conservation of the sinai hairstreak butterfly

CONSERVATION OF THE SINAI HAIRSTREAK BUTTERFLY

ANDREW POWER B.A. (HONS)

Thesis submitted to the University of Nottingham for the

degree of Master of Research

January 2013

i

Abstract

The Sinai Hairstreak Satyrium jebelia (Nakamura 1975) is one of only two butterflies listed as

endemic to Egypt (and since the recent unpublished discovery of a Saudi population of the

Sinai Baton Blue, in fact may be the only endemic). It occurs only in the mountains of the St

Katherine Protectorate in the South Sinai, and has remained unstudied since its discovery in

1974. It is likely to be Critically Endangered and at considerable risk of extinction. For the first

time, the distribution of both the Sinai Hairstreak and its larval food plant, Rhamnus

dispermus, are mapped. This study also provides the first population estimate of the Sinai

Hairstreak, using Mark-Release-Recapture methods, as well as information on the behaviour

and conservation requirements of this rare endemic butterfly.

The total world population of Sinai Hairstreaks is estimated to be 1,010 individuals; this

population is divided into six smaller sub-populations of varying size. Recapture data

revealed that Sinai Hairstreaks have high powers of dispersal. This coupled with the relatively

close proximity of the sub-populations may indicate the existence of a single panmictic

population. Due to the small size of the population and the limited amount of suitable

habitat available, the Sinai Hairstreak is at considerable risk of extinction and according to

IUCN criteria should be classed as Critically Endangered.

Tree size, the percentage of healthy green leaves, plant diversity and the presence of fruit on

larval food plant were all found to be significant in explaining the presence of Sinai

Hairstreaks on Rhamnus dispermus. All of these factors can be considered to be a function of

habitat quality. No immediate threats to the Sinai Hairstreak are evident. The larval food

plant grows in remote locations that are at low risk from human disturbance. The local

people do not harvest or use the larval food plant in any way and the effect of grazing is

likely to be minimal. The most significant threat facing the Sinai Hairstreak is global warming.

If climate change predictions for Egypt are correct, the quality of habitat and plant diversity

will decrease in the St Katherine Protectorate as the temperatures increases.

The information from this study provides a framework for future work and a foundation for

the establishment of a long-term conservation strategy for the Sinai Hairstreak.

Annotated lists of dragonfly and bird species recorded during the study period in the St

Katherine Protectorate are included in the appendices. The dragonfly species the Southern

Skimmer Orthetrum brunneum was recorded for only the third time in the Sinai.

ii

Acknowledgements

Firstly I would like to thank my supervisor Francis Gilbert, whose passion for the Sinai is the

reason I chose to come to Nottingham. I would also like to thank the Sinai fieldwork team –

Luke McLeod, Olivia Norfolk, Katy Thompson & Lisa Gecchele who provided me with advice

and plenty of laughs throughout my time in Egypt and Nottingham. I thank the EEAA and the

Protectorate management for permission to work in the park, Farag and Fox Camp for

providing an excellent base camp and Prof. Samy Zalat for logistical help.

I am particularly grateful to have had Suleiman Abusada as my guide in Egypt, like brothers

we squabbled and joked throughout our many days and nights in the mountains. No matter

where or when I wanted to work, or for how long, Suleiman said yes. I am also indebted to

Mohammed Salah, Hamdee Mubarak, Salim and Yusuf for showing me Bedouin culture and

making me feel at home. I am honoured to have met Nasr Mansour, whose knowledge of the

flora and fauna of St Katherine and his desire to show them to me contributed significantly

to my research.

Féaron Cassidy kept me sane for yet another thesis, and visited me in Sinai. My brother Brian

and my friend Peter also visited for a week, unwittingly becoming my field assistants, helping

me measure 200 trees in two days. I would also like to thank Seán Kelly for all his advice.

Finally I would like to thank my family for their support throughout the year.

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Contents Abstract ....................................................................................................................................... i

Acknowledgements .....................................................................................................................ii

1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 1

2 Materials and Methods ........................................................................................................... 8

Study area .............................................................................................................................. 8

Distribution and population estimates .................................................................................. 8

Larval food plant features .................................................................................................... 13

Behaviour ............................................................................................................................. 14

Statistical analysis ................................................................................................................ 14

3 Results ................................................................................................................................... 15

Local knowledge ................................................................................................................... 15

Rhamnus dispermus ............................................................................................................. 15

Distribution ...................................................................................................................... 15

Phenology of Rhamnus dispermus ................................................................................... 19

Sinai Hairstreak .................................................................................................................... 22

Distribution ...................................................................................................................... 22

Butterfly movements ....................................................................................................... 22

Population estimates ....................................................................................................... 30

Activity times .................................................................................................................... 31

Behaviour and ecology ..................................................................................................... 33

Predators and parasites ................................................................................................... 33

Statistical analysis ............................................................................................................ 34

4 Discussion .............................................................................................................................. 34

Rhamnus dispermus ............................................................................................................. 34

Sinai Hairstreak .................................................................................................................... 35

Habitat requirements ........................................................................................................... 35

Dispersal ability .................................................................................................................... 36

Conservation ........................................................................................................................ 39

References ............................................................................................................................... 41

Appendix I - Odonata of St Katherine ...................................................................................... 45

Appendix II - Birds of St Katherine ........................................................................................... 47

1

1 Introduction

One of the most important necessities for the conservation of a rare endemic species is

information on their distribution (De Groot et al., 2009). However, this is often unavailable in

countries where there is less emphasis on conservation and in the case of recently

discovered species. An analysis of the ecological characteristics of threatened and non-

threatened butterflies revealed that threatened butterflies are characterised by narrow

niche breadth, restricted resource distribution, poor dispersal ability and short flight period

(Kotiaho et al., 2005). The two major threats facing endemic species are climate change and

habitat destruction.

The effect of climate change is often exacerbated in mountain regions. Global

warming tends to push species poleward or to higher altitudes where the climate is cooler

(Wilson et al., 2007). An analysis of butterfly surveys dating from 1992 to 2010 in North

America showed a sharp increase in sub-tropical species that have expanded northward

from warmer climates, indicating how butterfly ranges can change in response to global

warming but also how quickly climate change is affecting species distribution (Breed et al.,

2012). Species pushed to higher altitudes can become isolated in high-altitude ‘islands’.

Migration out of these areas is difficult as there is no suitable habitat nearby and many

mountain endemics have low powers of dispersal (Thomas et al., 2004). As global warming

increases, species are pushed higher, restricting further their available habitat. Mountain

endemics face a heightened risk of extinction because of these factors (Thomas et al., 2004).

Habitat destruction is a significant threat to butterfly species, especially to species

with limited ranges. The Xerces Blue Glaucopsyche xerces was an American butterfly species

found on coastal sand dunes that became extinct as a result of habitat destruction caused by

urban development (Emmel and Emmel, 1993). The amount of available habitat is significant

for explaining the occurrence of a species. Habitat destruction changes the spatial structure

and the metapopulation dynamics of a species, and understanding the dynamics is crucial for

a conservation strategy to be successful. Habitat destruction decreases habitat area as well

as the connectivity between suitable habitats, making it more difficult to move between sites

and colonise suitable areas of habitat. This is frequently observed in butterflies because their

distribution is dependent on the presence of their larval food plant or a specific habitat type;

for example the Marsh Fritillary Euphdryas aurinia can live in a variety of habitats but only

where its larval food plant, the Devil’s-bit scabious Succisa pratensis, is found (Wahlberg et

al., 2002). The Marsh Fritillary therefore occurs in isolated patches which contain suitable

larval food plants. The species has undergone a severe decline in Britain and Ireland in the

last century as habitat destruction and human activities have altered the landscape, isolating

breeding habitats and hence increasing the likelihood of local extinction (Schtickzelle et al.,

2005).

The connectivity of suitable habitat is vital for the long-term survival of many species

because it determines the extent to which metapopulation dynamics apply (Joyce and Pullin,

2003). The mere existence of fragmented habitat is a necessary but not a sufficient condition

2

to establish that a species occurs in a metapopulation, a term now applied much more

broadly than it should be (Fronhofer et al., 2012). The extent to which habitats are patchy to

a butterfly depends on the typical distances it disperses, and there is a trade-off between

dispersal distance and population growth rate: poor dispersers have greater potential

population growth rate, but suffer more from stochasticity of their local environments

(Baguette and Schtickzelle, 2006). This may be especially important in arid environments,

which are patchy and fragmented due to the limited and patchy natural resources available,

especially water.

The population structure of a species is dependent on its distribution, the availability

of suitable habitat and dispersal ability. Some migratory butterflies have incredible powers of

dispersal and can travel large distances; Eastern North American Monarch butterflies Danaus

plexippus can travel distances of up to 4000 km on migration (Zhu et al., 2009). More typical

non-migratory butterflies cannot travel great distances, such as the Chalk-hill Blue

Polyommatus coridon, which can travel a maximum distance of 3.7 km but typically moves

far less (Schmitt et al., 2006). Some butterflies have very poor powers of dispersal, such as

the Sinai Baton Blue Pseudophilotes sinaicus which rarely moves further than 100 m (James,

2006a, James, 2006c, Gilbert et al., 2010). Butterflies are model organisms for the study of

population structure, impact of habitat loss and fragmentation as well as climate change

(Butterfly Conservation Europe, 2008).

The spatial structure of a species can be highly variable and a variety of models exist.

