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There is quite a rich historiography regarding the sacred sites of the northern Thracian world,

particularly over the last two decades, but there are still aspects that have not been tackled, such as the presence of coins in sites of this type. Therefore, we will try to provide some guidelines in this regard. Geographically speaking, we will deal with the northern Balkan region, where the archaeological discoveries and the written sources locate the Getae and, later on, the Geto-Dacians. First of all, we will introduce the coin discoveries from various types of cult sites, after which we will analyze the key features of the phenomenon. we will deal, briefly, with coin stamps and weights, as well as some categories of items that have coins imprinted on them (a clay medallion and four Dacian bowls with embossed decoration). Finally, we will introduce some of the characteristics of this phenomenon in the Greco-Roman and Celtic world.

Repertoire of the discoveries Augustin-Tipia Ormenişului (Braşov County –

Romania) is one of the largest Dacian sacred centers, as seven temples were found here: four rectangular ones with columns and three circular ones, two of which have a rectangular apsidal room inside; the cult edifices are from the period between the end of 2nd c. BC and the Roman conquest (106 AD). In one of the temples with limestone columns, from the 1st c. AD, a coin issued in Abdera was found next to a stone

Coins from Geto-Dacian Sacred SitesvALERIU SÎRBUCRISTInA BoDo

valeriu Sîrbu, Cristina Bodo

“box” (located in the middle of the edifice, probably for offerings), considered to have circulated in Dacia only as late as the end of the 2nd c. BC (Costea 2006, 190–191; Ardevan 2006, 259).

Bagachina (Montana County – Bulgaria). This is where a “field of pits” sanctuary was researched – con-sisting of dozens of pits, of various shapes and sizes, in which a rich and varied inventory was found: a wide

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were found; we need to mention that no archaeologi-cal layers, dwellings or household annexes from the Second Iron Age were found here. what was found, from the 2nd–1st c. BC, are two complexes that can be considered votive deposits: one included five silver coins (an Alexander the Great stater and four Dacian coins of the Vârteju-Bucureşti type), Greek amphorae fragments, including a handle stamped in Rhodes, a fragmentary Dacian bowl with embossed decoration (zoomorphic, vegetal and geometric motifs), and a few Dacian vessel fragments; while the other contained ten iron items – four cramp-irons, a knife, a pruning knife, a chisel, a bracelet and a lance head (Marinescu-Bîlcu 1966, 113–123; Trohani 2005, 221–225).

Cârlomăneşti-Cetăţuie (Buzău County – Romania). In Cetăţuie, located on an erosion mound in the Buzău marsh and fortified with a structure made out of wood and earth, at least five cult edifices were found in situ, as well as decorated altars, isolated fireplaces and many pits. Although it was thought that this was a dava, we feel, based on the discoveries made so far, that this was a Dacian regional cult centre (Sîrbu 2006, 36–39).

In a temple with stone foundations (about 20x10m), consisting of a rectangular hall with three rows of columns, an apsidal room (nw heading) and wooden walls, numerous fragments of zoomorphic statuettes, a large amount of pottery fragments, metal items, includ-ing two late La Tène fibulae and two Vârteju-Bucureşti coins, were found, largely in the southern part. Next to the temple, we have Pit 65, which is very large (4 m depth, 3.40 m diameter) and contained many vessel fragments, as well as animal bones, coal, ash, burnt wall plaster, three zoomorphic statuette fragments and a head of a male statuette. Based on this material, it was established that the temple was from the mid-1st c. BC. In another temple, about 10x10m, with the walls made of clay and weaved wicker and in which four fireplaces – two of them decorated (escharai) – were identified, besides a rich and varied inventory, many fragments of zoomorphic statuettes and three Vârteju-Bucureşti coins were found. we need to mention that this site has also yielded a hoard of 124 Vârteju-Bucureşti coins that, due to its traits, points to a local variant, meaning a coin workshop was here. A ceramic fragment with an inscription attesting the presence of a local basileus

variety of Geto-Dacian pottery (jars, rush-light cups, fruit bowls, mugs, cups, strainers, kantharoi, bowls with embossed relief, cauldrons etc.), adornments and garment accessories (including many fibulae), tools and utensils, arrowheads and spurs (Bonev, Alexan-drov 1996, 39–54, fig. 71–105, ill. 26a–47). The bone material points to several species of animals, but a few remains of human skeletons that fall in the category of “non-cremated human bones in non-funerary contexts” were also found (Sîrbu 1993, 31–36). The complexes are from the 4th–1st c. BC. we need to mention that there are also votive deposits from previous periods, which show a continuity of ritual acts in the same area. 20 silver coins were also found here, 5 of which are of the Cassander type (319–297 BC) and 15 are Republican dinars from 120–84 BC (Bonev, Alexandrov 1996, 50, fig. 101–105).

Bucharest-Snagov (Romania). on an island, once located in the middle of the wooded area, several interesting discoveries were made. There are diverg-ing opinions on the character of these pits, which are considered to be either tombs or household refuse pits. In our opinion, given the type of the complexes and their inventory, this was a “field of pits” cult site with ritual deposits and a rich and varied inventory, including, in one instance, fragments of a human skull. we need to mention that no archaeological layers or dwelling complexes were identified. five pits yielded 8 coins, all of them silver: a Philip II stater, two coins from Dyrrhachium, four republican dinars and a Dacian imitation of a republican dinar. what is interesting is that a Dacian bowl with embossed decoration was also found, which has, as a votive ornamentation, the obverse and reverse of a Philip II stater. The rest of the inventory includes Dacian vessels, many of them deposited whole, some with the mouth downwards, including bowls with embossed decoration, a hellenistic-Roman grinder, adornments and clothing accessories (fibulae, rings, a bracelet and beads). Save for one item (a fibula from the 4th–3rd c. BC), the inventory is from the 2nd – 1st c. BC (Rosetti 1935, 7–10, 15–18, fig. 1–4, 14–25).

