of the goalshad been fully achieved, the document didserve to focus national effort and to setpriorities.

In drawing up this present Declaration, wehave kept in mind the advice given to us byProfessor Peter Karmel. ‘Without a statement

of priorities, long lists of goals come close to

being meaningless’ for ‘it is inconceivable that

all goals can be fully met ’, he said. While it istempting to list high aspirations and generallyworded desiderata, ‘more limited goals may

have greater practical value’. He thereforecounselled that our list should ‘limit the goals

sufficiently to give them practical content and

give some indication of priorities’.

Recurring themesA document as short as this one cannot reportall the material which was given to us, but

several general areas were constantly visitedby the forums and our respondents and anational consensus does seem to be formingabout some aspects of the nation’s educationprovisions. We also identified several themesrunning strongly through the data, coloringand shaping what we were being told.

For the future, several aspects of Australianeducation need careful attention and forwardplanning. We report these ideas in the sectionswhich follow. We must acknowledge at theoutset however, that because education is anextensive field, because many parts of it arecomplicated and technical, and because thereare many sectors to consider, a national searchlike the one we have undertaken tends tothrow up generalities rather than particularsolutions, for detail would overwhelm us andthe consultative process. Indeed, there wasso much to say that the community forumstended to speak in shorthand!

In each of the sections that follow, then, wetake up the topics that seemed to recur in ourdata. For each topic we try to acknowledgeboth the achievements which have been citedand the concerns which were commonly raised.This process clarified what needs to be donein each of the areas and the kinds of prioritywhich might be accorded each suggested setof actions. We expected that we would thenbe in a position to select a set of propositionsand priorities, which could become targets forthe next decade. In short, a Declaration forAustralian Education would emerge.

The topic areas we address are, in manyrespects, a reaction to current trends, policies,and practices, and may therefore beconsidered limited or uneven. Yet the usualmajor areas – such as curriculum, assessmentmethods, globalisation, teacher education,choice, participation – are there among ourtopics. These constitute an agenda for bothformal and informal debate around the nationover coming months; and we put forward thisreport and the declaration derived from it inthe hope that they will lead to valuableimprovement in this nation’s educationalprovisions, and in the community’scommitment to and support of them.

Developing the national characterAgain and again we were told that education– and especially schooling – is fundamentalto ensuring that our system of democracy ismaintained and for guaranteeing the effectiveoperation of Australia’s social systems andstructures.

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Basic skills andcompetencies theyrequire for life andwork, includingproblem-solvingskills and ethicalunderstandings.

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A National Declaration for Education 2001

People feel strongly about the role Australianschools have played in nation-building.Schools have made a substantial contributiontowards creating an harmonious, multiculturalsociety, which is racially tolerant and whichcherishes the enriched culture resulting fromthe inputs of people (including many migrants)drawn from a wide range of ethnicbackgrounds. By and large, schools have beenthe melting pot for producing this kind ofnation.

There is justifiable pride in the accomplishmentsof the public education system in Australiasince it was formally established in the finaldecades of the nineteenth century. Indeed,one of the major accomplishments of the firstone hundred years of Federation has beenthe creation of what is considered to be oneof the world’s outstanding systems ofschooling and of higher education. Over thedecades, that system has contributed much tothe economic prosperity of the nation; it hashelped build a sense of cohesion in a nationthat is in geographical terms widely dispersed;schools have been the focus for building asense of community, especially in rural orremote settings; and there is a powerful senseof professionalism built around service in thenation’s schools.

So the question of building national identityis an important consideration for schools inthe second century of the nation’s existence.As they have done in the past, schools willneed to play a pivotal role in determining andarticulating what it means to be an Australian.They have a prime function to develop eachperson in a way which will enable them tocontribute positively to society, and to acquirethe basic skills and competencies they requirefor life and work, including problem-solvingskills and ethical understandings, as well asspecific vocational skills.

But you get the impression from the data thatthe vehemence of the support for education’srole in nation-building is partly because thecultural consensus has become rather raggedof late, that some cherished values are nolonger honoured, that individualism and self-centredness are weakening what was onceaccepted as the social fabric, and thatpreviously valued public institutions – likeparliament itself – are viewed with cynicism,and that there is ignorance about the heritagewhich has made us the nation we are.

Is ‘becoming an Austral ian’ and ‘ thedevelopment of the person’ therefore the

same thing? Schools have to be concerned withmore than just personal development, for thepublic purposes of education must include:induction into citizenship, so that people canact as responsible citizens and participateeffectively in community and national affairs;the inculcation of common understandingsabout what it means to be Australian and whatare the core values of Australian society; andthe promotion of strongly espoused nationalissues like equity, social justice and equalityof opportunity. Schools have been, and willcontinue to be, a knowledge service centrefor their communities and society, with a focuson the organisation and production ofknowledge relevant to the diverse groups intheir local community and to the othercommunities with whom they are linkedacross the world.

Personal development and Australiancitizenship then, may be mutually necessaryin a contingent way, but they are not thesame conceptually. So the personal and thepublic or communal goals of education needto be not only disentangled and harmonisedbut also prioritised, lest they join otherlengthy lists of goals, lose focus, and becomemeaningless.

A lot has been said to us about life skills;acquiring them has been, is, and will be, animportant learning target. To ignore this aspectof education is to produce a society ofvulnerable people. Yet developing life skillsdoes not sit easily with democracy. True, ademocracy requires a minimum level ofcivil ity, which assumes a range ofunderstandings and appropriate behaviours togo with them. But it is essentially a personal

undertaking to acquire life skills, andconcentrating on acquiring them canunderplay the responsibility one has to one’sneighbours, to one’s community and to thenation. Much more concentration must begiven, then, to mutual interdependence, notleast the fundamental dependence eachperson has on the natural world.

To the degree, then, that education andschooling are crucial for nation-building,education has to be seen as a national

endeavour, and for it to become that willrequire continuing and sensitive dialoguebetween educators, politicians, business, andthe wider community. The presentConstitution tends to complicate, if not inhibit,the process of addressing this dimension ofschooling.

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Widespreaddisquiet about therole of schools asagents of nation-building.

30


But there is a compelling reason why we candetect such widespread disquiet about the roleof schools as agents of nation-building. Atfederation, the six sovereign states all hadcentralised school systems, controlled fromhead offices located in the capital cities. Whilethat model of governance ensured consistencyin teaching a prescribed curriculum, uniformityin the way schools were managed and staffed,conformity in teaching methods, and a dictatedevenness in educationalprovision across greatgeographical distances, itnevertheless embodied apaternalism which becameobsolescent as the nationmatured, as its citizensbecame better educated,and its workforce more self-determining. That degree ofcentralisation has disap-peared from education,supplanted by a dispersionof control and responsibility,by a diversity of schoolingprovisions which gives theimpression of fracturing, byapparent laissez-faireapproaches to things whichin the past were mandated,and by distributed manage-ment and privatisation ofpublic services which haveleft the public uneasy aboutwhether cardinal aspects ofnational schooling are beingforgotten or overlooked. Inshort, distributed manage-ment may result in respon-sibilities so scattered asnever to be properlyaddressed; or, if mandated,then imple-mented with gross uneven-ness.Can such an important task be left tohaphazard attention?

Global citizens in an internationalworldIf education is a preparation for living andworking in a global community, Australiancitizens need the knowledge and skills bothto access and to be comfortable in a diverseenvironment. Many Australians now work inan international environment even withouttravelling outside their own country. Ourchildren need to be prepared economicallyand culturally for work in an increasinglyinternationalised environment. The changingAustralian population and its multiculturaldiversity are themselves a great resource and

they are increasingly informing our schools anduniversities. Multiculturalism will allow Australianchildren to access better other cultures bothfor their own personal fulfilment and also astheir fields of work and employment expand.

Because of the increasing interconnectednessof countries, a world perspective is requiredmore than ever, in such subject areas asHistory, Economics and Literature. Increasingly

within those subjects,understanding the globalcontext is essential forunderstanding eventsoccurring withinindividual countries, notleast their own.

The global perspectiveendorses the priority puton the learning ofLanguages other thanEnglish (LOTE). In recenttimes Australia has madea strong push into thelearning of LOTE,especially Asian Lang-uages. The movement tobegin the teaching ofLOTE in the primaryschool has been one of theachievements of the lastdecade.

English speakers have anadvantage in global access.However, the internationaluse of English is notuniform and its globalnuances have profoundimplications for our ownapproach to English. As

English is used internationally it represents amore dynamic set of experiences embracingdifferent cultures. As a result, the structure andexpressiveness of the English language areundergoing profound changes. Australian Englishis a rich idiom but we must also become awareof and appreciate the global transformationsringing through the English language.

New world figures in literature impose adifferent style on the English language. Manywinners of the prestigious Booker Prize nolonger come from Britain, not unlike the waymany non-Italians (originally ‘barbarians’ tothe Romans) eventually brought different giftsto the Latin language. Because theinternationalising of English is one of the mostpowerful impulses driving the international-

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Distributedmanagement mayresult inresponsibilities soscattered as neverto be properlyaddressed.

To address the concerns in this areaof schools as agents in nation-building, the following actions andpriorities will need to be set in train:

• A major task of schooling is todevelop in each Australian anunderstanding of who we are as anation. It will involve an informedawareness of our heritage, of ournational identity, of societal values,and mutual interdependence. Thistask of schooling requires planningand must not be left to chance.

• Because it is crucial for nation-building, education is in part anational endeavour, requiringnationally coordinatedapproaches. Even though thegovernance of education isdecentralised, schools still have arole in fostering national unity.

• While education aims to developeach person and ensure he or shehas acquired good life skills, it alsomust focus on buildingcommunity, including anunderstanding of the fundamentaldependence each person has onthe natural world.

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isation of the curriculum, accessing the fullpotential of English means experiencing a muchmore diverse linguistic curriculum. Adding tothe content of this international curriculum arethe powerful communication media, amongwhich is the Internet, the latest and mostpromising means for exchanging informationand facilitating dialogue about it.

Elites throughout history have sent their childrenabroad to study. Overseasstudy is now becomingmore common, madepossible by the increasingaffluence of manycountries. As the middleclass expands, educationand travel become morewidespread. The fact thatstudents now cross theworld in their millions hasimportant implications notonly for educationalinstitutions but for theeconomy and society oftheir host and homecountries. When a criticalmass of internationalstudents enters a school oruniversity, the institution isnot simply the formerinstitution with the additionof overseas students; rather,a new cultural dynamic isset in place.

