European Journal of Personality, Vol. I , 45-58 (1987)

Endogenous opioid functions and personality

ZSUZSANNA KULCSAR, EDE FRECSKA and IZABELLA VARGA Department of Personality and Clinical Psychology, Institute of Psychology, Lorand Eotvos University, Budapest, Hungary

Abstract

According to our proposal the endogenous opioid functions, activated mainly by social interactions in early childhood and by stress later in life, serve multiple roles both in early ontogenesis and in adulthood. First, they might insure social cohesion. Second, they can mediate a special kind of homeostatic regulation, and third, they seem to determine characteristic cognitive functions: primary process thinking, primitive forms of defense mechanisms and basic conceptual structures guiding prosocial behavior. W e propose that an alternation of two biological states, one with and one without the involvement of the endogenous opioid mechanisms, character- izes the normal course of life. These two states are supposed to represent different forms of homeostatic regulation and different kinds of cognition. Physical and psychological health seems to be dependent on the relative part each takes in the life of an individual. On the basis of some considerations discussed in this paper the endogenous opioid functions seem to be relevant factors of human cognition. The conceptual scheme of psychoanalysis, worked out on the basis of empirical data, could be L e d to describe the cognitive characteristics which, in our proposal, were suggested to ensue on the endogenous opioid activity.

INTRODUCTION

Research into the endogenous opioid peptides (EOPs) in the last few years has provided findings and theoretical assumptions which seem to be pertinent to the psychology of personality. In this paper a conceptual scheme along with an interpretation of the relevant findings will be presented.

Requests for reprints should be addressed to Zsuzsanna Kulcsfir, Department of Personality and Clinical Psychology, Institute of Psychology, Lorfind Eotvos University, Izabella U . 46, 1064 Budapest, Hungary.

0890-2070/87/010045-58$07.00 01987 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Received 6 November I986 Accepted 6 December 1986

46 Z . Kulcscir er al.

The well-known finding of autoanalgesic, or pain-stress-induced analgesic effects, and a paradoxical state, pain-induced euphoria, served as a starting point for this scheme on the basis of which a proposal concerning stress-seeking as a personality trait evolved. An empirical test of this proposal, a placebo study followed. Then a curious aspect of pain and stress-induced euphoria, namely its social connotation, led us to the notion of the social activation of the endogenous opioid systems as discovered and investigated by Panksepp and co-workers (e.g. Panksepp, Herman, Vilberg, Bishop and DeEskenazi, 1980; Panksepp, Siviy and Normansell, 1985).

From this approach a theory concerning the role of the opiates in personality development followed. With this theory, findings on the biological consequences of social deprivation in early childhood could be tentatively interpreted and a picture of two consecutive levels of homeostatic regulation emerged. With this conception of biological regulation we could then turn back to the question of stress-induced euphoria, and work out a hypothesis concerning the developmental biological background of stress seeking as a trait.

In the following analysis results from animal research have been applied directly to human personality functioning and development. The difficulties with human experimentation and the obvious relevance of the animal findings are the reason for this approach.

ENDOGENOUS OPIOIDS AND LEARNED HELPLESSNESS. STRESS INDUCED EUPHORIA

As is well known, at the very beginning of opiate research it was found that an increase of pain threshold follows several kinds of pain and stress with a broad species generality. Painful electric shocks, forced cold water swims, glucoprivation, immobilization and restraint all proved to be capable of activating the endogenous analgesic mechanisms (Watkins and Mayer, 1982) either opioid or non-opioid in nature. *

The interpretation of ‘learned helplessness’ as an opiate-dependent state was the first attempt to connect endogenous opioid functions to complex psychological phenomena. Maier and co-workers (Maier and Coon, 1979; Maier, Davies, Grau, Jackson, Morrison and Moye, 1980; Maier, Drugan and Grau, 1982) were the first to emphasize ‘controllability’ as a main factor in the opioid-inducing effect of pain. They found that ‘long-term decrease in pain responsiveness occurred only if the initial shocks were inescapable’ (Maier er al., 1980, p. 1173), and suggested that ‘perhaps’ the opioid ‘systems are activated when the organism learns that it has no control over aversive events to which it is being exposed’ (p. 1181).

