cultural activism: the final legacy of h. n. werkman
TRANSCRIPT
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KentL.BoyerTheComfortoftheHasidicLegends:TheFinalLegacyofH.N.WerkmanHUHI6335 ItisdifficulttoknowhowtobeginwritingabouttheillustratedportfoliosofBuber’s
ChassidischeLegendenproducedbyDutchprinterH.N.Werkmanintheearly1940s.The
difficultyliesinthematteroflocatingtheemphaticentrypointintotheartwork:whichof
thefollowingquestionsismostlikelytoleadustotheheartofthestory?
• Isthisworkprimarilytheculminationofacareerofinnovationinthevisual
arts–particularlyinprintmaking?
• IstheworkprimarilyimportanttoJudaica–bothliteratureandart–as
examplesofartoftheHolocaust?
• Oristhecentralelementofthestorytheactofanon-Jewreachingouttohis
embattledJewishneighborsonlytolosehisownlife?
Thesearethreeoftheseveralelementsonemustfullyexplorewhenwritingaboutthe
work,whichhasimportanceinseveralcategories–aphenomenalcapstonetoaunique
career,aHolocauststorythatcelebratesthehumanspirit,andatragedyoftheworstkind.
H.N.Werkman’sabsolutelyuniquetechnicalprintmakingprocesswasdevelopedatthe
exacttimeotherEuropeanartists’workalsoshowsasimilarinterestincolor,intheuseof
textinvisualart,andintheabstractionofthehumanform.Thesesimilaritiesare
remarkableinlightofthefactthatWerkmanwasnotatrainedartist–hewasaprinter–an
artisan;additionallyherarelylefthisrelativelyisolatedtownofGroningeninthe
Netherlands,andthereforehadverylimitedandselectiveexposuretomodernistart.Itis
surprising,then,thathisworkmirrorsthatofthetypologyartoftheBauhaus,theMerz
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collagesandotherKurtSchwitterswork,theCubistinterestinaddingtexttopaintingsseen
inBraque,Picasso,andGris,and,intheareaoffigurativeabstraction,bothmirrors
Matisse’searlyfigurativeabstractionsandprefigureshislatercut-outs.Infact,Werkman’s
entireartisticpointofviewisonethatleadsthewayformanylaterartists.However,this
isn’ttheonlyimportantaspectofthework.Theworkiscertainlysignificanttothearchive
ofwhatisknownasHolocaustart–thatis,art(andpoetryandmusic)producedin
responseto(orinspiteof)theatrocitiesofNaziGermanyandSovietRussiainWorldWar
II.ThetextintheWerkmanportfolioscomesMartinBuber’sHasidiclegendsbooks–
storiesthathehadcompiledandtranslatedintoGermansome40yearsearlier-forthis
verypurpose:toenhanceasenseofancestryandcommunity–onemightevensayidentity
–forGermanJews.BycompilingthesefragmentaryYiddishtales,whichhad,untilthe
eighteenthcentury,reliedexclusivelyuponanoral(andaural)tradition,Buber,without
foreknowledge,insuredthatthestorieswouldbeavailabletoHolocaust-eraJewsasa
reminderofthecommonalityandcommunityoftheDiaspora.Finally,inthestoryofthe
creationofWerkman’sportfoliosweencounteranon-Jewreachingouttoadwindling,
hiding,andterrorizedJewishcommunityinNazi-occupiedHollandinanattempttoprovide
somesmallgiftofcomfortandbeautyintheformofculturalartandtext.Thestoryismade
evenmorepiercing,then,thatlessthanthirtydaysbeforetheendoftheNazioccupationof
theNetherlands,WerkmanwasarrestedforsympathizingwithJews,placedina
concentrationcamp,andeventuallymurderedbecauseofthework.Evenmore
unbelievable–onthatday,Werkmanwasmurderedbecauseoneofhisfellowinmates
escapedafiringsquadandhewaschosenasthereplacementprisonertobeexecuted.The
campwasliberatedtwodayslaterbyCanadiantroops.
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Werkman’soeuvreislittleknownintheUnitedStates,dueinlargeparttoscant
scholarshiponhimavailableinanylanguagebutDutch.Intheseventyyearssincehis
death,onlyoncehashisworkhadasoloexhibitiontheUnitedStates–in1951atthe
BrooklynMuseum.1Hiswork,however,isshowninEuropeanmuseumswithsome
regularity,withlargecollectionsinboththeStedelijkMuseuminAmsterdamandthe
GronigerMuseuminGroningen.ThispaperwilllookbrieflyatWerkman’sbiography,the
significanceofBuber’sHasidiclegendsbooksoncontemporaneousEuropeanJewry,and
howWerkmancametocreatethisportfoliooftwentyworksasoneofhislastcreative
efforts.
Werkman’scontemporaryreputationinEuropeisdueprimarilytothelegacyof
friendshipofoneman–thefuturemuseumdirectoroftheStedelijkinAmsterdam,W.J.H.
Sandberg,whodiscoveredWerkman’sprintsinthelate1930sandworkedtopreserve,
catalog,exhibit,andpromotehisworkafterWerkman’sdeath.Welloverhalfoftheartist’s
oeuvrewasdestroyedin1945,aportionbyNazisatthetimeofhisarrest,andmoreby
AlliedbombersastheyliberatedthecityandblewupthebuildingwheretheNaziswere
storingtheir“evidence”againsttheartist.Luckily,SandbergbecametheDirectorofthe
StedelijkMuseumshortlyafterthewar,placinghiminapositiontobecomethekeeperof
theWerkmanartandstory.Intheearly1960s,afoundationwasestablishedtosupport
thecreationofacatalograisonneofWerkman’soeuvreandtorepresenttheartist’swidow
inloanstovariousmuseumsforexhibition.
