intelligent cities and infrastructure: an inquiry into accessibility and usage of icts by the poor...

Global Journal for Information Technology and Computer Science Vol. 1 Issue. 1

June|2012 www.gjitcs.com Page | 1

Intelligent Cities And Infrastructure: An Inquiry Into

Accessibility And Usage Of Icts By The Poor In

Zimbabwean Cities

Innocent Chirisa

Senior Lecturer

Department of Rural & Urban Planning, University of

Zimbabwe, PO Box MP167; Mt Pleasant, Harare,

Zimbabwe

Email: [email protected]

Smart Dumba

Teaching Assistant

Department of Rural & Urban Planning, University

of Zimbabwe, PO Box MP167; Mt Pleasant, Harare,

Zimbabwe

Abstract This paper explores the extent to which the introduction and advancements in information and communication

technologies (ICTs) have benefited the poor in the cities of Zimbabwe. The manifestation of ICTs expansion has

been most visible in the investments by major communication companies, in particular, Econet in providing

mobile services of various forms including telephone, internet and World Wide Web services. But the major

question is how beneficial is it to the poor who constitute the majority of the cities? The major limiting factor is

in nothing but cost of the services which are beyond their rich. Moreover, ICTs require especially the back up of

power infrastructure that it reliable and available. Most of the cities or areas inhabited by the poor are often without reliable electricity. Also, even though the poor so wish to access reliable ICT gargets, it is still

considered among them that having state-of-the-art ICT equipment like handsets, computers and laptops is a

luxury. In this vein, it can be safely concluded that the majority have not benefited from the ICT developments in

the country. It will take a very long time until ICT gadgets are considered a necessity rather than a luxury let

alone to maximise on them for economic growth and for the betterment of the households and small businesses.

Introduction And Background Entrenched in the demand for ICTs (including mobile and landline phones, satellite TVs, computers networks,

electronic commerce (e-commerce), and internet services) is the growth of metropolitan markets where large

global cities are at advanced stages with progressive digitization of money, services, media, information,

education and logics, creating a critical nexus between space and the function of information and technology

(d'Orville, 1999:13 cf. McNamara, 2000). Despite this positive strengthening relationship between the cities and

ICTs, Braga (1998) and Brown (2001) advanced the position that ICTs will widen the gap between the rich and the poor in economic terms. The term information and communication technology (ICT), in this review refers to

a somewhat narrow sense to designate the manner in which „targeted knowledge‟ or information is processed,

transmitted and or diffused in a systematised framework involving the interaction between providers and users

(of information). In sub-Saharan Africa, and in particular, Zimbabwe, ICTs have gained momentum in the past

decade, diffusing from the first world economies where they have already taken pre-eminence. It has been

succinctly asserted that the underlying forces to such spread are embedded in the notion and practice of

globalization manifesting itself in roadway towards the creation of a global village international with closed-

circuit televisions (CCTVs) and suchlike technological systems that some now characterize as “cyborg cities” or

in simpler terms intelligent cities (UN, 2001; cf. Armitage, 1997).

However, in all this maze of effort towards the creation of global and informed cities by this technological

diffusion , a new type of poverty is emerging where some marked disparities in space and society are patent

with quite a big population in developing countries are entrapped in information poverty (d'Orville, 1999;

Davidson, et. al. 2000). Zimbabwe is today faced with an information class struggle as the poorest of the

population are excluded in terms of accessing this all-important service of information while a few have the

preserve to access and use.

In this paper, it is critically observed that although ICTs are making life easier to the affluent groups of most

urban societies, their general accessibility and usage and probably utility value to the urban poor leaves a lot to

be desired. The dominant logic of ICT-based transformation seems to reinforce urban polarisation , that is,

distancing the powerful ( haves) form the less the economically and culturally powerful whilst the voices and

concerns of people already living in dire human poverty- lacking incomes, educational access to public

institutions- are being marginalised. In light of this, Chowdhury (2000) has posed an important question: “Can

ICTs help to alleviate poverty in low-income countries?” the common thread to the question pointed to a



scrutiny that, the information needs of the poor may be met by more informal information systems than formal

ICT-based systems. (Heeks, 1999) asserts that the poor “...can‟t eat high speed Internet access [but] will reap

the fullest benefits of ICTs only when they know and control both the technology and its related know-how”.