Rodgers and Hendrie (1984) hypothesize, in a similar vein, that controllability over the source of aversive stimulation is a crucial factor of the opiate effect. According to them, ‘in situations in which control over attack is minimal and escape thwarted, animals are rendered less responsive to painful stimulation through the activation of endogenous opioid analgesia mechanisms’ (pp. 38-39). If the worst come to the worst, they state, this same mechanism might insure a less painful demise. *In this paper non-opioid autoanalgesic effects will not be discussed.

EOP-s and personality 47

It should be noted that non-controllability is a typical condition in early childhood.

According to the learned helplessness paradigm, passive endurance of pain is the most effective strategy for activating the endogenous opioid systems.

A special kind of human experience is supposed to have the same biological roots. Prince (1982) recognized this analogy. He wrote: ‘Under some circumstances of life stress . . . the threatened individual may suddenly experience a profound sense of tranquillity . . . a flip-over from terror to euphoria . . .’ (p. 418). Prince designates ‘this response to stress . . . as the “omnipotence maneuver”’ (p. 418), mainly because of the cognitive concommitances of the state, which we shall discuss below. He suggests that the ‘omnipotence maneuver’ might emerge ‘when a critical level of endogenous euphoriant substances’, namely endogenous opiates, ‘are generated’ (p. 420). Prince points out that the maneuver is widely used in psychotherapeutic systems, evangelical preaching and in cult initiations (pp. 419- 420). Confrontational psychotherapies are known to expect patients to evoke all their pains and suffering from the past. In the rather cruel ‘Primal Scream’ therapy of Arthur Janov (1970), for example, patients are not only instructed to re-evoke all their suffering and sorrow without resistance and defense, but they are expected to scream out their feelings as strongly as they can. The healing power of this strategy - as Janov asserts - is almost unbelievable. Reports of miraculous cures of even strictly somatic complaints might, however, be interpreted in biological terms if we take into account the finding that the opiates increase immunocompe- tence by facilitating natural killer cell activity in the body (Mathews, Froelich, Sibbitt and Bankhurst, 1983).

Let us cite one more example of the therapeutic effect arising from an all- accepting attitude. One of C. G. Jung’s patients wrote: ‘Out of evil, much good came to me. By keeping quiet, repressing nothing, remaining attentive, and by accepting reality - taking things as they are, and not as I wanted them to be - by doing all this, unusual knowledge has come to me, and unusual powers as well, such as I could never have imagined before. I always thought that when we accepted things they overpowered us in some way or another. This turned out not to be true at all, and it is only by accepting them that one can assume an attitude towards them.’ (Jung, 1962, pp. 126-127).

In an other paper, striking evidence of the protecting effect of a most painful confrontation was presented. Rees and Lutkins (1967) reported the incredible fact that while the death of a close family member significantly increased the mortality of hisher relatives within a 1-year period, those who lost their relatives in their own homes were half as vulnerable compared to those whose relative died in a hospital or in another country.

ENDOGENOUS OPIOIDS AND PHYSICAL EXERCISE

In addition to passive acceptance of pain and suffering, analgesia, calmness or even euphoria may also result from stressful, strenous physical exercise. A common experience of athletes is that after about 20 min of training a state of painful fatigue suddenly disappears and gives place to a ‘second wind’ which is, in the case of long distance runners, called ‘runner’s high’. In recent research it has been confirmed

48 Z. Kulcsdr et al.

that the endorphin level increases significantly during long distance running (Appenzeller, Standefer, Appenzeller and Atkinson, 1980; Fraioli, Moretti, Poolucci, Alicicco, Cresenzi and Fortunio, 1980). Prince (1982) and Henry (1982a) suppose that tribal rituals result in euphoria also owing to opiate release. Prince, for example, suggests that muscular activity and trembling might act ‘as a kind of endorphin pump’ (Prince, 1982, pp. 414).

STRESS SEEKING AS A TRAIT

Although in extreme life situations, in physical and psychic pain, under physical, emotional or perhaps intellectual strain special states of increased opiate activity might invariably occur, it seems to be reasonable to suggest that people differ in their proneness to enter into such states. In other words, a consistent trait might be suggested. A readiness for confrontation with potentially painful experiences or even stress seeking behaviour, opposed to an experience avoiding attitude, would thus be considered a personality dimension, and as a biological basis of this dimension high versus low capacity for a phasic activation of the endogenous opioid systems might be suggested.