HendrikNicolaasWerkmanwasborninasmalltownnearGroningen,Holland,in
1882.HisfatherdiedwhenHendrikwasyoung,leavingthefamilypoorandwithvery1Subsequently,in1959,afewpiecesofhisworktraveledtoseveralU.S.museumsinagroupexhibitionfromtheStedelijkMuseuminAmsterdam.
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limitedopportunities.Werkmanwasapprenticedtoaprintmakerasaboyandexceptfora
fewyearsworkingasanewspaperreporter,printingwasbothhislifelongcareerandhis
entryintotheartworld.Werkmanmetwithlifedifficultiesseveraltimes,beginningwith
thedeathofhisfirstwifewhenhisthreechildrenwereveryyoung.Hiswife’sfamilyhad
helpedhimfinanciallytoestablishasuccessfulprintingbusiness,which,earlyinthe
WeimarRepublic,employeduptothirtypeoplewithathrivingbusiness.However,when
heremarried,hisdeceasedwife’sfamilyrecalledtheirfinancialsupport,forcinghimtolay
offallofhisstaffexceptone,andsellmuchofhisequipment.Subsequently,duringthe
Weimardepression,Werkmanlostalltherestofhisequipmentexceptfora125-yearold
Frenchhand-press(Fig.3).Withthisonepresshewasabletoeekoutaliving,butmore
importantly,hedevelopedatechniqueformakingartthatwassolelyhisown.
Despitehismisfortunes,Werkmanappearstohavebeenanoptimisticpersonand
oneofunusuallystrongcharacter.NashwritesinhisbookreviewofMuller’sWerkman
biography:
Writingnearlytwentyyearslaterofthisturning-pointofhislife,Werkmantolda
friend,“lookingatitfromaconventionalpointofview,Ideclinedasrapidlyina
coupleofyearsasIhadprogressedinten.Butlikeawetpoodle,Ishookoff
everythingwhichwashinderingmeandthenstoodforawhilealmostalone.
Frankly,sometimesIdidn’tevenunderstandmyself.ButIalwaysthought,‘What
youlosenowisreallysomethingwon.’Inevermournedseeminglosses.Butthe
situationwasdismalindeed;nowonderthatthefirstprintswhichImadeatthat
timeweredarkandgloomy...“(445)
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Groningen,whereWerkmanlivedasanadult,isanancientcityintheremote
northeastcorneroftheNetherlands.2DuringWerkman’slifetime,itwasmorethanaday’s
travelfromAmsterdamunlessyouhadacar(Simoni70).Werkmanoftenfeltcut-offfrom
otherartistsandinnovatorsbecauseofthisdistance.Inanattempttoreachouttoother
artists,hebegantoproduceaprintednewslettercalledTheNextCallintheearly1920s,in
whichheprintedpoetryandexamplesofmodernisttypologygraphicshewasworkingon.3
HesentcopiesthesesmallrunstofellowEuropeanavant-gardenewsletterpublishers,who
oftenreturnedacopyoftheirpublication.4Nashsays:
Intheautumnof1923hereachedouttootherswiththefirstissueofanoccasional
journal,TheNextCall,containingmanifestos,hisownfreeverse,andproclamations
offreedomforart.Itwasenlivenedfurtherbyhisprintsandwasthemeansof
puttinghimintouchwithlike-mindedfreethinkers...(445)
Inthisway,Werkmangotsomenewsofwhatothermodernartistsweredoing,which
partiallymadeupforhisremotelivingsituation.Isolationisadistinctivepatternin
Werkman’slife,probablycontributingtohisempathicunderstandingoftheisolationfeltby
DutchJewryduringtheNazioccupationandultimatelyledtohimdevotingthelastthree
yearsofhislifetohisChassidischeLegendenproject.
Afterthedownsizingofhisbusiness,Werkman,hisfamily,andhisoneemployee
movedintotheatticofawarehouse,wherehebegantoexperimentwithanewmethodof
producingart.Inatypicalfashion,heconsideredthecollapseofhisbusinessan
opportunitytohavethetimetocreateart.Simonewrites,“Thelesseningofhisbusiness2NashcallsGroningen“theNetherlandishVermontinspirit”(445).3TheNextCallrantonineissuesbetween1923and1927.4ThereisevidencethathecorrespondedwithbothWassilyKandinskyandJeanArpasaresultofthesemailings.Hiscollectionofreturnedavant-gardenewsletterswasmostlydestroyedattheendofhislife.
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activitiesandthestringenciesimposedonhisinhisprivatelifebroughtaboutwhathe
himselfdescribedasaliberationofthespiritandaburstofcreativity”(71,72).
Hecalledtheresultingprints,druksels,whichisaDutchworduntranslatableintoEnglish.
Thedrukselswereprintsproducedbyrepeatedimpressions5–oneforeachcolororobject
–whichWerkmanappliedeitherbymeansofthehandpresswithtype,imageblocks,orby
meansofabrayer–aprintmaker’s“roller”usuallyusedtodistributeprintmaker’sinkonto
typeinpreparationforprinting.6Inadditiontorollinginkontype,Werkmanalsorolled
theinkdirectlyontopaper,usingvariousthicknessesofinktocreatelayeredcolor,and
cardboard“masks”toprintcutoutobjectsortoresisttheink(Fig.16).Healso
experimentedwithutilizingjustthesmallcircularedgeofthebrayertorollonhispaper,
resultinginthickorthinlinesofink.Becauseoftherepetitiveapplicationsofink,each
druksel(althoughnumberedineditionslikeotherprinttechniques)isvirtuallyunique.