These models are based on dispersal ability and connectivity of suitable habitat. Some

species are separated into isolated populations that do not interact at all as dispersal is

limited. These populations may be at increased risk of extinction as they are unlikely to be

recolonised (Frankham, 2005). Isolated populations may differentiate genetically over time

due to insufficient gene flow from neighbouring populations (Bouzat et al., 2009). Isolation

can have detrimental effects on a population as genetic diversity decreases with inbreeding

(Bouzat et al., 2009). A study of the Golden-brown mouse lemur Microcebus ravelobensis

showed that there was significant genetic differentiation between populations (Guschanski

et al., 2007). These populations have become isolated over time from a combination of

natural barriers, habitat fragmentation and destruction as a result of human intervention

(Guschanski et al., 2007). A species can also persist as a metapopulation where populations

are connected by limited dispersal. A true metapopulation contains discrete habitat patches

that are incapable of containing self-supporting populations without constant exchange of

individuals through migration; the populations of these patches fluctuate randomly between

extinction and recolonisation events (Wheat et al., 2011). A source-sink model describes how

individuals may move from areas of high population density (source), where habitat

conditions are favourable, to areas of low population density (sink) where conditions may be

less favourable. The sink would not be able to support a population on its own and for

persistence relies on excess individuals from the source (Boughton, 2000). This is similar to

the mainland-island model which describes how one large population may act as source to

smaller populations. However, these smaller populations can persist on their own over short

periods of time, but are at a greater risk of extinction because of their small size (Fronhofer

et al., 2012). In some cases multiple patches of suitable habitat may be closely linked

through very high powers of dispersal. This is known as a patchy population, and local

3

extinction does not occur as result of the high powers of dispersal between the habitat

patches. In this scenario a species exists as a single panmictic population (Fronhofer et al.,

2012). In these populations no genetic structure can be found as populations do not become

isolated. A genetic study of Moose Alces alces in Canada showed no genetic structure,

suggesting that they exist as a single panmictic population (Finnegan et al., 2012). It is very

important to assign the correct population structure to a species when creating a

conservation strategy (Guiney et al., 2010). Basing a conservation strategy on the wrong

population structure may waste valuable resources and may not benefit a species (Fronhofer

et al., 2012).

This study concerns the Sinai Hairstreak Satyrium jebelia (Nakamura, 1975), now

Egypt’s only known endemic butterfly species after the recent discovery of the Sinai Baton

Blue in Saudi Arabia (Dr Samy Zalat, pers. comm.). It is known to occur in three small sites in

the mountains (2000 m altitude) around the town of St Katherine in the St Katherine

Protectorate (South Sinai). It was discovered in 1974 and all the holotypes and paratypes

collected from just two isolated sites; Jebel Bab and Jebel Ahmar (Nakamura, 1975). The

species was named after the Jebelia, the Bedouin tribe that live in the area (Nakamura,

1975). Another specimen was observed and collected at a new, third site in 1993 at Jebel

Katherine (Weidenhoffer et al., 2004). These represent the only three localities where this

species is known to be found, all lying within a ten-kilometre radius of the city of St

Katherine. It is highlighted as a species urgently needing reliable assessment and although

likely to be Critically Endangered, there are few data to back this up. As of 2007 there have

been fourteen known records of the Sinai Hairstreak with the latest being from 2001 (Gilbert

and Zalat, 2007).

The genus Satyrium belongs to the family Lycaenidae, the second largest butterfly

family, which also includes the Sinai Baton Blue (Nakamura 1975). The classification of

Holarctic hairstreaks has long been a contentious issue (Clench, 1978) and it remains so. The

nomenclatural history of the genus Satyrium (Scudder 1876) is complex with repeated

alterations. The Sinai Hairstreak currently belongs to the subgenus Superflua (Strand, 1910),

characterised by a strongly marked underside compared with the rest of the genus and the

female usually having well pronounced submarginal spots on the underside (Weidenhoffer

et al., 2004). However, the Sinai Hairstreak is probably most closely related to the Blue Spot

Hairstreak Satyrium spini (Schiffermüller) of the subgenus Satyrium (Nakamura, 1975), found

throughout western Europe as far east as Iran (Tshikolovets, 2011). There have not been any

recent studies on the phylogeny of Satyrium and the attribution of the Sinai Hairstreak to the

subgenus Superflua is not well supported (Gian Christophoro Bozano, pers. comm.). The Blue

Spot Hairstreak has a similar wing pattern and egg structure, as well as being relatively close

geographically. In the mountains of the West Bank (Palestine), it uses the same larval food

plant as the Sinai Hairstreak (Nakamura, 1975). As well as differences in wing morphology,

the size of the male genitalia of the Sinai Hairstreak is different from that of the Blue Spot

Hairstreak. The most striking characteristic of this distinct species, that it does not share with

any other members of the genus, is the continuous, smoothly curved postmedian band on

the underside of the hind wing (Nakamura, 1975) (Plate 1.1).

4

The genus Satyrium is found across the Holarctic, while the Sinai Hairstreak is

distributed in a small area of the Sinai on the southern edge of this zone (Weidenhoffer et

al., 2004). South Sinai is an arid landscape with little rainfall, not characteristic of the habitat

used by other species of the genus. The Blue Spot Hairstreak is found at both low and high

altitude in areas of high plant diversity such as scrubland, grassland and woodland edges and

clearings (Settle et al., 2010). The Sinai and Middle East region once had considerably more

rainfall and more extensive arboreal vegetation during the glacial periods of the Quaternary

(Issar et al., 2011). This habitat would have extended north through Israel into Europe,

allowing faunal exchange between the two continents, so the Sinai Hairstreak is likely to

have had a larger range before the desiccation processes that occurred after the Atlantic

period 5,000 years ago (Nakamura, 1975). Many other relict species from cooler climates can

be found in the Sinai such as Phoenicean Juniper, or Arar, Juniperus phoenicea which is

normally found in much wetter areas of the Mediterranean basin (El-Bana et al., 2010).

The Sinai Hairstreak is on the wing between late May and early July and is said to be

not uncommon (Nakamura, 1975) in areas where its larval food plant occurs, usually in wadis

(valleys) and along rocky slopes. This species is univoltine and lays its eggs at the base of the

thorns, always on the underside of the twig, or in positions facing away from the sun

(Nakamura, 1975). Like the Blue Spot Hairstreak, the eggs are said to go through a diapause

with a delayed emergence until the following spring. The Blue Spot Hairstreak caterpillars

hatch in spring and feed on emerging flower buds and young leaves of the larval food plant;

its caterpillars secrete a sugary substance and are tended to by ants (Settle et al., 2010).

Myrmecophilous relationships are common in Lycaenidae butterflies with about 75% of

species having an association with ants (Pierce et al., 2002). However, the genus Satyrium

has fewer species with ant associations than other genera (Fiedler, 1991). Attendant ants

may provide protection to the caterpillars from parasites or predators but the benefits of a

myrmecophilous relationship are likely to be species-specific (Pierce et al., 2002). It is

unknown if the larvae of the Sinai Hairstreak are tended by ants. Unlike the Sinai Baton Blue,

the Sinai Hairstreak has received little attention since its discovery and very little is known

about its biology and ecology. What little is known comes from the original description by

(Nakamura, 1975).

The larval food plant of the Sinai Hairstreak is the Sinai Buckthorn Rhamnus

dispermus, found in Egypt, South Jordan, Palestine, Israel and Lebanon (Boulos, 2000) (Plate

1.2). Rhamnus dispermus trees were searched for the presence of adult Sinai Hairstreaks, or

a related species, in South Jordan in 1998 but none were found (Benyamini, 2000). Rhamnus

dispermus is a dioecious, polygamous shrub (i.e. it has both hermaphroditic and unisexual

flowers on the same tree or on separate trees). It has small green leaves and an intricately

branched stem, with a woody spine at the end of each twig. Both sexes produce flowers

while the females also produce seeds encased in a yellowish drupe. Mature trees have

previously been recorded as being between 0.5 and 1.8 m in height (Boulos, 2000). Several

features of Rhamnus dispermus and the quality of habitat will be assessed in this study to

describe as accurately as possible the specific requirements of the Sinai Hairstreak. Factors

other than the presence of the larval food plant may be important for the Sinai Hairstreak

such as the size or location of the larval food plant, the presence of a specific food plant or

the quality of habitat. Understanding the specific habitat requirements for a species is very

5

important for its conservation and developing management plans if necessary (Sutherland,

2009). For example, the Woodland Brown butterfly Lopinga achine is a Palaearctic species

found in woodland that has been in decline across its range in recent decades. The specific

habitat requirements for the Woodland Brown butterfly differ across its range and

understanding these differences is essential for conservation planning (Kodandaramaiah et

al., 2012).

It is unknown whether Rhamnus dispermus is under threat in the St Katherine

Protectorate. The Bedouin collect many plants in the mountains and wadis for medicinal

purposes. Sinai Thyme, the larval food plant for the Sinai Baton Blue, is collected extensively

by Bedouin herbalists, and might be one of the main threats facing the Sinai Baton Blue

(Hoyle and James, 2005). Historically the thorns of Rhamnus dispermus trees have been

occasionally used by Bedouin to construct traps for Nubian Ibex Capra nubiana (Hobbs,

1992). However, these were only used as a substitute if Palm tree leaves or Acacia raddiana

thorns were unavailable, and it is likely that only a small part of the tree was used (Hobbs,

1992). The hunting of Ibex has been illegal in the protectorate since 1996, and so this is very

unlikely to represent a real threat to Rhamnus dispermus. It has not previously been

established if Rhamnus dispermus is used in any other way by local people. Over-grazing of a

habitat can have negative implications for a butterfly species. The abundance of the Alpine

endemic species Erebia calcaria was found to be significantly affected by grazing intensity

(De Groot et al., 2009). The Bedouin keep herds of goats and allow them to graze in the

wadis, and thus theoretically many plant species may be under threat, although there is little

or no evidence for this (Gilbert, 2011). The three known sites for the Sinai Hairstreak are

relatively remote and at high altitude, so a priori it seems unlikely the trees are at serious

risk from grazing in these areas.

Global warming and habitat fragmentation pose a significant threat to biodiversity

(Opdam and Wascher, 2004). The Sinai Hairstreak could be at great risk of extinction from

global warming. In the last one hundred years, the average temperature in the Middle East

has risen by 0.7° Celsius (Brohan et al., 2006). A study of European butterflies showed that

the ranges of many southern species have retracted northward (Reemer et al., 2003). As the

genus Satyrium is Holarctic and the Sinai Hairstreak is at the southernmost limit of the

distribution, wedged between Europe, Africa and the Middle East, this could be a significant

threat to its existence. Projections suggest that Egypt will have decreased precipitation and

in the Middle East generally an increase in temperature of between 3.5° and 5°C has been

predicted (Met Office, 2011). Thus, the habitat available to the Sinai Hairstreak may become

further restricted in the future.

