iojpe - dergipark

IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org

International Online Journal of Primary Education 2022, volume 11, issue 1

Copyright © International Online Journal of Primary Education 90

THE EFFECT OF CHILD-TO-CHILD TEACHING APPROACH ON

STUDENTS’ LEVEL OF SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY IN SOCIAL

STUDIES

Önder ERYILMAZ

Assist. Prof. Dr., Faculty of Education, Amasya University, Turkey

ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4962-889X

[email protected]

Handan DEVECİ

Prof. Dr., Faculty of Education, Anadolu University, Turkey

ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9765-2117

[email protected]

Received: May 29, 2021 Accepted: March 10, 2022 Published: June 30, 2022

Suggested Citation:

Eryılmaz, Ö., & Deveci, H. (2022). The effect of child-to-child teaching approach on students’ level of social responsibility

in social studies. International Online Journal of Primary Education (IOJPE), 11(1), 90-108.

https://doi.org/10.55020/iojpe.1052448

This is an open access article under the CC BY 4.0 license.

Abstract

This study aims to investigate the effects of the child-to-child teaching approach on students’ level of social responsibility in

primary social studies courses. A mixed-method experimental intervention approach was adopted in this research. The study

participants were 5th-grade students, students' parents, and a social studies teacher. The social responsibility scale,

semi-structured interviews, unstructured observation, control list, video records, student products, anecdotes, and researcher's

diary were used as data collection tools. The results revealed that the child-to-child teaching approach (CtC) applied in social

studies courses statistically impacted students' social responsibility levels. Moreover, it was determined that the CtC

contributed to the students' social responsibility development according to the students', parents', and social studies teacher's

views. It was also determined that participants had positive views regarding the CtC, and they thought that the approach was

useful and enjoyable.

Keywords: Social studies, social responsibility, child-to-child teaching approach.

INTRODUCTION

In recent years, social responsibility has been evaluated in connection with social entrepreneurship,

sustainability, community service, and character development & leadership programs and is gaining

importance, especially in education, business, and public administration (Sosik, Koul, & Cameron,

2017).

The core concept of social responsibility as a reinterpretation of citizenship education and briefly can

be explained as a personal investment in the well-being of others and the planet (Berman, 1990).

Faulkner and McCurdy (2000) defined social responsibility as an individual's active participation in

activities carried out with the purpose of social welfare. Similarly, Sosik, Koul, and Cameron (2017)

stated that social responsibility is helping other creatures of your own will, with no thought of personal

gain, for the common good and recognizing this as a duty.

Social responsibility is associated with psychological processes such as cognition, creativity,

personality, morality, and fairness, as well as attitudes and behaviors related to the purposes of the

social studies course, such as the sense of belonging, commitment, participation, and satisfaction

(Secchi & Bui, 2018). In addition, socially responsible individuals are generally those who have

characteristics of effective citizenship, have moral sensitivity, are academically successful, establish

strong social networks, act in accordance with human nature, are self-confident, and act logically

(Sosik, Koul, & Cameron, 2017). Accordingly, social responsibility is closely associated with the

http://www.iojpe.org/

mailto:[email protected]

mailto:[email protected]

https://doi.org/10.55020/iojpe.1052448

https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



essential components of the social studies course, such as human rights, social justice, and social

engagement (Kelly & Salmon, 2008).

One of the most important courses taught in Turkey’s primary schools related to raising citizens with a

sense of social responsibility is the social studies course. According to the main philosophy and

purpose of the social studies curriculum (SSC), it can be argued that educating students to help them

become socially responsible citizens is important. Social studies teachers use various instructional

approaches, strategies, methods, techniques, and activities to achieve these objectives of the social

studies course. The Child-to-child teaching approach (CtC) can be regarded as one of the effective

instructional approaches that social studies teachers can use to provide social responsibility for their

students. Because the main focus of the CtC approach is to help children develop social responsibility

skills (Serpell, 2011).

Child-to-child Teaching Approach

CtC consists of understanding, learning, planning, implementation, evaluation, and expanding stages.

With this approach, children try to transmit the knowledge and experiences they obtained during the

social studies course to their friends, families, and other individuals (Deveci & Selanik Ay, 2014). At

the understanding stage of CtC, students collect information about the subject that will be covered in

the social studies course. The learning stage involves the learning and deep reinforcement of the

subject by students under the teacher's guidance. At the planning stage, students plan the subject they

learned in the social studies course to make it ready to transmit to the target audience. The

implementation stage includes the realization of the activities they planned. The evaluation stage is

carried out under the guidance of the teacher and includes evaluation of the practices carried out

through various in-class activities. Finally, at the expanding stage again under the guidance of the

teacher, students develop ideas for increasing the effectiveness of the activities.

CtC approach does not consider child, family, and society as separate elements. They rather accepted

as interconnected and complementary elements. This method establishes a relationship between the

needs of the society and the social studies lesson. It contributes to the sustainability of learning and

provides students with knowledge, skills, and values related to social responsibility, thucontributing to

their effective socialization (Pradhan, 2007).

A literature review on CtC revealed that all studies were carried out with pre-school or primary school

students. A majority of these studies are related to the health education of students in less developed

countries (Knight, Grantham McGregor, Ismail, & Ashley, 1991; Ahmad, 1997; Chalker, 1997;

Freeman & Bunting, 2003; Mwebi, 2005; Alazab, Elsheikh, & Kamal, 2008; Leena & D’Sozua, 2014).

Besides, there are some reports on nutrition and health education of students about the CtC in

developing countries (Hanbury, 1997; Ataman, 2009; Özyürek et al., 2016). However, little research

has been done in developed countries on implementing the CtC approach to health education (Kirby

and Gibbs, 2006). Additionally, there are some studies on the assessment of CtC implemented within

the scope of some projects (Gilkes, 1997; Kattel & Carniege, 1997; Demir et al., 2009; Bhutta &

Sylva, 2015; Serpell, Mumba, & Chansa-Kabali, 2011). Surprisingly, there are no studies concerning

the implementation of CtC within a course to our best knowledge. Moreover, there are no studies on

associating CtC with the development of social responsibility in students.

This study presents a solution to fill the gap in the literature concerning the effect of the CtC applied in

primary social studies courses on students’ level of social responsibility. The primary purpose of this

paper is to find answers to the following questions:

Does the CtC approach implemented in primary social studies courses affect students’ level of

social responsibility?

Regarding the effect of CtC implemented in primary social studies courses on the students’

level of social responsibility; What are the views of

students?


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



parents?

and the social studies teacher?