Thesetechniques,borneofnecessityforhim,gaveWerkmananabsolutelyuniquemethod
ofcreatingart.
SandbergfirstvisitedWerkmanfromAmsterdamin1938afterseeingsomeofhis
druksels.Simonitellsthestory:
BeforethelastwarabusinessvisitorfromAmsterdamwithouttheuseofacarto
takehimacrosstheAfsluitdijk[a32kilometercausewaycompletedin1933]could
nothopetomakethereturntripinasingleday.Luckilythisprospectdidnotdeter
W.J.H.Sandberg,thenkeeper,laterdirectoroftheMunicipalMuseumof
5Simoniestimatesthemostcomplexdrukselsutilizeperhapsfiftydifferentimpressions–eachseparatelyappliedeitherbyhandorbymeansofhispress,theoil-basedinkthenallowedtodry,followedbyanotherandanothercycle.6Togivethereaderanaccuratepictureofprinter’sink–itisnotthethintranslucentinkweareusedtoseeinginsmallbottles.Rather,printer’sinkisanoil-basedthick,viscous,andopaqueinkabouttheconsistencyofverystiffcakeicingandissoldtoprintersincanslikehousepaint.
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Amsterdam,7fromundertakingthejourneyin1938forthesolepurposeofvisiting
HendrikNicolaasWerkman.Hereturnedfullofadmirationandcarryingwithhim
thefirstofmanyacquisitionswhichweretogivetheStedelijkMuseumits
unequalledWerkmancollection.(70)
Soimpressedwithwhathesawonthatvisit,SandbergheldWerkman’sfirstone-manshow
in1939inAmsterdam.WerkmanundertookthejourneyfromGroningentobethere.He
subsequentlytraveledtwomoretimestoAmsterdam:
foranexhibitionattheStedelijkMuseumcalled“TheIllustratedPage”inwhich
someofhisownworkwasshowninApril1941;andagaininMayofthatyearfora
privatevisittoSandbergwhothentookhimtoCastricum[aDutchtownnorthof
Amsterdam]wherethemuseum’schieftreasuresofmodernarthadbeenstoredfor
safety[fromtheNazis.](Simoni72)
TheonlyothertimeWerkmanlefthishomewasfora1929visittoFrancewithafellow
GroningenartisttoseemodernartinEssen,Cologne,andParis(Simoni72).
Laterinthispaper,Iwillpickupthebiographicalthreadwiththestoryof
Werkman’screationofhismostsignificantworkattheendofhislife.However,nowI’d
liketowriteaboutMartinBuber’sHasidiclegendsbooksanduncoverhowthesebooks
wereviewedandusedbycontemporaryGermanJews.Intheearlyyearsofthetwentieth
century,youngMartinBuberwasheavilyinterestedinthephilosophicalissuesfacing
GermanJewrysomeonehundredyearsaftertheEnlightenment.TheeffortsofJewsto
assimilateandtoachieveaformofcivilequalitywiththeirGermanChristianneighborshad
resultedinaJewrythatwasnotonlyunfulfilledintheirquestforequality,butalsonotvery
7TheMunicipalMuseumofAmsterdamisnowknownastheStedelijkMuseum.
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certainorproudoftheirJewishnesseither.Concerned,Buberbeganapersonal
investigationofhisJewishancestryandhecameuponabodyofliteraturebyandabout
HasidicJewry.Buber,whowouldcometospendagreatamountofhiscareercompiling,
translating,andwritingthesestoriesfirstforGermanJewsandthenforallJews,initially
publishedtwobooksoflegends,TalesofRabbiNahman(1906),andTheLegendoftheBaal
Shem(1907).ThesebookswerefollowedbyTheHiddenLight(1924),muchlaterbyTales
oftheHasidim,Volumes1and2(1947),andposthumously,TalesofHasidism:TheLater
Masters(1970),GogandMagog(1984).DanwritesaboutBuber’searlyinterestin
compilingthetales:
BuberstartedhisliterarycareerwithanadaptationintoGermanofthestoriesof
RabbiNachmanandtheBesht,andlater,theGreatMagid,RabbiDovBerof
Mezeritch.HismostinfluentialworkisOrha'ganuz(TheHiddenLight),acollection
offables,stories,andepigramsdrawnfrommanyHasidicworks.Thisgreat
enterprisewasintegratedwithascholarlythesis,whichinsistedthatthepopular
narrativesandepigramsrepresentedtheessenceofthemessageoftheHasidic
movementandthattheyshouldbereadliketheJapanesekoansofZenBuddhism...
Mostofthe“Hasidic”narrativeliteraturepublishedbeforeWorldWarIwaswritten
notfortheHasidimproperbutforJewswhodistancedthemselvesfromtraditional
societyandbegantobeintegratedinmodernsocietyinthecitiesofCentraland
EasternEurope.Experiencingnostalgiafortheworldinwhichtheygrewup,these
urbanJewsboughtandreadstoriesthatglorifiedtheimageofthegreatHasidic
leadersandtheirwonderfuldeeds.Nostalgia,ratherthanworship,isthemajor
motiveforconsumingthisliterarygenre.Religiousandethicalteachingsholda
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marginalplaceinthesevolumes.Inmanycases,theeditorsincludedtraditional,
pre-HasidicJewishstoriesandfolktales,addinganopeningsentencestatingthat
thisorthatrabbiusedtotellthisstoryontheeveofacertainholiday,thus
transformingitintoa“Hasidic”story.(N.p.)