Not all students can affordto travel, or maybe not asoften or for as long as theywould like. Technology canassist those unable to travelas well as continuing and extending learningand friendships, which have already occurredthrough travel. Even so, the differential abilityof schools to give their students the benefits ofoverseas study, out-of-country contacts, and acurriculum enriched by internationalperspectives is causing inequalities, sometimesgross ones, among Australian schools, and it isoften not dependent on whether they aregovernment or non-government. The oldcategories simply do not apply here.

Globalisation, then, also challenges ouraspirations to equity. The internationalisingschool, with its share of international students,its student exchanges and its more consciouslyinternational curriculum, offers greatopportunities for many families. However,many schools do not have the resources to offer

these opportunities. So there are developingdivisions among schools in regard to the kindof horizons to which their young people aspire.Put bluntly, the degree to which students areexposed to international experiences in theirschooling will affect how well they can accesspositions in globalised economies.

In helping to build a harmonious multiculturalsociety, therefore, schools will give Australia

economic as well as culturaladvantages in the globalsociety. Further-more, aneducation that has aninternational dimensionfocuses on the future andgives its young scholars aglobal passport. Publiceducation has an evenmore important role in thepost-modern, globallyaware world. Being a goodcitizen does not stop atone’s national borders.

However, schools cannot beexpected to carry thewhole load of cultural,social and economicformation of the young.Given the power of massmedia, for example, theyobviously do not anyway.The school is only onepartner in a broad socialcoalition, but it might behelpful if the othercontributors to the outlookof young people took theirrole as seriously and asresponsibly as schools

obviously do.

Control and participation ineducationAustralian citizens have rarely been asked fortheir responses to questions like the ones weposed about the nation’s education, and wewere somewhat surprised at people’shesitation to make comment. Several decadesof attempted educational reforms have leftpeople world-weary, because of the scepticismthat exists about the value of simplisticpanaceas shown not to deliver what theypromised. As well, the increasingsophistication of the whole educationalenterprise, creates a tendency for people toregard education as an area to be left to theexperts. Even so, education is considered ofprofound importance to the nation, and the

“

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Being a goodcitizen does notstop at one’snational borders.

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The degree towhich students areexposed tointernationalexperiences in theirschooling will affecthow well they canaccess positions inglobalisedeconomies.

To address the concerns in the areaof education for global citizenship, thefollowing actions and priorities willneed to be set in train:

• The multicultural nature of theAustralian community is apowerful learning resource.

• Subjects such as history, economicsand literature will increasinglyreflect global interconnectednessand a world perspective.

• There is an increasing need for thestudy of Languages other thanEnglish in all Australian schools;and also an appreciation of thevarieties of English in use aroundthe globe.

• The participation of overseasstudents in our institutionsfundamentally changes their cultureand is welcomed as an advantagefor the Australian students.

• All students in Australia, regardlessof where they live or in what kindof school they are enrolled, shouldhave opportunities to enjoyinternational experiences withintheir curriculum.

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feeling was widespread in our data that thepriority and financial support accordededucation must be much higher than theyare.

Education then, has become esoteric, andmeaningful participation in policy settingproblematic. Why is it that the public isprepared to leave the detailed decisions aboutthe schooling of their children, and especiallythe plans for the future of schooling, almostentirely to professional educators? One reasonmust be that there are few, and in some cases,no mechanisms for those with a stake ineducation to put their views, to be givenreliable data, to debate the policy options,and to search for answers and consensus. Theproblem is exacerbated by the split-levelnature of educational provision and control,by the dispersion of legal responsibilitiesamong local, state and federal bodies, by thecomplications of funding arrangements, andby the breakdown of traditional jurisdictions.In many respects, geography is no longer avalid factor, and many new practices wouldbe possible if state and territory borders weredisregarded and if strategic alliances weremade which surmount provincial controls. Andhere our history is an important and sometimesan inhibiting factor.

To the extent that state, territory and federalgovernments are representative, the peopleparticipate in decisions about education, butwhen those political processes leave mostpeople feeling disempowered, then thequestion has to be raised whethersupplementary forums for involvement shouldnot be put into place.

For several decades, funding for highereducation and for post-school training wasmediated through Commissions operating atarm’s length from government in an attemptto shield higher and further education fromshort-term and direct political interference.Membership on a Commission was byministerial nomination, but consisted ofexperts, the informed public, and personsrepresenting a range of cognate interests.

When the federal government began to be asubstantial player in school education (untilthen, the domain of the states), the vehiclefor doing so was the Schools Commission, abody on which all the major players fromgovernment and non-government sectors hada voice. Although it was never a representativeassembly as such, it was a body whosemembers were chosen by the Minister after

he or she had taken advice from around thenation. The Schools Commission wasmetamorphosed into the Schools Council, anadvisory body, and then abolished by the early1990s. In the same way, since the time of theirinvolvement in schooling from the late 1800sonwards, several states have toyed with creatingEducation Boards to advise them, the mostrecent the Victorian State Board of Education,which is now defunct.

These bodies have done valuable work andhave sponsored wide and informed discussionon educational matters, but all seemed tofounder because they were an alternative toand often critical of the Ministries which havethe responsibility to run the nation’s schools.Even so, Hughes argues that

the establishment of a public body

concerned with, and representative of the

whole spectrum of Australian education

is a major priority if we are to move ahead

to produce both quality and equity.

It needs to be stated explicitly that all schools,non-government no less than government,operate within the legislative boundariescontrolled by parliaments – and that is as itshould be in a democracy. This point wasaffirmed several times in the communityforums in the states and territories.

There is another level of participation thatrequires comment. The bodies we have beendiscussing above are also well removed fromthe affairs of individual schools where parentsfeel they have a strong and legitimate interestand where they welcome direct involvement.We were interested to note how widely it isaccepted that schools will be self-managing,often with a one-line budget, and that schoolsof all kinds will have their own board orcouncil on which sit parents, teachers, andmembers of the affected community. It is, infact, satisfying to see the extent to which theAustralian community seems to supportlocalised decision-making in schools.

The power given to self-determining schoolsstill remains problematical. Private schools inAustralia are governed by their own councilswhich represent the school’s stakeholders.Most states and territories have developedSchool Boards or Councils for their ownindividual schools, but in the public sectornone of them have executive power or havebeen made governing bodies, as is the case withprivate schools.

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it might be helpfulif the othercontributors to theoutlook of youngpeople took theirrole as seriouslyand as responsiblyas schoolsobviously do.

33


The only system to have attempted agovernance structure which vested theadministration of its schools in a bodyrepresentative of its people was that of theACT, but its Schools Authority was disbandedwhen the ACT itself gained state-type powers.All states and territories have now opted forMinisterial control of their public schools, akind of one-best-way model for Australia.Despite two decades of structural reform toEducation Departments, and substantial staffdownsizing in them all, there has not beenan attempt to vary the nature of theirjurisdictions.

Nevertheless, we detected in the submissionsfrom our forums an unease that there existsnowhere in Australia an official arena orarenas for those who have a direct stake inschools to put their views and to debatepolicy options. Nor has any viable suggestionfor such a body or bodies been put forward.There remains, then, a perceived andsignif icant gap wherebodies like the SchoolsCommission once existed.

In the same gap sits thequestion of whetherAustralia has, or needs, atruly national system ofschools. It is fi l leduncertainly at present bythe Council of EducationMinisters, MCEETYA, whichoperates as part of COAG,the national Council ofAustralian Governments. Itsays something about theinsufficiency of a one-h u n d r e d - y e a r - o l dConstitution that suchbodies have to exist at all.

The kinds of issues whichparticipative forums shouldaddress, include therelationship between theCommonwealth and thestates, public and privateschooling, sources and levelsof funding, building thesupport and effort of thecommunity, the redesign offacilities to ensure they areattractive places for staff and students, theutilisation of information and communicationtechnology in all settings and for all students,and achieving a tight but appropriate connectionamong education, the economy and society.

Because participation in decision-makingprocesses is an integral part of any form ofactive citizenship, the opportunity should alsobe afforded at least to secondary schoolstudents, and preferably also to primarystudents, to be involved in decision-makingprocesses which are real and relevant to them.

Values in Australian educationWhile there is general uneasiness about thevalues being promoted among young peopleby the impact of the influences of multi media,there are several particular issues that emergedin the community forums.

The first relates to the traditional induction ofthe young into membership of the tribe, andoverseeing the ceremonials which the cultureconsiders to be the rites of passage which ayoung initiate must negotiate. These stages aredifferent in every culture, but no culture, ancientor modern, exists without them. It has fallenlargely to schools to induct the new generation

into the Australian society’svalues and norms. Schools(and teachers) havebecome almost by defaultthe prime agents todevelop a shared system ofvalues, the democraticfabric of the nation,inclusiveness and the valueof the individual, arecognition of the status andinfluence of women, socialcohesion, and one’sresponsibility as a citizen.Indeed, the ‘commonschool’ has replacedagencies like the extendedfamily, the self-containedvillage and the church asthe institution to leadchildren through the rites ofpassage into fullcitizenship.

Schools, either formally orinformally, wittingly orunwittingly, now pass onwhat has been called the‘cultural canon’ – namelythe common themes,common mythologies, thesets of shared stories and the

compendia of knowledge from which a cohesivesociety is generated. In the next hundred years,given the known trends in the world populationand in global demography, people will need adeep commitment to community, not only locally

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Schools (andteachers) havebecome almost bydefault the primeagents to develop ashared system ofvalues.

To address the concerns in this areaof a forum where the public canparticipate in the deliberations aboutthe nation’s educational provisions,the following actions and prioritieswill need to be set in train:

• It is appropriate for every schoolto be self-managing, to have itsown budget, and the power tomake decisions relating to itsfunctions.

• Every school needs a council orboard, either governing oradvisory, to oversee its operations.Membership of the council shouldbe representative of the school’smain stakeholders – parents,teachers, the community and,wherever possible, students.

• Australia needs deliberative bodiesat national, state and local levelsto involve education’s stakeholdersin formulating educational policy.

• It is time for Australians to moveeducational provision beyond theartificial constraints caused by stateand territory boundaries, and bygeography and distance.

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or regionally, but at an international as well asthe national level. We will all need thesympathetic and compassionate imagination,which enables us to relate to others as personsand across national frontiers.