Căscioarele-Ostrovel (Călăraşi County – Romania). Located in the middle of an area with many Geto-Dacian settlements from the 4th–1st c. BC, Ostrovel is an island where many types of complexes and items


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(Macrea Rusu, Protase 1960, 362–371), a cult site in the 1st c. BC and a fortified settlement in the 1st c. AD (Pop, Matei 2001, 253–277; 2007, 129–146), or just a “field of pits” cult site (Sîrbu 1995, 314–329; 20061, 42–44). we maintain our position that this was a major Dacian regional cult center, as witnessed by a number of findings: the presence of many pits, probably in thousands, agglomerations of materials and fireplaces, oftentimes with a rich and diverse inventory, and just a few dwellings; specialized analyses have revealed that the cremated bones are solely from animals; there are also a few human skeletons with traces of violence or missing parts, which fall in the category of “non-cremated human bones in non-funerary contexts” (Sîrbu 2006, 42–44). The many types of items found here include a drachma from Dyrrhachium, one Roman Republican dinar and one from August, from between 78 BC and 11 AD (Macrea Rusu, Protase 1960, 369; Macrea, Rusu, Mitrofan 1962, 488). A treasure, dis-covered in 1907 and consisting of 1,000 Dyrrhachium drachmas (Pârvan 1927, 551) is also reported to have been found here, but this has not been confirmed.

Ocniţa-Colina sacră (vâlcea County – Romania). The three peaks, arranged in a horseshoe pattern, prob-ably housed two fortresses, meant to protect the salt mines and control the salt trade, and a sacred area. nearby, were the settlements that gravitated around them. The sites are from the end of the 2nd c. BC – end of 1st c. AD. The so-called Sacred Hill includes an acropolis and six terraces where three underground chambers and hundreds of pits were found, plus sev-eral small dwellings. The acropolis and the first three terraces were part of a defensive system, difficult to reconstruct nowadays because of the landslides and the absence of an overall layout of the archaeological excavations.

In a rectangular shape of about 15x17m, bordered by a ditch dug in the rock, three underground chambers were found, all of them with special inventory from both ritual item deposits and the remains of edifices destroyed as a result of strong fires, which points to the previous existence of temples on the Sacred Hill. Underground chamber no. 2, oval in shape (2.40 m depth, 4.00 x 3.4 m), dug in the Dacian tuff, which was probably covered, was endowed with a staircase.

was also found. The number, size and diversity of the zoomorphic statuettes, almost all of them found in the first two edifices and in the pits associated with them, represent an unicum in the Geto-Dacian plastic art, for such items have not been found anywhere else (Babeş 1975, 130–131; 1977, 340–341; Babeş et alii 2004, 76–77; Gugiu 2004, 249–251).

Conţeşti-Lacul lui Bârcă (Argeş County – Roma-nia). on an oval area (13.5x8.5m) situated on a lake shore in the forest, several small bone fragments of cremated animals, as well as fragments of vessels, metal items, bracelets and glass beads, plus a silver drachma from Dyrrhachium were found. In the eastern part of this area, on a surface of about 15 m2, there were many items, some of which were not burned: 45 arrowheads, 12 knives, 5 fibulae, 11 spikes and cramps, all of them made of iron, a bronze ring etc. The complexes, from the first half of the 1st c. BC, are, undoubtedly, votive deposits (vulpe, Popescu 1976, 217–226).

Durankulak (Silistra County – Bulgaria). A “field of pits” cult site was researched here, where, in four pits, four human skeletons that fall in the category of “non-cremated human bones in non-funerary contexts” were found. A rich inventory was also found here, including several coins (Burow 1993, 338–345; 1996, 427–441).

Hunedoara – Grădina Castelului (hunedoara County – Romania). This enigmatic site – necropolis and cult site – from the 2nd c. BC – 1st c. AD, includes, for the most part, skeletons of small children (whole or just isolated bones), as well as deposits of artefacts or animal offerings. This is where an isolated imperial bronze coin of Trajan was found, issued in Rome in 100 AD. It is difficult to say, with certainty, whether the Dacians deposited this coin ritually, thus marking the cult site, or whether it got here entirely by accident, when the Romans destroyed the fortified Dacian set-tlement nearby. we believe it is more likely that the presence of the coin is the result of a ritual act, as it was found at the same level as the cult deposits and there are no traces of permanent habitation here (Sîrbu et alii 2007, 51, fig. 14/7, 38/18).

Moigrad-Măgura Moigradului (Sălaj County – Ro-mania). The discoveries from this site generated lively debates, as it was considered to have been a necropolis


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as well. The situation on the other terraces is yet to be seen.