It is reasonable to assume the Sinai Hairstreak lives in discrete patches like the Sinai

Baton Blue due to the arid environment and distribution of its larval food plant (James,

2006b). Further knowledge of the distribution of these patches will provide background to

the spatial dynamics of this butterfly. The landscape of the Sinai is harsh and fragmented,

and nothing is known about the dispersal ability of the Sinai Hairstreak. Nakamura suggests

that the Sinai Hairstreak is a good flier, but he gave no data (Nakamura, 1975). By

quantifying the amount of suitable habitat, the connectivity of the habitats and the dispersal

6

ability of the Sinai Hairstreak, we can understand more about the conservation requirements

of this unique butterfly.

Thus the aims of this study are to describe the distribution of both the Sinai

Hairstreak and its larval food plant Rhamnus dispermus in the St Katherine Protectorate, as

well as to provide the first population estimate for the Sinai Hairstreak. The general ecology,

behaviour and habitat/conservation requirements of the Sinai Hairstreak will also be

examined. The Sinai Hairstreak is a flagship species of the area, yet next to nothing is known

about its conservation requirements. Considering the extreme nature of the habitat of South

Sinai and the small size of the sites where the butterfly is found, the Sinai Hairstreak may be

at considerable risk of extinction.

7

.

Plate 1.1: Two adult Sinai Hairstreaks Satyrium jebelia on a Rhamnus dispermus branch in

Wadi El-Freya, Saint Katherine Protectorate, South Sinai. Photo by Andrew Power (2012)

Plate 1.2: A typical Rhamnus dispermus tree in Wadi Ahmar, Saint Katherine Protectorate,

South Sinai. Photo by Andrew Power (2012)

8

2 Materials and Methods

Study area

The St Katherine Protectorate is one of Egypt’s largest National Parks and is situated in the

South Sinai, spanning an area of 4,350 km² (Grainger and Gilbert, 2008). Known as the ‘Roof

of Egypt’ the area is predominantly mountainous with deep extensive dry valleys ‘wadis’ cut

throughout the landscape. The igneous Pre-Cambrian Ring Dyke encompassing 640 km² lying

at the centre of the National Park was classified by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site in 2002

for its cultural and religious importance. The massif is 600 million years old and is comprised

mainly of red granite (UNESCO, 2002). At the heart of the Ring Dyke lies the city of St

Katherine, situated at the foot of Mount Sinai, where according to Abrahamic religions

Moses received the ten commandments, and Jebel Katherine, Egypt’s highest mountain at

2,641 m above sea level. It is also home to the Monastery of St Katherine, the oldest

continuously working Christian monastery in the world, whence the area derives its name

(Grainger and Gilbert, 2008). The study sites are found around the high mountain peaks in

the heart of the massif.

The mountain massif is a local hotspot of biodiversity. The Sinai Peninsula is wedged

between Africa and Asia and is very close to Europe; the area has an unusual blend of flora

and fauna from these continents. South Sinai has a Sahara-Mediterranean climate with hot

summers (up to 36°C) and cold winters, and is the coolest area in Egypt (UNESCO, 2002). On

average the area receives 62 mm of rainfall a year (Zahran and Willis, 2009). The high

mountains are sometimes covered in snow during the winter, and snow melt provides the

area with more water throughout the rest of the year (Grainger, 2003). The relatively high

amount of water available compared to the rest of Egypt has resulted in a high diversity of

plants and animals. There are almost 500 species of plant in the area, many of which are

endemic (Ayyad et al., 2000). The IUCN have declared the area as one of the most important

centres for plant diversity in the Middle East (Grainger and Gilbert, 2008). The area is also

important for insects; two-thirds of the butterfly species found in Egypt have been recorded

in the St Katherine Protectorate (Gilbert and Zalat, 2007). Important numbers of resident

and migratory birds utilise the area and it was designated as an important bird area (IBA) by

Birdlife International (BirdLife International, 2012).

Distribution and population estimates

The mountains and wadis around the city of St Katherine were searched for the presence of

Rhamnus dispermus in April and May before the main flight period of the Sinai Hairstreak.

The location of each tree discovered was recorded with a portable Global Positioning

Satellite receiver (GPS) (Garmin, eTrex Venture HC, accurate to ± 5 m) and a map of all the

sites produced. Each tree was assigned an individual number and yellow tags were used to

distinguish trees in the field more easily. All the sites were revisited during the main flight

period to search for the presence of adult Sinai Hairstreaks. In addition to providing

information on the distribution of the larval food plant the local Bedouin were asked if the

9

trees have any medicinal, cultural or practical importance to their tribe. All fieldwork in St

Katherine took place under the supervision of an experienced Bedouin guide.

Population estimates for adult Sinai Hairstreaks were carried out at each site in June

and July. A five-day Mark-Release-Recapture (MRR) experiment was carried out at each of

the four sites. Every tree at each site was visited multiple times to search for butterflies

following a rough transect. Butterflies were caught with a large butterfly net from 08:00 to

16:30 (local time, GMT+2) for five consecutive days. Each butterfly captured was given an

individual mark with a felt-tip pen through the net and released as quickly as possible. An

example of a marked individual is represented in Plate 2.1. The location, behaviour and time

were recorded for each capture or subsequent recapture. Population sizes were estimated

using Eberhardt’s geometric model (Pollard, 1977). The first MRR took place between the 2nd

and 6th of June in Jebel Katherine (Fig 2.1). Abu Druce was surveyed between the 17th and

21st of June (Fig 2.2), Abu Towaita between the 24th and 28th of June (Fig 2.3) and the final

MRR was conducted in the Jebel Bab region between the 7th and 11th of July (Fig 2.4). Maps

were created using Google Earth showing the movements of captured Sinai Hairstreaks, the

distribution of Rhamnus dispermus and the Sinai Hairstreak.

Given the large size of the Wadi Ahmar region and the apparent high population of

Sinai Hairstreaks at the site, a different method was used here. A pre-determined transect

route through Ahmar was walked on the 8th of June encompassing as many of the larval food

plants as possible (Fig 2.5). Adults were caught and given a site-specific mark and released

quickly. The site was revisited on the 12th of June giving the marked individuals time to

redistribute into the population at random. The same transect route was used, unmarked

individuals were given a different mark and recaptured individuals were re-marked to avoid

double counting. Marking took place between 08:00 and 16:00 (local time). The population

size was estimated using the Lincoln index.

Plate 2.1: A marked Sinai Hairstreak Satyrium jebelia on a Rhamnus dispermus tree in Abu

Druce, Saint Katherine Protectorate, South Sinai. Photo by Andrew Power (2012)

10

Figure 2.1: Map of Jebel Katherine showing transect line used for MRR and the distribution

of Rhamnus dispermus (Google Earth, 2012) (white symbols show Rhamnus trees where no

Sinai Hairstreaks were recorded during the study, red symbols show Rhamnus trees where

Sinai Hairstreaks were present during study)

Figure 2.2: Map of Abu Druce showing transect line used for MRR and the distribution of

Rhamnus dispermus (Google Earth, 2012) (white symbols show Rhamnus trees where no



11

Figure 2.3: Map of Abu Towaita showing the transect line used for MRR and the distribution




Figure 2.4: Map of Jebel Bab region showing transect line used for MRR and the distribution




12

Figure 2.5: Map of Wadi Ahmar region showing transect line used for MRR and the

distribution of Rhamnus dispermus (Google Earth, 2012) (white symbols show Rhamnus trees

where no Sinai Hairstreaks were recorded during the study, red symbols show Rhamnus

trees where Sinai Hairstreaks were present during study)

Wadi Ahmar was visited throughout the study period to identify the flight time and peak

emergence of the Sinai Hairstreak. A fixed transect route was used to census the butterflies

(Fig 2.6). Starting at 10:00 (local time), a 720 m transect was walked, encompassing as many

trees in the wadi as possible. Transects were walked at a slow, steady pace counting all

butterflies seen within a fixed distance of 2.5 m on either side and five metres ahead. The

total number of adult Sinai Hairstreaks observed was noted. The transect method used was

based on standardised ‘Pollard Walks’ frequently adopted in butterfly monitoring schemes in

Great Britain (Pellet, 2008). The survey was conducted on the 29th of May, 11th of June, 2nd of

July, 14th of July, 17th of July and on the 27th of July.

13

Figure 2.6: Map of Wadi Ahmar showing transect line used and the distribution of Rhamnus

dispermus (Google Earth, 2012) (white symbols show Rhamnus trees where no Sinai

Hairstreaks were recorded during the study, red symbols show Rhamnus trees where Sinai

Hairstreaks were present during study)

Larval food plant features

To assess the habitat and larval food plant requirements, eleven features of the

larval food plant and its location were recorded (Table 2.1). The height and two

perpendicular widths of each tree were measured using a measuring wheel. The volume was

then calculated assuming the tree is semi-ellipsoidal in shape. The percentage of the tree

covered in healthy green leaves was noted subjectively. Each tree was checked for the

presence of fruit or flowers. The slope of the area where each tree was growing was

measured in degrees using a clinometer. The aspect was measured using a compass (North,

South, East, and West). The amount of shelter/shade covering a tree was also noted

subjectively. The number of other plants within a two-metre radius of each tree was

recorded, as well as the number of different species, to enable the calculation of biodiversity

around each tree - recorded as simple species richness. An estimation of diversity at a site

level was calculated by selecting 25 random Rhamnus trees from each site (excluding Wadi

El-Freya) and measuring diversity around all 25 trees using Hill’s numbers 1D (i.e.

exponential Shannon)(Tuomisto, 2010). The altitude was assessed using a portable GPS. The

total number of larval food plants at a given site was recorded as well as the density of larval

food plants in the site. Site size was calculated using MapSource (mapping software provided

by Garmin).

14

Table 2.1: The features of Rhamnus dispermus recorded and the instruments used

Larval food plant/Habitat Feature Instruments used

Tree size; height and 2 perpendicular widths Measured using measuring wheel in metres

Percentage of ‘green’ healthy leaves Subjective observation

Presence of fruit or flowers Observation

Slope where the tree grows Measured with clinometer

Aspect where the tree grows Measured with compass

Shelter/shade Subjective observation; tree in the open with nothing shading it in all sides was scored 1. A plant with a lot of shelter on one side or partial shelter on two sides was scored 2. A tree with a lot of shelter on two sides or partial shelter on three sides was scored as 3. A tree with a lot of shelter on three sides or partial shelter on four sides was scored as 4

Plant diversity: number of other plants within two-metres of larval food plant and number of different species

Observation

Altitude Recorded with Global Positioning Satellite receiver (GPS) (Garmin, eTrex Venture HC)

Larval food plant density within site Number of larval food plants per km², calculated using MapSource

Behaviour

The general behaviour of the Sinai Hairstreak was monitored throughout the study period.