It is an awesome role for schooling, and there issome anxiety that society is allowing it tohappen without planning,acknowl-edgement, or duerecog-nition of what schoolsare being asked to do. Whatare the ‘core values’ that weexpect our Australianeducation system topromote?

On the other hand, it is wellrecognised that schoolingand education make asubstantial contribution tothe economic base of thenation. It seems now thatthe urgency is moreintense, the public pressuremore overt, the burden ofexpectations more explicitfor schools and for studentsto deliver the outcomeswhich will make Australiainternationally competitiveand which ensure that itsstandard of living does notdecline.

Not surprisingly, we wereconfronted by a strongreaction against theo u t c o m e s - o r i e n t e dinfatuation, which seems tohave permeated much ofthe more recent educationalpolicymaking. An education that emphasisespersonal development, the generation of goodattitudes and wholesome beliefs, is beingadvocated above the utilitarian curriculum andthe kind of approaches which focus on simplistic,measurable outcomes. Respondents repeatedlyaffirmed that the education process is primarilyabout people.

But more than that, schooling is a collectiveexperience, and is applauded for teaching thecompanionship that comes from being partof a learning tribe, of being in a community andof contributing to it. Mr John Roskam of theMenzies Research Centre claims that schools aregoing to become more important as parents seeksecurity for their children looking for safe placesfor their education. He notes also that schools

are increasingly positioning themselves withpastoral care as their major focus. How has itcome about, respondents repeatedly asked, thatthe socialising, enculturating, and personal-development aims of schools are being givensuch flimsy recognition?

In recent years, govern-ment policies have beenseen to emphasise theoutcomes of education. Inparticular, measurableoutcomes have been thefocus of teaching. However,many of the most importanteducational outcomes arenot easily measuredbecause the benefits ofeducation accrue over alifetime and cannot bemeasured simply at thepoint of exit from a classor educational institution. Itneeds to be acknowledgedthat statistical performanceindicators have limitations.

Moreover, the quality ofinputs and of educationalprocesses cannot be easilyseparated from the qualityof outcomes. The qualityand type of resourcesavailable to education forthis new century need to bere-thought. The communityforums and privatecommentaries were oftenpassionate about whichpeople and whichinstitutions were beingrewarded in the latest roundof funding allocations.

Public education‘All countries’, Professor Phillip Hughes toldus, ‘recognise the need for all people to have a

high-quality education. This can only be

achieved by the inclusion of a high-quality

public education system’. A public system (asopposed to a privately provided one) has theresponsibility of ‘focusing attention and effort

on those values which we hold in common as

a society and which constitute our basis for a

democratic society’.

While there were members from all educationsectors at the community forums and asrespondents, including the Catholic andindependent sectors, it was notable howstrong the unanimity was that the public sectorof education was fundamentally important to

‘Common school’ hasreplaced agencieslike the extendedfamily, the self-contained villageand the church asthe institution tolead childrenthrough the rites ofpassage into fullcitizenship.

To address the concerns about thevalues which ought to interpenetratethe nation’s education provisions, thefollowing actions and prioritiesshould be set in train:

• Schools support the personaldevelopment of the young andinduct them into a crit icalunderstanding of their society.

• Education is now central tobuilding a sound economic basefor the nation, especially as theleading world economies becomeknowledge-intensive.

• An educational approach, whichputs undue emphasis oncompetition and individualismover community interest isunacceptable.

• One of the strengths of Australianschools is that learning is done incommunity, it is a collectiveexperience, and encourageslearners not only to takeresponsibility for their ownlearning but also to participatewith and to help others .

• Schools endeavour to establish asafe environment wherein theincreasing pastoral care andwelfare needs of students are met.

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the nation’s health, and that it needed the strongsupport of the whole community.

Of concern to the forums was the growingperception within the Australian communitythat public schools were being down-valued.The broad view was that it is preferable forone’s own children to be enrolled in privaterather than public schools. There was aperception that there is an undermining ofthe efficacy of public schools, and that theprivatisation of public amenities (includingschools) is being encouraged, not least by thecorporate and business sectors.

Yet the forums and eminent persons supporteda variety of schools and diversification amongthem. They also favoured increasing accessto education across all sectors, and the richoptions on offer through schools of the air,distance education, schools holding particulareducational approaches and philosophies,through lifelong learning by means of a rangeof institutions, through the University of theThird Age, and through TAFE, to name some.In international terms, Australia has beencreative in the options and variety of learningformats it offers and the range of settings acrossage groups.

If the Australian community wishes to maintainboth government and non-governmentsystems of education, both state-provided andprivately maintained schools – and our datasuggest that it does – then equality of accessand of opportunity are not only desirable butpresumed. Individuals should be able torealise their potential irrespective of theirsocio-economic background. If differences invalues or culture are encouraged amongschools, then schooling will be a matter ofchoice rather than a matter of competition orthe ability to pay.

All governments in Australia now formallyrecognise the right of parents to choose theschool that provides the best education for theirchildren. This right has been incorporated inthe United Nations Covenant, and has beenratified by Australia. However, choice can leadto unproductive competition, to unfair advantagefor a few, to the increasing privatisation ofprovision, and to the debilitation if not thedestruction of the public system of education.

Must choice, then, depend upon the abilityto pay? The Queensland Forum advised thateducation is a key factor in developing thesocial and human capital of a modern society.In a society which is also democratic, everyone

has rights, not just the able or the affluent. Asthe work of Professor Simon Marginson shows,while democracies confer the right to choosein most societal areas, in regard to schools,parental choice is defined and shaped by thepolicy framework within which schooling isprovided. The available options are in termsof their different costs, the capacity of parentsto pay, and the intensity of competitivepressures.

Thus ‘public education made available for all’now has new connotations. It implies the idealthat all students (regardless of age) have theright to participate over a lifetime in theeducation of their choice, in an environmentwhere high expectations are placed oneducational providers, and where thoseproviders, whether public or private, areaccountable both to their clientele and to allthe stakeholders in the community.

The arguments advanced for choice,competition and market forces, therefore, tendto obfuscate the fact that education takes placein and through community and that it has amoral obligation and purpose. Publiceducation (in all its forms) is a public amenity;it is provided for the public, it is available forall, and it gives the essential foundation tothe main structure of education, which otherproviders then supplement.

The Queensland Forum noted that existingdisparities in opportunities for students arisingfrom the distribution of wealth, differentcultures and location (especially students inremote and rural areas) will get worse unlessthere is a community commitment to an equityprinciple that gives everyone a chance. Karmelwarned of the dichotomy between parentalchoice and common schooling for allAustralians, and has drawn attention to thecontradiction between a diversity of sociallypolarised schools and the matter of socialjustice. The price of choice must not be thatselective schooling leads to a lowering oflevels of achievement and provision for allthe rest.

‘Value’, then, should not only be viewed ininstrumental terms or in terms of what it doesfor individual students, but will includebuilding a sense of community for all students.In order to achieve such value, the value of apublic good, there will be sufficient staff andresources across all sectors, and regardless ofwhether the nation’s students attendgovernment or non-government schools.

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Strong reactionagainst theoutcomes-orientedinfatuation.

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Choice can lead tounproductivecompetition, tounfair advantagefor a few.

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The Reverend Tim Costello argued that ‘it isvital that schools have enough staff and

resources to nurture the task ’ . Schools oughtto be able to resist the increasing tendency toview educational ‘value’ in purely instrumentalterms. Fair schooling opportunities and theoutcomes we put worth on, must be built onwhat advantages we want for all children,rather than upon individualistic worth, talentand worthiness, or upon handicapping somefrom getting ahead.

Professor Brian Caldwell has pointed out thatthere remain vast inequities caused by socio-economic, geographic and technologicalfactors. While theAdelaide Declaration on

National Goals for

Schooling states that‘schooling should

develop fully the talents

and capacities of all

students’, this has neverbeen realised and thereis no immediateprospect that it will be,Caldwell said,‘especially if we attemptto achieve it using the

approaches of the past or

even those of the

present.’ If we merelycontinue to do the samethings better, or ifchanges becomehaphazard and unsust-ained, there is noprospect that anythingother than incrementalchange will occur.

Public education,therefore, aims to providecertain guarantees bothfor individuals andcollectively for comm-unities. While publiceducation may beadministered locally,ultimately it has a nationalpurpose, and communitiesought to be able to appealto publicly-agreed nationalpolicies if they feel theyare not being given accessto their fair share.

‘Local autonomy’, then, or institutional autonomydo not expunge accountability to a widerframework. Most commentators believe thatschools should have the freedom to make andalter policy according to the wishes of their

community; they would be expected to usehigh levels of consultation. But in a countrywhere all schools receive some degree ofgovernment funding, government and non-government schools must be accountable onmatters relating to compliance with legislationand the national interest. In increasinglydecentralised public systems, the wishes of alocal community cannot be absolute, andchildren have to be protected from extremelocal dictates.

Thus, the Queensland Forum declared that,while there is a widening gap between the richand the poor, the ‘choice between government

and non-government

schooling should not be on

the basis that government

schools are under-

funded’, and that repre-sentative governmentmust ‘ensure equal

opportunity for all students

by developing and

maintaining effective

provisions in all parts in

Australia’ . From theperspective of educationbeing a public as well asa private good, thefunding for educationmust be regarded as aninvestment of resources inthe whole community’sfuture. Education must beseen primarily as aninvestment rather than asa cost.

EquityHughes speaks of manyachievements over thepast century for whichwe may be thankful: aw e l l - e s t a b l i s h e deducation system;universal and broadlyeffective primaryschooling, a secondarysystem which hasincreased enrolments toyear 12 from 50 per centto over 70 per cent inrecent decades; a rapidlygrowing vocational

education system with improving links withschools, universities and business; an even morerapidly growing university system; a strongteaching profession, most of whose membershave four years of preparation and with

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The price of choicemust not be thatselective schoolingleads to a loweringof levels ofachievement andprovision for all therest.To address the concerns in this area of

supporting public education, thefollowing actions and priorities will needto be set in train:

• The public sector of education is offundamental importance to thewellbeing of the nation.

• Australians support the principle ofequity, which gives everyone anopportunity regardless of theirbackground. Choice and levels ofachievement must not be dependenton disparities of resourcing.

• Regardless of age, all students havethe right to participate over a lifetimein the education of their choice, in anenvironment where high expectationsare placed on educational providers,both public or private, who areaccountable to their clientele and thestakeholders in the community.