A restricted range of experience, resulting from defensive mechanisms, is supposed to be a defining characteristic of neurosis (Angyal, 1965). Confrontation, therefore, as a behavioural and cognitive trait, might be considered an ‘anti- neurotic’ strategy. We shall return to this point later. For practical reasons, let us call our tentative personality dimension a factor of ‘confrontation - defense’. At the ‘confrontation’ end of this dimension an increased, while at the ‘defense’ end a decreased, arousability of the endogenous opioid systems is postulated.

Readiness for confrontation is supposed to mean either physical, emotional or intellectual, stress-seeking constituting, however, a general factor. Intellectual ‘confrontation’ seems to be a highly relevant subfactor, especially for creativity research. The Freudian concept of ‘sublimation’ from this perspective, would represent an intellectual adventure in which gratification, in the course of an artistic or scientific production, can be reached through painful effort. There is no empirical evidence, however, for this view to be discussed in the present paper.

Unfortunately, no psychometric device is available that would measure the readiness to enter into various kinds of stressful situations. However, Zuckerman’s Sensation Seeking Scale (SSS; Zuckerman, 1979) addresses a somewhat similar issue, the Thrill and Adventure Seeking (TAS) subscale in particular. This subscale is meant to measure directly the proneness to physical risk taking.

SENSATION SEEKING AND PLACEBO RESPONSIVITY

As a first attempt at testing our hypothesis concerning stress seeking and opioid activity we made a preliminary study (KulcsAr, Frecska, Simon and Szab6, 1985) using sensation seeking scores as an independent and placebo reactivity as a dependent variable. The main argument for choosing placebo reactivity was that placebo analgesia had been proved to be mediated by opioid analgesic mechanisms. Namely, it was shown in several experiments that in consistent placebo-responders

EOP-s and personality 49

the opiate antagonist naloxone 'diminished the analgesic effect of placebo' (Grevert, Albert and Goldstein, 1985, p. 129).

On the basis of the above considerations we supposed an increased placebo responsibity as a function of sensation seeking, especially thrill and adventure seeking scores.

We worked with 57 tonsillectomy patients (41 females and 16 males) between the ages 16 and 45. SSS was administered the day before surgery. Post-surgical pain was evaluated by the patients on a visual analog scale once every 10 min for 2 h starting from the first occurrence of pain after the effect of the local anaesthesia wore off. Placebo (5 ml saline solution i.m.) was given in a single blind fashion at a point when the subject first requested an analgesic. On a subsequent request, any time after the first, active medication was provided. Three groups of subjects with distinct 'pain reaction types' were identified: (a) placebo responders (criterion: a minimum of 10 mm pain score reduction within 20 min of placebo administration), (b) nonresponders, and (c) no-medication. This latter group consisted of subjects who did not require analgesic during the time of observation. Groups of subjects with high and low TAS and Dis (disinhibition) scores were formed by median split and the distribution of the four personality groups among the three pain reaction types was determined. Additionally, mean personality scores in the three pain reaction type groups were compared by one-way analyses of variance. According to our results (see Figure 1) high TAS (HT) scorers were over-represented in the responder and no-medication groups and low TAS (LT) scorers constituted the majority of the nonresponders = 11.4; p < 0.01). Moreover, TAS and SSS total scores differed significantly in the three pain reaction groups (p < 0.01 and

Responders (R) Nonresponders (NR)

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Figure 1. Distribution of the personality

HTHD = High TAS, High Dis

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groups in the three pain reaction types

50 Z . Kulcsar et al.

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p < 0.05 resp.; Figure 2). Placebo responders and no-medication subjects gave higher scores as compared to the nonresponders. The similarity, in terms of personality scores, of placebo responder and no-medication groups was substantial. The only difference between them was that subjects in the latter group indicated significantly less pain during the observations (see Figure 3). As an interpretation we might suggest that in the case of subjects who did not require medication, the endogenous analgesic system (more probably but not surely opioid in nature) can be even more easily activated than those of placebo responders, who need a conditioned stimulus (placebo) to have their auto-analgesic system work.

n .... ....

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p < .01 pain reaction types

Figure 3. Peak pain mean scores in the three reaction types

EOP-s and personality 51

To sum up: our results were in line with the expectations. Sensation seeking proved to be a rather good predictor of endogenous analgesic effects, at least in a state of post-operative pain.