Predation attempts, potential parasites and other animal species utilising Rhamnus

dispermus were recorded. Notes were also taken on the phenology of the larval food plant

during the study period.

Statistical analysis

All statistical tests were performed using “R”. The eleven features of each larval food plant

and its location for 553 trees were entered as explanatory variables into a mixed effects

model. The presence/absence of Sinai Hairstreaks was entered as the response variable. Site

was included as a random factor to account for spatial variation. Factors were removed

singly and the new model compared to the previous one using a Chi-Square test until a

significant difference between two models was noticed. Non-significant factors were

omitted, leaving the minimal sufficient model.

15

3 Results

Local knowledge

The Sinai Buckthorn Rhamnus dispermus, known locally as ‘Orontol’, did not appear to be an

important tree to the Bedouin people. Many Bedouin are unfamiliar with this species and do

not distinguish it from other thorn bushes in the area, such as the Sinai Hawthorn Crataegus

x sinaica, known locally as ‘Zah-rur’. Crataegus x sinaica is more widespread than Rhamnus

dispermus and has a place in Bedouin folklore, with most local people being aware of it. A

large partially damaged Rhamnus dispermus tree was observed in Abu Towaita on the 21st of

May where branches had been removed to block off a deep unused well next to the tree.

This was the only observed use of the tree. As to the butterfly, while some Bedouin were

familiar with the Sinai Baton Blue (due to our previous research in the area, rather than it

being an animal known in Bedouin folklore), they were unfamiliar with the Sinai Hairstreak.

Very few insects are distinguished by species (Zalat et al., 2008).

Rhamnus dispermus

Distribution

590 Rhamnus dispermus trees were discovered in nine discrete ‘sites’ (Fig 3.1): site

boundaries were assigned using the natural topography of the landscape. A large site (0.7

km²) of 145 trees, referred to in this study as Ahmar, was found in Jebel Ahmar, spreading

into Wadi Ahmar and partially into Wadi Matter (Fig 3.2). Most trees were found along the

wadi with many on the steep slopes on either side. A total of 33 Rhamnus dispermus trees

were discovered in Jebel Katherine (0.2 km²) along a small wadi near Ain Shinar, adjacent to

the main path to the summit of Jebel Katherine (Fig 3.3). Most trees were on the rocky

slopes rather than in the valley itself. A compact site of 45 trees (0.1 km²) was found in Abu

Druce with one outlier tree (not shown in Fig 3.4). Most trees were found along the bottom

of the wadi. A large (2.3 km²) patchy site was discovered in Abu Towaita with 27 trees (Fig

3.5). Six trees were discovered in Wadi El-Freya (2.1 km²), all of them high up on the

mountain slopes (Fig 3.6). The largest site discovered (2.2 km²), referred to in this study as

Bab, stretched from the top of Nagba Harear into Wadi Zatar and Ain Nigela to the foot of

Jebel Bab. A total of 334 trees were found in this site (Fig 3.7). Single trees were discovered

high up near Abu Himmen, in a tributary valley off Wadi Jebel and in Abu Teenya. The size of

each site and densities of Rhamnus dispermus trees are shown in Table 3.1.

16

Figure 3.1: Map of St Katherine Protectorate showing distribution of Rhamnus dispermus and

Sinai Hairstreak (white symbols show Rhamnus trees where no Sinai Hairstreak were

recorded during the study, red symbols show Rhamnus trees where Sinai Hairstreaks were

present during study)

Figure 3.2: Map of Ahmar region showing distribution of Rhamnus dispermus and Sinai

Hairstreak (white symbols show Rhamnus trees where no Sinai Hairstreak were recorded

during the study, red symbols show Rhamnus trees where Sinai Hairstreaks were present

during study

17

Figure 3.3: Map of Jebel Katherine showing distribution of Rhamnus dispermus and Sinai



during study)

Figure 3.4: Map of Abu Druce showing distribution of Rhamnus dispermus and Sinai



during study)

18

Figure 3.5: Map of Abu Towaita showing distribution of Rhamnus dispermus and Sinai



during study)

Figure 3.6: Map of Wadi El-Freya showing distribution of Rhamnus dispermus and Sinai



during study)

19

Figure 3.7: Map of Bab region showing distribution of Rhamnus dispermus and Sinai



during study

Table 3.1: The number and density of Rhamnus dispermus trees in each site

Site Area km² No. of trees Trees per km²

Jebel Katherine 0.2 km² 33 165

Abu Druce 0.1 km² 42 420

Abu Towaita 2.3 km² 27 11.8

Wadi El-Freya 1.3 km² 6 4.6

Bab 2.2 km² 330 150

Ahmar 0.7 km² 145 207

Phenology of Rhamnus dispermus

On the 22nd of April in Jebel Ahmar the trees looked in excellent condition with bright green

leaves and many buds, some flowering. All flowers observed were light green/yellow.

Similarly on the 25th of April the trees in Abu Druce appeared to be in very good condition

with more flowers than emerging buds. A red colouration at the centre of some flowers was

noted. Fruit (red and green) and withered flowers were first noticed in Wadi El-Freya on the

20

10th of May. The leaves also appeared more ‘tatty’. From the 2nd of June to the 6th of June in

Jebel Katherine, 11 out of 33 trees had flowers while 17 out of 33 had fruit. Flowers were last

recorded between the 17th and 21st of June in Abu Druce where only two out of 43 trees had

any flowers. The leaves on all trees in Wadi El-Freya had almost completely withered by the

3rd of July with fruit present on two out of six trees. From the 7th to the 11th of July, clusters

of trees with withered leaves were noticed in Bab. Several trees showed signs of withering in

Ahmar on the 17th of July but generally trees were still in good condition. Withering was

more evident in Ahmar by the 6th of August and in Bab on the 9th of August. Fruit was still

present in both sites at this time with 35 out of 108 trees in Jebel Ahmar having fruit and 114

out of 300 in Jebel Bab. Tree size varied highly with height ranging from 0.02 m to 5.90 m

with the average being 1.29 m (Fig 3.8). Rhamnus dispermus trees were found at altitudes of

between 1584 m and 2368 m above sea level. Fruit was recorded on 187 trees in total out of

553 (Fig 3.9). Most trees had a healthy percentage of green leaves (Fig 3.10).

Figure 3.8: Frequency distribution of tree heights

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

No

. of

tre

es

Metres

21

Figure 3.9: The number of Rhamnus dispermus trees with or without fruit

Figure 3.10: The percentage of healthy green leaves on all Rhamnus dispermus trees

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

Fruit No Fruit

No

. of

tre

es

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

No

. of

tre

es

% Green

22

Sinai Hairstreak

Distribution

Sinai Hairstreaks were recorded on a total of 130 out of the 590 trees across all sites.

Butterflies were absent from only three sites; however, only one tree was present in each of

these sites. Sinai Hairstreaks were recorded on 62 trees in Ahmar, nine trees in Jebel

Katherine, 24 trees in Abu Druce, seven trees in Abu Towaita, three trees in Wadi El-Freya

and observed on 25 trees in Bab, mostly located in the west near the foot of Jebel Bab. Single

trees were discovered high up near Abu Himmen, in a tributary valley off Wadi Jebel and in

Abu Teenya. Sinai Hairstreaks were not seen at any of these locations. The dates each site

was visited for MRR can be seen in Table 3.2.

Table 3.2: The dates each site was visited for MRR

Site visited Date

Jebel Katherine 2-6/06/2012

Ahmar 8 and 12/06/2012

Abu Druce 17-21/06/2012

Abu Towaita 24-28/06/2012

Wadi El-Freya 3/07/2012

Bab 7-11/07/2012

Butterfly movements

The trees utilised by Sinai Hairstreaks and the movements of recaptured individuals can be

seen in Figures 3.11-3.14. The average distance travelled by butterflies recaptured was 104

m. The maximum dispersal distance recorded was 938 m by butterfly b1 in Bab (Fig 3.14 (a)).

A frequency distribution of distances travelled by recaptured butterflies can be seen in

Figure 3.15.

23

Figure 3.11: Map of Jebel Katherine showing movements of Sinai Hairstreaks and distribution

of Rhamnus dispermus (white symbols show Rhamnus trees where no Sinai Hairstreaks were



Table 3.3: Recaptured Sinai Hairstreak movements in Jebel Katherine showing Rhamnus

dispermus tree number where captured (unless otherwise stated), time of capture and total

distance travelled by each butterfly

Butterfly No. Day 1 Day 2 Day 3

Day 4 Day 5 Total distance travelled (metres)

(b) 1 14 (11.26) 1 (15:19)

227.83

(b) 4 16 (12:30) 13 (16:11) 10 (12:11)

60.87

(b) 5 Shohat (8:35)

Shohat (8:48) 23 (13:50)

9

(b) 10 19 (10:34) 16 (12:51)

31.73

(b) 11 16 (11:07) 19 (9:57)

31.73

(b) 12 10 (11:40) 16 (12:59)

59.38

(b) 16 13 (12:42) 16 (12:50)

12.42

24

Figure 3.12 (a): Map Abu Druce showing movements of Sinai Hairstreaks and distribution of

Rhamnus dispermus (white symbols show Rhamnus trees where no Sinai Hairstreaks were



Table 3.4 (a): Recaptured Sinai Hairstreak movements in Abu Druce showing Rhamnus



Butterfly No. Day 1 Day 2 Day 3 Day 4 Day 5 Total distance travelled (metres)

(b) 8

5 (13:29)

10 (15:26) 12

(b) 9

5 (12:33)

9 (13:48) 11 (13:56)

2 (11:36) 2 (11:37) 7 (11:53)

128.36

(b) 10 7 (13:39)

2 (11:31) 26 (15:30)