• The education of the public has anational purpose, honours publicly-agreed national priorities, and has amoral obligation and purpose.

• There is strong support for a nationalset of schools, which are diverse andvaried. Equality of access to theseschools is assumed, and choosingamong them must not be a matter ofcompetition, socio-economic back-ground, or the ability to pay.

• Conscious moves will be made tochange public thinking so that fundingfor education becomes an investmentof resources in the whole community’sfuture.

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increasingly effective professional developmentprograms. Although there are issues andproblems associated with our current system,Australia is a utopia in comparison with manyother nations.

One of the most important challenges facing thecommunity today is in the area of social justice.In a world of increasing complexity, ambiguityand wealth, we need communities thatunderstand and protect therights of all to live withhuman dignity. The firstgoal of the Adelaide

Declaration on National

Goals for Schooling statesthat ‘schooling should

develop fully the talents and

capacities of all students’. Inaddition, the United Nationsdocument, The Right of

Education, signed byAustralia, recognises theneed and the right of allpeople to a high qualityeducation that opens lifeopportunities.

The South Australian Forum,however, tells us thateducational disadvantagecontinues, with poor literacylevels and numbers ofdisengaged students. Caldwell also points outthat, across the nation, major differences in schoolachievement exist along socio-economic,geographic and technological lines. This raisesserious questions about equity, in particular thedistribution of resources, about which manyforums and individuals have commented.

Schools should be encouraged to enableAboriginal students to work successfully inmainstream education. Langton commendsindividual schools for what they are alreadydoing, but emphasises that this complexchallenge remains to be taken up in a largerway. In particular, education systems need toaim for equity in the education of Aboriginalpeople, striving for a nationally recognisedstandard of provision. Schools should beencouraged and enabled to provide anenvironment for Aboriginal students whereinthey, along with all other students, are madeto feel special, are listened to, treated withrespect, and led towards achieving their fullestpotential.

Karmel lists the promotion of equity, socialjustice and equality of opportunity as an

important purpose of education. He believesalso that the quality of inputs, processes andoutcomes need be given equal weight.Outcomes have been emphasised in recentyears in government policy decisions aroundAustralia. Karmel asks that due recognition begiven to the quality of resources going intoeducation, for there is clearly a relationshipbetween what a school can achieve and whatsort of resources it has at its disposal.

Furthermore, how it makesuse of what it has – itsinternal processes – affectswhat it can achieve. Inattempting to meet the firstgoal of the AdelaideDeclaration dealing withequity, Karmel would haveus consider equally inputs,processes and outcomes.

Concerning processes, wenoted fairly generalagreement that localcommunities, equippedwith sufficient facilities andresources, must be givenautonomy to organise theirprovisions in the way bestsuited to their settings.However, educationagencies – schools andsystems included – must be

answerable and accountable, but they in turn,should hold local communities to account forimproving the outcomes for those groups thatare falling below community standards. Centralbodies too should be pro-active in assisting thosecommunities to restructure their educationalinstitutions where students’ life chances arebeing threatened by low achievement orinadequate provision.

The Queensland Forum highlights the right ofall citizens to a fair and equal chance to achievetheir potential. The ACT Forum, mindful of thediverse needs of different learners, reminds usthat differential resourcing is required to caterfor the special needs of disadvantaged students.The achievement of equity for some groups,especially Indigenous Australians, requiresproperly targeted, additional resourcing. Yet suchresourcing must be accompanied by clearaccountability requirements. Otherwise,resourcing that does not promote equity is notonly a waste to the disadvantaged but also leadsto a loss in the wider community of the goodwillwhich is a political necessity for differentialfunding. As Dr Ken Boston points out, theAustralian community believes in a ‘fair go’ and

“

”

If we merelycontinue to do thesame things better,there is no prospectthat anything otherthan incrementalchange will occur.

To address the concerns in the areaof equity for learners, the followingactions and priorities will need to beset in train:

• Schooling aims to develop fullythe talents and capacities of allstudents, identifying, locating andrectifying educationaldisadvantage by properly targetedresourcing, associated with clearaccountability requirements.

• It is of national importance thatthe needs of students who aredisaffected, disengaged, orexcluded be identified and met.

• Particular attention must be givento the education of indigenousAustralians, and their success, aspart of mainstream schooling mustbe guaranteed.

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will be generous when improvement can bedemonstrated.

Caldwell commented that if one judges recentresearch, including that of Professor RichardTeese, there is an indication that inequalitiesare widening and that our aspirations forequity are seriously endangered using past oreven current approaches. Caldwell, therefore,argues for a comprehensive redesign of thesystem for delivering education in Australia,but it would first require that all stakeholdersaccept the seriousness of the situation andwork to achieve a resolution.

CurriculumThe word ‘curriculum’ is given manymeanings. It is one of the more renownedareas for ‘education speak’. A helpful definitionis that of Professor Malcolm Skilbeck whodescribes the curriculum as the ‘totality of

planned learnings’ in a school. It includesformal classroom teaching and learning. It alsoincludes those activities, which occur outsidethe formal classroom, such as sportingcontests, musical productions, OutdoorEducation, drama productions and PublicSpeaking and Debating. This group oflearnings is often referred to as the ‘co-curriculum’. There is also a third curricularelement – those informal interactions in whichthe school intervenes and brings anameliorating influence. These include suchinitiatives as the implement-ation of policieson bullying, drug use, sexual behaviour andgeneral health and safety. This third area isincreasingly seen as supplying the elementsof what is called the learning environment,an aspect of curriculum high-lighted by theresearch on effective schools.

Unplanned (as opposed to ‘planned’) learningmay occur in all kind of ways and some ofthese may be areas in which the schooldecides to intervene. When that happens,those areas are automatically incorporated intothe curriculum (as a ‘planned learning’).Negative learnings may also occur when theschool is unaware of its existence or unwillingto intervene. In the latter case, stakeholdersor even the courts, may force a school, or aschool system, to intervene and expand itscurricular responsibilities.

The curriculum, therefore, is an elastic entity interms of what the school and its communitytakes responsibility for. In more recent timesthere has been a shift to include a range oflearnings in the personal and social domain, thepublic concern about bullying being one of themore salient examples. Defining the curriculumin this direction is increasingly perceived as a

change for the better, incorporating a ‘holistic’concern for the individual. However, it broadensexpectations about a teacher’s responsibilitiesand competencies.

Curriculum, then, is the totality of plannedlearnings, but what do they need to be? Theywill change, surely, as the environment outsidethe learning institutions change. Caldwell sumsup those needs in a neat sentence: ‘All students

in every setting shall be literate and numerate

and shall acquire a capacity for life-long

learning leading to success and satisfaction in

a knowledge society and a global economy.’We now have a better understanding oflearning and of human intelligences and arein a better position to decide what will be anappropriate curriculum to serve students inthe knowledge era. It is now time toreconceptualise curriculum along these linesand with a common sense of purpose.

It is clear that increasing emphasis is being puton skill and less on what was called ‘content’.Information can be accessed more freely now,and there are huge data banks to call on; sothe need to learn things by rote has been greatlydiminished. On the other hand, one of ourcommentators Paulette Kay, in quoting arecently retired teacher, referred to the fact that‘tomorrow’s adults’ will need flexibility to dealwith career changes, positive, informed attitudes‘to deal with economic and political

uncertainties’, and the creativity ‘to find solutions

to social and environmental problems.’ Theseimply sound attitudes, higher order thinkingskills, and the ability to read trends and to assignmeanings. It is far from being a simplecurriculum of facts to be learnt and tested.

The Gippsland Forum, therefore, heard anargument that the curriculum ought to extendbeyond the formal learning areas and helplearners to develop ‘capability’ in a deep sense,allowing learners to become ‘confident in

applying what they know to problems and issues

in a self-managed manner in both familiar and

unfamiliar situations, within acceptable and

agreed boundaries’. If a major priority for theearly years of the Twenty-First Century is tobring about a comprehensive redesign of thesystem of education in Australia, as Caldwellhas advocated, the challenge will be to conservewhat is worthwhile from the traditionalacademic curriculum and to reconcile it withthe new demands.

While there is much still to do in re-shapingcurriculum, acknowledgement should be madeof our great achievements so far. In 1901

Inequalities arewidening and thatour aspirations forequity are seriouslyendangered usingpast or evencurrent approaches.

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primary education was a very basic ‘no frills’service, which was all that was on offer for themass of the people. Secondary education wasprovided for a privileged minority and it wasnot until after the Second World War – until after1945 – that it was extended to all. Subsequently,secondary education has been strongly shapedby the requirements for university entry, whereassessment increasingly influences practice andformal examinations drive the senior curriculum.However, there has been constant dialoguebetween innovators and the formal bodies,whose conserving charters appear to retain adegree of community backing.

Australian schools have been world leadersin developing curriculum, which purports tobe information-rich, project-based, student-oriented, and learner-directed, and whichemphasises skills and competencies as wellas content while fostering an interactive,inquiry-driven pedagogy. The South AustralianForum highlighted a shift from teacher-centredto learning-centred schooling has promotedindependence, innovation and ingenuityamong students.

Although much has been done, therefore,more work lies ahead. The community forumsand several commentators confirm anuneasiness about the fact that secondary schoolscontinue to focus on channeling students intocategories in preparation for tertiary educationand the world of work, rather than focusingon increasing students’ ability to learn andsucceed. Many programs remain inflexible, withunnecessary competition between schools, andpoor access to vocational education andtraining. The debate about accountability hasresulted in many schools and teachersbecoming overly focused on the constantmeasuring of outcomes. Despite this, muchgood practice is in evidence and new initiativessuch as the Middle Years Research and

Development Program are energising studentsand teachers alike.

Yet there was strong support from ourcommentators about how the curriculumshould change. Sir Ninian Stephen refers to

the importance of the value of gaining a

capacity for, and the acquisition of, skills

in analysis, problem-solving,

communication, planning and

collaboration. All other areas will be

satisfied if these qualities and skills are

gained and a satisfactory curriculum is

adopted.

Costello argues that schools

have a responsibility not only to teach

individuals, but also to use the group

experience to build community. Without

the capacity to join together in a struggle

toward our long-term goals, individual

excellence will count for very little.