It is interesting to note that the personality characteristics suggested in our analysis to describe the placebo responders vs nonresponders or, in terms of our proposed personality dimension, ‘confronters’ and ‘defenders’, quite closely match the description given by Lasagna and his co-workers (Lasagna, Mosteller, von Felsinger and Beecher, 1954) concerning these two groups of subjects. Namely, they described high placebo responders as being sociable with greater instinctual needs and emotionality and less defensiveness, while nonresponders were described as being ‘rigid’, which may ‘well be an expression of their defense mechanisms in a stressful situation’ (Lasagna, et a f . , 1954, p. 775). The parallel is all the more noteworthy because in 1954 endogenous analgesic mechanisms had not been discovered and no predictions could be made concerning the behavioural correlates of their action.

SOCIAL CONNOTATIONS OF PAIN INDUCED EUPHORIA

Let us now turn back to a particular feature of the human experience described in the circumstances of severe life threat. In this situation or, to cite Prince, ‘. . . in the darkest depth of misery and depression’ (Prince, 1982, p. 419) a sudden euphoric state might occur, as we saw, generated most probably by the opiates. The cognitive content of this mysterious experience deserves a special attention. According to Noyes (1972), who investigated 215 cases of near death experiences, people in this extreme situation feel, in most cases, ‘a sense of the presence of a protective other’ (Prince, 1982, p. 418), a dissolution of loneliness, they feel accepted. These experiences, as mentioned before, might take a religious form. But in nearly every case a social connotation is present.

The question arises, as to how identity or affiliation, i.e. social connotations are connected to the pain-induced euphoria. What might be the reason for the association between social motivation and the phasic activation of the opioid system?

ENDOGENOUS OPIOIDS AND ATTACHMENT

The answer to this question might be found in the highly relevant research of Panksepp and his co-workers (Panksepp, 1986; Panksepp et al., 1980, 1985), who presented both direct and indirect evidence showing that the brain opioid systems, at least in the early ontogenesis, are activated by social stimulation.

The main evidence of social motivation is - as Panksepp states - distress following separation and comfort after reunion.

Both of these aspects of the social motive were proved to be modulated by the endogenous opioid systems. It was found that distress vocalization (DV), i.e. crying, the most obvious behavioural reaction to separation in all mammals and birds, can be inhibited by low doses of morphine and accentuated by the antiopiate naloxone. Opiate agonists and antagonists were proved to exert the most

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prominent effect on separation distress, as compared to a wide range of other substances ‘including a variety of agonists and antagonists for cholinergic, noradrenergic, dopaminergic and serotonergic receptor systems as well as such major psychopharmaceuticals as benzodiazepines, sedatives, antipsychotics, and antidepressants’ (Panksepp et al., 1985, p. 17).

An abundance of further evidence shows that the opiates are involved in social behaviour .

Investigating the autoradiographic map of [3H]diprenorphine binding in the rat brain, Panksepp and Bishop (1981) found a global brain opioid activation in the presence of social stimuli, namely in the normal course of play (Panksepp et al., 1985, p. 17).

The finding that, after a few days of Social isolation, hyperalgesia and reduced morphine sensitivity occur in the rat also indicates that social stimulation has a facilitatory effect on the endogenous opioid system. Alexander, Combs and Hadaway (1978), moreover, reported that social isolation increases voluntary opiate consumption.

Summarizing the results, Panksepp arrived at the conclusion that social interaction is reinforced by an endogenous opiate reward. The reduction of gregariousness after low doses of opiates is also in line with the hypothesis. On the other hand, there are interesting data showing that the opiate antagonist naloxone disrupts ‘contact comfort’. It was found, for example, that young puppies after naloxone treatment were eager to interact with humans ‘but do not settle down for sustained periods of petting’ (Panksepp et al., 1980, p. 479). In the case of chicks ‘a simple following response to humans was not attenuated by naloxone’, however, social proximity could not prevent distress vocalization after this treatment (Panksepp et al., 1985). Let us cite another, final example. ‘A simple measure of contact comfort is a tendency of young chickens to rapidly fall asleep in the cupped hands of a human’ (Panksepp et al., 1980, p. 479). After naloxone treatment the sleep latency significantly increased in this situation.

On the basis of these results, we propose that social connotations become conditioned to the activation of the endogenous opioid systems in the early ontogenesis, so that later in life whenever the systems are activated by stress and pain, social connotations will arise together with the paradoxically occurring euphoric states.