METHOD

A mixed-method experimental intervention approach based on explanatory sequential mixed-method

was employed in this research. Firstly, the quantitative data obtained through the experimental

procedure was analyzed, and then, qualitative data were obtained and analyzed to explain or support

the study's quantitative findings (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2018).

Study Group

The study group consists of the students in the control and experimental groups, parents of the students

in the experimental group, and a social studies teacher. Multilevel mixed-method sampling was used

to determine the experimental and control groups, as shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1. The determination process of the experimental and control groups using multilevel

mixed-method sampling.

Social studies teachers and experts were consulted to determine the grade level at which the

experimental procedure will be conducted. The study was conducted in the 5th-grade social studies

course based on the opinions obtained. While determining the school, to minimize possible language

problems during communicating, the school with the least number of foreign students and at least with

two 5th-grade classes were considered as criteria. While determining the school that meets these

criteria, the R&D department of the Provincial Directorate of National Education was consulted, and

the school was determined located at the city center. The Social Responsibility Scale (SRS) was

implemented in the selected school, and two classes with the closest average scores were decided as

experimental and control groups. Because control and experiment groups should be equal as possible

to determine the effect of experimental manipulation. While determining the experimental and control

groups, two classes having the same social studies teacher were determined. According to the opinion

of the social studies teacher, one of these classes was determined as the experimental group and the

other one as the control group. The demographic information of students in the experimental and

control groups is given in Table 1.

In addition to the students in the experimental and control groups, parents of 9 students in the

experimental group who voluntarily agreed to participate in the study were also included in the study

group. Six of these parents were male, and three were female. Two of the male parents were teachers,

the others were a shopkeeper, worker, civil servant, and retired police officer; female parents were a

teacher, worker, and housewife. Moreover, a social studies teacher has also joined the study group.

The social studies teacher was graduated from the social studies teacher education program of a state

university in 2005. The teacher has been working as a social studies teacher in state schools since

2008.


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



Table 1. Demographic information of students in the experimental and control groups

Demographic information Control Group Experimental Group

f % f %

Gender

Girl 13 56.5 11 50

Boy 10 43.5 11 50

Total 23 100 22 100

Father’s Job

Retired 3 13 1 4.6

Self-employment 5 21.7 5 22.7

Shopkeeper 2 8.7 3 13.6

Worker 2 8.7 7 31.8

Civil Servant 9 39.2 6 27.3

Farmer 2 8.7 0 0

Total 23 100 22 100

Mother’s Job

Housewife 20 87 11 50

Worker 1 4.3 2 9.1

Civil Servant 2 8.7 7 31.8

Self-employment 0 0 2 9.1

Total 23 100 22 100

Father’s Education

Illiterate 0 0 0 0

Literate 1 4.3 1 4.6

Primary school 5 21.8 2 9.1

Secondary school 3 13 0 0

High school 9 39.2 10 45.4

College 3 13 8 36.3

Post graduate 2 8.7 1 4.6

Total 23 100 22 100

Mother’s Education

Illiterate 1 4.3 1 4.6

Literate 2 8.7 0 0

Primary school 6 26.1 3 13.6

Secondary school 6 26.1 6 27.3

High school 8 34.8 5 22.7

College 0 0 7 31.8

Post graduate 0 0 0 0

Total 23 100 22 100

News Tracking Frequency of Student

Daily 13 56.5 9 40.9

Every few days 7 30.6 7 31.8

Once a week 1 4.3 1 4.6

Once every two

weeks

1 4.3 2 9.1

Once a month 0 0 0 0

Never 1 4.3 3 13.6

Total 23 100 22 100

Participation Status in Social

Responsibility Projects

Yes 0 0 0 0

No 23 100 22 100

Data Collection Tools

SRS, semi-structured interview form, video recordings, unstructured observation, anecdote, student

products, control list, and researcher’s diary were used as data collection tools. Details regarding data

collection tools used in this study are explained below.

Social Responsibility Scale

A Likert-type SRS developed by the authors was used to determine students’ level of social

responsibility in the experimental and control groups. At first, an item pool was created and experts

were consulted to evaluate the items in the scope of the content validity. For the content validity of the

SRS, expert opinions were analyzed using Lawshe’s technique (Yurdugül, 2005). Next, exploratory

Factor Analysis (EFA) and Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) were used to determine the SRS

construct validity. As a result of the EFA, a structure consisting of 4 subscales as environmental

awareness, helpfulness, collaboration, and social awareness and 17 items was obtained. This structure


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



was verified in DFA. To determine the reliability of the SRS, Cronbach’s Alpha internal consistency

coefficient was calculated, and the test-retest method was used. The Cronbach’s Alpha internal

consistency coefficients for the subscales of SRS are presented in Table 2.

Table 2. The Cronbach’s Alpha internal consistency coefficients for the subscales of SRS

Subscale Internal Consistency Coefficient

(Cronbach’s Alpha)

Environmental Awareness .718

Helpfulness .685

Collaboration .541

Social Awareness .633

Total .828

As seen in Table 2, the Cronbach’s Alpha internal consistency coefficient of SRS is .828. A

Cronbach’s alpha coefficient range from .80 to 1.00 indicates strong reliability (Yaşar, 2014; Alpar,

2016; Karagöz, 2017; Yıldız & Uzunsakal, 2018). Accordingly, the SRS was determined as highly

reliable. Moreover, while environmental awareness, helpfulness, and social awareness subscales were

determined as reliable, the collaboration subscale was displayed lower but acceptable reliability.

However, Akbulut (2011) stated that the Cronbach’s Alpha internal consistency coefficient is highly

dependent on the number of items and suggested examining correlations among the items for a

structure with a small number of items. This could also be the reason to calculate Cronbach’s Alpha

internal consistency coefficient value of subscales as lower than 0.72. In this case, it is suggested to

examine the correlation value between items and they should be at least .20. A correlation value range

between .20 and .29 indicates an adequate and .30 and indicates a highly desirable internal consistency

(Robinson, Shaver, & Wrightsman, 1991, as cited in Demirel & Sungur, 2018). The examination of

the inter-item correlations for all subscales revealed that the correlation values for all items were above

.20. Therefore, the total SRS and subscales were considered reliable according to the internal

consistency coefficients.

Moreover, Pearson Correlation Coefficients were calculated for the scores obtained between the first

and final testing of the test-retest method, and the obtained value of .764 indicated that SRS is highly

reliable (Alpar, 2016). Finally, the scope and structural validity of the SRS consists of 4 subscales, and

17 items were confirmed and determined as highly reliable. The development study of the SRS was

published as an article in a peer-reviewed international journal (Eryılmaz & Deveci, 2019).