Sister Veronica Brady pleads for a fundamentalshift in the way we organise our knowledgeof ourselves and of the ways we relate toothers and the natural world. She would likea renewed focus on the arts and humanitiesas a means to educate the heart as well as themind and body.

Noel Waite of Waite Consulting argued thatlife skills have been, are and will be the mostimportant basis of all learning. Respect for self,mind and body and respect for others’ minds,opinions and possessions are essential. Toignore this is to have a vulnerable society.She adds that we also need to provide realisticentry levels and practical, meaningfuleducation leading to employment for thosewho do not reach tertiary level at the requiredage and emphasises that education of thewhole person through involvement in drama,music, sport, community service and valuesis vital.

The ACT Forum was of the opinion thatlearning will include a focus on the stage

of life that learners perceive as the current

reality and relevance to their lives, with

a recognition that in a global world there

will be special demands on students,

teachers, scholars, parents, community

and governments, which will affect the

choices and content and approach to

learning.

The ACT Forum opts for a more pro-activestance in facilitating the learner to escape fromthe age-grade structures towards a moreflexible response to learners’ needs across allages.

Current debate also points to a downside inopen responsiveness, namely, what isfrequently referred to as the ‘crowdedcurriculum’. Different groups want particularsocial ills addressed in the curriculum.Particularly at the top end of the secondaryschool, there are pressures to focus on theformal curriculum, seen by many families asthe key to future success. However, the workof Daniel Goleman and his team of researcherspoint to ‘Emotional Intelligence’ (EQ) as morecritical than IQ in all-round success in life. Oneof the conference presenters, Niranjan

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Australian schoolshave been worldleaders indevelopingcurriculum, whichpurports to beinformation-rich,project-based,student-oriented,and learner-directed.

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“

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Casinader, gave strong supporting argumentfor the importance of the co-curriculum inpersonal formation. Finding the balancerequires wise leadership and careful planning.

We began this section bycommenting that the curric-ulum is a complicated areaof discourse which hasbecome more sophisticatedin recent years, but thatcomplexity is leadingtowards re-constructionswhich are in danger of notbeing under-stood or evensupported by the publicwhich the schools serve.

So several curricularchallenges confront us atthis juncture in our history.One simple and widelyaccepted challenge for theearly years of this centuryis to ensure that all studentsin every setting shall beliterate and numerate. Butthe curriculum must alsoensure that they shallacquire the capacity for life-long learning, that they havethe capacity forexperiencing success andfulfilment in a knowledgesociety and in a globaleconomy. The curriculum(the ‘totality of plannedlearnings’) must balancefactual content with theprocess skills thatcharacterise the ‘thinkingcurriculum’. All institutions will need to nurturethe ability to learn both independently and incollaboration with others. They will apply tothe curriculum our increasing understanding ofmultiple intelligences. The fact that someelements of this curriculum are less easy tomeasure in terms of outcomes is a furtherchallenge. Some outcomes are fully evident onlyin the long term.

Providing a more flexible and demandingcurriculum will lead to a re-appraisal of thepresent structures and resource provision forteachers, teaching and pedagogy in Australianschools. Much more is demanded of teachersif there is an expanded concept of curriculumalong the lines we have described. Given thegrowth of knowledge and the consequentethical dilemmas arising in areas such as

medicine and information technology, more isbeing demanded of teachers in terms of ethicalunderstanding. Further-more, the com-mitmentto a society characterised by social inclusion,tolerance and social justice demands of teachers

the ability and willingness toexercise sound moraljudgment.

These challenges arecomplex. The danger is thequick fix and the ease withwhich polit ical point-scoring arises. Curriculumissues are complex becausethey are embedded inpersonal and socialrealities, not because theyare rocket science.

Curriculum in 2001 isprofoundly different fromthe straightforward list oflearnings that comprisedcurricula in 1901. The callfor relevance, balance,breadth and coherencemakes many demands –some might say too many.But there is no way back aswe realise Australians mustcontinue to be responsiveto change, but true to thebest things in our culture andvalues. Hughes agrees,giving strong support for ‘amajor and continuing

redevelopment of the

curriculum in Australia,

moving beyond the state-

based patterns to use all

our intellectual and financial resources’.

TeachersAustralian education obviously requires a fullymodernised teaching corps to satisfy the kindsof aspirations outlined in this report. Teachersneed an expanded range of skills honed bycomprehensive training in pedagogicalmethods, in learning theory, in content andknowledge, in curriculum construction anddelivery. While it will be prudent to retain ineach teacher’s pre-service education thenecessary element of specialisation in somesubject areas and in some levels of schooling,there was strong support in the communityforums for teacher preparation programs todiminish the distinctions between primary orsecondary education. This would ensure thatevery teacher has an awareness of learning

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Many schools andteachers becomingoverly focused onthe constantmeasuring ofoutcomes.

Life skills havebeen, are andwill be the mostimportant basisof all learning.

To address the concerns in the areaof curriculum, the following actionsand priorities will need to be set intrain:

• Curriculum will need to bereconceptualised to account for theneeds of students in theknowledge era.

• The curriculum will continue toguarantee students’ success intraditional areas like literacy,numeracy, the sciences,humanities and the arts, but it willalso develop the capacity for life-long learning and satisfyingparticipation in a knowledgesociety and a global economy.

• The curriculum of schools willfocus on a wide range of purposes:developing in students an abilityto learn, to succeed in preparationfor further study and work, torenew their skills over a lifetime,and to experience enjoyment andfulfillment.

• Educational planners andcurriculum designers will confrontthe problems of the overcrowdedcurriculum, and develop newstrategies like the ‘thinkingcurriculum’ and programs built onthe notion of multipleintelligences.

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programs sufficient to enable them to operateacross age levels and types of school.

Four aspects of education were typically citedwhen the issue of teacher preparation andcompetencies was raised in the communityforums and by respondents. Information andcommunications technology (ICT) hasprovided learners with access to vast networksand data banks, and the ability to interact withpeers outside their school and indeed fromaround the world. Like the opening ofPandora’s Box, ICT lets loose many newproblems. The rising generation handles thenew media and information technologies withconfidence and some degree of sophistication,but processing that information adequatelyand being discriminating in its use remain achallenge for schools – as it does in theworkforce where it is now commonplace foran Information or Knowledge Manager to beappointed. The fact that computers are nowin daily use in all classrooms and for allsubjects not only widens the teaching andlearning range of every teacher, but introducesnew responsibilities as co-learner, mentor andsynthesiser. ICT itself is undergoing constantand very rapid change, and the ongoingprofessional development in ICT of teachers– every teacher – is now a fundamentalrequirement in education.

A second challenge facing teachers, allteachers, is the demand that all students inevery setting and at each age level shall beliterate and numerate. Generating these skills,which are fundamental to all subjects and alllearning, can no longer be the responsibilityof Reading, English, and Mathematicsteachers. The particular focus on the criticalyears of early childhood (especially the firstthree years of primary school) and the MiddleSchool (the early years of adolescence) hashighlighted the fact that whole-of-schoolapproaches, early intervention, aggressiveremediation, and one-on-one tutoring,involving teamwork by the entire school staff,yield the best results. Acquisition of skills inimplementing the basic tools for learning,therefore, must be expected of every teacher,regardless of specialisation.

A third area is the almost universal emphasisbeing given to the outcomes of education, inparticular, outcomes that are measurable. Inconsequence, teachers are now much moresophisticated about performance measures,collect an impressive array of data aboutindividual students and what they have learnt,and can access, analyse, cross-reference, and

interpret data with skill. Statistical performanceindicators have limitations, however. Many ofthe most important and valued educationaloutcomes are not easily measured orquantified because the benefits of educationaccrue over a lifetime and cannot be capturedsimply at the point of exit from a class or aschool. In short, all teachers are now calledon to be assessment experts.

Fourthly, there is no doubt that a priority taskfor Australian schools will be to educate youngpeople for global citizenship, and for the habitsof heart, mind and body which will equipthem for it. They will have to acquire thecapacity for life-long learning, for success andsatisfaction in a knowledge society and foremployment in businesses engaged in a globaleconomy. They will need the ability toempathise with people different fromthemselves, who have come from differentcultures and have different experiences of life.They must also be able to interrogate theirown beliefs and learn how to rework them todeal with a changing world.

Already, these factors are causingtransformations in all aspects of schooling –in pedagogy, assessment, organisationalstructure, curriculum and delivery.

The fact that education is growing inimportance should mean that the esteem inwhich teachers are held is also rising. It shouldalso affect the kind of persons who offerthemselves for teacher education courses andwho aspire to enter the educator profession.

The recruitment, selection, training andinduction of teachers with high levels ofpedagogical and life skills seem to be mattersof paramount importance to the nation. Giventhe growth of knowledge in areas likemedicine, the environment andbiotechnology, teachers must be agents ofmoral and ethical thinking. They could beexpected to have a commitment to socialinclusion, racial tolerance and social justice.Put another way, the teaching profession mustrecruit to its ranks people who are personallyadmirable and suitable role models for theyoung.

It is also likely that teacher registrationrequirements will have to be refocused. Itseems untenable in a country the size ofAustralia that there is not national agreementover the registration of teachers and a nationalidentity for the teaching profession.

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Must balancefactual content withthe process skillsthat characterisethe ‘thinkingcurriculum’.

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Even if only the changes outlined in this sectionare to be addressed, and the list here is not byany means exhaustive, they could not beachieved in current contexts withoutgovernments taking initiatives, cooperating witheach other, and giving tangible support. It seemsto be a national priority thatthey do.

The expressive andthe personalThe South Australian Forumpointed out that educationhas to address a range ofpurposes: physical ,intel lectual, emotional,social and spiritual. Many ofour contr ibutors wereconcerned that the affectivedimension of education, theeducation of feeling, shouldbe more strongly addressed.Learning is not simply amatter of pure intellect butmust be an engagement bythe learner with others andthe self in practical actionand the expression ofpersonal experience. Thereought to be passion inlearning, which infuseslearners with curiosity longafter they leave theirinstitutions. This aspect ofeducation goes beyond therational and in that sense is‘extra-rational’, but is not inany sense irrational.

Feeling and emotion areimportant in human growthand therefore must beregarded as central toeducation (although they often are not). Bradyreminds us that imagination and intellect needeach other and that the education of feelingovercomes not only the closed mind but alsothe closed heart. Boston points out that

a realm of feeling and of emotions infuses

the concept of citizenship … imaginative

nourishment is the basis of developing an

ethos of enjoyment in Australian

citizenship that goes hand in hand with

the simplicities of pride, yet tempers them.’