The depositing of a rich and diverse inventory, usually consisting of used artefacts, mostly items with a high intrinsic value or used on a large scale, points to a strong cult motivation, for otherwise it would be dif-ficult to understand why one would discard such goods. however, we need to specify that no hoards consisting of silverwork or coins, nor any other type of items have been found. It is only the whole of the items deposited here that can be considered a “hoarde”, because of their value and number. we believe it is beyond doubt that this site was a major Dacian sacred enclosure (temenos). one notices the relatively large number and diversity of coins found so far by excavations or by chance: of 18 items in all, the Vârteju-Bucureşti type – 2, the Inoteşti-Răcoasa type – 2, Dacian imitation of a dinar – 1, coin from histria – 1, autonomous hellenistic coin – 1, Roman dinars – 11. except for the Histrian coin, they range from 135–126 BC (L. Trebanius) to 4 AD (the dinar from Augustus). In all of these cases, we are dealing with isolated discoveries and, save for the bronze hellenistic coin, made of silver. we also need to mention that, out of the seven items found during the 2001–2007 excavations, five were found in the mounds (Dupoi, Sîrbu 2001, 40–42; Sîrbu 20042, 183–213; Sîrbu, Matei, Dupoi 2005, 46–47; Sîrbu, Matei 2007, 155–182).

Popeşti-Nucet (Ilfov County – Romania). This is a cult and residential site from the 2nd–1st c. BC, where the acropolis was researched. The hypothesis regard-ing its nature is also based on the succession of similar complexes in the same area (Vulpe 1960, 307–310; 1966, p. 27–29).

At a depth of 1.1 m, lay the vestiges of an apsidal edifice (17 m long, 7.5 m wide), with two rooms, built out of wood and soil: in the apsidal room (cella), ori-ented along the NW axis, there were two rectangular fireplaces, with the small one decorated, while the rectangular room (naos) had a rectangular fireplace (1.30 x 1.30 m) that was not decorated. About 3 m to the west, the vestiges of a large edifice, with many rooms, household annexes, ovens and pits with pithoi for keep-ing the food reserves, square or round fireplaces and a rich and diverse archaeological inventory was found.

It contained an extremely rich inventory: dozens of vessels that are in one piece or can be reconstructed. what stands out from these are the painted vessels and the rush-light cups, fragments from dozens of other clay vessels, seven anthropomorphic clay figurines, a Roman sheathed iron sword (gladius), a lance head and an arrowhead, a curved dagger (sica), knives, a pruning knife, several other iron items, five bronze fibulae, two Roman dinars from Augustus, vessel fragments with inscriptions, including ones that mentioned the pottery workshop of a local basileus. Undoubtedly, this was a ritual deposit.

It is also on the Sacred Hill that two more Roman coins were found. A few other coins were found in a “field of pits” at the bottom of the Sacred Hill, which D. Berciu, unjustifiably, considered to be tombs (pits 21, 23, 79 and 83). It was also in these sites that more coins were found, but their situation is unclear, mean-ing that no firm statements can be made about them (Berciu 1981, 120–126).

Piatra Craivii (Alba County – Romania). In 2006–2007 6 circular plinths, possibly indicating the pres-ence of a rectangular temple, probably in two periods, was found on “Bănuţului Terrace”. The inventory is extremely rich, consisting of everyday, but also luxury materials, including imports, among which we find iron, bronze and silver fibulae, roof tile fragments, whetstones, spindle whorls from a weaving machine, a fragmentary stone grinder, and a burnt dinar, issued in Rome, between 43 and 42 BC, by C. Cassius, Brutus, Lentulus Spint (Crawford, 500/3) (Moga et alii, 141, plus new information from Cristinel Plantos).

Pietroasa Mică-Gruiu Dării (Buzău County – Roma-nia). In the almost 1200 m2 excavated so far in various parts of the enclosure, only three types of complexes from the 1st c. BC – 1st c. AD were found: a) mounds, mostly with rings or fireplaces, in situ or deposited, b) isolated fireplaces and c) pits. Between 2001 and 2007 alone over 111 complexes were identified in the over 300 m2 excavated in the enclosure and on Terrace I: 70 mounds, most of which had rings at the bottom, 14 isolated fireplaces and 15 pits. There were also 12 complexes whose type could not be determined.

The 2006–2007 research on Terrace I proved that there are such votive deposits outside the enclosure


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The sacred area, accessed by a via sacra of stone slabs, expanded over two large artificial terraces (Terrace X and XI), supported by walls raised in a hellenism-inspired technique. This is where several temples, circular and square, were erected, in limestone or andesite, some of them with several construction stages. It is estimated that six of them were used at the same time. There was also an impressive andesite altar.

Although this place has yielded only one Roman bronze coin, found on the wall of the great limestone sanctuary on Terrace XI and issued by Claudius (41 AD), this site is the source of many other types of items con-nected to the topic in question: coin stamps, weights, a medallion with the representation of a republican Roman dinar. The medallion and three of the weights appeared in or next to the same temple – the second phase of “the Great Limestone sanctuary” (“the Burebista sanctu-ary”) on Terrace XI, which consisted of four rows of 15 columns each (Daicoviciu et alii 1959, 391–399; Daicoviciu 1972, 207–218, 238–260; Crişan 1993, 82–97; Glodariu et alii 1996, 109–130).

Sboryanovo-Demir Baba Teke (Razgrad County – Bulgaria). As early as the 9th – 8th c. BC, this was the location of a sanctuary where sacred rituals took place. Its central element was an altar cut in stone. During the 4th – 3rd c. BC, ample works took place here, in several stages, the result being a stone-foundation edifice, with the eastern entrance marked by two massive rocks. The rituals took place on fireplaces with omphaloi. hand-modelled or wheel-modelled Getae vessels, amphorae and other types of Greek vessels, knives, fibulae, brace-lets etc. were discovered (Balkanska 1998, p. 11–25, 29–48) Also, close to the temple, five bronze coins from odessos were found, issued between 275 and 250 BC, while two bronze Dyrhacchium drachma imitations, from the period after 95 BC, were found right under the stone pavement of the temenos (Balkanska 1998, 50, 93–94, pl. 16).