Semi-structured interview forms

Different semi-structured interview forms were prepared for students, parents, and the social studies

teacher. In addition, two separate interview forms were prepared for the social studies teacher. Expert

opinions were consulted for all interview forms, and the forms were modified accordingly. Moreover,

within the scope of validity study of student interview forms, a pilot interview was conducted with two

students in the experimental group, which were not included in the analysis. Following the pilot

interview, semi-structured interview forms were reviewed again and finalized.

Video-recordings

During the research period, video recordings of the applications implemented in the experimental

group were made in line with the SRS. The video recordings comprised 717 minutes and 39 seconds

of video data in the Culture and Heritage and People, Places, and Environments learning strands and

were completed during 26-course hours. The video recordings were made between 26.10.2018 and

28.12.2018.

Unstructured observations

Unstructured observations were carried out in the experimental group to obtain deeper information on

the activities carried out, especially in the evaluation and expansion stages of the CtC. During the

observations, the students’ attitudes, their behaviors, developments during the process, relations with


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



their peers and teachers, and evaluations regarding activities implemented in the planning and

implementation stages were monitored.

The researcher collected the data regarding unstructured observation by taking notes by seeking to

avoid attracting the students' attention and avoiding affecting the experimental process for the purpose

of the research.

Anectode

At the beginning of the experimental process, a notebook was given to each student to keep their

anecdotal records. An anecdotal record sheet was added on the first page of the anecdote notebooks,

including a guideline and template on keeping anecdotal records. Previously, the anecdotal record

sheet was reviewed by an expert. The record sheet was then finalized. After completing the posttests

applied to the experimental group, the social studies teacher collected the anecdote notebooks.

Student products

During the experimental procedure, students who were in the experimental group recorded videos

about their activities in the implementation stage of CtC. Moreover, students expressed their feelings

and thoughts relating to the activities in the evaluation stage in writing. Besides, they also expressed

their opinions on how to conduct the activities implemented during the evaluation phase more

effectively in writing.

The control list

The control list was prepared to observe if the activities directly or indirectly associated with CtC are

implemented in the control group. The control list includes items regarding the stages of CtC. Next to

each item, done and not done marks were included. Additionally, an Explanations section was also

included for each item. Expert opinions were obtained on the control list. Then the control list was

reviewed accordingly and finalized.

Researcher’s diary

The researcher had kept a researcher’s diary regularly during the entire study period. The researcher

had used this researcher’s diary during the collection of quantitative and qualitative data, analysis of

the data, and reporting of the findings.

Data Analysis

Various quantitative and qualitative data analysis methods were employed to analyze the data obtained

during the research process. The independent sample t-test was conducted between the pretest scores

of the experimental and control groups on the SRS at the beginning of the experiment. On the other

hand, One-way covariance analysis (ANCOVA) was applied to the posttest scores of the experimental

and control groups. The posttest scores of the experimental and control groups were checked for test

assumptions of ANCOVA, including normality, equality of variances, linear relationship between

pretest (determined as the covariate variable) and posttest (determined as the dependent variable)

scores of the experimental and control groups, and finally, the test for equality of the within-group

slopes of the regression lines.

The effect size of the experimental procedure was also estimated using partial η2 values obtained in

the one-way ANCOVA. Moreover, the power of the experimental procedure was also reported. The

quantitative data obtained with the experimental procedure were analyzed using the SPSS software

version 21.0.

On the other hand, the inductive data analysis approach was conducted to analyze qualitative data.

Most of qualitative data were converted into text files. However, some qualitative data, such as student

products, were copied by taking a photo and saved as photos to the computer. They were analyzed by

NVIVO 12 Pro Qualitative Data Analysis Software. Moreover, the researcher’s diary and unstructured

observations were used to analyze the qualitative data.


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



Pilot Study

Individual and Society which is the first learning strand of the SSC was selected for the pilot study.

The pilot study was conducted during 9-course hours and observed by the social studies teacher of the

class. At the end of the pilot study, the lesson plans for the experimental procedure were modified

according to the opinions and suggestions of the social studies teacher and the experiences obtained

during the process.

Experimental Procedure

During the experimental procedure, the researcher and the social studies teacher discussed how the

lesson should be taught and how and when to use the materials. The same teacher taught social studies

in both classes. While the social studies teacher implemented the lesson plans developed by the

researcher for the experimental group, the control group continued their education using the regular

plans. The process of CtC conducted in the experimental group is shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2. The learning process of CtC conducted in the experimental group.

As shown in Fig. 2, the learning process of CtC conducted in the social studies course consists of six

stages. In the understanding stage of CtC, students collected information relating to the subject from

various sources. The learning stage was performed in the class, and students shared information with

their peers. Additionally, the social studies teacher gave more comprehensive information to raise

awareness on the related subject by considering students’ information-sharing in-class activity. In the

planning stage, students made plans on how to transmit information they learned to their families,

friends, or other people. In the implementation stage, students implemented the activities they planned.

In the evaluation stage, students evaluated practices they implemented under the teacher's guidance

through various activities. Finally, in the expanding stage, students develop ideas on how to transmit

the subject more effectively to the target audience through various activities conducted by the social

studies teacher.

Trustworthiness of the Study

To increase the trustworthiness of the research, the authors used participant approval, expert

assessments, and diversified data sources and data collection tools. Moreover, the researcher made

long-term interactions in the research field, kept researcher diaries related to the research, and used

direct quotations from the data obtained from the participants.


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



The Role of the Researcher

The researcher had been in constant communication with the social studies teacher both in writing and

orally during this process. The researcher discussed ideas with the social studies teacher about the

activities and gave feedback before, during, and after the lessons.

Before all interviews, the researcher informed the participants about how to archive data, how to

protect personal information, and how to report personal information by keeping data confidentiality,

received verbal consent of the participants and performed audio recording during the interviews. In

addition, the researcher tried to conduct the interviews in a friendly atmosphere to obtain frank and in-

depth data from the participants. The researcher also ensured that interviews were conducted privately

where people other than the participants were not present to prevent the participants from being

affected.

Besides all, this research was conducted as a part of a Ph.D. thesis. Accordingly, the entire research

was conducted by the first author of this paper, the author of the thesis. The second author of this

paper is the thesis supervisor, who guided the first author during the entire research period and

provided feedback.

Research Ethics

Research and publication ethics permissions were obtained from a state university, then, other

necessary permissions were obtained from the Ministry of National Education and Provincial

Directorate of National Education. Before the experimental procedure, a PTA meeting was held to

inform parents of the students in the experimental group. Written consents were obtained from all

participants (students in the experimental and control groups, parents, and the social studies teacher)

for the research through the voluntary participation forms. During the analysis and reporting stage of

qualitative data, code names were used in accordance with the principle of maintaining confidentiality.