O'Farrell and Norrish (1999) share Heek‟s belief that before one can advocate for the development of ICTs

among the poor, one must understand the existing information systems of the poor, especially from the point of

view of how they interact with more formal information. This article reviews the extent to which the poor are

benefitting from the introduction of ICTs in the Zimbabwe. It is generally held by the authors that there is an

increasing digital divide between the poor and the rich although the poor have relatively acquired certain ICT

gadgets including cellular phones, satellite dishes and now can watch movies in the comfort of their homes. Yet

the poor continue to have limited access, at least to the choicest of their needs.

Gumucio-Dagron (2003) argues that "many governments and agencies have remained hard of hearing or

completely deaf to the argument that the “digital divide” is a social divide, an economic divide, a cultural divide

and a political divide…" he is suspicious of ICT‟s helping the economically poor through for example

"participatory approaches" where he sees institutional conflicts and clashes and the 'annual report' syndrome

blurring the true picture of the reality and needs on the ground. Gumucio-Dagron puts black paint to the whole

agenda and say that:"For one success story of ICTs in development, there are fifty failures” and that, 90% of the

contents of the World Wide Web is irrelevant to 90% of the population of the Third World which are largely in

English, in terms of content and having little to do with the interests of the poor in developing countries.

Theoretical Underpinnings For Economic Development And Icts There exists a linear relationship between the level of economic growth and development of a particular country and the use of ICTs (Armitage, 1997). In line with the indices of population and connectivity developed to

measure global cities by the Globalization and World Cities Research Group (GWCR) in 2002, the presence, in

cities, of international companies (especially in the fields of accounting, banking, advertising and insurance, law

and management consultancy), London was established as most connected city (Seabrook, 2007). Thus, the

degree of connectivity correspondingly enhanced the integration of a city into global networks with ICTs

offering the requisite infrastructure and means. Those cities that have a population of more than 3 million but do

not meet the criterion of connectivity according to the GWCR standard measure are referred denoted „non-world

cities‟. By the same judgment, it turns out that the most connected cities in various fields are London, New

York, Hong Kong, Toronto, Singapore, Milan, Amsterdam and Frankfurt and these are enclaves of transnational

elites (ibid.).

Seabrook (2007) has identified certain European cities particularly in France “three speed” cities being

demarcated by three broad zones: zones of relegation, peri-urbanization and gentrification. The zone of

relegation is marked by remoteness in terms of spatial location relative to the main city. It is in this zone where

the poor dwell; ITC connectivity is usually not at the centre of what they value since they are battling with

„stomach politics‟ of basic survival issues. On the other hand, in the gentrification zone, a uni-force in the form

of „return to the city „movement‟ is brewing. In this zone are the upper, middle and professional classes, tending

to the „re-colonizing‟ of the old city centre. The group lives globally while situated in an identifiable local

sphere. ICTs allow these affluent urban groups to extend that access to distant places and resources. The peri-

urban zone becomes that distinct belt of a city which enjoys or lacks in ICTs depending on who occupies that

section of the city: the poor are not bothered by existence of ICTs not because they like it that way but because

they lack the means of getting them; on the contrary, the rich because they have the means will always strive to have what they need where they need it. Thus the whole debate is about a digital divide in the globe and its

human settlements.

According to Adam (2005), in Africa despite progress made in expanding the reach of basic and new ICT

services and applications, the majority of the population still does not have access to telephone, services,

computers and access to the internet. Moreover, there is a wide and uneven disparity along the faulty lines of

social inequality such as sub-economic status, age, gender, geographical location and ethnicity. Some key ICT

facts about Africa as including, but not limited to the fact more than 80 per cent of people have never heard a

dial tone, let alone surfed the Internet; approximately of 739 million people in the continent, only 14 million

phone lines – fewer than in Manhattan or Tokyo; 60 per cent of adults in the United States have Internet access,

while in Africa only one per cent of the population is online (half in South Africa and virtually none in rural

areas); relatively South-east Asia is home to 23 per cent of the world‟s population, but only one per cent of Internet users; about 25 per cent of the total global adult population are literate yet most web content is written;

four fifths of web sites are in English, a language understood by only one in 10 people; while there are only two

telephone lines for every 100 people in Africa, there are 20 radios such that even in rural areas of Africa, most



people have access to a radio; and that the typical Internet user is male, under 35, urban and English speaking,

with a university education and high income.

Such facts and figures give a snapshot to the profundity of the whole matter of ICT use, access and availability.

Overall, the unequal access to and utilization of ICTs has emerged as one of the predominant issues in Africa.