Sboryanovo-Novite korenezhi (Razgrad County – Bulgaria). The site is enclosed, to the east and northeast, by a wall, identified at a length of about 380 m. To the east, there is a steep, rocky edge. The wall, with the two faces made of unpolished stone and an emplecton, with a maximum preserved height of 0.50 m, had a shallow, unstable foundation, meaning it did not play

Close by, without any clear mention of the position, among many other items (including Dacian vessels of various types and capacities), a Dacian skyphate, four fibulae, a spur, a rush-light cup modelled on the neck of a Greek amphora, beads, a multi-spiral ring with the ends shaped like a snake head, lid with a bird-like handle, stamped amphorae and amphorae handles from kos and Rhodes were found. It is also here that a Da-cian bowl fragment with an embossed decoration with an imprinted reverse of a Philip II tetradrachma was found. The site has also yielded two decorated altars and many cult pits, with either deposits of vessels and other items, or human inhumations, some with traces of violence on the skeletons. we also need to stress the diversity of the figurative representations found here, on the pottery (bowls with embossed decoration – some with female representations, a painted statuette, and figurines) or in metal, particularly medallions (Vulpe 1959, 307–324; 1960, 307–310; 1966, 27–29; Vulpe, Gheorghiţă 1976, 182, pl. 3/2).

russe-Sexaginta Prista (Russe County – Bulgaria). So far, 39 pits of various shapes and sizes were found, proving that this is a “field of pits” cult site. Besides fauna remains from several species, a few isolated hu-man bones, as well as a rich and diverse archaeological inventory were also identified: jars, rush-light cups, fruit-bowls, mugs, bowls with embossed decoration, Geto-Dacian strainers, hellenistic and Roman imports, tools and utensils and wearable items. 11 coins were also found, 8 in five pits and 3 elsewhere: an imitation of an Alexander the Great, three barbarian imitations of Philip III the Arideu, a coin from Messembria, a drachma from Dyrrhachium, a Dacian coin of the Inoteşti-Răcoasa type, an Antonius Balbus dinar, a dinar from Augustus, a koemetalces dinar with Augustus, a barbarian imitation of Augustus; the coins are from 215 BC – 14 AD. Based on the whole of the inventory, the pits range from the 3rd c. BC – beginning of the 1st c. AD (Varbanov, Dragoev 2006, 185; 2007, 243–264).

Sarmizegetusa Regia – Grădiştea de Munte (hunedoara County – Romania) was, for over a century and a half, not only the Dacian capital, but also their top religious, political and economic centre, which was protected by an impressive system of fortresses and towers that blocked the access routes from all directions.


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Analysis of the discoveriesDiffusion area. Save for two cases, Piatra Craivii

and Moigrad, the discoveries are located between the Balkans and the northern side of the Southern Car-pathians (fig.1). It is also here that we find most of the temples, sanctuaries and votive deposits from the Geto-Dacian world, which is why we believe that their absence from other areas is more likely the result of the stage of research than of historical reality.

Types of sites and places of cult. The coins were found in: a) temples – Augustin, Cârlomăneşti, Piatra Craivii, Sarmizegetusa Regia, b) sanctuaries with votive deposits – ocniţa-Sacred Hill, Pietroasa Mică-Gruiu Dării, Moigrad-Măgura Moigradului, Sbory-anovo-Novite korenezhi, c) “field of pits” sanctuaries – Bagachina, Durankulak, Russe, d) islands with votive deposits– Bucureşti-Snagov, Căscioarele-Ostrovel, e) at the bottom of caves with attestations of cult acts – Strelkovo-Badjaliyata, f) in votive deposits as a result of ritual acts – Conţeşti. There is still uncer-tainty regarding the situations in Costeşti, Hunedoara and Popeşti. Therefore, one can see that coins have been found in most of the types of sites known of the Geto-Dacian world (Sîrbu 20061, 21–62), which could represent yet more evidence of the cult character of the presence of coins.

An interesting situation that is, unfortunately, present only in brief form in the scientific circles, is the dis-covery in Costeşti-Cetăţuie (orăştioara de Sus local-ity, hunedoara County), where, on the terrace above the isolated dwelling-tower, near the temple, one has found a complex that, at first, was considered to be a tomb; it is pit with a stone mound, in which pottery fragments, a vessel with cremated bones, a bronze item, non-cremated animal bones, Dacian pottery (a cup, a mug and a fruit-bowl), a decorative belt buckle plated with gilded silver, a dagger, a lance head, a sica (?), a wheel axle and a cramp from a chariot were found, all of them made of iron, as well as 13 histrian bronze coins, all of them scorched. The preliminary analysis of the cremated bones from the mug indicates that we are dealing with a sheep or a goat, probably the latter (data provided by N. Miriţoiu, whom we thank here as well). The complex is from the second half of the 1st c. AD.

a defensive role, and was only meant to outline the area containing the deposits. In the wall fragments of local vessels (most of them hand-modelled), pieces of burnt clay and a coin of the Darzalas type, issued in odessos were found. Inside the enclosure, 38 oval or circular structures were identified, 5 of them arched and one rectangular, made of unpolished stone. Twelve of them were researched, revealing that four of them contained human skeletons and the pits shared several features. In the enclosure, in an cluster of burnt wall plaster and vessel fragments, a tall jar was found, with alveolate girdles and buttons, as well as two small jars with buttons, one of which contained 56 bronze republican Roman coins from the mid 2nd – mid 1st c. BC. This is the only case from the enclosure where the vessels could be reconstructed. The shapes of the pottery found here, most of it hand-modelled, is char-acteristic of the Geto-Dacian pottery of the 2nd c. BC – 1st c. AD. It seems to be a cult site from the 2nd – 1st c. BC, possibly from the beginning of the common era (vulcheva 2000, 213–224).