FINDINGS

T-test Results of the Pretest Scores of the Experimental and Control Groups

Assumptions including normal distribution and homogeneity of the data were examined to decide

whether the data set is suitable for a parametric test. The descriptive statistics and the results of the

normality tests and Levene’s test for equality of variances were applied to the pretest scores of the

experimental and control groups are shown in Table 3.

Table 3. The descriptive statistics and the results of the normality tests and Levene’s test applied to

the pretest scores of the experimental and control groups

Groups

Descriptive Statistics Shapiro-

Wilk Skewness Kurtosis

Levene’s test

N Mean Std.Dev. Df p Levene

Statistics

sd1 sd2 p

Experimental 22 55.13 1.553 22 .247 -.326 -1.026 2.236 1 43 .142

Control 23 57.60 1.182 23 .644 -.252 -.407

As shown in Table 3, while skewness and kurtosis values of the pretest scores of the experimental

group were found as -.326 and -1.026, respectively, the values of the control group were calculated as

-.252 and -.407, respectively. These results indicated that the data did not show excessive deviation

from normal distributions. Moreover, the Shapiro-Wilk test was also used to examine whether the

scores were normally distributed. As displayed in Table 3, the pretest scores of the experimental and

control groups were determined as not significant at the .05 level, and therefore, did not show

excessive deviation from normal distributions. Furthermore, Levene’s test for equality of variances

demonstrated that the data were insignificant at the .05 level. Consequently, these results confirmed

that the independent sample t-test could be performed to the pretest scores of the experimental and

control groups. Accordingly, the independent sample t-test was performed between the pretest scores

of the experimental and control groups and the obtained results are presented in Table 4.


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



Table 4. Results of the independent sample were performed between the pretest scores of the

experimental and control groups.

Group N Mean Std.Dev. Df T p

Experimental 22 55.134 7.28 43 1.274 .210

Control 23 57.608 5.67

As shown in Table 4, no statistically significant difference was found between the pretest scores of the

experimental and control groups at the .05 level (t(43)= 1.274: p>.05). Based on these results, it was

concluded that the social responsibility levels of the students in the experimental and control groups

were similar.

The results of the One-way ANCOVA Conducted on the Posttest Scores of the Experimental and

Control Groups

Before the analysis, posttest scores of the experimental and control groups were evaluated for the one-

way ANCOVA assumptions. Therefore, normal distribution and homogeneity of the posttest scores of

the experimental and control groups were examined. The descriptive statistics and the results of the

normality tests and Levene’s test for equality of variances were applied on the posttest scores of the

experimental and control groups are presented in Table 5.

Table 5. The descriptive statistics and the results of the normality tests and Levene’s test for equality

of variances applied on the posttest scores of the experimental and control groups.

Groups

Descriptive

Statistics

Shapiro-

Wilk Skewness Kurtosis

Levene’s test

N Mean Std.Dev. Df p Levene

Statistics

sd1 sd2 p

Experimental 22 60.22 1.204 22 .70 -.623 -.715 .320 1 43 .575

Control 23 57.08 1.351 23 .593 -.147 -.508

As shown in Table 5, while skewness and kurtosis values of the posttest scores of the experimental

group were found as .623 and -.715, respectively, the values of the control group were calculated as

-.147 and -.508, respectively. Moreover, the posttest scores of the experimental and control groups

were found as not significant at the .05 level in the Shapiro-Wilk and therefore, did not show excessive

deviation from normal distributions. Furthermore, the results of Levene’s test for equality of variances

demonstrated that the variances were homogeneous since the test was not significant at the .05 level.

Figure 3. The relationship between the pretest and posttest scores of the experimental and control

groups on the SRS.


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



In addition to these assumptions, the relationship between the pretest (the covariate variable of the

study) and the posttest (the dependent variable of the study) scores of the experimental and control

groups was examined before performing one-way ANCOVA. The scatter plot showing the relationship

between the pretest and posttest scores of the experimental and control groups is shown in Figure 3.

As seen in Figure 3, a linear relationship was determined between the pretest (the covariate variable of

the study) and the post-test (the study's dependent variable) scores of the experimental and control

groups.

It was also examined whether there were significant differences between the experimental and control

groups' pretest scores and the classroom variable to perform the one-way ANCOVA. The analysis

results regarding the Classroom-pretest interaction for pretest scores of the experimental and control

groups are shown in Table 6.

Table 6. Results of the classroom-pretest interaction

Source of Variance Sum of Squares Df Mean of Squares F p

Corrected Model 674.649a 31 224.883 8.952 .000

Classroom 28.343 1 28.343 1.128 .294

Pretest 561.108 1 561.108 22.337 .000

Classroom-pretest 13.726 1 13.726 .546 .464

Error 1030 41 25.120

Total 156350 45

As seen in Table 6, the Classroom-pretest interaction was determined as not significant at the .05 level

(F1-41=.546; p>.05). These results indicated that the within-group regression slopes are all equal.

According to all analyses, it was concluded that both scores are suitable to perform the one-way

ANCOVA to determine the effect of CtC teaching approach on students’ social responsibility levels.

The results of the one-way ANCOVA conducted for the posttest scores of the experimental and

control groups are presented in Table 7.

Table 7. The results of the one-way ANCOVA conducted for the posttest scores of the experimental

and control groups

Source of Variance Sum of Squares Df Mean of Squares F p Partial

η2

Power

Corrected Model 660.924a 2 330.462 13.299 .000 .388 .996

Pretest 550.036 1 550.036 22.135 .000 .345 .996

Group 219.295 1 219.295 8.825 .005 .174 .827

Error 1043.654 42 243849

Total 156350 45

As shown in Table 7, a significant difference at the .05 level was determined between the posttest

scores of the experimental and control groups that corrected according to the pretest scores

(F1-42=8.825; p<.05). Considering these results, the experimental procedure was decided as statically

significant. Moreover, the effect size of the experimental procedure was also examined using partial η2

values. As displayed in Table 7, the partial η2 value was calculated as .174. Accordingly, the effect

size of the experimental procedure was large. Furthermore, the power of the experimental procedure

was also evaluated and calculated as .82. Therefore, the null hypothesis of the study, that is, The CtC

approach has no impact on the social responsibility levels of the primary school students assumption is

rejected by 82%, and the power of the experimental procedure was found to be greater than expected

(Christensen, Johnson, & Turner, 2015).

Considering the analyses results discussed above, it was concluded that the CtC approach

implemented in the social studies course had shown a significant impact on the social responsibility

levels of the primary school students, the experimental procedure had a large effect, and its power was

greater than expected. Qualitative data obtained from the study group including students in the

experimental group, parents, and teacher were analyzed to deeply understand and explain how

effective the CtC teaching approach is on students’ social responsibility levels.