WhatDandoesn’tmentionisthatBuberwrotethesestories,ratherthanforintellectual
Jews,forthecommonJew.Lutzdescribesthecontemporaneousculturalimportanceofthe
Tales:
Buber’stwoearlyHasidicbooks,DieGeschichtendesRabbiNachman(1906)
andDieLegendedesBaalschem(1908)areoftenseenasanintegralpartofthespurt
ofcreativeactivityinJewishculturearoundthistime.Theyseemedtobringthe
exoticworldofEastEuropeanJewrydirectlyintocontemporarycurrentsofGerman
culture.(9)
PotokspeakstoBuber’smotivationofauthorshipintheintroductiontoarecentEnglish
versionofTalesoftheHasidim:
Grindingpoverty,endlesssuffering—andlearningastheonlyavenuetoGod.An
idealmixforrevolution.Conjurethebitternessandfrustrationfeltbyordinary
unlearnedJewsinacultureentirelyfocusedonlearning.Iflearningistheexclusive
pathtoGod,howdoesonecometoGodwhenoneisashoemaker,awagondriver,a
watercarrier;whenonemustworkdayandnightandhaslittletimeforstudy?
TheanswercamefromtheBaalShemTov:learningisnottheonlywaytoGod.One
canalsoapproachGodthroughalifeoffervorandexaltation,experienceforthe
sakeofheaven;throughprayerandjoythattranscendeverydayexistenceand
transformhumansufferingbyimbuingalloflifewithhope,purpose,sanctity,and
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therebyraisingearthtoheaven,restoringtheunityofcreation,andredeemingthe
world.(ix,x)
WhenBuberbeganinvestigatingtheHasidictales,whathefoundwasunformedmaterials–
fragmentsoftales,tales,briefnotes,andsometimesthelengthynotesofarabbithatadded
littleornothingtothenarrative.Buberdescribedhisworkprocess(quotedinHaCohen)as
aneffortto:
‘supplythemissinglinksinthenarrative[...]tobeginbygivinguptheavailable
form(orratherformlessness)ofthenoteswiththeirmeagrenessorexcessivedetail,
theirobscuritiesanddigressions,toreconstructtheeventsinquestionwiththe
utmostaccuracy[...],andtorelatethemascoherentlyasIcouldinaformsuitedto
thesubjectmatter.’Buberstressed,however,thathe‘considereditneither
permissiblenordesirabletoexpandthetalesortorenderthemmorecolourful
anddiverse.’(2)
Muchlaterinlife,BuberrespondedtocriticismofhiseffortsbyGershomScholemand
otherHasidicscholarswhofeltthatBuberhadbastardizedHasidisminordertobringitto
theDiasporabycreatinghisownversionofit.Scholem’scriticism,publishedin
Commentarymagazinein1961,8however,startsfirstwithpraise:
...Buber,althoughakeenstudentofHasidicliterature,doesnotwriteasascholar
citingchapterandverseforhiscontentions.Hecombinesfactsandquotationsas
suitshispurpose,whichistopresentHasidismasaspiritualphenomenonandnot
asahistoricalone.
Buberstartedasanenthusiasticadmirerorevenfollowerofmystical
8Sufrin,writingaboutthisarticle,notesthatScholemcallsBuber’swork“neo-Hasidism”(131).
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religion,anditwashisdiscoveryofthemysticalcoreoflivingJudaismintheHasidic
movementthatstruckhimmostforcefullywhenhefirstcameintocontactwithits
literatureandtradition.(N.p.)
Buberagreedthathistranslationprocesswas“toofree”andthathehadfilledinblanksin
thelegendswiththeintentionofedifyingGermanJewryratherthandefiningthenarrow
Hasidicsect.InanattempttoreachthemassesofJewsratherthanscholarsandrabbis,
Bubereffectivelyreducedthetalestoananecdotefollowedbyamorallesson.Beyondthe
factthatBuberhadn’tbeenoverlyacademicinhistranslations,Scholemandothers
objectedintwootherwaystotheBubertranslations:first,thatBubermakesnomentionof
thedistinctionbetweensecularversuspracticingJewsinhisstories,thuseffectively
equatingallJewrywithreligiousJews–fromwhomcametheKaballahists.Second,Buber
wascriticizedthat,bymakingthestoriesavailabletothecommonJew–theunlearned–he
wasunderminingreligiousJewry’shonorandrespectforscholarlyactivity–i.e.the
studyingtheTorah.Despitethecriticism,manyscholars,includingHaCohenbelievemore
goodthanharmwasdonebyBuber’stranslations.HaCohenwrites,“Buberinfact
identifieswiththerabbitotheextentofimitatinghisdeed:heliftsupasparkofliterary
acceptablenarrativefromtheHasidiclegend,thusmakingitaccessibletomodernreaders
inmodernGermanyandbeyond”(11).
LutzgetsclosertohowBuber’sbookswerereceivedbythecommonJewwhenshe
writes:
Buber’sHasidicbooksincorporatetranslations-or,inthiscase,‘retellings’–from
HebrewandYiddishbut,beyondthat,theyalsoappropriatethesourcematerials
andinfusethefinalliteraryproductwithacertainattitudeandspiritwhichis
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strivingfortherenewedlifeoftheJewishpeople.(10)
Indeed,inthe1930s,astheNazi’sintentionsvis-à-vistheJewswereunveiledyearbyyear,
onewondersiftheJewsforwhomthebookswereintendedwere,infact,comfortedor
encouragedbytheretellingofthesestories.Lutz’dissertationinvestigatestheseideasin
lightofBuber’searlyandcontinuinginterestinZionism:
Buber’sretellingsinthesetwoearlybooksrevealastruggleforanewJewishself
understandingwhichisdrivenbyabasicexperienceofalienationandtheyearning
foranauthenticsocialdimension.HisappropriationofHasidismisguidedbyadrive
tomeldanacuteawarenessoftheindividual’spsychicisolationwithanempathic
embraceofthecollectivesufferingofthehistoricexilicsituationoftheJewish
people.ByilluminatingthebooksinlightofBuber’sculturalZionistthought,Iseek
torevealhowhisappropriationofHasidismisguidedbyadespairingandalmost
nihilisticnotionofexilewhichremainsaconstantundercurrentinthisearlyperiod.