Strelkovo-Badjaliyata (Silistra County – Bulgaria). The cult site is in a canyon, on a dried river bed, and it consists mainly of a cave, accessed by means of a staircase cut in stone, with an entrance that had clay altars and vestiges from ritual activities, mostly broken vessels, around it. The plateau on top of the cave had ritual pits and a necropolis with tumuli. Also, under the cave, there was a massive archaeological layer, the result of cult activities, the most important of which are the Geto-Dacian and Greek vessels, broken in a ritual manner, the wearable items (fibulae and brace-lets) and the many coins (only 10 of them illustrated) from Histria, Philip II, Alexander the Great, Lysimach, Seleucos, republican dinars, the latter from Constan-tine the Great (Atanasov 2006, 9–10, fig. 9). Although the excavations here have only just begun, the results are important because they document a type of cult site – a cave – that we know extremely little about, when it comes to the Thracians north of the Balkans, all the more so because the votive deposits are from the period between the end of the Bronze Age to the Roman period.


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earliest cult site with deposited coins that we know of so far, is the Strelkovo-Badjaliyata site, with items from Philip II, Alexander the Great, Lysimach and Seleucos, which means that, relying on the rest of the inventory, the custom of depositing coins is from as early as the 3rd c. BC. In addition, the presence of the five coins from Cassander (319–297 BC) in Bagachina, and other inventory items, indicates that they were deposited there starting as early as the 3rd c. BC. From the 2nd c. BC – first half of 1st c. BC, we also have the discoveries in Bucureşti-Snagov, Căscioarele, Conţeşti, Sboryanovo-Novite korenezhi, from the mid 1st c. BC – mid 1st c. AD we have the discoveries from Augustin, Cârlomăneşti, ocniţa, Popeşti, Moigrad and Sarmizegetusa Regia, while from the 1st c. AD we have the finds in Hunedoara and Piatra Craivii. The continuity of the depositing of coins in some sanctuaries, such as Bagachina (3rd – 1st c. BC), Pietroasa Mică-Gruiu Dării (1st c. BC – 1st c. AD), Russe (2nd c. BC – 1st c. AD) and, most of all, Strelkovo (3rd c. BC – 3rd c. AD), is amazing.

The origin of the phenomenon. The discoveries south of the Balkans are instrumental in identifying the origin of the custom of depositing coins in the major Thracian cult sites. In many of the sanctuaries south of the Balkans, from the 5th–3rd c. BC, including the “field of pits” ones, there have been discoveries of coins, so we can speak of a “migration” of this custom into the Thracian world from south to north. of the southern Thracian sanctuaries where coins were found, we would like to mention those from the kom and the Alada mountains, as well as those from koprivlen, Babyak, Radnevo, Debelt (Tonkova 2005, 175; Tonkova, Savatinov 2001, 109, fig. 1).

We will introduce, briefly, just the discoveries from the “field of pits” sanctuaries from Koprivlen, in southwestern Bulgaria. 88 pits of various shapes and sizes were excavated in the “southern” sector, with inhumations of dogs, pigs and horses, as well as isolated human bones from a few individuals, sug-gesting human and animal sacrifices, and a rich and diverse inventory. In 13 pits, 20 coins from Amphipolis, Thessaloniki and Pella were found, as well as from Philip II, Alexander the Great, Cassander, Demetrios Poliorcetes, Antigonus Gonatas, Philip v and Perseus, from the period between the end of the 6th and the end

South of this mound, a pit containing animal bones, including a dog’s jaw, fragments of Dacian vessels broken elsewhere (two jars, two fruit-bowls and a mid-sized vessel), an iron nail, a bronze appliqué and a small rectangular silver plate were found. The com-plex, probably a ritual deposit, is from the second half of the 1st c. AD (Glodariu et alii 1998, 66; 1999, 99; 2000, 31).

Since none of these two discoveries was published at length, it is difficult to make definitive observations about the type of complex. However, if the final analysis shows that the bones in the vessel are not human, but from a sheep/goat, then it is more likely to be a votive deposit than a cenotaph. we should also add the fact that, so far, coins have not been found in a tomb from pre-Roman Dacia and we do not know of any tombs in the orăştie Mountains from the 1st c. AD.

Number of coins and their origin. All in all, at least 275 items were found, 139 of which are Dacian, 127 are foreign and 9 are imitations of foreign items; 180 of them were found in hoards (124 in Cârlomăneşti – of the Vârteju-Bucureşti type – and 56 republican dinars from Sboryanovo-Novite korenezhi), while the other 95 items are isolated finds or were found in various complexes. Although we do not have clear data on all the items, almost all of the items are silver and just a few are bronze, while the gold ones are missing. of course, the number of items is not high, compared to the overall amount of Geto-Dacian coins found, still, they represent almost 12 % compared to the ones found in settlements (268 items in cult sites and 2373 items in settlements), which is a significant figure.

As for their types, there is great diversity: while the difference in the number of Geto-Dacian coins (139 items) and foreign ones (122 items) is not great, due to the Cârlomăneşti hoard (124 items), in terms of diffusion we see that the foreign items appear in all of the cult sites, whereas the local ones only appear in five cases.