Brady contends that quality programs in theArts and the Humanities are, therefore,essential to developing the human potential ofour people. They are not peripheral or optionalparts to the curriculum

Life skills are inextricably linked to the educationof feeling. It is chastening to hear Waite – andshe is speaking from a business perspective –warning about the danger of ignoring life skills.Emotional intelligence is critical for all aspectsof human life. It is important, therefore, that

educational institutionssupport, and aresupported by, otherinstitutions andcommunity groups tofacilitate people of allages in building positiveand fruitful relationshipswith others. Developinga good relationship withthe self is equallyimportant.

For many students, asense of self-worth isdeveloped in areas wherecreativity is expressed inpractical production.Waite commented on theneed to value the‘production of the world’s

finest products andservices in the arts,

particularly ceramics,

woodwork and fine

furniture. This would also

include other activities

such as fashion, fine

tailoring, textiles and food

preparation’. She alsoargues for ‘a national

pride in producing high-

level tradespeople and

artisans’, believing that

creative specialists like

these should be ‘as highly

considered as those in the

professions’.

The Queensland Forum emphasised theimportance of knowledge in the presentcentury and that prospering societies are openand inclusive, and that they have inquiringand curious people. The South AustralianForum points out that intrinsic motivation isessential for life-long learning, which must comefrom within; furthermore, a commitment to life-long learning cannot be imposed. Teaching andlearning need to be infused, therefore, withpassion and enjoyment. The Tasmanian Forumspoke of the great energy and natural creativityof young people.

“

”

A sense of self-worth is developedin areas wherecreativity isexpressed inpracticalproduction.

To address the concerns in this areaof teaching and teacher education,the following actions and prioritieswill need to be set in place:

• Teacher education producesskilled teachers who will takeaccount of change in educationand the needs of young people;they are more than subjectspecialists; they are equipped tooperate effectively across agelevels and in all types of schools;they are assessment experts, whounderstand the deeply valueddimensions of learning which arenot easily measured.

• As a matter of national priorityinitiatives will be taken tostrengthen the support of teachereducation.

• National registration of teacherswill promote a national identityfor the teaching profession andincrease its levels of publicesteem.

• The persons chosen to be teacherswill be capable of educatingyoung people for globalcitizenship, for the habits of heart,mind and body which will equipthem for it. They will teach youngpeople how to interrogate theirown beliefs and to rework themin a changing world.

43


The ingredients for enjoyment, Boston pointsout, are already present in our Australiansociety and culture. The great diversity thatcharacterises Australian society is a source ofstimulation and Boston rightly reminds us thatpleasure arises naturally in diversity – a fact thatshould be reflected in our planned learning.Visitors to Australia are attracted by the senseof fun that energises its people. It can alsoenergise education – and frequently does.

However, the South Australian Forum and othersacknowledged thateducation has not beenable to cater for allstudents: ‘There are still

numbers of students who

are disengaged, lack a

sense of self worth, social

skills, negotiating skills’.This disaffection in someof the young learnersrepresents a hugechallenge for educators inthe affective andexpressive realm. Betterstructuring of the cognitiveaspects of schooling willcertainly help, but will notbe enough. Teachers mustoffer learners gifts of boththe mind and the heart.

In this regard, Professor LenCairns draws our attentionto ‘education for capability’a central feature of which is‘self-efficacy, a key

motivational driver ’ .Clearly, equity and accesshave not worked fully inrural regions or some other areas ofdisadvantage. Access is only feasible whenrelationships have been built with individualsand within communities. Healthy affectivefunctioning, such as emotional resilience, is atleast as important in building self-efficacy ascognitive understanding.

The realm of the spiritual continues to be achallenge for the nation’s schools. Costello seesthe need to respect what Michael Leunig callsthe ‘great natural reverence’ of children.Although many Religious Education programsrespond to this dimension very well, Costelloalso sees a need to ‘develop the habit of seeking

for transcendence frames of reference and/or

spiritual values’ across the curriculum.

The strong demand to measure and reportoutcomes currently squeezes this broad, ‘extra-rational’ aspect of learning – the expressive,the creative, the practical, the spiritual. TheWestern Australian Forum contributes animportant insight in this regard: ‘The

socialising, enculturating and personal

development aims of schools are regularly

overlooked’, they said. They thereforeconcluded that it was no surprise these kinds ofaims were given such limited attention by theMinisters in The Adelaide Declara-tion on

National Goals for

Schooling. That documentemphasised ‘outcomes’ but,the forum observed, ‘the

danger is that those things

that can’t be measured

become less important ’ .

ConclusionIn the previous discussion,we have identified as dot-points at the end of eachsection approximately fiftygeneral areas about whichthe educator communityappears to have strongconcerns. Some of thesestatements of courseoverlap.

By taking that collection ofconcerns as a whole, wehave chosen sixteen, whichseem both to havewidespread support and areconsidered to be ofparamount importance.They require priorityattention over the next

decade if we are to ensure that the criteria inthe propositions are met. These priority areasare now consolidated in the National

Declaration for Australian Education (see p.44).

“

”

The danger is thatthose things thatcan’t be measuredbecome lessimportant.

To address the concerns in the areaof expressive and the personal, thefollowing actions and priorities willneed to be set in train:

• The Arts promotes the educationof the emotions, central inunderstanding the self and others,and critical for building self-esteem and commitment tolearning.

• The nation takes pride in thecreativity of those working inpractical trades and performingarts and recognises theircontribution to the wellbeing ofthe whole community.

• Because the spiritual frame isessential for living in andexplaining the material world, andbecause education can never bevalue-free, schools foster thenatural reverence and wonder inchildren and openly explore anddevelop critical analyses ofalternative world-views.

44


National Declaration for Australian Education – A summary of propositionsAs Australia enters its second century as a nation, we make the following affirmations about Australian

education. We are in agreement as a people that action should be taken over the next decade whereverappropriate across the Australian community to ensure that these propositions are true of Australian education.

1. Nation building: Education is crucial for nation building, promoting an informed awareness and criticalunderstanding of our heritage, national identity, societal values and mutual interdependence. Educationalinstitutions have a moral obligation to honour publicly agreed national priorities.

2. State borders: It is time for Australians to move educational provision beyond the artificial constraints causedby state and territory boundaries, and by geography and distance.

3. Remodelled curricula: Curricula will need to be reconceptualised to account for the diverse and expandingneeds of students in the knowledge era.

4. An internationalised curriculum: All students in Australia will have the opportunity to enjoy an internationalisedcurriculum, which includes international experiences, the opportunity to study a language other than English,and subjects like History, Economics and Literature taught from a world perspective.

5. Education and the economy: As the leading world economies become knowledge-intensive, education isnow central to building a sound economic base for the nation and will ensure high levels of skill in suchareas as information and communications technology (ICT), literacy and numeracy.

6. The post compulsory years: The nation takes pride in the creativity of those working in the practical tradesand the Arts, recognises their contribution to the wellbeing of the whole community, and values the functionsof the technical and further education sector.

7. Wider participation in policymaking: Australia needs deliberative and advisory bodies at national, state andlocal levels to involve education’s stakeholders – parents, teachers, the community and, wherever possible,students – in formulating educational policy.

8. Balancing individualism and community: Learners are encouraged both to take responsibility for their ownlearning and to participate actively in their learning communities, avoiding an undue emphasis on competitionand individualism.

9. Safe learning environments: Schools endeavour to establish a safe learning environment wherein increasingpastoral care and welfare needs are met.

10. Equity: Australians support the principle of equity, which gives an opportunity to everyone regardless oftheir background. Choice and levels of achievement must not be dependent on disparities of resourcing.

11. Education as an investment: The Australian community regards the justification for public spending oneducation primarily as an investment in its future rather than as a cost.

12. Inclusiveness and disadvantage: Schooling is expected to develop fully the talents and capacities of all students.As a consequence, educational disadvantage and areas of systematic under-achievement must be identified,located and rectified by properly targeted resourcing, associated with clear accountability requirements.

13. Aboriginal education: Particular attention must be given to the education of indigenous Australians, andtheir success as part of mainstream schooling must be guaranteed.

14. Teacher characteristics: It is expected that teacher education will produce skilled teachers who take account ofchange in education; who understand the needs of a variety of learners; who are more than subject specialists;who are equipped to operate effectively across different age levels and educational settings; who are expert inassessment; and who understand the deeply valued dimensions of learning which are not easily measured.

15. Teacher registration: National registration of teachers will promote a national identity for the teaching professionand increase its levels of public esteem.

16. Beliefs and the spiritual: Because a spiritual frame of reference enhances an understanding of the world, andbecause education is never value-free, schools are expected to cultivate the natural reverence and wonderin young people, to help them explore why they believe what they believe, and to give them the capacityto analyse their own world-view and those of others.

45

Journal of the HEIA

Vol. 8, No. 3, 2001

JO

UR

NA

L E

XTR

A

45

Alignment of the National Action

Plan with Eat Well AustraliaIncreasing consumption of vegetables, fruitand legumes is one of four nutritioninitiatives of Eat Well Australia. The otherpriority areas – vulnerable groups,addressing overweight and obesity andmaternal and child health – contain elementsthat relate and link to increasing theconsumption of vegetables, fruit andlegumes. SIGNAL has prioritised increasedconsumption of vegetables, fruit and legumesas a focal point for the first three years of thedecade. Although developed throughdifferent processes, Eat Well Australia and theNational Action Plan for increasingconsumption of vegetables and fruit areclosely aligned. Eat Well Australia provides aframework for strategic direction and vision,whereas the National Action Plan identifiesspecific initiatives.

StatusThe National Action Plan has been endorsedby SIGNAL members and is supported bythe National Public Health PartnershipGroup. However, the proposals andrecommendations do not have a formalmechanism for funding support. As a result,some of the proposals are not currentlysupported by resources while others arealready under way.

VisionThe vision is to:• Increase the proportion of the population

who consume vegetables and fruit everyday.

• Increase the percentage of the populationwho consume vegetables and fruit at orabove the recommended level.

Strategic Inter-Governmental Nutrition Alliance

National Action Plan to

increase the consumption of

vegetables and fruit

The following information has beensummarised from SIGNAL’s website:

www.dhs.vic.gov.au/nphp/signal

What is SIGNAL?