149.28

(b) 26 29 (14:29) 32 (15:44) 12.15

(b) 27 14 (13:57) 10 (13:48) 15.24

(b) 38 7 (13:02) 33 (13:00) 79

(b) 56

17 (13:45) 8 (14:32)

24.34

25

Figure 3.12 (b): Map Abu Druce showing movements of Sinai Hairstreaks and distribution of




Table 3.4 (b): Recaptured Sinai Hairstreak movements in Abu Druce showing Rhamnus



Butterfly no. Day 1 Day 2 Day 3 Day 4 Day 5 Total distance travelled (metres)

(b) 12 10 (13:51)

5 (12:17) 11 (13:52)

9 (11:55)

9 (11:56)

53.50

(b) 15 14 (14:09)

6 (15:16)

22.19

(b) 37 2 (12:06)

23 (13:28)

71.53

(b) 43 22 (15:09)

Crataegus x sinaica (10:58)

63.80

(b) 51 7 (12:00)

29 (13:57)

108.53

26

Figure 3.12 (c): Map Abu Druce showing movements of Sinai Hairstreaks and distribution of




Table 3.4 (c): Recaptured Sinai Hairstreak movements in Abu Druce showing Rhamnus




(b) 16 14 (14:14) 23 (14:20)

7 (12:03)

38.43

(b) 41 11 (14:23) 9 (16:09)

9 (11:55) 22 (12:27)

7 (11:57)

6.21

(b) 56 17 (13:45) 8 (14:32)

24.34

(b) 63 14 (12:24) At water source near tree 7 (13:45)

17

27

Figure 3.13: Map Abu Towaita showing movements of Sinai Hairstreaks and distribution of




Table 3.5: Recaptured Sinai Hairstreak movements in Abu Towaita showing Rhamnus



Butterfly no. Day 1 Day 2 Day 3 Day 4 Total distance travelled (metres)

(b) 9 Crataegus x sinaica (12:45)

9 (13:11)

424.76

(b) 11 13 (11:30)

13 (11:24) 12 (14:40)

12 (11:35)

37.16

28

Figure 3.14 (a): Map of Jebel Bab region showing movements of Sinai Hairstreaks and

distribution of Rhamnus dispermus (white symbols show Rhamnus trees where no Sinai

Hairstreaks were recorded during study, red symbols show Rhamnus trees where Sinai


Table 3.6 (a): Recaptured Sinai Hairstreak movements in the Jebel Bab region showing

Rhamnus dispermus tree number where captured (unless otherwise stated), time of capture

and total distance travelled by each butterfly.


(b) 1 186 (9:40)

C Crataegus x sinaica 6 (14:14)

938

(b) 11 Near Crataegus x sinaica (10:14)

Crataegus x sinaica 7a (9:34)

150.43

(b) 12 Crataegus x sinaica 4 (10:32) Crataegus x sinaica 7b (15:40)

24

(b) 21 Plant X (16:04)

182 (10:00) 24.81

29

Figure 3.14 (b): Map of Jebel Bab region showing movements of Sinai Hairstreaks and

distribution of Rhamnus dispermus (white symbols show Rhamnus trees where no Sinai

Hairstreaks were recorded during the study, red symbols show Rhamnus trees where Sinai


Table 3.6 (b): Recaptured Sinai Hairstreak movements in the Jebel Bab region showing

Rhamnus dispermus tree number where captured (unless otherwise stated), time of capture

and total distance travelled by each butterfly


(b) 14 236 (12:39) 268 (13:59) 293 (14:06)

140

(b) 17 268 (13:54) 235 (12:00)

87.67

(b) 31 291 (13:52) Crataegus x sinaica 6 (13:49)

254 (11:11) 293 (11:47)

359.65

(b) 32

221 (14:20) 235 (12:00) 75

(b) 33 224 (14:35) Near 235 (12:01)

59

(b) 34 Crataegus x sinaica 8 (14:44)

237 (12:39) 243 (14:21)

68.56

30

Fig 3.15: Frequency distribution of total distances travelled by all butterflies recpatured

Population estimates

54 Sinai Hairstreaks were marked in Ahmar on the 8th of June. 11 previously marked

individuals and 82 newly marked individuals were observed in Ahmar on the 12th of June.

The number of captures and recaptures during the five-day MRR in Jebel Katherine, Abu

Druce, Abu Towaita and Bab can be seen in Table 3.7. An MRR was attempted in Wadi El-

Freya on the 3rd of July; however, there were no butterflies present. Rhamnus dispermus

trees were in bad condition in comparison to previous visits. A minimum of six individuals

were recorded there previously on the 10th of May. Population estimates for each site can be

seen in Table 3.8. The Lincoln index was used in Ahmar because sampling took place on just

two days. Eberhardt’s geometric model was used where sampling took place over five

consecutive days.

Table 3.7: The number of butterflies caught at each site and the number of times butterflies

were recaptured

Site Total no. of butterflies caught

No. of butterflies caught once

No. of butterflies recaught once

No. of butterflies recaught twice

No. of butterflies recaught 3 times

Jebel Katherine

19 11 7 1 0

Abu Druce 66 45 15 4 2

Abu Towaita 25 20 3 2 0

Bab 45 35 9 1 0

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

<100 <200 <300 <400 <500 <600 <700 <800 <900 <1000

No

. of

bu

tte

rflie

s

Distance travelled (metres)

31

Table 3.8: Population estimates for each site

Site Method Population Estimate

Ahmar Lincoln index 403 Jebel Katherine

Eberhardt’s geometric model 57

Abu Druce Eberhardt’s geometric model 214

Abu Towaita Eberhardt’s geometric model 111

Bab Eberhardt’s geometric model 225

Wadi El-Freya

Transect count 6

Total 1,010 95% confidence interval 745-1,275

Activity times

Adult Sinai Hairstreaks were first observed on the 10th of May in Wadi El-Freya (six

individuals), and the last individual on the 27th of July in Wadi Ahmar. Regular transect

counts did not start in Wadi Ahmar until the 29th of May as potential new sites were being

searched for the presence of Rhamnus dispermus. No butterflies were sighted between the

initial discovery on the 10th of May and the start of transect counts on the 29th. However, the

areas visited in this period did not contain Rhamnus dispermus trees and were not suitable

as habitat for Sinai Hairstreaks. According to the transect results the main flight period was

between late May to mid-July (Fig 3.16). The numbers of individuals observed on each

transect is represented in Table 3.9. The time of each butterfly capture during MRR showed a

single peak activity between 11:00 and 14:00 (local time), with the majority of the captures

taking place between 10:00 and 15:00 (Fig 3.17).

32

Figure 3.16: Number of Sinai Hairstreaks observed on transect walks through Wadi Ahmar,

the first Sinai Hairstreaks recorded in Wadi El-Freya are shown on day one

Table 3.9: Number of Sinai Hairstreaks observed on transect walks through Wadi Ahmar

Day number Date No. of butterflies recorded

20 29th May 48

33 11th June 46

54 2nd July 35

66 14th July 9

69 17th July 1

79 27th July 0

33

Figure 3.17: The time of day that Sinai Hairstreaks were captured during the study period

Behaviour and ecology

Based on observations the Sinai Hairstreak is a highly territorial and aggressive species. Long-

tailed Blues Lampides boeticus were commonly observed being chased off by the Sinai

Hairstreak. Painted Lady Vanessa cardui, Pomegranate Playboy Deudorix livia, Clouded

Yellow Colias croceus and an unidentified red parasitic wasp (about 5 cm in length) were also

chased off. Butterflies were almost always seen on or in the vicinity of their larval food plant.

They were also recorded landing on Oreganum syriacum, Mentha longifolia, Teucrium

polium and Crataegus x sinaica. Although age was not specifically analysed in this study, a

Sinai Hairstreak was observed on the 2nd of July in Ahmar displaying a mark from the MRR in

the same location on the 8th of June. At 25 days, this individual was the oldest Sinai

Hairstreak recorded.

Predators and parasites

A Rock Martin Ptyonoprogne fuligula predation attempt on an adult Sinai Hairstreak was

witnessed in Wadi El-Freya on the 10th of May and in Jebel Ahmar on the 29th of May. Rock

Martins are common and actively hunt in all sites. Scrub Warblers Scotocera inquieta were

recorded in every site and regularly frequented Rhamnus dispermus trees in search of food,

often hunting methodically in pairs or small groups. A Scrub Warbler nest was found on

Rhamnus dispermus trees in Jebel Katherine and Wadi Ahmar. A female Blackcap Sylvia

atricapilla and a female Redstart Phoenicurus phoenicurus were observed foraging in a

Rhamnus dispermus tree in Jebel Katherine on the 4th of June. A praying mantid species was

found in a Rhamnus dispermus tree in Wadi El-Freya on the 31st May. A White-Crowned

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

34

Black Wheatear Oenanthe leucopyga was observed trying to pull off a yellow plant tag on

Rhamnus dispermus trees in Jebel Katherine on the 6th of June and in Abu Towaita on the

27th of June. A relatively large unidentified red parasitic wasp was commonly seen patrolling

around Rhamnus dispermus in Jebel Katherine, Ahmar and Abu Druce in June.

Statistical analysis

When all the habitat/tree variables were entered into a mixed effects model to explain the

occurrence of Sinai Hairstreaks, tree size, species richness, presence of fruit and the

percentage green were the only characteristics to contribute significantly to the final model

(Table 3.10). The variance component of the random factor (site) is 0.597. Slope, aspect,

altitude, shelter, tree density were ejected from the model as non-significant.

Table 3.10: Results from the mixed effects model

Factor Chi-squared value

Degrees of freedom (df)

P

% green 4.0741 6 0.04354

Fruit 19.755 5 8.805e-06 Local plant richness

29.914 5 4.517e-08

Tree size 74.324 3 2.2e-16

4 Discussion

Rhamnus dispermus

The morphology of Rhamnus dispermus was highly variable. Most trees were between 0.5 m

and 1.5 m high, as stated in Boulus (2000), but many grew much larger. The highest tree

recorded was 5.9 m. The phenology of Rhamnus dispermus was variable between different

areas. Most trees were in healthy condition at the start of the field season in mid-April with

healthy green leaves, fruit and flower buds. The main flowering period was between late-

April and early June. By mid-June most flowers had withered. Tree leaves started to

degenerate (lost green colouration, turning brown and starting to wither) mainly in late July

and August. Not all trees followed this pattern with some withering much earlier; all trees in

Wadi El-Freya had severely withered by the 3rd of July. During the same field season it was

observed that the phenology of Sinai Thyme was several weeks further advanced than in

previous years (Katy Thompson, pers. comm.). This study has provided the first detailed

35

account of the phenology of Rhamnus dispermus so it is possible that its phenology was also

further advanced than usual. The phenology is similar to other Rhamnus species such as

Rhamnus alpinus found in southern-Europe and North Africa. The flower buds of Rhamnus

alpinus open at the end of April/early May and flower for 2-3 weeks. Leaves begin to wither

in August and trees lose their leaves completely during late-September (Bañuelos and

Obeso, 2004). No Rhamnus dispermus were observed having completely withered. However,

the study period ended in mid-August.