(11)
Mendes-FlohralsowritesaboutthewaysJewsreceived,andcontinuedtoreceivethe
legendsinlightoftheHolocaustanditsaftermath,byofferingastoryaboutayoung
novelistNormanMailerreadingtheminthe1950s:
AnimpressivearrayoferstwhileestrangedJewshavediscoveredinBuber'stalesof
theHasidicsagesadimensionofJudaismwithwhichtheycouldproudlyidentify.
TheAmericanwriter,NormanMailernotedthatwhenhereadTheTalesofthe
Hasidim,"itwaslikeanorphandiscoveringthatinfacthehadabeautifulmother."
Mailer'sepiphanyoccurredin1955whilehewasridinginaBrooklynsubway.Close
tofiftyyearsearlierinBerlinWaltherRathenauwassoinspiredbyBuber'sDie
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LegendedesBaalschemthatheresolvedtolearnHebrewinordertobeabletoread
thewisdomofthezaddikimintheoriginal...Mailer'sconfessionismosttellingin
thisregard:TheTalesoftheHasidim,hewrites:“...werethefirstbitsofJewish
devotionalproseIreadwhichwerenotdeadeningforme.Outofthecaveofhistory
cameathinfilamentofthepast,thefirsttowhichIpaidattention.Today[after
havingreadthetales],onedoesnotfeelnecessarilymoreaJew....ButIhaveadebt
toBuber.IhaveafondnessfortheHasidim....TheTalesoftheHasidimdidnotmake
mefeellikeaJew,somuchastheymademerealizewhatkindofJewIwouldor
mighthavebeentwohundredyearsago.Iwouldnever,nonever,havebeena
memberoftheJewishEstablishment.ButsomebrighttroublemakingyoungReb
withawildbeard,anodiumforceremony,anoseforthepsychicepee,anda
determinedtasteforthedramaticinwords,inwritings,inacts,inthelifeof
dialogue-thatwasnotaltogetherimpossible.ForthefirsttimeinyearsIcouldquit
seeingmyselfasaprimecreation,someprizemysterydroppedonearthvoid
ofantecedents...“(113,114)
ThisstoryisapocryphalforunderstandingthewayinwhichWerkmansawBuber’slegends
beingreadbyDutchJewryinthemidstoftheNazioccupation.Hisunderstandingofwhat
thelegendsmeanttoJewsiswhatleadhimtowanttoproducethetwoportfoliosof
illustrationsandtext.EvenScholem,despitecriticizingBuberforthewayhewrotethe
tales,admitsintheCommentaryarticlethat,“themeritsofBuber’spresentationofHasidic
sayingsandlegendsareverygreatindeedandwilltoalargeextentstandthetestoftime”
(N.p.).
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BeforeIfinallywriteaboutWerkman’sLegendsartwork,Iwilllookbrieflyatother
artistswhofoundasimilarlanguagefortheirworkataboutthesametime.Toreview,
Werkman’scontributionsincludedtheuseoffullysaturatedcolor,typeandtextemployed
asvisualiconography,abstractionofthesortthatremovesdetailbutmaintainsvisual
recognitionofobjects,andflatteningofperspectiveinhiswork.Hisdrukselsfeatured
uniquematerialsandtechniquesfortheircreation–uniqueevenamongprintmakers.
ThereisnowaytoknowwhatspecificworksWerkmansawduringhis1929triptoFrance,
duringhisthreetripstoAmsterdam,orintheavant-gardenewslettershecollectedfrom
otherpublishers.Mypurpose,then,formakingthesecomparisonsissimplytonotethat
otherartistshadcometosimilarvocabularicandiconographicconclusionsasWerkman
duringthetimeweknowhewasworkinginrelativeseclusionfromotherartists.
SaturatedcolorandarbitrarycolorwasahallmarkofFauvismandSyntheticCubism
inFranceinthefirst15yearsofthenewcentury.Elsewhere,DieBruckeinDresden,Der
BlaueReiterinMunich,andcertainlyExpressionisminGermanyalsoutilizedthissaturated
palette.It’slikelyWerkmanknewabouttheseschoolsduetotheirubiquityandpopularity.
Further,thereisspeculationthathenamedhissonVincentoutoffondnessforVincentVan
Gogh’scolorfulpaintings.
Theuseoftextasvisualiconography,theartisticuseoftypology,andtheuseoftext
inhighartwasinitsinfancywhenWerkmanwasdevelopinghistechniques.InRussia,
Constructivismhadreacheditsheightandsometimesfeaturedtextinadditiontoshapes.In
Germany,KurtSchwitters,whowasalignedwiththeDadamovement,begantoproducehis
Merzcollagesusingrefusepaperasmaterials.Whilehisobjectivewastoshowthat“art”
couldbemadefromgarbage(atrulyrevolutionaryandprescientidea),Schwitterschoice
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ofmaterialsresultedintypeandtextbecomingacentralpartoftheimage.Adecade
earlier,Picasso,Braque,andGrishadinfusedboththeiranalyticalcubistandtheir
syntheticcubistworkswithpaintedrepresentationsofnewspapersandothertextual
imagery,apracticethatcontinuedforPicassoformanyyears.Theirturnfromanalyticto
syntheticcubismin1912wasalsoaturntowardhighlysaturatedcoloraswell.It’squite
possiblethatWerkmanwasawareofsomeoftheseworks–surelyhewouldhaveseen
cubistworkduringhistriptoParisin1929.PerhapstheclosestanaloguetoWerkman’s
earlydrukselswasthetypographicartcreatedattheBauhausschoolinitsWeimarperiod
byHerbertBayerandothers.ThetoolsthatWerkmanhadavailabletohimresultedinhis
workbeingcharacterizedbyaslightlymorespontaneousandlesspolishedfinalimage
thanthatoftheBauhausartists–however,certainlynolesscolorful,fresh,andwell-
executed.