Bilateral and multi-lateral agencies, the UN bodies and foundations have played a key role in advancing the diffusion of ICTs in the region and fostering enabling environments for the participation of the private sector in

the delivery of services. However, despite, optimism about the capacity of the private sector and Foreign Direct

Investment (FDI) in the ICTs, the outcomes of privatization and liberalization have not been that successful in

Africa.

Adam (2005), further notes that a colossal flow of private investment have benefited only a handful countries

such as South Africa, Tunisia, Egypt and Morocco where infrastructure has well developed already.

Furthermore privatization did not lead to automatic increase on the number of users to bring the costs of access

down, while in composition of free market conditions into the inequitable conditions in the region has simply

reinforced the iniquities status quo and in some cases led to transfer from public monopoly to private one.

Although competitive markets represent one of the African populations whose needs were not met by markets,

Africa has the largest segment of the population that is below poverty datum line and with weak purchasing power whose needs should be met by alternative financing mechanisms that extend beyond the borders of the

market.

Sub-Sahara Africa consists of 34 of the 50 least developing countries and fourteen of the 32 landlocked

countries that are confronted with the most daunting economic, social and political challenges. In a survey

conducted by Open Society Initiative for Southern Africa (OSISA) it was observed that South Africa, and lately

Botswana have made remarkable strides towards the achievement of the use of ICTs amongst the poor. The

provision of relevant supportive infrastructure to the development of ICTs such as roads, telecommunication

lines and rural electrification programmes have indeed facilitated the diffusion of technology from urban centres

even to the most isolated areas. The OSISA is currently working in all SADC block member states excluding

South Africa, creating an atmosphere where there is free and equitable flow of a growing digital divide, an outcome of the broader development divide which has its challenges, fighting of poverty, inequality gender

discrimination and environment crises.

Organizers state that the one of source of the digital divide are highly industrialized countries of the West and

North operating in highly technological environments and are able to harness technology to development natural

economies, empower their population and continent and the rest of the developing which are being excluded

from full participation in the information society through international policy and regulating mechanisms, high

costs of investing in technology flow connectivity , high levels of skills development required and attention in

rather given to more pressing issues such as social and economic challenges faced by government and their

populations.

What Is Zimbabwe’s Experience Regarding Icts?

Reflections at a National Scale The World Economic Forum (WEF)‟s Global Information Technology Report (GITR) in 2006 ranked

Zimbabwe lowest among SADC members states in developing ICTs. Zimbabwe came out 105 in the 2005-2006

survey that included 115 economies. WEF used the Networked Readiness Index (NRI), which measures the

degree of preparedness of a nation or community to participate in and benefit from ICT developments. It must

be underlined that Zimbabwe‟s interment users as of March, 2008 was estimated to be at 10, 8% of the total

population (about 13 million) which statistics further reinforces the poverty in ICTs of the country at that time.

Table 1 shows how the patronage of the internet has increased from the year 2000-2008, despite the world

rankings by the (GITR).

Table 1: Internet usage in Zimbabwe over 8 years Year Users Population Percentage (%)

2000 50 000 14 712 000 0,3 %

2002 500 000 13 874 610 3.6%

2005 820 000 12 247 589 6.7%

2008 1 357 000 13 382 920 10.9%

Source: Internet Usage and Market Report, 2008



The number of internet source provides in Zimbabwe has also grown significantly in line with the growth in the

usage. UNDP (2004) notes the relationship between the extraordinary growth of the internet and global urban

population is linear, despite the internet being of the fastest, diffusing medium in history. UNDP characterizes

Zimbabwe as a “global ghetto” encouraging only 2% of the most privileged and powerful individuals of the

population to have access. The degree to which wages earned by the poor and accessibility to ICTs is negative.

Principally major urban centres in the country (Harare and Bulawayo) enjoy the huge access while small and intermediate centres around the country have very little access. Thus ICTs patronage and accessibility are

concentrated in small pockets of the high-income populations in the „privileged centres (cf. Chambers, 1992).

This brings in the concept of Inter- and Intra-Urban Digital Divide which is a phenomenon characterised by

unequal access and usage to ICTs between major centres (see Bwititi (2009)‟s views in Box 1.