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



Students’ Opinions Regarding the Contribution of the CtC Teaching Approach

The findings acquired by analyzing the information obtained from students revelated that the CtC

approach implemented in the social studies lesson had contributed to the development of students.

These findings are shown in Figure 4.

Figure 4. Contribution of the CtC to the development of students

An examination of Fig. 4 shows that the obtained findings include items associated with social

responsibility. The current study's findings showed that the CtC had contributed to improving some

students’ self-expression, creative thinking, and communication skills relatedto social responsibility.

One of the students in the experimental group, Tamer stated that “he can express himself better as a

result of the activities he conducted within the scope of the CtC by saying, in the past, I could not

introduce myself well to others. Now I started to feel better about expressing myself (Student

Interview (SI), 10.01.2019)”. Selen explained that the CtC process contributed to her creative thinking

skills by giving an example, “I had thought of something recently. I would bring something like a bin

for the school bus. We would throw the garbage there (SI, 10.01.2019)”. Omar believes that the CtC

implemented in the social studies course had contributed to his communication skills by saying, “My

social communication with people has improved. I could already speak well with people. I already

have this ability. Here, I have increased this feature (SI, 10.01.2019)”.

Other findings showed that the CtC had contributed to the development of a sense of responsibility

relatedto social responsibility through improving their sense of responsibility, self-confidence, and a

sense of being a useful person. One of these students, Ecem said that this activity made her feel

responsible by stating, “I felt a sense of responsibility since we conducted an important, pleasant, and

useful task (Student Product (SP), no date)”. Büşra’s anecdotal records indicated that she believes the

activities they planned and implemented provided her self-confidence: “I explained something to our

analyzing today and realized that my self-confidence has increased. Because I used to be excited when

I was telling someone something. But now, I realized that I’m better (Anecdote Record (AR),

05.10.2018).” Moreover, Öznur stated that the clean-up activity made her feel a sense of being useful

person by explaining, “I enjoyed garbage collection. Because at least we made something good for the

environment (SI, 10.01.2019)”.

Moreover, the obtained findings indicated that the CtC had contributed to the development of

environmental and social awareness, socializing them, and helping to be aware of the natural

environment, which are relatedto social responsibility. One of these students, Tamer said that the CtC


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



provided social awareness by stating “It made me feel that we shouldn’t think only about ourselves. It

is not just us living in this World (SI, 10.01.2019)”. Ozan stated that it created environmental

awareness by saying, “My opinion has changed. I don’t think the environment was so dirty. I’m

surprised when there were so many. We didn’t care before (SI, 10.01.2019)”. Gökay said that the CtC

made them socialize by saying “We became more social than all lessons. We meet with my friends at

school every day. We socialize with them (SI, 10.01.2019)”. Additionally, Ecem stated that the CtC

had improved their awareness towards the natural environment by saying: “It had changed me for the

environment. When I was little, I didn’t care much about nature, but as I did such activities, I

understood the state of nature (SI, 10.01.2019)”.

In addition to these, it was found that the CtC implemented in the social studies course provided

students with permanent learning since they had to teach what they learned to others, increased their

academic success, changed their negative thoughts about their friends, and provided positive attitudes

towards social studies course.

Parents’ Opinions Regarding the Contribution of the CtC Teaching Approach

The findings acquired by analyzing the information obtained from parents indicated that the CtC

approach implemented in the social studies lesson provided some contributions to the development of

the students and family. Findings associated with parents’ opinions regarding the contribution of the

CtC approach to the development of students and families are shown in Figure 5.

Figure 5. Parents' opinions regarding the contribution of the CtC approach

As presented in Figure 5, most of the obtained findings are related to social responsibility. The results

indicated that the CtC approach implemented in the social studies course improved students' sense of

social responsibility according to parents’ opinions. Moreover, the research findings showed that some

parents thought implementing the CtC in the social studies course contributed to the development of

children's sense of responsibility and self-confidence. Ms. Işıl, one of the parents supporting this

finding said “I constantly tell him that he has homework. I would follow as if I’m a student myself.

For the first time, he said consciously, ‘I will do it’, and he did (Parent Interview (PI), 15.01.2019)”.

Mr. Hakan, another parent, emphasized that the CtC contributed to the development of his child's self-

confidence by saying,


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



I think the activities are useful. He was different before. His self-confidence has increased after he

conducted the activities. Sometimes he was afraid of narrative things. I already told him last night.

I said, 'You couldn't speak like this before.' He replied 'Now I'm speaking, dad,'. He was hesitant

before (PI, 11.01.2019).

Moreover, it was found that some parents had the view that this process contributed to their children's

natural environment awareness. Mr. Halil, one of these parents, stated that his child's awareness of the

natural environment had increased by saying;

He began to be more concerned (sensitive) about the waste. For example, he said to me, 'We

shouldn’t throw anything out of the car. Sometimes, even if it's a little stuff, we've thrown some

things a few times, we shouldn’t do this anymore’ he said (PI, 14.01.2019).

Besides, some parents stated that the CtC approach had contributed the development of the self- expression skills of their children. Mrs. Hande, a parent suggesting this view said, “Now she started to

make proper sentences. I always wanted her to make good sentences to express herself better. Finally,

my daughter did it fondly. Her self-expression skills have improved. Because she enters into such

settings (PI, 17.01.2019)”.

In addition to the outcomes mentioned above, parents also believe that the CtC practiced in the social

studies course changed their children's attitudes towards the social studies course, provided them a

more effective studying habit and permanent learning. Moreover, parents stated that the CtC also

provided some benefits themselves. For example, they said that they discovered their child’s new

talents, their child started helping his sibling with his homework, they spent more time together, and

their negative thoughts towards the research had changed.

Social Studies Teacher’s Opinions Regarding the Contribution of the CtC Teaching Approach

During this research, findings regarding the contributions of CtC on the development of the students,

teaching-learning process of social studies course, and the social studies teacher. Social studies

teacher's opinions regarding the contribution of the CtC approach are shown in Figure 6.

As seen in Figure 6, most of the findings are related to social responsibility. As a result of this research,

the social studies teacher stated that the CtC contributed to the development of students' self-

expression and creative thinking skills associated with developing a sense of social responsibility in

students. Regarding the improvement of the students' self-expression skills, the social studies teacher

said;

There are differences between the classroom we implemented the approach in and the other in

terms of children's positive attitude, expressing themselves, and participating in the class. For

example, Cansu, whom I had trouble getting her to speak with, talked about the negative aspects of

technology for almost three minutes today (Interview of Social Studies Teacher (ISST),

14.02.2019).