ENDOGENOUS OPIOIDS AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT

Social activation of the endogenous opiate systems in early childhood, however, should have another, more basic consequence. An idealized image of the omnipotent mother might be formed on the basis of this special constellation. The image of an omnipotent or ‘good’ mother is one of the main assumptions of the psychoanalytically-oriented theories of personality development, and it is con- sidered to be an important factor of socialization and cognitive development (Kernberg, 1981; Klein, 1962).

We cannot but agree with this assumption. It is tempting to suggest, moreover, that either a decreased responsivity of the endogenous opiate systems to social stimuli or an insufficient maternal care might result in a deficient socialization, with a dis-

EOP-s and personality 53

ordered internationalization of parental figures. In a recent paper, we suggested that psychopathy might be a consequence of both of these deficiencies (KulcsBr, 1986). In our hypothesis ‘unresponsiveness in general social relation’ as a defining characteristic of psychopathy (Cleckley, 1976) was interpreted as resulting from a decreased opioid reactivity in social interactions. A tonic overactivity of the opioid mechanisms was proposed as a basis of this deficiency, taking into account, in the first place, the low stress-reactivity of psychopaths. Some aspects of other psychopathological syndromes, ‘borderline’ for example, might also be interpreted as resulting from disordered opioid regulation. The most outstanding cognitive characteristic of the borderline cases is ‘splitting’. Splitting means organizing experience mostly in terms of either positive or negative emotional tone, thus living in a ‘black and white’ world. A deficient reality testing in these cases is characteristic and this might result from a regression to a lower level of biological regulation. In early ontogenesis, positive emotional tone might be connected to the experience when the mother is present, whereas negative emotional tone may be associated with the absence of the mother, due to a state of high vs low opioid activity, respectively.

In order to be more explicit in this topic, however, we have to turn to the general problem of the biological function of the opiates, and of biological regulation.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF BIOLOGICAL REGULATION

In his most recent theoretical analysis Panksepp (1986) suggests that ‘the global function of opioid system is to counteract stress’ (p. 9 9 , where stress is defined as ‘any major perturbation of physiological homeostasis’ (p. 95). As we learnt from the work of Hofer and his group (Hofer, 1981, 1984) and from the research of Campbell and his co-workers (Mabry and Campbell, 1978; Randall and Campbell, 1980) early infancy is characterized by a lack of autonomous homeostatic functions. Hofer reported convincing evidence from social deprivation studies showing that the functions of cardiovascular, gastrointestinal and hormonal systems in early infancy is highly dependent on maternal presence. Behavioural arousal was also proved to be socially regulated. It is reasonable to suggest that this maternal regulatory function is mediated, at least in part, by the opioid mechanisms. TWO examples of this possible opiate regulation might be mentioned.

The first is connected to growth hormone regulation. Hofer (1981) reported a decreased growth hormone secretion after maternal deprivation in young rats. Growth hormone is known to be under opioid control (Shaar, Frederickson, Diniger and Jackson, 1977; Spiegel, Kourides and Pasternak, 1982). The deficient growth hormone secretion after social isolation might thus be a consequence of a lack of social activation of the infant’s opiate systems. The other example is somewhat more complex. It is known that the cholinergic and serotonergic systems of the rat brain become fully functional rather late, at about the time of weaning (Mabry and Campbell, 1978). These neurotransmitter systems are involved in the inhibitory control of behaviour. Lack of this control in the early ontogenesis, together with a high working capacity of the catecholamine systems in the early life, might explain the finding of Randall and Campbell (1980) according to which

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behavioural activity reaches an extremely high level before weaning in rats if tested in social isolation. However, this hyperactivity does not appear in the nest, even if the catecholamine systems are pharmacologically stimulated. The possibility that in the vicinity of the mother the socially-induced opiates exert a control over behaviour, is quite obvious.

A simple general pattern of the development of regulatory functions seems to emerge from the above. Namely, two forms and two levels of homeostatic regulation might be visualized. At the first, a crucial role of socially-induced regulatory effects seems to be characteristic, while at the second, a more autonomous homeostatic regulation is reached. Hofer (1984) pointed out, however, that social regulation of biological functions, even of biological rhythms, is present in adulthood as well, and the idea of ‘relationships as regulators’ offers a biological explanation, e.g. for the syndrome of bereavement. It might be suggested that psychopathological symptoms, for example splitting as a cognitive characteristic of borderline patients, reflect a more intensive participation of primary regulatory effects and thus the opioid mechanisms in homeostatic regulation. Psychosomatic diseases, characterized by disturbed homeostatic regula- tion at the biological, and by strong dependency’at the psychological level might also represent states of primary, or socially-induced regulation.