Box 1: ICT and Poverty - important points

A local mobile communications operator in Zimbabwe (Econet Wireless) launched the 3G technology in September 2009. The Third Generation, otherwise known as the 3G technology offers new solutions

in communication technology. It cannot be doubted that a new era has dawned in Zimbabwe‟s

Information Communication Technology (ICT) following the launch of this new service. The country

has actually reached a milestone, becoming only the fourth sub-Saharan country to offer the service

after Nigeria, Kenya and South Africa. However, the launch of 3G has sparked some debate as to the

relevance of the new technology to the general population. This was after it was revealed that the

service would come at a cost of US$25 per month to Econet subscribers. Genuine fears have come to

shore in that the service will remain elitist because of the high cost involved, considering the average

salaries being earned by Zimbabweans. Very few people will be willing to sacrifice US$25 to access

the new technology, which might turn out to be of no use to them. One army officer had this to say: “I

don‟t believe it‟s necessary to my life because I earn $150 a month. As a loyal civil servant it is difficult to supplement my income through any other means. What will my children eat if I hook up

with 3G and sacrifice US$25 per month?” These sentiments could actually reflect those of other civil

servants to whom linking up with 3G might be a pipe dream.

Econet thinks there is nothing out of the ordinary with their charges and believes that the 3G service

has the capacity to offer benefits to the ordinary person, including the majority who live in the rural

areas. One of the managers commented that: “The opportunities are exciting....Imagine a cattle rancher

in Matabeleland e-mailing essential details to the Matopos Research Station. Farmers will be able to

check commodity prices on their mobile phones. A doctor in a remote clinic will also be able to e-mail a patient‟s full details to a referral hospital.” But the challenge for Econet Wireless is that the

company‟s network system is almost non-existent in remote areas. Generally, Zimbabwe‟s network

capacity in the mobile telecommunications sector is lagging behind in comparison to other African

countries. According to statistics, Zimbabwe is ranked a dismal 132 out of 134 countries on the

Network Readiness Index (NRI). This means that Zimbabwe ranks below all Sadc countries, except

the Democratic Republic of Congo, in terms of its capacity to manoeuvre opportunities offered in the

ICT‟s sector. According to the NRI statistics, Zimbabwe recorded 6,5 mobile lines per 100 inhabitants

and 2,5 fixed lines per 100 inhabitants. Although these statistics may not be perfect, the pitfalls of the

local telecommunications sector are undeniable. This irrefutably means that it remains a big challenge

for 3G to reach out to the majority of Zimbabweans, especially considering the lapses that are already

at hand in the present 2G set up. The Ministry of Information Communication Technology envisages that the introduction of 3G will spur development in the sector. The hope is that Zimbabwe will be

able, through 3G, to benefit from the FIFA 2010 World Cup to be held in South Africa. Also, the

tourism sector will experience growth not only during the games, but even after the World Cup is

over. According to the Minister, Honourable Nelson Chamisa, at times, the means of communication

far exceeds the need for the means of production because everything begins with communication and

that the 3G revolution would contribute excessively to the growth of the economy as research has

proven that 10 percent increase in broadband translated to a 1,3 percent growth in the economy. But

the spread of Internet access will lead to the mushrooming of vices that are common on the Internet

such as pornography and fraud. The issue of security therefore becomes paramount in order to curb

these vices. The three African countries that have rolled out 3G services have met with varying levels

of success. It is estimated that only 10 percent of the population will be able to access the 3G service

by 2010 in South Africa. This shows that Econet has a lot to do to popularise the new service considering that Zimbabwe is already lagging in terms of communications advancement. But the

introduction of 3G is indeed a step in the right direction in terms of communication technology.

Source: Bwititi (2009)



Intra-Urban Digital Divide in Major Cities (Harare and Bulawayo) Harare, the capital city of Zimbabwe has a population of 2, 8 million, with 1, 6 million totals in the metropolitan

area, (CSO, 2007). Most of the affluent groups stay in the upmarket, low density suburbs of Borrowdale, Grange

, Mandara, Mount Pleasant to mention but a few. These areas are relatively far away from the city centre

however because of these effluents‟ ability to access and use ICTs they are better able to extend their access to

distant places and resources. Increasingly such groups use ICTs to guard against real and perceived urban

nuisances and dangers including crime. It must be observed that in Harare, ICTs have made it possible a

selective dissociation of affluent groups from the poor who live in low-income areas like Mbare, Highfield,

Mabvuku-Tafara, Kuwadzana, Kambuzuma and the like. The central business district is however a macro-scale

rendezvous for the poor and the rich, yet the rich tend to prefer suburban shopping and recreation.

The uneven growth and diffusion of ICTs and „cyberspaces‟ has important implications in the structuring of real

urban space for example the prevalence of walls , security fences, neighbourhood watch patrols in the high-income areas. In contrast, low-income suburbs areas are characterized by low and under-employment with little

access to health services, sanitation facilities and increased power cuts and black outs. Bulawayo is the second

largest city of Zimbabwe with an estimated population of 1, 7 million, nearly half that of Harare (CSO, 2007).