Chronology. As is known, we need to draw a clear line between the time the coins were issued and the chronological placement of the contexts in which they were found because the stratigraphy and the rest of the inventory also have to be taken into account, as does the period during which the coins were used. The


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The number of coins, foreign or local, found in the Geto-Dacian settlements north of the Danube, amounts to 2,373 items (only a little over 4% of the overall number of known items – around 56,000), 139 of which are bronze, 2,225 silver and just 3 are made of gold. of these, 1,337 (56.46%) were found in the east-Carpathian settlements, with most of the items being from Poiana (883) (Părpăuţă 2003–2005, 42). Based on the observations regarding the number and chronologi-cal identification of the coins found in the settlements, one can speak of a monetary economy and of monetary circulation solely in certain parts of the Geto-Dacian world (central-southern Moldavia, walachia, oltenia, possibly southwestern Transylvania) and only between the 1st c. BC – 1st c. AD (Mihăilescu-Bîrliba 2003–2005, 99–103; Părpăuţă 2003–2005, 43).

Some numismatists believe that the Geto-Dacian coins appeared for religious reasons and that they be-come a means of trade, besides a method of payment, only towards the end of their evolution (Mihăilescu-Bîrliba 2003–2005, 102).

north of the Danube, 23 coin stamps were found, 21 of which were for Republican dinars and only 2 for Dacian coins, in Pecica (Crişan 1978, 85–97) and Barboşi (Sanie 1989, 91–95). of these, 19 were found in Transylvania and only 4 in the outer-Carpathian area. These stamps are from the 2nd c. BC – 1st c. AD. For the time being, it is difficult to make clear associations between the sanctuaries and the coin workshops, except for Pecica, where the stamp was found in a jeweller’s workshop near the sanctuary (Crişan 1978, 84–108) and, possibly, Bărboşi.

The small number of stamps, compared to the enormous amount of coins, has led to the conclusion that most of the coins in pre-Roman Dacia were cast in iron forms.

The four stamps from Sarmizegetusa Regia – three items are whole, while only the middle of the fourth stamp is preserved – were found under a Roman wall, with traces of iron and bronze slag, vitrified soil and a shapeless lump of lead. The stamps belong to a coin workshop that was burned in 106 AD. All of the three stamps imitate Roman dinars issued by C. Cassius (136 AD), Tiberius (14–37 AD), and imitations from a C. hosidius Geta dinar (68 BC) (Glodariu, Iaroslavschi, Rusu 1996, 57–68).

of the 1st c. BC (Yurukova 2002, 243–246; Prokopov 2002, 247–257). In the “northern” sector, another 22 pits and a ditch with votive deposits were found and this is where, in Pit 6, one single coin was found. The inventory found in the cult pits includes a wide range of pottery, including Greek imports, tools and utensils, weapons, wearable items, among which there are fibu-lae from the 7th – 1st c. BC, weights and clay spindle-whorls, cult tablets, clay items of various shapes and an anthropomorphic figurine (Vulcheva 2002, 103–123). We need to mention that there were also finds of votive deposits from previous periods, which shows that this area was used for cult acts during several historical periods (koprivlen 2002).

Final observations. Before discussing the meaning of the presence of coins in the sacred sites, we would like to mention that an impressive number of coins was found in pre-Roman Dacia north of the Danube, but with certain features, depending on the period or their type. while there are only about 6,700 coins from the period between the 5th and the beginning of the 1st c. BC, there are over 49,000 items that we know of from the time between the 1st c. BC and the Roman conquest (Părpăuţă 2003–2005, 39–43; Mihăilescu-Bârliba 2003–2005, 101). This number, based on the discoveries made until 2003, greatly surpasses the amount of coins found in other “barbarian” regions of Europe.

Some conclusions can also be drawn from the proportion between the foreign and the local coins, as well as the metal that they are made of or the contexts in which they were found.

Thus, the foreign coins that appear in northern Thrace from the 5th c. BC are represented, between 350 – 90/80 BC, by 3,811 items (1,279 made of gold, 1,702 silver, 715 bronze and 17 copper), whereas the number of items from 90/80 BC – 106 AD is much higher, namely 42,587 (2,682 gold, 39,211 silver and 694 bronze), which puts the overall number of foreign coins at about 46,400 (Părpăuţă 2003–2005, 39).

There are two stages in the local coin minting: the first one (mid 3rd – mid 2nd c. BC) is represented by 2,855 items, while the second (mid 2nd c. BC – about 70 BC) comprises 6,637 items. All of the coins of the Geto-Dacians are silver and 32 types have so far been identified (Preda 1973; Părpăuţă 2003–2005, 41).


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one from Piscu Crăsani (Conovici 1981, 574, fig. 3) and another from Bucureşti-Snagov (Rosetti 1935, 19, fig. 23) – was made by imprinting on them Dacian coins from the first minting stage (mid 3rd – mid 2nd c. BC), although the bowls are from a later period (mid 2nd – mid 1st c. BC).

what is surprising is that, so far, there has not been a discussion among the experts on Dacians about the presence of coins and coin workshops in the vicinity of sanctuaries (Mihăilescu-Bîrliba 2004, p. 225–228; Sîrbu 20061, 84–85), although this observation has been around for quite some time in the European historiography (Laum 1924, apud Mihăilescu-Bîrliba 2004, p. 227). As observed by German researcher B. Laum, as early as 1924, the offerings evolve from the real to the symbolic, hence the depositing of miniature items and, afterwards, their replacement with a value substitute, namely the coin.

The existence of strong ties between the black-smiths, the silversmiths, and the sacred is well known in ancient societies (Eliade 1977). A. Rustoiu (2002, 68), noticed that the “silversmith – aristocrat” rela-tion in the Dacian society is illustrated by the fact that in many fortresses (which also served as aristocratic residences), evidence of silversmiths was found.