In this approach, moreover, stress and pain, resulting in a perturbation of homeostasis, as Panksepp points out, might be considered as regressive states, but in this case the stress-induced opioid regulation is self-controlled, instead of being socially mediated.

We wonder if stress seeking or risk taking as a trait occurs in the background of a perturbed homeostatic regulation and serves as a self-healing device. Our ‘confronters’, perhaps, are auto-addicts dependent on their own opioid functions. This hypothesis seems to be supported by those findings according to which the biological correlates of sensation seeking are factors of psychiatric vulnerabilty (Haier, Buchsbaum, Murphy, Gottesman and Coursey, 1980).

CONCLUSIONS - COGNITIVE CHARACTERISTICS RELATED TO OPIOID FUNCTIONS

On the basis of the results and theoretical considerations concerning social activation of the endogenous opioid functions - especially in early childhood - the possible role of the EOPs in personality development and in adult personality have been delineated. The EOPs were proposed to serve as mediators in the homeostatic regulation characterizing early infancy, namely in the form of regulation attained via social interaction. A second, more autonomous kind of homeostatic regulation with less or no involvement of the EOP systems was also proposed with dependency and autonomy as the most direct psychological/ motivational aspects of the two consecutive developmental stages.

In addition to the motivational aspects, the developmental stages might also be characterized by special kinds of cognitive functions determined by the given biological background. In the first regulatory stage, characterized by the mother- infant union, the psychological differentiation of the ego has not been attained. In this transitional stage of the ego development, primitive projection as a cognitive

EOP-s and personality 55

mechanism should invariably occur. Depending on the presence or absence of the mother, i.e. on the presence or

absence of socially induced EOP activity, cognitive structuring along positive or negative emotional tone, as suggested by Klein, Kernberg, and other psycho- analysts, seems to be compelling in the early stage of development , while the stage of a more autonomous homeostatic regulation might favour a more efficient reality testing.

The image of an ‘omnipotent’, ‘good’ mother should thus be introjected as a result of the positive emotional state induced by the presence of the mother due to opiate activation.

Defensive mechanisms, like splitting, primitive idealization, early forms of projection, omnipotence and devaluation (Kernberg, 1981), characterizing border- line personality disorders and psychotic regression, might derive from the primary stage of homeostatic regulation but normal personality development might also make use of the cognitive consequences of this stage; the introjected image of an idealized, omnipotent mother might act as a central cognitive structure, establish- ing confidence and prosocial behaviours, i.e. serving as a basis for socialization.

Primary-and secondary process thinking (Freud, 1953) seems also to fit in with the notion of socially dependent and more autonomous biological regulation although the relation between primary process thinking and primitive defense mechanisms has not been worked out.

Turning now to the role of EOPs might play in adult personality functions the possible involvement of the opiates in social interactions should be mentioned first. In addition to this, stress seeking as a trait was also supposed to depend on opioid functions. According to our conceptual scheme stress-induced opioid activity might reinstate the early form of homeostatic regulation, i.e. it might result in a shift from the autonomous to the primary regulatory mode. With this shift disturbed homeostatic regulation might be resettled. Stress-seeking, therefore, is suggested to characterize subjects with some degree of regulatory dysfunctions, i.e. with psychiatric or psychosomatic vulnerability.

In the state of stress-induced opioid activity characteristic cognitive functions are proposed to occur, resembling those of the early childhood. In addition to the ‘sense of the presence of a protective other’ (Prince, 1982, p. 418) primary process thinking is supposed to occur. Thus, stress induced euphoria is suggested to go together with both biological and psychological regression, resembling the one described by Kris (1952) as ‘regression in the service of the ego’. As is well known, this latter was considered as a crucial phase of creative thinking, so that a tentative proposal might be formulated, according to which stress seeking and ‘confronta- tion’ as a trait is considered a characteristic of creative subjects. Creative artists and thinkers are known to confront pain and suffering which seems to be a prerequisite of productive work. Freud’s idea of ‘sublimation’ is the last aspect of the cognitive consequences we connected to the EOP activity. Freud’s statement, according to which sublimation has libidinal sources, finds some support in our analysis, since the state in question, i.e. ‘regression in the service of the ego’ is proposed to be accompanied by the reinstatement of the primary regulatory mechanisms, i.e. a reinstatement of the paradisial state of the dual union with the mother. In this way, sublimation can be considered to represent a substitute for libidinal gratification.