The Strategic Inter-GovernmentalNutrition Alliance (SIGNAL) is anational partnership of governmenthealth authorities formed tocoordinate action to improve thenutritional health of Australians. Thecore business of SIGNAL is to furtherthe implementation of Australia’snational Food and Nutrition Policyand to strategically manage nationalnutrition promotion priorities.SIGNAL will play a major role indeveloping and implementing Eat WellAustralia: A national framework for actionin public health nutrition, 2000–2010,which includes an action plan forAboriginal and Torres Strait islanderpeoples.

SIGNAL is made up of representativesor nominees of:

• The Commonwealth Department ofHealth and Aged Care

• All eight State/TerritoryGovernment Health Departments

• The Australian Institute of Healthand Welfare

• The Australia New Zealand FoodAuthority (ANZFA)

• The National Health and MedicalResearch Council

• The New Zealand Ministry ofHealth (with observer status).


46

GoalThe goal is to increase vegetable and fruitconsumption of the Australian population by atleast one serve every day over five years.

Objectives• Food supply

Increase and sustain access to high quality,safe, affordable vegetables and fruit.

• AwarenessIncrease the proportion of the populationaware of the need to increase theirconsumption of vegetables and fruit.

• Attitude/perceptionsIncrease the proportion of the population whoperceive the benefits of vegetables and fruitsin terms of taste. convenience, low relativecost, safety and health.

• KnowledgeIncrease the proportion of the population withknowledge of the recommended minimumintakes of vegetables and fruits.

• Skills to purchase and prepareIncrease the proportion of the population withknowledge, skills and confidence to select andprepare convenient, low cost, tasty vegetableand fruit dishes.

Target groupsA population approach is taken, with greaterpriority to be given to adolescents, low-incomegroups and Aboriginal and Torres Strait islanderpeople.

Portfolio of interventionsA national level portfolio of recommendedinterventions to promote vegetables and fruit hasbeen developed. The portfolio comprises policyinterventions, program interventions andinfrastructure support mechanisms.

Some key actionsA key action for 2001 was to appoint a projectmanager, Ms Frances Warnock, resourced by jointCommonwealth/State/Territory funding. Theproject manager is responsible for a number ofother actions identified in the Action Plan,including:• identifying and disseminating information

about effective community based programs;• facilitating a coordinated approach to the

promotion of vegetables and fruit in schools;and

• assisting jurisdictions develop morecollaborative relationships with industry andnon-government organisations.

SIGNAL’s position statement

Eat Well: The benefits of vegetables and fruit

All available evidence suggests that a diet rich invegetables and fruit is beneficial to health, in particular,for the reduction of risk from cardiovascular disease, Type2 diabetes and some forms of cancer (particularly bowel,stomach and lung cancer). The Australian Institute ofHealth and Welfare Burden of Disease study (1999)attributes approximately 11% of all cancers to inadequateconsumption of vegetables and fruit. This burden ishigher for men than women at all ages and highest forboth men and women between the ages of 55 and 74 years.

The direct and indirect costs of diet-related diseasein Australia have been estimated at approximately$2.5 billion per year. At least 10% of the total burdenof disease in Australia is attributable to nutrition,for example through obesity (4.3%), inadequateconsumption of vegetables and fruit (2.7%) and highblood cholesterol (2.6%). It ranks a close second totobacco control as the most important preventablehealth measure.

Results from the 1995 National Nutrition Surveyindicate that Australians are not eating enoughvegetables and fruit to meet the NHMRCrecommended intake of at least five serves ofvegetables (including legumes) and two serves offruit per day, with no upper limit as defined by theCore Food Groups. On average, adults eat about3.5 serves of vegetables and 1.5 serves of fruit daily– that is, two thirds of the minimum recommendedamount for good health.

SIGNAL calls for a comprehensive, inter-sectoral,consistent effort to increase consumption ofvegetables and fruit throughout Australia.

Journal Extra

47

EXTRA £52 MILLION FOR CHILDREN’S

SCHOOL FRUIT AND FIVE A DAY

SCHEMES

The UK Secretary of State for Health announced in October 2001 that a further £52 millionover 2 years will fund initiatives to increase consumption of fruit and vegetables in theUK, as part of the drive to prevent cancer and heart disease.

The funding comes from the NewOpportunities Fund. The New Op-portunities Fund is a Non-Depart-mental Public Body establishedunder the National Lottery Act 1998.It is responsible for distributing Lot-tery grants for health, education andenvironment initiatives, with particu-lar focus on the needs of those whoare disadvantaged in society. Fund-ing for programs is divided betweenEngland, Scotland, Northern Irelandand Wales on the basis of populationweighted to reflect levels of depri-vation.

£42 million will expand the NationalSchool Fruit Scheme to over onemillion children from 2002 to 2004.This scheme will entitle every childaged 4–6 years to a free piece of fruitevery school day from 2004. £10million will support more ‘Five-a-day’ initiatives in the wider commu-nity to improve access to and con-sumption of fruit and vegetables.These local initiatives will focus onthe most disadvantaged communi-ties, where fruit and vegetable con-sumption tends to be lowest – andwhere cancer and heart disease ratesare higher.

The expansion of the National SchoolFruit Scheme comes after an evalua-tion of earlier pilots which found itwas both popular and effective. TheScheme currently provides 80,000children in over 500 schools with freefruit. The main findings of the evalu-ation are:

• The UK Secretary of State forHealth announced in October2001 that a further £52 millionover 2 years will fund initiativesto increase consumption of fruitand vegetables in the UK, as partof the drive to prevent cancer andheart disease. Eighty per centof children took the fruit pro-vided.

• Consumption levels in mostschools was maintained or in-creased over time.

• Ninety-nine per cent of schoolssaw the Scheme as a way of im-proving children’s health.

• Ninety-seven per cent of schoolsregarded the scheme as a supportto teaching and learning abouthealthy eating.

Wider community projects so farhave included:• Working with local food retail-

ers to improve availability anddelivery services for those mostin need; and

• Developing skills on growingand preparation of fruit and veg-etable dishes.

Schools Minister Baroness CatherineAshton said:

The findings of the first evaluationof the National School FruitScheme are positive and encour-aging. They show that childrenenjoy eating fruit when given theopportunity and that eating fruithas benefits that extend into the

classroom, aiding learning. Thescheme compliments the HealthySchools Standard led by the De-partment for Education andSkills and the Department ofHealth, which encouragesschools to consider diet and nu-trition in all aspects of schoollife. The Government has alsointroduced nutritional standardsfor school lunches in April thisyear, which requires fruit to beavailable to pupils at lunchtimeevery day as part of a balanceddiet.

The UK National Diet and NutritionSurvey, published in July 2000,found:

• Children eat only two portions offruit and vegetable per day, com-pared with expert recommenda-tions for five portions;

• Children’s consumption of fruitand vegetables had fallen since1983, when they were averagingaround 3 portions per day;

• One in five children eat no fruitin a week and three in five eat noleafy green vegetables;

• Children in low income groupsare 50 per cent less likely to eatfruit and vegetables.

On average adults eat 250g (about 3portions) a day. However these av-erage figures mask wide variationsbetween individuals – unskilledgroups eat 50% less than professionalgroups.

Source: UK Department of Health media release 8 October 2001


48

IT in the home economics classroom

The following unit of work was developed by members of HEIA as part of the Food Choices the IT Way project. The unitis one of eleven units of work in the resource Food Choices the IT Way, to be released November 2001 by Xyris Software.Following this unit, students could design, make and appraise a food-related advertisement that is not misleading andpromotes healthy eating.

Advertising – Fact or fiction?

Student challengeThere is much criticism about advertising of food products, withmany believing that it is misleading to consumers. The challengefor students is to explore whether food-related advertising ismisleading. They form a team of 5–6 and follow the steps below.

Student action

Individually, they:Select two popular advertisements for food products. Eachmember of the team should select different advertisements.The advertisements could be, for example, on television, in amagazine, or on a billboard. They must be for foods thatcome with nutrition information panels on their packaging,or the products must be in the FoodWorks* database.

Analyse the advertisements to identify the target group at which each is aimed and the nutritionalmessages that they promote, either directly or by inference.

Check to see if the food products are in the FoodWorks database. If not, they use FoodWorks to enter thenutrition data from the nutrition information panels into the FoodWorks database.

Create a food diary for the group at whom the advertisements are targeted and use FoodWorks toexamine the contribution that each of the foods make to the RDIs for that group.

Compare the nutritional value of the food with the nutritional messages given in the advertisement.

As a team, they:

Come together and share their findings. They identify the number of advertisements analysed that weremisleading and the number that were not, and draw conclusions about advertising of the productsexamined.

Examine ways that a range of people – for example, the consumer, family, retailer, manufacturer – are affected byadvertising practices. They identify what is good or bad, right or wrong with the practices and consider whetherwhat is being done should be done. Students consider why the practices continue if they impact negatively on somegroups in society and how these practices might be changed.

Each adopt the role of a different stakeholder – for example, manufacturer, retailer, consumer, and, in their role,debate whether advertising practices are acceptable. They develop their own position on the issue and prepare abrief resume of why they hold that position.

Consider what can be done to prevent food-related advertising impacting negatively on some groups.

* Food Works is the nutritional analysis computer software program that forms part of the Food Choices theIT Way resource.

2

3

1

4

5

6

7

8

9

Process students use:

Students use a social inquiry process to questionpractices associated with advertising of foodproducts.

Skills students develop:• Collecting information• Analysing• Evaluating• Drawing conclusions• Debating• Using electronic communications media• Advocating

Journal Extra

49

2 4

4

6

STEP

STEP

STEP

STEP


50

Aspartame is an intense sweetenerapproved for use in foods andbeverages in more than 90 countriesaround the world. It is about 200 timessweeter than sugar. Aspartame was

first approved by the US Food and DrugAdministration (FDA) in 1981 and one year later inAustralia. Regulators consider it one of the mostwidely tested ingredients in the food supply andleading independent health groups have affirmedthe safety of aspartame. The rapid growth andwidespread use of aspartame in foods has led tomuch publicity, and with it, a variety of questionsabout this ingredient. Here are some answers tothe most frequently asked questions aboutaspartame.

What is aspartame?Combining two protein components, aspartic acidand phenylalanine, and a small amount of methanolmakes aspartame. Aspartic acid and phenylalanineare building blocks of protein and are foundnaturally in protein-containing foods, includingmeats, grains and dairy products. Methanol is foundnaturally in the body and in many foods such asfruit and vegetable juices.