Finally,itisimpossibletolookatWerkman’ssilhouettedfigurativeprintswithout
seeinganabstractionpracticesimilartoMatisse.Matissehadbeeninvolvedinthepractice
ofabstractingthefigureformostofhiscareer,asevidencedin“TheDance”of1909(Fig.
11).Here,thedancingfiguresarestylizedtobecomelittlemorethanlyricalshapes–still
readingasfigures,butwithouttheirindividualcharacteristicsorcorrectproportions.In
“BlueNude”of1912(Fig.17),thefigurebecomesaflatabstractionusingthewhiteofthe
papertocreateline.Muchlaterinlife,Matisse-bythepost-warperiodincreasinglyinfirm
-unabletostandorpaint,beganapracticeofcuttingpaintedpapersilhouettesandhaving
theshapespinnedtolargesheetsofpaperonthewallbyassistants(Fig.18).Theresulting
artworkismemorable–simple,colorful,fluid,andexpressive.Asimilarmusicalquality
andchromaticityofcolorisseeninWerkman’sprintsoftheHasidiclegends.
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Whatistobemadeofthesecomparisons?Justthis–workinginvirtualisolation
fromotherartists,Werkmandevelopedaprinter’stoolsandskillsintoatypeandstyleof
workthat,whileabsolutelyunique,comestosomeofthesameartisticconclusionsabout
iconographyandvocabularyassomeofthegreatartistsoftheperiod.Notonlydoeshis
workspeaktotheotherartists’work,butalsoitwouldholditsowninexhibitionwith
someofthemostenduringartistsoftheperiod.Werkman’sbodyofwork–eventhe
fractionthatremains,isinaword,staggering.
InMay1940,whenWerkmanwasfifty-eightyearsold,theNetherlandswasinvaded
byNaziGermany.FivedaysaftertheinvasionandthebombingofRotterdam,theDutch
surrendered.TheNetherlandshadhopedtostayneutralinHitler’swarastheyhadduring
theFirstWorldWar–andhadbeenpromisednonaggressionbyHitler.Forthenon-Jewish
population,theNazioccupationcausedhardshipandsuffering,shortagesanda
militarizationoftheirquietlives.QueenWilhelminafledintoexileinBritainandtheDutch
civilianadministrationwassubsumedbyacivilGermanadministration.TheDutchpeople,
however,werelargelyleftalonebytheNazis,atleastatfirst.Wolffexplains:
HitlerandhisassociatesdidnotwanttoalienatetheDutchpeople-apeoplethey
consideredtobeof"superior"Germanicbreeding.AsaresultoftheDutchreligious
stratification,theDutchpeoplecouldbecertifiedasalmost100percentAryan.
Hitler'sultimategoalwastomaketheNetherlandsapartofGermanyfollowingthe
war.ThroughannexationoftheNetherlands,Hitlerhopedtofurtherinfusethenew
ReichwiththeAryanideal.Withthisgoalinmind,thetransitiontoNaziruleinthe
Netherlandswaslessabruptanddramatic.(N.p.)
17
FortheDutchJewishpopulation,Nazipogromsbeganalmostimmediately.There
hadbeenaJewishcommunityinGroningenfortwohundredyears.TheJoodsHistorisch
MuseuminAmsterdamnarrateswhatJewishlifebeforetheNaziinvasionwaslike:
Duringtheinter-warperiodtheJewishcommunityatGroningenblossomed.The
majorityofGroningen'sJewsbythenhadachievedmiddleclassstatusandmany
practicedprofessions.NewJewishorganizationsatthetimeincludedZionistand
anti-Zionistgroups-thesenotalwaysonthebestoffootings-aswellasJewish
scouting,gymnastic,andsportsassociations.AJewishtheatergroupwasalsoactive.
Duringthe1930's,thearrivalof250JewishrefugeesinGroningenservedtobolster
thesizeofthecommunity.9(N.p.)
WolffwritesthattheNetherlandswashometosome140,000Jewsbeforethewar.Thefirst
NazireprisalsagainstJewswerefeltinthefieldofeducation,whereJewishteachersand
universityprofessorswerefired,andJewishstudentswereremoved.Thiswasfollowedby
deportationofJewsto“workcamps.”ThedeportationsbeganinWerkman’sGroningenin
Augustof1942.Wolffcontinuesthenarrative:
Bythetimeofthewar'send,theNazishaddeported107,000JewsoutofHolland.Of
these,only5000survivedtoreturnhomefollowingthewarand30,000managedto
surviveinhidingorbyothermeans.Thus,over75%ofHolland'sJewsperishedat
thehandsoftheNazis.ThisrepresentsthelargestpercentageofJewstodiefroma
particularcountrywiththeexceptionofPoland...Failuretohidealmostassured
deportationtoAuschwitzorthedeathcampofSorbibor.SixtythousandJewswere
deportedtoAuschwitz;onlyninehundredandseventy-twosurvived.Thirty-four
9TheJewishcommunityinthecityGroningenwasestimatedtobeabout2500people.