Of all the initiates to provide public, free or low cost access to ICTs in urban areas only a few have done so

through the public library system. According to a 2004 survey of ICT use in African public libraries offered

their patrons internet access. Bulawayo Public Library and the National Force Library of Zimbabwe both

located in Bulawayo. The city library also highlights the need to have access to the poor access and usage to

ICTs. Overall major cities in the country are becoming more separated between populations „on-line‟ and „off-

line‟ in complex tapestries of inclusion and exclusion. The dominant logic of ICTs the Harare case is creating a

polarization between the rich and poor groups.

Government ICT initiatives and strides The major players in terms of ICT delivery include private companies including Telecel, Econet, NetOne and

the regulator, the Postal and Telecommunications Regulatory Authority of Zimbabwe (POTRAZ). At the

distributor level are individuals and corporate organisations including small retailers in the street selling cellular

lines also supermarkets and shops selling the same, cyber-shops like Quick „n Easy offering internet services, as

well as schools, colleges and university giving this service to staff and students. In the low income areas,

beginning in 2009, the majority have now managed to own of cell phones, something which might be attributed to the reduction in the cost of SIM Cards. In the previous years, cellular lines were quite expensive almost in the

range of US$40 to $50 but with the host of the population earning sometimes a real salary of about US$3-10.

The market was very stringent allowing only certain few individuals and corporate organization to access the

lines through wholesale and then reselling these to the majority of the population. In this context, corruption,

patronage and exclusion of the poor were quite entrenched in the whole economy.

Thanks to the establishment of a new ministry in the government, that responsible for information and

technology whose moves have seen the increased use of technology. The scrapping of duty for ICT gadgets,

setting up of websites in government departments, among other things, have been the chief obsessions of the

new ministry. Accessibility and usage of computers and other ICTs gadgets though still limited to workplaces

and centres of learning (schools and universities and colleges) are breaking up giving room to usage and accessibility at home. Evidence shows that the government of Zimbabwe is committed to the accessibility and

usage of ICTs to the urban poor as shown by the National ICT strategy and Policy Workshop, held on 21

October 2004 and other developments of 2009 (see Box 2). The main focus of the workshop was to know on

how the National ICT policy should reflect the main issues affecting women and their access to ICTs in their

committee. Furthermore, they discussed issues of connectivity and technology infrastructure which are crucial in

support ICTs and its applications, social and cultural environment including human and financial human

capabilities to use the technology. In this respect, the Zimbabwean government, through the Ministry of Science

and Technology in conjunction with the Ministry of Finance scrapped import duties on accessories such as

computers and cell phones were announced duty free in the Budget Review Statement of July 2009 (cf.

Davidson et. al. 2000).

Box 2: Government’s Commitment to improving ICTs in the Country (Zimbabwe)

FOR the first time in more than 10 years, the Postal and Telecommunications Regulatory Authority

of Zimbabwe (POTRAZ) has availed US$5 million from a pool of operators‟ contributions to be

used for expansion programme. Operators have not been getting money from their contribution

since the creation of the Universal Services Fund (USF) in 1998. Under the fund operators

contribute two percent of their gross revenue and the money is supposed to be channelled towards



expansion in underdeveloped areas. To date some operators have already received approval on their

plans for expansion from the Ministry of Information Communication Technologies.

Delays in accessing the money were mainly due to absence of an implementation plan which could not be done before under-serviced areas were defined by the Minister in terms of the Act. POTRAZ

consulted with operators as from May 2009 in identifying under-serviced areas and managed to get

the required ministerial approval in early November 2009, declaring the identified areas as under-

serviced. As required by the law the money had to be disbursed in accordance with an

implementation plan drawn up by the POTRAZ in consultation with licensed operators. ICT

Minister Nelson Chamisa said: “USF projects are mainly targeted at under-serviced, unviable,

remote and rural areas of the country. The funds will target areas under-served or unserved “because

it was either commercially unviable or too remote. We want to make sure that we connect the

unconnected. ICTs constitute the last remaining bridge for the poor”. The Finance Minister Tendai

Biti said ICTs had the potential to transform the way government operates and provides impetus for

economic growth and development. He said such a transformation would be possible if government

provided enabling policies that allow for investments in appropriate ICT infrastructure. Biti allocated US$5 million through the Vote of Credit aimed at establishing a fibre optic link between

Harare and Mutare and Harare to Beitbridge. The POTRAZ “windfall” came at a time operators are

on massive expansion programmes to boost their subscriber bases. In such programmes, expansion

is targeted at areas hitherto ignored in the past 10 years due to the country‟s economic conditions.