Sinai Hairstreak

The main flight period of the Sinai Hairstreak during this study appeared to be from late May

to early-mid July (Fig 3.16), longer than the earlier estimation of its flight period of late May

to early June (Nakamura, 1975). The life-cycle closely mirrored that of Rhamnus dispermus.

The young larvae presumably fed on the emerging young buds and leaves in April

(Nakamura, 1975) and adults emerged in May when the main flowering period begun. The

eggs of the Blue Spot Hairstreak do not hatch until the following Spring, when the young

larvae feed on young buds and leaves of its larval food plant (Settle et al., 2010). The peak

emergence of adult butterflies in Sinai extended from May to mid-June and the butterfly

season declined and ended as Rhamnus dispermus trees began to wither in late-July and

August. As expected, the Sinai Hairstreak was most active between 10:00 and 15:00 (Fig

3.17), the hottest part of the day. Butterflies are heliotherms that derive much of their heat

from the sun (Vande Velde et al., 2011).

Habitat requirements

Understanding what factors determine the distribution and survival of a species is

fundamental to its conservation. Rhamnus dispermus trees were found in nine discrete sites

in the St Katherine Protectorate. The Sinai Hairstreak was discovered in six of these sites.

However, the sites where the butterfly was not recorded contained only one tree of a very

small size and cannot be considered to be suitable for Sinai Hairstreaks. Within the six main

sites, there were many trees where the Sinai Hairstreak was not observed. Different sites

contained very different numbers of butterflies, and site was the most important predictor

of the presence of butterflies on single trees, explaining almost 60% of variation in the data.

Until now, the only known habitat criterion for the Sinai Hairstreak was the presence

of the larval food plant. Tree size, the presence of fruit, the percentage of healthy green

leaves and high plant diversity were all important factors in explaining the presence or

absence of the Sinai Hairstreak on individual trees within each site. All of these factors are a

function of habitat quality. Good quality habitat with nutrient-rich soil and higher water

availability are probably the most important elements for the growth of large healthy flora

and high floral diversity. Fruit is only present on female trees, and this may also relate to

good quality habitat as female trees require more nutrients than males to grow both fruit

and flowers (Yu and Lu, 2011). In an arid environment the availability of good habitat is

36

presumably very important for the persistence of a butterfly species. The Sinai Hairstreak

was observed feeding on several species of flower and areas with high species abundance

would provide higher food availability. Tree selection by Sinai Hairstreaks for oviposition was

not examined during this study, but it seems likely that butterflies would be found near the

vicinity of a suitable larval food plant. It has been well established that many butterflies

select green leaves for oviposition (Prokopy and Owens, 1983). A large amount of recent

research has concentrated on larval food plant selection and larval food plant specificity and

its implications for butterfly conservation (Strausz et al., 2012). Large trees provide a large

resource area for Sinai Hairstreak to lay eggs on and large trees are also likely to be healthier

providing larvae with a good quality food source.

It is possible that male Sinai Hairstreaks use large trees as outposts to perch and

patrol for females or to defend a territory from other males. Male Grey Hairstreaks Strymon

melinus pick a prominent perch tree where they wait for females, and will defend the perch

from intruding males (Alcock and Oneill, 1986). Sinai Hairstreaks are highly aggressive and

were frequently observed fighting with many butterfly species. On some occasions they

were observed alighting on Crataegus x sinaica. They may be using it as a perching station

but it has been suggested that this may be a second larval food plant (Dr Sabreen Rashad,

pers. comm.). No evidence for this was found in this study, and the issue requires further

investigation. Crataegus x sinaica is common in areas where Rhamnus dispermus occurs, and

Sinai Hairstreaks may simply be using them as temporary resting stations because they are

so prominent in the landscape. Further investigation into the larval food plant preference of

the Sinai Hairstreak is required.

Dispersal ability

Sinai Hairstreaks are very strong fliers. They can be very shy and difficult to approach, with

the slightest disturbance causing the butterfly to fly quickly out of sight. Catching could be

very difficult and butterflies were rarely caught away from the larval food plant. 26% of

butterflies marked were recaptured; 77% of these were recaptured only once. A longer more

intense study would yield more information regarding butterfly movements. Despite this,

however, the data show the Sinai Hairstreak has a high propensity to move and therefore a

strong ability to disperse. The average distance covered by recaptured Hairstreaks was 104

m. This is in sharp contrast to the Sinai Baton Blue which rarely moves further than 100 m

(James, 2006e).

Some Sinai Hairstreaks covered impressive distances, such as butterfly b1 in Jebel

Katherine, which travelled a total distance of 227 m (Fig 3.11). Butterfly b11 in Abu Towaita

moved 425 m (Fig 3.13) while butterfly b31 in Bab travelled 359 m (Fig 3.14 (b)). Butterfly b1

in the Bab region was originally caught on the first day of the MRR at 09:40, and was

subsequently recaptured on the second day 938 m away as the crow flies (Fig 3.14 (a)). The

landscape between these two locations is difficult to navigate, showing that the Sinai

Hairstreak is more than capable of travelling large distances quickly, and certainly has the

ability to move between sites. The Ahmar region and Jebel Katherine are separated by

37

roughly 934 m, while Abu Towaita and Abu Druce are separated by just over a kilometre, all

well within reach of a dispersing Sinai Hairstreak.

Not only has the Sinai Hairstreak been recorded travelling large distances along a

continuous network of larval food plants, as in Bab, it has also been recorded travelling large

distances across terrain bereft of its larval food plant. Assuming that butterfly b11 in Abu

Towaita used the wadi to move between trees, it would have travelled a distance of 425 m

without encountering any Rhamnus dispermus trees (Fig 3.13). A series of interconnecting

wadis in the St Katherine Protectorate link most areas together and a dispersing individual

can use these wadis as corridors where there is less wind resistance and where food plants

are more likely to grow. Some male butterflies can sense female pheromones from great

distances (Nieberding et al., 2008) which may encourage movement between sites, and

butterflies may also learn where larval food plants are. A study of the Meadow Brown

Maniola jurtina butterfly revealed that they do not seek habitat by random flight and can

return to suitable habitat they have previously visited (Conradt et al., 2000).

No butterflies were recaptured in a site different from where it was originally

marked. The emphasis of this study was to assess the population size, but the study was

designed to maximise the chances of recording between-site movements; after an MRR was

completed in one site, the site closest to it was sampled next. Further studies concentrating

on fewer sites need to be carried to confirm whether butterflies move between sites. The

Sinai Hairstreak can live up to at least 25 days, which is a long time for a butterfly: male

Glanville Fritillaries Melitaea cinxia have an average lifespan of 14 days and a maximum of 36

days (Saastamoinen et al., 2009). The Sinai Baton Blue has a short lifespan of between three

and six days on average, while the maximum lifespan for a male recorded was 24 and 18 for

the female (James, 2006d).

The entire population of Sinai Hairstreaks appears to be split across a fragmented

landscape into six smaller populations or habitat patches. These smaller populations almost

certainly interact with each other at some level. The long lifespan of the Sinai Hairstreak

coupled with its ability to travel relatively large distances quickly suggests that it has high

powers of dispersal and could discover and colonise new areas of potential habitat. All six

main sites were occupied by Sinai Hairstreaks but, within these sites there were suitable

trees apparently unoccupied, or at least unvisited. For example a large, healthy tree bearing

fruit was discovered in Abu Towaita, 1 km away from the main site to the northwest (Fig

3.7). No butterflies were discovered on the tree but visitors may have been there on other

days. Conversely, the Rhamnus dispermus trees in Abu Druce were all found in a compact

cluster with the exception of one outlier 1.4 km away to the south (Fig 2.2). This tree was

isolated and yet supported several adult Sinai Hairstreaks. During the MRR butterflies were

observed flying quickly through the wadi between the isolated tree and the main site; in the

event that butterflies failed to lay eggs on the isolated tree in any one year, it is likely that it

would be used again in the future from dispersing butterflies from the main site.

Without further research it is difficult to assign a population structure to the Sinai

Hairstreak. The evidence in this study suggests that the Sinai Hairstreak does not fit the

metapopulation model. A true metapopulation is defined by a number of criteria (Hanski et

38

al., 1995). All habitat patches must be able to support a breeding population. These

populations must be vulnerable to extinction and persist in a stochastic balance between

local extinction and re-colonisation. The dynamics of these populations are asynchronous

which prevents the entire metapopulation becoming extinct. A limited amount of dispersal is

required between populations (Harrison, 1991). There are few empirical examples of true

metapopulations or classic metapopulations (CM) in the field (Fronhofer et al., 2012). A

species with a metapopulation structure is likely to be at the brink of extinction where

habitat fragmentation has isolated sites (Fronhofer et al., 2012). If the sites discovered in this

study represent separate populations, it is unlikely that the smaller sites are incapable of

supporting their own breeding populations (the larger ones almost certainly are capable) and

the risk of extinction between sites is likely to be highly variable. Dispersal between sites is

likely to be high, which is also not consistent with the CM model. Abu Druce, Ahmar and Bab

have the largest populations, presumably with the lowest risk of extinction. The size of Bab

and Ahmar in particular suggest these populations could survive without dispersal from

other sites. Wadi El-Freya, Jebel Katherine and Abu Towaita have much smaller populations,

and if independent would therefore presumably suffer a greater risk of extinction. However,

these sites may be ‘island’ sites that require dispersing individuals from the larger ‘mainland’

sites for continued persistence. Mainland sites are usually much larger than source

populations, but often habitat quality is the same (Harrison, 1991). Ahmar contains 145

trees, while Jebel Katherine, the closest site to it, contains only 33 trees. It is possible that

Ahmar is a source population to Jebel Katherine. A study of butterflies in Venezuela

indicated that some tropical butterfly species exist as a mainland-island population where

small habitat fragments are continuously recolonised from a larger source population

(Shahabuddin and Terborgh, 1999). Similarly a source-sink model may be applicable to

certain sites. A source-sink model is different from that of a mainland-island because the

smaller sites are not of equal quality and are unable to persist on their own except over the

very short term (Nystrand et al., 2009). Wadi El-Freya has the lowest density and number of

trees of any site, and has the smallest butterfly population. This population could be

supplemented by excess of individuals from Abu Druce, which has a far greater population

and a large number of trees.