18
thousandJewsweredeportedtoSorbibor;onlytwo-twooutofthirty-fourthousand
-livedtoreturntotheNetherlands.(N.p.emphasisadded)
Manyofthenon-Jewishcitizensrespondedtotheoccupationinthewaymostpeoplewould
–theykepttheirheadsdownandwentabouttheirbusiness,tryingtoprotecttheirfamily
andtheirbusinesses,tighteningtheirbeltsasthesituationbecamemoreandmoregrim.
SomehidJews,aswasthecaseofAnneFrank’sfamily,riskingtheirlivestohelptheir
Jewishneighborsandfriends.Othersworkedcovertlyinanundergroundresistance–a
largeresistanceeffort,accordingtoWolff:
Undergroundcellswereinvolvedinthemanufactureoffalsepapersoractedas
couriersofsecretdocumentstocountriesoutsideoftheNetherlandstoassistAllied
warefforts.Itisestimatedthatoverfifty-tosixtythousandindividualsweredirectly
involvedinundergroundactivitieswithhundredsofthousandsmoreoffering
assistance.Morethantenthousandlosttheirlivesasadirectresultoftheir
courageousefforts.(N.p)
Werkmanrespondedtotheoccupationbyfoundinganundergroundpublication
withthreefriendsthatwascommittedtopublishingupliftingmaterialstohelppeople
cope.Duringthefive-yearNazioccupation,Werkmanandasmallgroupofcohorts–
AugustHenkels,Dr.AteZuithoff,andMevrouwAdriBuning,aschoolteacher(Purvis23),
eventuallyproducedfortyissuesofthepublicationtheycalled,“DeBlauweSchuit(The
BlueBarge).”Thepublishedessaysandarticlesweremeanttoencouragethespiritofthe
Dutchpeopleduringtheoccupation.Workingtogether,theyproducedeightpublicationsin
1941,fourteenin1942,elevenin1943,andsevenin1944(Purvis23).Theyoften
publishedreligiouswritings,meanttoencouragethereadersofthepublication.The
19
followingexcerptedpublicationlistandprintrunfromSimonirevealsthenatureofsome
ofthearticles:
• 1941MartinLuther,“SendbriefandieChristenimNiederland(Lettertothe
ChristiansintheNetherlands)”-90copies
• 1942MartinLuther,“DasWindliechtGottes(TheWindlightGod)”-100
copies(textcompiledby[Werkman’sfriend]Henkelsfrompassagesofoneof
Luther’ssermons
• 1942PsalmsfromMartinBuber’sGermantranslationofPsalms130,43,94,
and12-75copies
• 1943MartinLuther,“EinGebetwiderdenturken(APrayerAgainstthe
Turks)”(80)
TheChassidischeLegenden:EenSuitevanH.N.Werkmanportfoliosunwittingly
becameaconclusiontothemen’sundergroundprintingactivities.Simonihasresearched
Werkman’slettersofthetimeandwrites:
Fromhisownletters...andfromtheaccountsofhisfriendsonelearnsmuchabout
theebbandflowofWerkman’screativelife.Againandagain,afterperiodsof
darknessduetowinterandbadweatherortothedepressingeventsinprivateand
publicaffairs,hewouldrisetothechallengeandinfusehisworkwithcourageand
humour,deephumansympathy,andanaffirmationoflife.(77)
Purvisnotesthat,“[f]romtheverybeginning,thewarandtheoccupationgreatlyaffected
Werkman,deepeninghisinnatesenseofisolationanddepletingtheoptimismthathadso
longbeenasourceofstrength”(23).HenkelsandWerkmanbecamefriendswhilewriting
thesepublicationsandcollaboratedonwhatbecameWerkman’sfinalpublicationproject-
20
MartinBuber’sChassidischeLegenden.Theportfolioproject,consistingof20large
Werkmandruksels,each51by33cm.,andHenkels’retellingofBuber’stextsetintypeby
WerkmanalongwithalinefromtheBubertext.Sotime-consumingwastheprocessthat
Werkmanusedtoproducethebeautifulprints,ittookthementhreeyearstoproducean
editionofjust20copiesofeachprint.Theportfolioswerereleasedintwoprintings–the
firstteninNovember1942(Legenden,N.p.),andthesecondtenfollowedinDecember
1943.However,evenbeforethepublication,Simoninotesthat“[t]hedesignsforthefirst
suitewereexhibitedbyHenkelsinthehostagesinternmentcampatSt.Michielsgestelin
1942”(80).
TheprintsWerkmancreatedfortheseportfoliosareastunningcapstoneforhis
career.ThecolorsarebrightandhopefulinthemidstofthedarkestdaysinGroningen.
The1982bookquotesaletterexcerptinwhichHenkelswrotetoWerkman,“Imyself
completelylovethedesign,butyoucanyoumakethecolorabitlivelier?Whenthecolors
arewellmatured,theyseemabitgloomy.”Werkmanreplied,“Ihaveusedverylittleink;I
willgivethemallabitmore‘matter.’Theresultisafirmwin.(ChassidischeLegenden
N.p.)”10AlthoughnotJewishhimself,Werkmanconveyedinhisdrukselssuchasenseof
community,ofjoy,ofpride,andofquietreligiousfaiththatWerkman'sbiographer,Hans
vonStratenthoughttheworkitselfhadbecomeareligiousexperienceforhim:
HediedlikeaHasid,hislastdeedwaspassingontheoldmiracletalestohis
cellmates.HisdeathwasadirectconsequenceofhisidentificationwithJews.By
passingonthesestoriesthethoughtwhichlayatthefoundationofWerkman's
creationwaskeptalive...(mama.org)
10Translationmine.