Regarding the contribution of the CtC to the students' creative thinking skills, the social studies teacher

stated “I was happy to see the evaluation of the progress by children during the evaluation and

expansion stages, especially the emergence of different ideas regarding the expansion (ISST,

10.12.2018)”.

Moreover, the social studies teacher suggested that the CtC had improved student's social

responsibility. In this regard, the social studies teacher said;

I think maybe 10-15% of the students are aware of what they are doing. Of course, this will be

more sensitive when they discover it themselves. However, I also observed that some students are

discovered it. During those expansion activities, I saw that they are aware of this. During those

activities, their speeches and writings indicated this (ISST, 10.12.2018).

Furthermore, the obtained results implied that the social studies teacher believed that the CtC improved

student's awareness of the natural environment as well, which is associated with social responsbility.

The social studies teacher explained that especially the ‘flyer preparation’ and ‘clean-up the


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



environment’ activities performed by the students during the process increased the student's awareness

of the natural environment as follows: There was an activity in the preparation process before the garbage collection activity (flyer

preparation). Students were motivated in that activity. Therefore, we have already prepared them

mentally and spiritually. Regarding the subject, they have learned about environmental problems,

nature and environment have become uninhabitable, and we must respect nature. In my opinion,

as a result, children gained this awareness and felt a responsibility to do something for nature, the

environment, or for living things (ISST, 14.02.2019).

Figure 6. Social Studies Teacher's opinions regarding the contribution of the CtC

Additionally, the CtC was identified by the social studies teacher as a mechanism that socializes

children, contributes to the awareness regarding the importance of the information, and provides

permanent learning. On the other side, the social studies teacher also expressed that the CtC provided

some benefits such as contribution to his professional development, discovering students' talents, and

improving his motivation. Moreover, according to the social studies teacher, the CtC also contributes

to the education process of social studies. Furthermore, the social studies teacher stated that the CtC

offers a positive classroom environment, provides learning from experience, and enables effective

participation of the students in the lesson. Finally, it was also stated that after implementing the CtC

method, students' expectations from the social studies coursewere changed.

RESULTS, DISCUSSION, and RECOMMENDATIONS

The present study results revealed that the CtC approach implemented in the primary social studies

course increased the students' level of social responsibility. In studies carried out by Demir et al.

(2009), Serpell, Mumba and Chansa-Kabali (2011) and Özyürek et al. (2016) also found a positive and

significant impact of CtC approach on students in different grades. Additionally, many reports

supporting these findings can be found in the literature. For example, Gibbs, Mann and Mathers

(2002) suggested that the CtC promoted students' understanding and life skills needed for a more

livable world. Serpell (2011) defined the CtC as an approach focusing on social responsibility

awareness. As explained above, the results described in the present study are consistent with the

related published reports. Therefore, it can be claimed that the CtC contributes to developing a sense

of responsibility in students.

Based on the views of the students, parents, and the social studies teacher, CtC contributed to students'

self-expression skills. This finding is also consistent with previous studies (Somerset, 1988; Gilkes,


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



1997; Hanbury, 1997; Kattel & Carniege, 1997; Demir et al., 2009). Moreover, Freedman and Hunting

(2003) emphasized that the CtC helps to improve students' communication and life skills. Therefore,

considering the results of these studies and explanations, the CtC can be identified as an approach

contributing to students' communication and life skills.

The CtC's contribution to the students on raising awareness and sensitivity toward the natural

environment is also one of the results of this research. In a study by Somerset (1988), it was

demonstrated that the CtC not only contributes to students' awareness but also contributes to the

awareness of the people with whom students come in contact. The results of the study carried out by

Knight, Grantham-McGregor, Ismail and Ashley (1991) indicated that the CtC had a significant

positive impact on the test scores of the students in the experimental group regarding the conserved

and healthy environment. According to a study conducted by Hanbury (1997), the CtC approach

enabled children to learn how to protect the environment. In a research carried out in Bangladesh by

UNICEF (2012), the students in the experimental group exhibited more developments regarding

sensitivity toward the natural environment than those in the control group after implementation of the

CtC. In addition to the studies mentioned above, Bailey, Hawes, and Bonati (1992), suggested that the

CtC can be used to effectively teach subjects related to the environment. Gibbs, Mann and Mathers

(2002) stated that the CtC is more effective when used in the subjects associated with the social issues

where students can experience. According to these findings of studies, it can be suggested that the CtC

helps to promote natural environment awareness in students.

It was concluded in the study that CtC contributed to the students' creative thinking skills according to

the social studies teacher’s opinion. Similar results were reported in the studies carried out by Gilkes

(1997), Demir et al. (2009) and UNICEF (2012). Moreover, in a study by Chalker (1997), parents

stated their children started developing creative skills due to the CtC. In addition to these reports,

Pradhan (2007) emphasized that CtC enabled students to be aware of their own creative features. In

this regard, the obtained findings and the supportive studies indicated that the CtC contributes to the

students' creative thinking skills.

Based on the students' and parents' views, this study also provided evidence that the implementation of

the CtC in the social studies course contributes to the development of the sense of social responsibility

in the students. The contribution of the CtC to the students' social responsibility was also determined

by the reports of Ahmad (1997) and Demir et al. (2009). Furthermore, Özyürek et al. (2016) also

found that activities conducted within the scope of the CtC helped students learnto take responsibility.

Furthermore, Gibbs, Mann, and Mathers (2002) explained how CtC encourages students to take

responsibility. According to these results, it can be said that the CtC makes contributions to the

development of students' sense of social responsibility.

Bailey, Hawes, and Bonati (1992) found that the CtC improves self-confidence in children since

children plan and implement the activities regarding the CtC themselves. A similar finding was

obtained by Gibbs, Mann and Mathers (2002), the CtC projects that require children's active

participation improves their self-confidence. There are many reports published in the literature support

these findings (Somerset, 1988; Gilkes, 1997; Mwebi, 2012; UNICEF, 2012; Demir et al., 2009;

Özyürek et al., 2016). Similar to the previous reports, the current study also provided evidence about

the contribution of the CtC to the self-confidence in students based on the views of students and

parents. Therefore, it can be argued that the CtC provides a contribution to the students' development

of self-confidence.

The result of the present study showed that the CtC helps students to develop a sense of being a useful

person in society. Similarly, in a study of Somerset (1988), it was found that the CtC enabled students

to be aware of being useful individuals to society. The results of a study carried out by Kattel and

Carniege (1997) demonstrated that children were aware that their contribution to their schools and

society is valuable through the activities held within the scope of the CtC. Moreover, Hanbury (1993)

stated that children felt a sense of being an important and useful person to society because the CtC


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



requires students to take responsibility and develop activities for the solution of a social problem.