However, the most likely scenario, based on this evidence, is that the Sinai

Hairstreak does not persist in separate independent populations (as assumed in the previous

paragraph) but as one patchy population. A patchy population is described as a set of habitat

patches linked together by high levels of dispersal that prevent local extinction (Harrison,

1991); we assume such a population is panmictic. Habitat patches are prevented from

extinction by a large rescue effect (Fronhofer et al., 2012). A study of the Karner blue

butterfly Lycaeides melissa samuelis in the United States showed that it occupied all patches

in a network of habitat and was living as a panmictic population (Guiney et al., 2010). The

Sinai Hairstreak is a powerful flier and all the sites are in close proximity to one another. It

could not be established definitively if dispersal is possible between all sites: Bab is four km

from the nearest site. As the most isolated site, it may have low immigration rates compared

to other sites. However, it is likely to be well within reach of the Sinai Hairstreak and thus a

part of a single panmictic population. Incorrect assumptions on the population structure may

lead to the implementation of unnecessary and wasteful conservation strategies so great

39

care must be taken when assigning a population structure to a species (Fronhofer et al.,

2012). Therefore, it is imperative that future studies investigate further the population

structure of the Sinai Hairstreak.

Conservation

The population of Sinai Hairstreaks was estimated to be at least 1,010 individuals spread

across six sites covering an area of roughly 83 km². This is likely to represent a large

proportion, if not all, of its worldwide distribution, since it is as yet unrecorded from any

other location. As with the Sinai Baton Blue, it is possible that populations exist in

northwestern Saudi Arabia. Due to its small population size and the small size of available

habitat, the Sinai Hairstreak is at considerable risk of extinction, and according to IUCN

criteria should be classed as Critically Endangered (CR) purely on this basis.

Short term threats to the Sinai Hairstreak are less evident than those of the Sinai

Baton Blue. The larval food plant is not collected by the Bedouin. All the sites where

Rhamnus dispermus was found growing are isolated and remote. The city of St Katherine is

expanding, but according to local information the number of people living near Rhamnus

dispermus sites is decreasing, and was in any case initially very low. Given the remoteness of

some of the sites there is a very low risk of habitat destruction from human development.

Rhamnus dispermus trees are longer-lived and larger (>2 metres) compared to most plants in

the region and are less likely to be affected by grazing. Few signs of grazing animals were

discovered in the study sites. On a couple of occasions small herds of feral goat (<20

individuals) were observed near Jebel Ahmar and between Abu Druce and Abu Towaita. The

feral goats near Jebel Ahmar were observed feeding on Crataegus x sinaica, a similar-sized

thorny bush often found in the same areas as Rhamnus dispermus. Wild grazing species

appeared to exist in very low numbers. Remains of Rock Hyrax Procavia capensis were

discovered on a couple of occasions in the Ahmar region, and Nubian Ibex Capra nubiana

were observed near Jebel Bab. Their grazing impact on Rhamnus dispermus trees is likely to

be negligible. Adult Sinai Hairstreaks are probably most predated by passerine bird species.

The White-crowned Black Wheatear was observed in Rhamnus dispermus trees frequently

and on a couple of occasions were seen pulling the yellow tags off the tree. The larvae of the

Sinai Hairstreak are green with yellow stripes (Nakamura, 1975). It is possible, therefore, that

the White-crowned Black Wheatear searches for and feeds on Sinai Hairstreak larvae.

Over 80% of the Sinai Hairstreak population was concentrated in the three largest

sites (in terms of population size and the number of trees); Bab, Ahmar and Abu Druce. The

large number of healthy adult trees in close proximity decreases the likelihood of extinction

in these sites, if these represent separate butterfly populations. Sinai Hairstreaks are at

highest risk of extinction in Wadi El-Freya and Abu Towaita, simply because the density of

trees is much lower. Over 50% of the butterflies caught in Abu Towaita were found on only

three trees. The destruction of a small number of trees in these areas could cause a great

reduction in the already meagre populations of Sinai Hairstreaks there, if these are really

separate populations. However this study suggests the Sinai Hairstreak is more likely to exist

40

as a single, panmictic population. The loss of trees in these habitat patches could further

restrict the population size and home range of the Sinai Hairstreak and increase its

vulnerability to extinction.

The most significant threat facing the Sinai Hairstreak is likely to be global warming.

The climate of the South Sinai has been predicted to become hotter and drier (Hulme et al.,

2001), and thus has the potential to disrupt the interaction between the Sinai Hairstreak and

its larval food plant and possibly adult food plants. The existence of a butterfly species is

dependent on the synchronisation of its life-cycle with its larval food plant. For example,

Brown Hairstreak Thecla betulae larvae feed on the developing leaves of its larval food plant

Prunus spinosa. The leaves are only suitable for a short period time and if the larva fails to

hatch at the correct moment they will have insufficient food and die (De Vries et al., 2011).

This study has shown that larval food plant condition is an important determining factor for

the presence of Sinai Hairstreaks. Water is already a limited resource in the St Katherine

Protectorate, and a drier climate would reduce the natural resources available for Rhamnus

dispermus and other plants in the area. The distribution and health of Rhamnus dispermus

trees may decline if global warming does indeed cause the predicted changes in climate. The

number of flowering plants available for adult Sinai Hairstreaks may also be at risk; during a

dry year the number of flowering plants can be reduced by 40% (James, 2006f). As a result of

this decline the availability of suitable habitat for Sinai Hairstreaks would be reduced.

Considering the small amount of potential habitat available to the Sinai Hairstreak, global

warming poses a significant threat to the long-term survival of this species.

The danger posed by global warming could be accelerated by natural water sources

decreasing as a result of increased human demand in St Katherine (Abdulla et al., 2003).

Rapid population increase in St Katherine and the higher levels of tourism in the Sinai in

recent years (Hilmi et al., 2012) may be constraining the water available to the local flora.

This study has confirmed that the Sinai Hairstreak has an extremely small population

size and a greatly restricted home range; it is therefore highly susceptible to extinction. More

information about its biology is clearly needed, and the populations of both Sinai Hairstreak

and Rhamnus dispermus need to be monitored in the future so that we can understand

population trends and changes in habitat. In this study, a large amount of time was invested

in finding Rhamnus dispermus trees and estimating the population size. Future studies

should concentrate on the behaviour and life-cycle of the Sinai Hairstreak. It is imperative

that the small number of Rhamnus dispermus trees remain protected to ensure the survival

of this extremely rare and beautiful butterfly.

41

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Appendix I - Odonata of St Katherine

Wandering Glider Pantala flavescens

Fox Camp, St Katherine 25/07/2012; male Photograph – Andrew Power

Broad Scarlet Crocothemis erythraea

Wadi Matter 14/07/2012; male Wadi Ahmar; 14/07/2012; female Photograph 1 – Andrew Power,

male

Photograph 2 – Andrew Power,

female

Vagrant Emperor Anax ephippiger

Wadi Ahmar 14/07/2012 Photograph – Andrew Power

Lesser Emperor Anax parthenope

Fox Camp St Katherine 23/06/2012 Photograph – Andrew Power

46

Red-veined Dropwing Trithemis arteriosa

Wadi Jebel 18/04/2012; male Abu Teenya 25/06/2012; female Photograph 1 – Andrew Power,

male

Photograph 2 – female, Andrew

Power, female

Red-veined Darter Sympetrum fonscolombei

Jebel Bab 9/08/2012, female Photograph – Andrew Power

Southern Skimmer Orthetrum brunneum

Wadi Matter 14/07/2012 Photograph – Andrew Power

Only 2 previous records from Sinai - Dumont, H. J. 1991. Odonata of the Levant, Israel academy of sciences and humanities.

Desert Skimmer, Ransonnet's Skimmer Orthetrum ransonnetii

Fox Camp, St Katherine 2/08/2012; female Photograph – Andrew Power

Evan’s Bluetail Ischnura evansi

Wadi Ahmar 14/07/2012; male and female Photograph 1 – Andrew Power,

male

47

Appendix II - Birds of St Katherine

Chukar Alectoris chukar

Farsh Elia 21/04/2012; 1

Between Wadi Albein & Jebel Ahmar 22/04/2012

Jebel Ahmar 8/05/2012; 20 plus

Jebel Katherine 5/06/2012; female

Wadi Ahmar 12/06/2012

Abu Druce 17/06/2012




Sagare 27/06/2012

Sagare 28/06/2012

Ain Nigela 7/07/2012




Wadi Ahmar 6/08/2012 Photograph – Andrew Power, Farsh Elia

Sand Partridge Ammoperdix heyi Wadi El-Freya 10/05/2012; 3

Wadi Jebel 13/05/2012; 4


Ain Nigela 8/07/2012; 2


Sparrowhawk Accipter nisus

On route to Wadi Jebel, Wadi Jebel 18/04/2012; both females

Fox Camp 30/04/2012

Wadi Jebel 16/05/2012

Abu Druce 18/06/2012 Photograph – Andrew Power, Wadi Jebel

Kestrel Falco tinnunculus

Fox Camp 12/05/2012; hunting

Foot of Jebel Katherine/Wadi Albein 23/05/2012; attacking Buzzard species

Fox Camp 27/05/2012


Wadi Ahmar 29/07/2012 Photograph – Andrew Power, Fox Camp

48

Bonelli’s Eagle Aquila fasciata

Fox Camp 17/06/2012 Photograph – Andrew Power

Long-legged Buzzard Buteo rufinus

Wadi Jebel 18/04/2012 Photograph – Andrew Power Part of migration of 60+ Buzzards in Wadi Jebel including Long-legged Buzzard Buteo rufinus, Steppe Buzzard Buteo buteo vulpinus & Honey Buzzard Pernis apivorus