The role played by religion in the Geto-Dacian society is well acknowledged, but there is more data – written sources and archaeological evidence – on the authority of the high priest and of the clergy in general during the Dacian kingdom, when stone temples were built in certain areas (Russu 1944–1948, 61–139; Dai-coviciu 1972, 204–220; Crişan 1993, 78–110; Sanie 1995, 22–40; Sîrbu 1993; 20061, 21–86). Ancient sources speak of the collaboration between the king and the great priest Deceneu in achieving the unifica-tion of the Geto-Dacians (Jordanes, Getica, 69, 71–72). An important moment was the start of coin minting that imitated the Roman dinar and the disappearance of the “traditional” mints, around the 8th decade of the 1st c. BC. As already noticed, the enforcement of such a decision could only have come from an authority that had sufficient power, and, in this case, we have to take into account an important contribution from the religious authority, besides the political one, namely the beginning of Burebista’s rule. The treasuring role

The largest and most representative amount of coin stamps was found in Tilişca (Sibiu County), where 14 bronze coin stamps were found in a vessel of burnt clay on a terrace, together with 3 iron hoes; no tools or coins indicating the presence of a workshop were found nearby. of the stamps, ten items were suitable, while four had casting defects, meaning they could not be used; they were used to issue imitations of Republican dinars, from 145 – 72 BC (Lupu 1989, 80–84, 86–94).

what is unclear is the nature of the reason behind burying these coin stamps, as well as other items: was it ritual or mundane?

In Sarmizegetusa Regia seven weights were found, three of which were in the immediate vicinity of the sanctuary, where the bronze coin and the clay effigy imitating a Republican dinar were unearthed. In an-cient times, in both the Greek and the Roman world, the standard weights were kept in the temples, thus protected by the gods. Therefore, inscriptions led one to believe that the temple of Castor in Rome is where the standard weights and measures were kept, includ-ing those for testing the coins (Middleton 1892, 279; Frank 1925, 79–80, apud Bromberg 1940, 129). In the case of Sarmizegetusa Regia, it could be that the weights were kept in a sanctuary and taken out only when they needed to be used, which would account for the discovery of three items very close to the large limestone temple on terrace XI. The presence of the weights in the sacred area points to an activity that required their presence there, probably to control the measurement system of those operating in the area (Gheorghiu 2001, 189–198; 2004, 75–78).

It was also in Sarmizegetusa Regia, inside the same limestone temple, on the first disc of row two, that an almost round burnt clay medallion was found (10.3 x 9.4 cm; 1.5 cm thick), with a female face on one side, slightly embossed, and with the other side flat, without any decoration, while the sides are jagged; the closest thing to an analogy for this medallion is a Republican dinar from Tiberius Claudius nero, from 80 BC (Dai-coviciu et alii 1959, 396–397, fig. 8).

Besides the mentioned medallion from Sarmizege-tusa, the decoration of four Dacian bowls – two from Popeşti (Vulpe, Gheorghiţă 1976, 182, 186, pl. 3/3,6),


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from Micri Dragonara, which is very interesting. This islet in the Mediterranean Sea, with a length of 700 m and a width of 200 m, was divided by earthquakes into five parts along the N-S axis, and on one of these sections there was a sanctuary of Poseidon, who was hailed as the king of earthquakes (Gaiiohos = he who shakes the earth) in Sparta, but also in other parts (Tsara-vopoulos 2002, 763–773). In the hellenistic world, the two instances of Poseidon became one and the small island sanctuary began to be visited by sailors using the channel between Peloponnesus and kythira. Their offerings consisted mostly of wine amphorae, small decorated vessels and gem rings, but also included 230 coins from almost 55 sites in the Mediterranean and the Black Seas. The oldest one is from Chersones (Crimea), from 330 – 300 BC, while the youngest is from Dymae, next to Patras, from the time of Augus-tus, meaning the temple operated for about 300 years. The coins, all of them bronze, except for a silver one from Rhodos, were from almost all of the regions of the Mediterranean and the Black Seas: Ibiza (Ebusus), Carthagena and Sardinia to the west, Ptolemaic Egypt and the kingdom of Jugurtha to the south and Pantica-paion, Phanagoria and Chersonese to the north. Most of the coins are from the region of the Aegean Sea, from Asia Minor and, particularly, Athens. The absence of gold and silver coins does not mean that such items were not offered to the gods, but only that the expensive ones were taken by the priests (Tsaravopoulos 2002, 763–773, plus unpublished data).

The Roman world. This is where the temples played a role in the economy and financial transactions, as well as being the site where important things were deposited, such as the treasures and the standards, as attested by inscriptions, ancient authors or archaeo-logical discoveries. There is data that the temples of Peace, Castor, Mars Ultor, Saturn, vesta and ops Consiva were used as places to keep not only public goods, but also the goods of private persons, because of the notion that nobody would dare touch these items while they were under the protection of the gods. we also need to recall that, divine protection aside, these temples were state institutions, often surrounded by walls. For instance, the state treasury was hidden in the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus, under the deity’s

is also suggested by the fact that the gold coin hoards (kosonii) deposited solely close to the capital, are unlikely to have played an economic role, as a trade means, given that they were found exclusively in the form of hoards. They were, most likely, a way to show the prestige of the king and/or the high priest/clergy in the area of the Dacian capital. we also need to mention that the gold bracelets too were found in hoards close to the area of the capital of the Dacian state.