Gibbs, Mann, and Mathers (2002) stated that the CtC approach enabled the development of the sense

of belonging among students since the CtC provides children to develop activities regarding the

solution of a social problem within the society they live in. Based on the results of the present study

and supporting reports, the authors claim that the implementation of the CtC contributes to students

developing a sense of being a useful person to society.

In addition to the findings of this study, previous studies demonstrated some other contributions of the

CtC on the students, such as collaborative work, questioning, research, critical thinking, problem-

solving, and decision-making skills. Additionally, it was also found that the CtC approach helps

students to improve self-control, organization, self-assessment, literacy, planning, and time

management skills. Furthermore, recent reports suggest that the CtC has a positive impact on some

students' skills, such as the development of a sense of self-esteem and social belonging, accepting

different ideas, healthy eating, being clean, and being aware of the opportunities offered by society. In

addition to these, the implementation of the CtC improves family, school, and community partnership,

social awareness, and creativity of teachers (Knight, Grantham-McGregor, Ismail & Ashley, 1991;

Bailey, Hawes, & Bonati, 1992; Hanbury, 1993; Ahmad, 1997; Chalker, 1997; Eunson, 1997; Gilkes,

1997; Hanbury, 1997; Kattel & Carniege, 1997; Breslin, Madrid, & Mhhize, 1998; Gibbs, Mann, &

Mathers, 2002; Pradhan, 2007; Alazab, Elsheikh & Kamal, 2008; Ataman, 2009; Demir et al., 2009;

Serpell, Mumba, & Chansa-Kabali, 2011; Mwebi, 2012; UNICEF, 2012; Özyürek et al., 2016).

Finally, based on the present study's findings and previous reports, it can be argued that the CtC

approach helps students gain valuable knowledge, skills, values, attitudes, behaviors, and awareness

related to social responsibility.

Based on the findings obtained in the present study, the authors make the following recommendations

regarding the implementation and further studies:

Recommendations regarding the implementation

Teachers can use the CtC approach to provide students with social responsibility awareness or

increase students' level of social responsibility.

Teachers can use the CtC approach to help students gain many skills and values associated with

social responsibility in the curriculums.

Teachers can use the CtC approach for students' personal, social, and emotional development.

Teachers can use the CtC approach to strengthen the links between students, school, and society.

Recommendations for further studies

Experimental or quasi-experimental studies may be conducted to examine the impact of the CtC on

some variables.

Experimental or quasi-experimental studies may be conducted to examine the effect of a dependent

variable on the primary school students' social responsibility levels.

The implementation of the CtC in different courses should be examined in future studies.

Follow-up studies should include relational research to determine the relationship between social

responsibility and different variables.

Relational research may be conducted to identify the variables predicting social responsibility in

primary school students.

Further studies may include research determining the social responsibility perceptions of primary

school students and social studies teachers.


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



Ethics and Conflict of Interest

This article is based on a PhD dissertation conducted under the direction of the second author by the

first author in the area of Social Studies Education at the Anadolu University Institute of Educational

Sciences. This research was funded by Anadolu University the Scientific Research Projects

Department (Grant Number: 1804E079). The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest.

REFERENCES

Ahmad, L. A. (1997). Yemen: on course for a healthy future: Reflections on the implementation of the child-to-child

approach in the Somali refugees primary school. P. Harman and C. Scotchmer (Eds.), in rebuilding young lives: using

the child-to-child approach with children in difficult circumstances: six case studies (pp. 52-60). The Child to child

trust institute of education.

Akbulut, Y. (2011). Sosyal bilimlerde SPSS uygulamaları: sık kullanılan istatistiksel analizler ve açıklamaları SPSS

çözümlemeleri [SPSS applications in social sciences: Frequently used statistical analysis and SPSS interpretations].

İstanbul: İdeal Kültür Publishing.

Alazab, R., Elsheikh, R., & Kamal, I. (2008). Child-to-child health as a model of community participation for combating

avian influenza in selected slum and rural areas [Paper presentation]. 136th American Public Health Association, San

Diego, USA.

Alpar, R. (2016). Applied statistics and validity-reliability with examples from sports, health and educational sciences

[Statistics and validty-reliability with examples from Sport, health and educational sciences]. Ankara: Detail

Publishing.

Ataman, U. (2009). Child-to-child education in preschool nutrition education (Unpublished Master Thesis). Selçuk

University. Konya.

Berman, S. (1990). Educating for social responsibility. Educational Leadership, 48(3), 75-80.

Bhutta, S. M., & Sylva, K. (2015). Health education classroom practices in primary schools: An observational study from

Pakistan. Global Journal of Health Education and Promotion, 16(2), 74-101.

Büyüköztürk, Ş. (2014). Sosyal bilimler için veri analizi el kitabı: İstatistik, araştırma deseni, SPSS uygulamaları ve yorum

(2. Baskı) [Data analysis booklet for social sciences: Statistics research design (2nd ed.)]. Ankara: Pegem Publishing.

Chalker, P. (1997). Yemen: a common thread: radda barnen’s support for the development of child-to-child. P. Harman and

C. Scotchmer (Eds.). In rebuilding young lives: using the child-to-child approach with children in difficult

circumstances: six case studies (pp. 40-51).The Child to child trust institute of education.

Christensen, L. B., Johnson, R. B., & Turner, L. A. (2015). Research methods, design, and analysis (A. Aypay Trans. Ed.).

Ankara: Anı Publishing.

Creswell, J. W., & Plano Clark, V. L. (2018). Designing and conducting mixed methods research (3rd Edition). California:

Sage Publications.

Demir, C. E., Luca, N. D., Çobanoğlu, R., Akın, S., Çalık, B., Schaepkens, L., & Brodigan, B. (2009). Okuldan topluma:

Toplumsal değişim aktörü olarak çocuklar ve öğrenciler [School to school: Children and students as actors of the

social change] (Report No. TR2009/0136.01-02/469].

Demirel, Z. M., & Sungur, S. (2018). Sürdürülebilir kalkınmaya yönelik tutum ölçeğinin Türkçe’ye uyarlanması [Adaptation

of the Attitude toward Sustainable Development Scale to Turkish]. Ahi Evran University Journal of Kırşehir

Education Faculty, 19(2), 1619-1633.

Deveci, H. & Selanik Ay, T. (2014). Sosyal bilgiler dersinde çocuktan çocuğa öğretim yaklaşımına ilişkin öğretim

uygulaması [An example of child to child teaching in social studies course]. Elementary Education Online, 13(1), 1-

16.