Steppe Buzzard Buteo buteo vulpinus



Photograph – Andrew Power

Part of migration of 60+ Buzzards in Wadi Jebel including Long-legged Buzzard Buteo rufinus, Steppe Buzzard Buteo buteo vulpinus & Honey Buzzard Pernis apivorus

Honey Buzzard Pernis apivorus

Wadi Jebel 18/04/2012 Photograph – Andrew Power

Part of migration of 60+ Buzzards in Wadi Jebel including Long-legged Buzzard Buteo rufinus, Steppe Buzzard Buteo buteo vulpinus & Honey Buzzard Pernis apivorus

Laughing Dove Streptopelia senegalensis

Fox Camp 17/04/2012

Very common in city of St Katherine

Fox Camp 7/06/2012; fledgling

Photograph – Andrew Power; Fox camp

49

Rock Dove Columba livia

St Katherine; common - Feral pigeon;

Fox Camp 17/04/2012 (present everyday)

Photograph – Andrew Power; Fox Camp

Collared Dove Streptopelia decaocto

Wadi Albein 6/06/2012

St Katherine Monastery 9/06/2012

Turtle Dove Streptopelia turtur Fox Camp 7/06/2012; 3

Fox Camp 16/06/2012


Hoopoe Upupa epops St Katherine 18/04/2012; 1 in flight near petrol station

Bee-eater Merops apiaster

Fox camp 20/04/2012; 5 flying over

Wadi Cla 23& 25/04/2012

Wadi El-Freya 10 /05/2012



Photograph- Andrew Power, Fox Camp

Golden Oriole Oriolus oriolus

Fox Camp 27/05/2012

Fox Camp 28/05/2012

Fox Camp 29/05/2012

Fox Camp 30/05/2012



White-spectacled Bulbul Pycnonotus xanthopygos

Abu Towaita 25/06/2012


Sagare 27/06/2012

Sagare near garden of Shop 28/06/2012

Wadi Cla 28/06/2012; 2

Photograph 1 – Andrew Power, Sagare

50

Palestine Sunbird Cinnyris osea

Fox Camp 17 & 20/04/2012; male & female

On way to Wadi Ahmar 8/05/2012; 2 males


Abu Towaita 21/05/2012; 4

Jebel Katherine 24/05/2012

Fox Camp 1/06/2012



Abu Teenya 17/06/2012





Sagare 28/06/2012



Wadi Ahmar 14/07/2012; 5 plus




Wadi Ahmar 6/08/2012 Photograph 1 – Brian Power; female in Wadi Ahmar Photograph 2 – Andrew Power; male in Abu Towaita

Tristram’s Starling Onychognathus tristramii

Fox Camp 17/04/2012; 15-20

On route to Wadi Jebel 18/04/2012; 20-30 high on mountain

Fox Camp 1/05/2012; 20 plus

Fox Camp 11/05/2012; 2

Fox Camp 14/05/2012



Fox Camp 28/05/2012; 15 plus

Jebel Ahmar 29/05/2012

Jebel Katherine 4/05/2012; 2



Abu Druce 19/06/2012; 5 plus


St Katherine Monastery 26/07/2012 Photograph 1 – Andrew Power; Fox Camp Photograph 2 – Andrew Power, Fox Camp

51

Wheatear Oenanthe oenanthe

Fox Camp 20/04/2010; male Photograph 1 – Andrew Power, Fox Camp Photograph 2 – Andrew Power, near Hotel Raha St Katherine

White-crowned Black Wheatear Oenanthe leucopyga

Fox Camp, St Katherine 17/04/2012

- very common in St Katherine Photograph – Andrew Power; adult and chick in Abu Towaita

Hooded Wheatear Oenanthe monacha



Wadi Ahmar 8/06/2012; male


Abu Druce 20/06/2012; female

Abu Towaita 27/06/2012; male

Wadi Jebel near Hagbut Nada 7/07/2012; male

Ain Nigela 7/07/2012; male and female




Wadi Ahmar 27/07/2012; 2 male and 1 female



Wadi Ahmar 6/08/2012 Photograph 1 – Andrew Power, male in Abu Towaita Photograph 2 – Andrew Power, female in Jebel Katherine

Rock Thrush Monticola saxatilis

St Katherine 17/04/2012; male

Between Fox camp and St Katherine 18/04/2012; male

Photograph – Andrew Power, near Hotel Raha St Katherine

52

Whinchat Saxicola rubetra

Wadi El-Freya 10/05/2012 Photograph – Andrew Power

House Martin Delichon urbicum 19/04/2012; 3 flying with Rock Martins

Fox Camp 1/05/2012


Rock Martin Ptyonoprogne fuligula

Very common in St Katherine Photograph 1 – Andrew Power, St Katherine Photograph 2 – Brian Power, Wadi Ahmar

Swallow Hirundo rustica

Dahab 27/04/2012

Dump outside St Katherine 11/05/2012

Fox Camp 12/05/2012

Wadi Jebel 16/05/2012 Photograph – Olivia Norfolk, injured Swallow in Wadi Jebel

Red-rumped Swallow Cecropis daurica Fox Camp 3/05/2012; juvenile

Swift Apus apus Petrol Station St Katherine 6/05/2012

Abu Druce 18/06/2012; 10 plus Wood Warbler Phylloscopus sibilatrix

Fox Camp 20/04/2012

Fox Camp 3/05/2012

Abu Teenya 17/06/2012 Photograph – Andrew Power, Fox Camp

Garden Warbler Sylvia boring

Fox Camp 27/05/2012

Fox Camp 28/05/2012

Fox Camp 7/06/2012; feeding on apricot


53

Blackcap Sylvia atricapilla

Fox Camp 12/05/2102

Fox Camp 27/05/2012; male and female


Jebel Ahmar 29/05/2012; female

Fox Camp; female

Photograph 1 – Andrew Power, male feeding on apricot tree in Fox Camp garden Photograph 2 – Andrew Power, female in Fox Camp garden

Eastern Olivaceous Warbler Iduna pallida

Fox Camp 20/04/2012


Eastern Bonelli’s Warbler Phylloscopus orientalis

Wadi Matter 28/07.2012

Photograph – Brian Power, Wadi Matter

Eastern Orphean Warbler Sylvia crassirostris

Wadi Matter 28/07/2012; up to 5 individuals Photograph – Brian Power, Wadi Matter

Lesser Whitethroat Sylvia curraca


54

Scrub Warbler Scotocerca inquieta

Wadi Sherage 21/04/2012


Wadi Albein, Abu Himmen 12/05/2012

Wadi El-Freya 31/05/2012, 10 plus





Sagare 27/06/2012; 10 plus

Abu Towaita 27/06/2012 Photograph 1 – Andrew Power, Abu Druce Photograph 2 – Andrew Power, Abu Towaita

Semi-Collared Flycatcher Ficedula semitorquata

Fox Camp 20/04/2010; pair

Fox Camp 28/04/2012

Fox Camp 7/04/2012

Fox Camp 14/05/2012 Photograph 1; Andrew Power; Fox Camp, male Photograph 1; Andrew Power; Fox Camp, female

Spotted Flycatcher Muscicapa striata

Fox Camp 3/05/2012

Fox Camp 11/05/2012

Fox Camp 12/05/2012

Fox Camp 14/05/2012

Fox Camp 15/05/2012

Fox Camp 18/05/2012

Fox Camp 19/05/2012


Masked Shrike Lanius nubicus

Petrol Station St Katherine 6/05/2012

Fox Camp 27/05/2012;2

Fox Camp 28/05/2012

Fox Camp 29/05/2012

Fox Camp 30/05/2012 Photograph – Andrew Power, Fox Camp

55

Isabelline Shrike Lanius isabellinus

Fox Camp 7/05/2012


Ortolan Bunting Emberiza hortulana Wadi Ahmar 8/06/2012; 2

Black-headed Bunting Emberiza melanocephala

Abu Towaita 21/05/2012; male and female

Photograph 1 – Andrew Power, male Photograph 2 – Andrew Power, female

Yellow Wagtail Motacilla flava

Wadi El-Freya 10/05/2012; feeding around opium garden


House Sparrow Passer domesticus

Dump outside St Katherine 11/05/2012; probably nesting in adjacent building; 5

Fox Camp 6/06/2012; 5

Fox Camp 7/06/2012; 4

Fox Camp 12/07/2012

Fox Camp 13/07/2012 Photograph – Andrew Power, dump outside St Katherine

Redstart Phoenicurus phoenicurus

Fox Camp 20/04/2012; male

Fox Camp 2/05/2012; female

Fox Camp 3/05/2012; female


Fox Camp 15/05/2012; female Photograph – Andrew Power

56

Sinai Rosefinch Carpodacus synoicus

Between Fox camp and St Katherine 18/04/2012; 2 pairs

Mount Sinai 21/04/2012

Between Wadi Albein & Jebel Ahmar 22/04/2012


Hotel Raha 30/04/2012; 1 male

Wadi Jebel 16/05/2012; 5 drinking


Wadi Albein 29/05/2012; 4

Jebel Ahmar 29/05/2012; 2


Jebel Katherine 5/06/2012; 5


Wadi Ahmar; 12/05/2012









Wadi Ahmar 6/08/2012 Photograph 1 – Andrew Power, St Katherine Photograph 2 – Andrew Power, Wadi Albein

Desert Lark Ammonmanes deserti

Wadi Jebel 18/04/2012; 2 pairs

Between Fox Camp & St Katherine 18 & 20/04/2012

Elia 21/04/2012

Wadi Raha 24/04/2012

Wadi El-Freya near opium field 10/05/2012



Sagare 27/06/2012 Photograph – Andrew Power, Abu Towaita

Tree Pipit Anthus trivialis

St Katherine 19/04/2012; trapped in greenhouse

Fox camp garden 20/04/2010 Photograph 1 - Katy Thompson, St Katherine Photograph 1 - Andrew Power, Fox Camp

conservation of the sinai hairstreak butterfly

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