21
SimoniwritesthatDutchJewsconsiderthe“emotionalpower”oftheprintscomparable“to
thatofGoya’s“DesastrosdelaGuerra”orPicasso’s“Guernica”(80).
ThestoryofWerkman’slastmonthsanddaysisgrim.Bythesummerof1944,the
livingsituationinGroningenwasdire.PurviswritesthatthefinaldistributionofDe
BlauweSchuitoccurredinthesummerof1944and“representedanemberofoptimismin
anticipationofanearlyliberationthatdidnotcome(25).”Bytheendoftheyear,
Werkmanhadbeenforcedtostopprintingbecauseelectricitywashardlybeingproduced
andtherewasalsoashortageofheatingfuel.Werkman’sinkshadhardenedandwere
impossibletouseinthecold.SimonidetailsthenarrativeofWerkman’sarrestandfinal
days:
On13March1945,astheideaofaGermandefeatbecameinescapableevento
themselves,thepolicegarrisonofGroningenarrestedalargenumberoflocal
people,amongthemWerkman[andHenkels].On10April1945,threedaysbefore
Canadianliberatorsenteredthejubilantifbatteredcity,tenoftheprisoners,among
themWerkman,weretakentoanear-bycommonatBakkeveenand
unceremoniouslyshot.Therehadnotevenbeenasemblanceofchargesortrial,the
pretenseforhisarresthadbeentheincomprehensible,decadentnature,ashis
captorssawit,ofhisart,hisobviousJewishsympathiesandthesuspected
unauthorizeduseofpaper.(78emphasisadded)
TheSicherheitspolizei(SecurityPolice)hadheldWerkmanandHenkelsinabuildingcalled
theScholtenhuisinGroningen,whichwaslaterinadvertentlydestroyedintheliberation–
unfortunatelydestroyingalargeportionofWerkman’slifeworkthathadbeenheldas
22
“evidence.”PurvisagreeswithSimonithat“itwashisidentificationwithJews”thathadled
tohisarrest(25).Shecontinues:
InearlyApril,anordercamefromtheSDheadquartersatTheHaguetoexecute30
prisonersasareprisalagainsttheDutchundergroundinGroningen.Thefirstgroup
oftenwastakentoAnloandshotbeforeafiringsquadon8April;thefollowing
morningthesecondgroupwasexecuted.However,whenthelastmenwerebeing
driventhatafternoontotheexecutionsite,onemanagedtoescapeandthe
executionwasdelayed.Shortlyafterwards,Werkmanwaschosentoreplacethe
escapeeandalongwiththeotherninewasexecutednearthetownofBakkeveen
twodaysbeforeCanadianforcesenteredGroningen.(25)
Werkman’sfriendandcollaboratorintheChassidischeLegendenportfolioswasfreedbythe
Canadianliberators.
InSeptember1945,Werkman’sfriendSandbergwasmadetheDirectorofthe
StedelijkMuseuminAmsterdam.Oneofthefirstexhibitionshemountedwasa
retrospectiveforhisfriend.HewentontoproducethefirstWerkmancatalogandwasthe
forcebehindtheBrooklynMuseum’s1951Werkmanexhibition.Eventually,hehelped
Werkman’swifeformafoundationtopreserveandcataloghisarchiveandproduceafully
researchedcatalograisonne.Anupdated,beautifullyillustratedandcompletecatalog
raisonnewasproducedinDutchbyDekkers,VanDerSpek,andDeVriesin2008.
In1947,MartinBubervisitedtheNetherlandsandmetAugustHenkels,who
showedhimWerkman’sportfoliosoftheChassidischeLegenden.Sourcesrecallthatwhen
Bubersawthem,“hewasdumbstruck.SoprofoundlyhadWerkmanpenetratedthelegends
inhisimagerythatBuberwascompelledtoask:‘WasheaJew?’(mama.org,Purvis88).”
23
Today,H.N.Werkman’scontributiontomodernity,Judaica,andHolocaustartcan
primarilybeseenattheStedelijkMuseuminAmsterdamandtheGroningerMuseumin
Groningen,althoughmanymuseumsinEuropeholdexamplesofhisprints.In2015,the
GroningerMuseumcommemoratedtheseventiethanniversaryofWerkman’sdeathwitha
largeexhibitionofhisworkandanewpublicationentitled,H.N.Werkman(1882-1945)
Leven&Werk(Life&Work).Theyhavedeclared2015TheWerkmanjaar(TheWerkman
Year)inmemoriamtothememoryoftheartistandhiswork.
24
Figures
Figure1.HendrikNicolaasWerkman
Figure2.AWerkmancalendar
Figure3.H.N.Werkman(2ndR)demonstrateshis1800Frenchhandpress.
25
Figure4.AprintusingtypographyasvisualiconographywithConstructivisticonography
Figure5.AcontemporaryinstallationofWerkmandrukselsshowinghissaturationofcolor
andthelargesizeoftheoriginalprints
26
Figure6.AnexampleofacontemporaneousSchwitterstypographicdesign
Figure7.AnotherSchwittersexampleofaprintincorporatingtype
27
Figure8.HerbertBayer“StaatlichesBauhausWeimar“1923
Figure9.CharlesDemuth,“ISawtheFigure5inGold“(1928)
29
Figure12.Werkman,“TheChildrenintheForest“fromTheHasidicLegendsportfolio
Figure13.Werkman,“TheSabbathoftheInnocent“fromTheHasidicLegendsportfolio
30
Figure14.Werkman,“TheRoadBack“fromTheHasidicLegendsportfolio
Figure15.Werkman,“TheTavernintheCarpathians“fromTheHasidicLegendsportfolio
33
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