Econet, the country‟s largest mobile operator said that it expects the subscriber base to hit three

million mark by the end of the year and its network has a capacity of four million subscribers,

improving the country‟s penetration rate as well as the quality of service. ICTs unlock other

economic opportunities.

Source: Sandu (2009)

Have the Poor Benefitted from ICTs’ development in urban Zimbabwe? Answering the above question is not an easy task. Looking at the simple affordability of cellular lines, handsets,

modems and suchlike gargets it can be said that if the trend persists many will have benefited at least in the next

five years. In this aspect, the whole issue of benefaction by the poor is reduced to an anticipatory hype. The

question is does making gadgets affordable by the generality of the population really transform to real benefit

when in effect there are still bread and butter issues to address at household level? In this respect, very few have

not been reached by such services as the internet as the charges remain too high for the generality of the working class who by end of year 2009 were earning some US$150 on average, a figure believed to be nine

times lower that what workers were getting in 1982 in the same country. Indeed, the majority of the population

can pride themselves by possessing the gadgets (hardware) but fail to raise the credit whose minimum price is

US$1. So many of the population use their phones as receivers and „only juice them up to continue the

creditworthiness with the service providers; otherwise the service is cut‟. This is tantamount to living on the

brink of poverty.

But, the issue of benefaction can also be examined from a corporate social responsibility where Econet as a

service provider, for instance, has a Christian-based vision and mission hence a broad strategy for social and

community development called "Econet in the Community" through which the company supports diverse range

of charitable causes, which include children orphaned by AIDS/HIV, religious and church organizations, as well as an annual scholarship program that provides financial assistance to the brightest students selected from

schools in the country's 10 provinces under the Joshua Nkomo Scholarship Fund (JNSF). This evidence shows

that the private actors in the information industry can also have some social responsibility to society in defined

value capture system hence plough back to society and help in bridging the gap between the rich and the poor.

Yet it may also be asked as too how many manage to get to colleges and universities to get this benefit. It

remains critical to note that only a very insignificant fraction of the whole student body really benefit from

corporate social responsibility of ICT providers.

There is also a question of power with most of these ICTs depending on the availability of electricity. Smaller

cities often go for hours or days on end in „darkness‟ given power cuts and load shedding schemes adopted by

the government given its monopoly through its state-owned company called the Zimbabwe Electricity Supply

Authority (ZESA). The majority of low-income earners are in no position to have fuel powered generators or solar converters let alone maintain them. They are also cannot afford having some laptops which can maintain

some power for hours after a power cut. This makes ICT acquisition and beneficiation a nominal reality for

many. Thus affordability, targeting and infrastructure support and energy remain at the epicentre of the whole



ICT-poverty debate in the urban centres of the country, let alone the rural centres. There is an equally important

issue which pertains to attitude and perceptions. The majority of the poor have not come to the understanding

that information and communication are not liabilities to them but assets for life. With a positive understanding

for this, they might appreciate government policy regarding ICT, why for example it is investing its resources

into incentivising the sector by, for example, removing import duty for ICT gadgets.

Concluding Remarks This paper has shown that the introduction and advancements in information and communication technologies (ICTs) have not benefited the generality of the poor in the cities (as well as the rural counterparts) of Zimbabwe.

Although major communication companies and in particular, Econet have made strides in having a network

coverage and new technologies, the relevance of such new technology to the general population remains

questionable as issues of exorbitance, elitism and increasing class divide have surfaced. The new Ministry of

Information Communication Technology has been striving to iron out these challenges but still unless the issues

of tariffs, income, addressed the challenge will remain outstanding. ICTs require especially the back up of

power infrastructure that is reliable and available. Most of the cities or areas inhabited by the poor are often

without reliable electricity. Also, much as the poor may so wish to access reliable ICT gargets, it is still

considered among them that having state-of-the-art ICT equipment like handsets, computers and laptops is a

luxury. In this vein, it can be safely concluded that the majority have not benefited from the ICT developments

in the country. It will take a very long time until ICT gadgets are considered a necessity rather than a luxury let

alone to maximise on them for economic growth and for the betterment of the households and small businesses. A scornful observation by Schon et al. (1999) indicates that the poor, even if provided with access to IT are

unlikely to transform themselves from consumers to producers of knowledge.

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