Aspartame is digested just like any other protein.Upon digestion, aspartame breaks down in thegastrointestinal tract to small amounts of commondietary components including the amino acids,aspartic acid and phenylalanine. We consume thesesame components in much greater amounts incommon foods, such as milk, meat, fruits andvegetables. The body handles these amino acids inthe same way it handles them from other foodsources. Neither aspartame nor its componentsaccumulates in the body over time.

The facts about aspartameReproduced with permission from the Reproduced with permission from the Reproduced with permission from the Reproduced with permission from the Reproduced with permission from the Facts on FoodFacts on FoodFacts on FoodFacts on FoodFacts on Food series, developed by the Australian Food and Grocery Council’ series, developed by the Australian Food and Grocery Council’ series, developed by the Australian Food and Grocery Council’ series, developed by the Australian Food and Grocery Council’ series, developed by the Australian Food and Grocery Council’s Food Science Bureau.s Food Science Bureau.s Food Science Bureau.s Food Science Bureau.s Food Science Bureau.

Where is it used?Aspartame is used tosweeten many preparedfoods, as a tabletopsweetener, and insimple recipes that donot require lengthyheating. It tastes good,enhances citrus and otherfruit flavours, and savescalories.

Aspartame’s components separate when heated overtime, resulting in a loss of sweetness. Therefore,aspartame is not recommended for use in recipesrequiring lengthy heating or baking. It may,however, be added at the end of the cooking cyclein some recipes. If a food containing aspartame wereinadvertently heated, it would still be safe, but wouldsimply not provide the desired sweetness.

Testing aspartameAspartame is one of the most thoroughly studiedadditives in the food supply. The US FDA evaluatedmore than 100 scientific studies on aspartame priorto its approval in 1981. These tests were conductedin animals and humans, including normal adultsand children, lactating women and people withdiabetes, obesity and special genetic conditions.Aspartame was tested in amounts many times higherthan individuals could consume in the diet.

Before permitting the use of aspartame in Australia,the Australia New Zealand FoodAuthority (ANZFA, thegovernment body chargedwith safeguarding ourfood supply) reviewedthe above mentionedscientific studies andconcluded that aspartame issafe when used in the mannerpermitted.

Today, scientists continue to conduct new studieson this sweetener as they do on many otheringredients used in the food supply. Aspartame isused widely in major industrialised countries suchas the United Kingdom, Germany and Japan.

Aspartame has been reviewed and allocated anAcceptable Daily Intake (ADI) by the Joint Expert

Aspartame is

one of the most

thoroughly

studied

additives in the

food supply.

Aspartame isnot

recommendedfor use inrecipes

requiringlengthy heating

or baking.

Journal Extra

51

Committee on Food Additives of the United NationsFood and Agricultural Organisation and WorldHealth Organisation. It also has been reviewed andapproved for use by the Scientific Committee forFood of the European Community.

What role can aspartame play in ahealthy diet?Studies have shown that foods and beveragessweetened with aspartame can be an effective partof a weight management program. Obviously,aspartame is not a drug stimulating weight loss;however, it does makepossible low-orreduced-calorie foodsand beverages forthose wishing tocontrol their energyintake.

ANZFA advises thataspartame is safe for thegeneral public, including diabetics, pregnant andnursing women, and children. People with a rarehereditary disease known as phenylketonuria mustcontrol their phenylalanine intake from all sources,including aspartame. These people are diagnosedat birth by a blood test performed on all babies.Products sweetened with aspartame must carry astatement on the label that they containphenylalanine.

How much aspartame can I consume?ANZFA uses the concept of an ADI to determinethe safe use of all food additives, includingaspartame. The ADI of a food additive representsan intake level that, if maintained each daythroughout a person’s lifetime, would be consideredsafe. The ADI for aspartame has been set at 40milligrams per kilogram (mg/kg) of body weight.Since the ADI has a built-in safety factor andrepresents a guideline for intake every day over alifetime, occasional use of aspartame can be greaterthan the ADI without concern for safety.

Short-term tests with humans consuming muchgreater levels of aspartame than the ADI have shownno adverse side effects. Under normal conditions,because of aspartame’s sweetness, it would bedifficult for an individual to consume amountsapproaching the ADI during one day, let alone everyday over many months oryears. In a recentAustralian survey intothe consumption ofsweeteners, ANZFAreported that the averagedaily intake of aspartameis about 6 per cent of theADI. Although the sample

size was too small to provide precise estimates ofaspartame intake for ‘high consumers’, theindications are that, even for this group intake isstill less than 25 per cent of the ADI. An adult wouldneed to consume 20 cans of diet soft drink everyday to reach the ADI for aspartame.

There is no scientific evidence that aspartame islinked to adverse reactions in people. Studiesinvestigating aspartame as a potential allergen havefound no association between aspartame andallergic reactions.

What’s the connection with methanol?Concerns that the methanol produced whenaspartame is digested can lead to impaired visionare unfounded. A small amount of methanol isformed when aspartame is digested or when itscomponents separate. Methanol is a natural by-product of the metabolism of many commonlyconsumed foods. The methanol produced by themetabolism of aspartame is identical to that whichis provided in much larger amounts from fruits,vegetables and their juices, and is part of the normaldiet. During the metabolism of aspartame in thegastrointestinal tract, methanol is released and thenmetabolised by normal body processes. Numerousscientific studies have shown that the methanolderived from aspartame does not accumulate in thebody and thus cannot reach harmful levels.

Want to know more?For additional information, including other titles inthe Facts on Food series, contact the Australian Foodand Grocery Council’sFood Science BureauPO Box 4399Kingston ACT 2604ph 1300 137 177fax 1300 137 188email [email protected] www.foodsciencebureau.com.au

The technical content of this information sheet hasbeen reviewed by Keith Richardson, FoodTechnology Liaison Officer, Food Science Australia(a joint venture of the CSIRO and the AustralianFood Industry Science Centre).

The Australian Food and Grocery Council’s Food

Science Bureau is an initiative of the consumer

food, drink and grocery products industry,

presenting balanced and independently verified

information about food science and related

technologies. The information in this fact sheet

is intended as an overview only and should not

be relied upon as a substitute for personal

medical or nutritional advice.

Foods and

beverages

sweetened with

aspartame can be

an effective part

of a weight

management

program.

Aspartame is

used widely in

major

industrialised

countries.


52

Book Review

ISBN: 0-9577080-3-3

Published 2001

Available from Xyris Software Pty Ltd

Tel: 3844 9523

Food Choices the IT Way is a wonderful new packagefor schools, aimed at students aged approximately13–18 years. The package is designed to encouragestudents to make healthy food choices and increase

their food literacy. It is based on the FoodWorksnutritional analysis computer program andincludes a teacher’s manual, and a studentworkbook – Procedures & Exercises using FoodWorks.It also includes a CD-ROM containing FoodWorksas well as the teacher’s manual and student

workbook in PDF (portable document file) format.

Food Choices the IT Way enables students to useinformation technology to make in-depth dietaryanalyses of the foods they eat and the foods theypurchase. By using the computer program,students can make these analyses quickly, easilyand accurately.

FoodWorks CD-ROM, nutritional analysis

program has a host of features that allow it to beused in a dynamic and creative way to supportnutrition education. Features include:• Extensive data base of food items and

immediate feedback on the nutritionalbreakdown as you work. Additional items can

be added to the data base, either as foods orrecipes.

• Graphing function to calculate and graph, forexample, the percentage of energy derived fromprotein, fat, carbohydrate and alcohol. Graphscan be presented and printed in a range of 2Dand 3D formats.

• Comparisons of food intakes to RDIs.

• Quick and easy navigation around food diaries,meal plans and recipes.

• A range of printing options. For example, whenprinting a recipe analysis, either all nutrients,

or a selection of nutrients can be printed.

• Folders to organise food diaries, meal plans and

recipes

The teacher’s manual includes a wealth ofinformation to support the teaching/learningprocess. It has four parts:

• Part A – (Understanding Food Choices theIT Way) explains the resource and identifiesits relationship to students’ current and future

life roles and to good pedagogical practice, withemphasis on food and nutrition education.

• Part B – (Understanding FoodWorks) explainshow the FoodWorks computer program works.It includes a set of procedures commonly usedwhen using the FoodWorks computer softwareprogram. Most procedures are accompanied by

an exercise for students to test their mastery of

the procedure. These procedures and exercises arealso presented as a student workbookProcedures and exercises using FoodWorks. Theprocedures are clearly explained, with graphicsto support the instructions. Student exercises

provide opportunities for students to master thebasic procedures before undertaking the morechallenging tasks in Part C.

• Part C – (FoodWorks in the classroom) explainshow to use FoodWorks for dietary analysis, mealplanning, food technology and consumereducation. It includes overviews for eleven units

of work for use with students. The tasks are rich,provide a range of teaching ideas, extensionactivities, and a breakdown of processes andskills. For example, the unit of work titled ‘ITChecks out lunch’ challenges students to analyseand evaluate lunch foods eaten by their peers anddevelop and implement recommendations for

improving the lunches. Learning experiences areclearly explained and supported by the studentresource sheets in Part D.

• Part D – (Supporting resources) includes forty-nine resource sheets to support the classroomunits of work in Part C. Each unit of work ispresented initially as a Student Challenge which

outlines the challenge and lists the steps to workthrough. Each challenge has resource sheets tosupport the learning process. These are clearlypresented with appealing illustrations, thepurpose of the task, and the steps required toundertake the task.

As a practising home economics teacher with a

passion for IT and a desire to assist students makewise food choices, this is one of the most excitingresources I have seen. The units of work provide adiverse range of relevant, contemporary challengeswhich can be used ‘as is’ or adapted to meet therequirements of particular classes/students. The

resource sheets are beautifully presented, andcontain explicit references to the skills being targeted– for example, summarising, evaluating, drawingconclusions, analysing, researching. The teacher issupported throughout the teaching/learning processwith clear explanations of the purposes of each

challenge and task.

I believe this will prove to be a ‘must have’ resourcefor all schools and other organisations undertakingnutrition education.

Food Choices the IT WayXyris Software Pty Ltd

Reviewed by: Miriam McDonald, Home Economics

teacher/ Assistant Principal, Taminmin High School NT

52

journal of the home economics institute of australia

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