Eryılmaz, Ö. & Deveci, H. (2019). Ortaokul öğrencilerine yönelik sosyal sorumluluk ölçeğinin geliştirilmesi [Development

of social responsibility scale for secondary school students]. Ahi Evran University Journal of Kırşehir Education

Faculty, 20(2), 751-794.

Faulkner, L. R., & McCurdy, L. (2000). Teaching medical students social responsibility: the right thing to do. Academic

Medicine, 75(4), 346-350.

Freeman, R., & Bunting, G. (2003). A child to child approach to promoting healthier snacking in primary school children: a

randomised trial in Northern Ireland. Health Education, 103(1), 17-27.


IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



Gibbs, S., Mann, G., & Mathers, N. (2002). Child-to-child: A practical guide. Retrieved from

http://www.savethechildren.org.fj/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/Child-to-Child-apractical-guide.pdf.

Gilkes, J. (1997). West bank and gaza: environmental health through the child-to-child approach. P. Harman & C. Scotchmer

(Eds.) In rebuilding young lives: using the child-to-child approach with children in difficult circumstances: six case

studies (pp. 26-39). The Child to child trust institute of education.

Hanbury, C. (1997). Romania: the health messengers associaton. P. Harman, & C. Scotchmer (Eds.) In rebuilding young

lives: using the child-to-child approach with children in difficult circumstances: six case studies (pp. 17-25). The

Child to child trust institute of education.

Hawes, H. (1988). Child-to-child: Another path to learning. Setzkasten elektronic volker stübing. Retrieved from

https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000080862.

Hawes, H., Nicholson, J., & Bonati, G. (1991). Children, health and science: child-to-child activities and science and

technology (Science and Technology Education Document Series No. 41). Retrieved from UNESCO.

https://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICDocs/data/ericdocs2sql/content_storage_01/0000019b/80/13/3c/0a.pdf.

Karagöz, Y. (2017). SPSS ve AMOS uygulamalı bilimsel araştırma yöntemleri ve yayın etiği [Research ethics and scientific

research methods within the applications with SPSS and AMOS]. Ankara: Nobel Publishing.

Kattel, U., & Carnegie, R. (1997). Nepal: From health to children’s rights child-to-child in the bhutanese refugee camps. P.

Harman, & C. Scotchmer (Eds.) In rebuilding young lives: using the child-to-child approach with children in difficult

circumstances: six case studies (pp. 4-15). The Child to child trust institute of education.

Kelly, M. A., & Salmon, M. E. (2008). Social responsibility: conceptualization and embodiment in a school of nursing.

International Journal of Nursing Education Scholarship, 5(1), 1-16.

Kılıç, S. (2014). Etki büyüklüğü [Effect size]. Journal of Mood Disorders, 4(1), 44-46.

Kirby, P., & Gibbs, S. (2008). Facilitating participation: Adults’ caring support roles within child-to-child projects in schools

and after-school settings. Children & Society, 20, 209-222. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1002/CHI.872.

Knight, J., Grantham-Mcgregor, S., Ismail, S. & Ashley, D. (1991). A child-to-child programme in rural Jamaica. Child:

Care, Health and Development, 17, 49-58.

Leena, K. C., & D'souza, J. (2014). Effectiveness of child to child approach to health education on prevention of worm

infestation among children of selected primary schools in Mangalore. Nitte University Journal of Health Science,

4(1), 113-115.

Mwebi, B. M. (2005). A narrative inquiry into the experiences of a teacher and eight students learning about HIV/AIDS

through a child-to-child curriculum approach (Unpublished Doctorate Dissertation). University of Alberta, Alberta.

Özsoy, S., & Özsoy, G. (2013). Reporting effect size in education research. Elementary Education Online, 12(2), 334-346.

Özyürek, A., Yavuz, N. F., Bedge, Z., Gürleyik, S., Karadayı, N., Akça, F., & Atalay, D. (2016). Assesment of child-to-child

dental health education. Gümüşhane University Journal of Health Sciences, 5(3), 46-59.

Pradhan, U. (2007). The child-to-child approach to community and health development in South Asia. Children, Youth and

Environments, 17(1), 257-268.

Secchi, D., & Bui, H. T. M. (2018). Group effects on individual attitudes toward social responsibility. Journal of Business

Ethic, 149, 725-746.

Serpell, R. (2011). Social responsbility as a dimension of intelligence, and as an educational goal: insights from

programmatic research in an African society. Child Development Perspectives, 5(2), 126-133.

Serpell, R., Mumba, P., & Chansa-Kabali, T. (2011). Early educational foundations for the development of civic

responsbility: An African experience. New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development, 134, 77-93.

Somerset, T. (1988). Case studies. H. Hawes (Ed.) In Child-to-child: another path to learning (pp. 51-74). Unesco Institute

for Education.

Sosik, J. J., Koul, R., & Cameron, J. C. (2017). Gender and contextual differences in social responsibility in Thai schools: a

multi-study person versus situation analysis. Journal of Beliefs & Values, 38(1), 45-62.

Sözer, E. (1998). Sosyal bilgiler kapsamında sosyal bilimlerin yeri ve önemi [The importance and place of social sciences in

the cope of social studies]. G. Can, Ş. Yaşar & E. Sözer (Eds.) In Sosyal bilgiler öğretimi [Social studies education]

(pp. 3-13). Eskişehir: Açıköğretim Fakültesi Publications.

UNICEF (2012). Getting ready for the school: a child-to-child approach, programme evaluation for year one grade one

outcomes. New York: United Nations Children’s Fund.


http://www.savethechildren.org.fj/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/Child-to-Child-apractical-guide.pdf

https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000080862

https://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICDocs/data/ericdocs2sql/content_storage_01/0000019b/80/13/3c/0a.pdf

https://doi.org/10.1002/CHI.872

IOJPE

ISSN: 1300 – 915X

www.iojpe.org



Yaşar, M. (2014). Attitudes toward statistics scale: Validity and reliability study. Pamukkale University Journal of

Education, 36(2), 59-75.

Yıldız, D., & Uzunsakal, E. (2018). A comparison of reliability tests in field researches and an application on agricultural

data. Applied Social Sciences Journal of Istanbul University-Cerrahpasa, 2(1), 14-28.

Yurdugül, H. (September, 2005). Ölçek geliştirme çalışmalarında kapsam geçerliği için kapsam geçerlik indekslerinin

kullanılması [Using content validity indexes for content validity in scale development studies]. XIV. National

Educational Sciences Congress, Pamukkale University, September 28-30, 2005, Denizli, Turkey.


iojpe - dergipark

Documents