56 Z. Kulcstfr et al.

A FINAL NOTE

Most recent data reported by Kehoe and Blass (1986) according to which short term social isolation of 10-day-old rats can induce an opioid dependent analgesic effect, queries the idea of the social activation of the EOP systems in the early life. The controversy over the results presented by Panksepp and co-workers and by Kehoe and Blass can not be solved on the basis of the data available at present. It might be proposed, however, that the opioids activated by stress and those induced by social stimulation in early ontogenesis are different either in their biochemical characteristics or in their site of action. Since the original findings of Panksepp and his group fit extremely well with the theoretical assumptions concerning human psychological development, it is tempting to suggest that there is some biological substrate, or some complex neurophysiologicalhiochemical mechanism to underlie the well-defined stages of biological and psychological development.

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58 Z . Kulcs&r et al.

Selon notre thCorie, les fonctions endogtnes opioides, activtes principalement par les interactions sociales dans la prime enfance et le stress dans la vie ulttrieure, jouent des r6les multiple tant dans la prime ontogentse qu’i 1’Lge adulte. Elles peuvent en premier lieu assurer la cohesion sociale. Deuxitmement , elles peuvent mtdiatiser une sorte speciale de rtgulation homeostatique et, troisitmement, elles semblent dtterminer des fonctions cognitives caracttristiques: processus de penste primaire, formes primitives de mkcanismes de dtfense et structures conceptuelles de base guidant le comportement prosocial. Nous proposons une alternance de deux ttats biologiques - I’un avec et l’autre sans l’inclusion des mecanismes endogtnes opioides - qui caracttrisent le cours normal de la vie. Ces deux Ctats sont supposts refltter difftrentes formes de rtgulation homtostatique et difftrentes sortes de cognitions. La santt physique et psychologique semble Ctre dtpendante du poids relatif qu’a chaque Ctat dans la vie d’un individu. C‘est sur la base de quelques considtrations discuttes dans cet article que I’on peut supposer que les fonctions endogtnes opioids sont des facteurs d’importance de la cognition humaine. Le schtma conceptuel de la psychanalyse, dCveloppC sur la base de donnCes empiriques, a pue Stre utilisC pour dtcrire les caracttristiques cognitives qui, selon notre thtorie, proviennent de I’activitC endoghe opioide.

ZUSAMMENFASSUNG

Wir vermuten, daB die endogenen opioiden Funktionen welche hauptsachlich durch soziale Interaktionen in der friihen Kindheit sowie durch Stress im spateren Leven aktiviert werden, vielfaltige Funktionen in der friihen Ontogenese und im Erwachsenenalter erfiillen. Erstens mogen sie die soziale Kohasion sichern, zweitens konnen sie eine bestimmte Art der homoostatischen Regulation vermitteln und drittens bestimmen sie offenbar charakteris- tische kognitive Funktionen: Primares ProzeDdenken, primitive Formen von Abwehr- mechanismen und grundlegende konzeptuelle Strukturen, welche prosoziales Verhalten steuern. Wir schlagen vor, daD eine Abwechselung zweier biologischer Zustande, einer mit und einer ohne EinschluB des endogenen opioiden Mechanismus, den normalen Lebenslauf charakterisiert. Es wird angenommen, da8 diese zwei Zustande verschiedene Formen homoostatischer Regulation und Kognition reprasentieren. Physische und psychische Gesundheit scheinen abhangig zu sein von dem relativen Anteil, welchen jeder Mechanis- mus im Leben eines Individuums ubernimmt. Aus einigen Grunden, welche in diesem Papier diskutiert werden, scheinen die endogenen opioiden Funktionen relevante Faktoren der menschlichen Kognition zu sein. Das konzeptuelle Schema der Psychoanalyse, welches auf empirischer Grundlage erarbeitet wurde, konnte zur Beschreibung der kognitiven Charakteristika benutzt werden, welche unserer Sicht zufolge vorgeschlagen wurden, um der endogenen opioiden Aktivitat Rechnung zu tragen.