The extremely low number of coins found in the Geto-Dacian temples should come as no surprise as, save for very few cases, other categories of inventory, figurative representations included, are missing. This situation is the result of either the destruction or pil-laging by the Roman army after the conquest of Dacia (106 AD) or of the hiding of the representative items by the Dacians themselves before the Roman siege (Sîrbu 20061, 80–82). however, the relatively large number of such items found in other types of sanctuaries, from as early as the 3rd – 2nd c. BC proves the custom of deposit-ing coins, ritually, in Geto-Dacian cult sites.

We need to point out another situation: about 90% of the coins (over 50,000 items) were found in hoards, something that, in our opinion, cannot be accounted for just by their being buried for fear of pillaging. Some must have had religious significance, but this is an aspect that requires separate discussion. The figurative representations on the Geto-Dacian coins have not enjoyed a great deal of attention (Gramatopol 1982, 98–122).

Ancient correspondence. „Banking is one of the oldest institutions known to man. Its history is lost somewhere in remote Antiquity. But this much is definitely known: banking was born in the temples con-secrated to the gods and goddesses of mythology in the Mesopotamian area thousands of years before the rise of Christianity. This custom of sanctuary depositories spread in due time to other ancient civilizations on the continent of Europe” (Bromberg 1940, 128).

We will briefly introduce some of the discoveries from the Greco-Roman and Celtic worlds in order to see this phenomenon at work in other civilizations and to compare it to the one from the Geto-Dacian world.

The Hellenistic world. of the discoveries from the hellenistic world, we will only introduce the one


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two well-defined areas: a natural sanctuary, close to a stone climb, and the vestiges of a temple from Roman times. The sites are the source of Celtic and Republican coins (Geiser 2005, 287–288).

however, most of the researchers believe the Roman influence is behind the depositing of coins in sanctuar-ies because there is no clear proof of genuine offerings found in the layers that come before the Gallo-Roman wars (Arcelin, Bruneaux 2003, 46). The symbolic size of the deposits is not always obvious and it is often impossible to make a clear distinction between a buried coin treasure that was to be seized later on and an offer-ing deposited on the occasion of a religious ceremony (Arcelin, Bruneaux 2004, 115).

In Belgium, in the sanctuaries from the second half of the 1st c. BC, the Celtic coins account for most of the deposits (Delestrée 2004, 325). It was also in other regions that many researched sanctuaries yielded hundreds of coins, sometimes even over a thousand (Delestrée 1991, 223). For the precocious Gallo-Roman fana, the coin rites replace the offerings of another nature (Gruel 1991, 230).

In the post-La Tène sanctuaries coins are found both at the surface and in pits and ditches, without any specific structures or pits meant to receive/protect them (Delestrée 2004, p. 328). The coin offerings are considered to be of a votive and ritual nature. For in-stance, the ritual called “jactatio” – the pilgrim entered the sacred enclosure and threw a few items or coins – is believed to mark the crossing from the mundane to the sacred world and its origin can be traced back to a Roman tradition (Delestrée 2004, 330; Gruel 1991, 234). In other sites, the sanctuaries offer remarkable examples of votive deposits. The offering could have been meant to attract, in general, the deity’s good will. It is believed that the coin offerings might have been a sort of reward for the deity, as a result of a positive event in the life of the person that it was from (De-lestrée 2004, 326).

The archaeological research in sites where treas-ures were found have revealed that the riches were not buried in isolated places but were, instead, often placed in open cult sites, in settlements or next to enclosures whose functions are not clear. According to some (Gruel, haselgrowe 2006, p. 123), evermore numerous cases

throne (Plinius, Naturalis Historia, XXXIII, 15) and, later on, during the Republic, was taken to the temple of Saturn (Macrobius, Saturnalia, I, 8). Even Caesar deposited 700 sestertia in the altar of the Temple of ops, but Mark Antony took them (Cicero, Second Philippic, XXXVII; eight Philippic, IX). Plutarch mentions that not only the Roman citizens, but also the foreigners deposited their money in the Temple of vesta (antonius, XXI).

The thinking goes that the Celts took from the Ro-man world most of the customs related to the depositing of coins in temples as offerings, including the “jactatio” ritual – throwing coins upon entering the temple.

Coin deposits were also found in lakes or springs – for instance, the enormous coin deposit from vicarello (Cazanove 1991, 209). Greek inscriptions tell us that some metal ex voto could be turned into new objects or coin types (Cazanove 1991, 208).

The Celts. The appearance of a new outlook on how to interpret the discoveries with a sacred character from the Celtic world, due both to new archaeological research and to the reassessment of old discoveries, can be noticed particularly in the last two decades. This enterprise also includes reanalyzing the presence of coins in the sacred sites and the role of coins in the Celtic world.

Some of the researchers feel that the appearance of the coin as an offering in sanctuaries is a result of Roman influences and date the phenomenon after the Roman conquest of the Gauls. however, coins could have been present in certain sacred sites before the mid 1st c. BC (Geiser 2005, 287–300).

The differences are obvious, in terms of the phe-nomenon under analysis, between the different areas inhabited by the Celts.

The early discoveries of coins in sanctuaries, such as in Ribemont-sur-Ancre, remain exceptions because they were deposited in the sacred sites more often, probably as an offering to the deities or in order to protect them. During the 1st c. BC, this custom spread as there are more and more discoveries of coins in the privileged places, isolated or as a hoard (Gruel, haselgrove 2006, 129).

At Grand-Saint-Bernard, coins were found in the stone crevices. Here, archaeologists have identified


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also played political, economic, and juridical roles. Coin minting implies having an authority over human squabbling, in much the same way divine approval was required for other official acts necessary for securing the proper functioning of the community (Poux 2006, 181–200). From this viewpoint, the sanctuaries were split in two categories: the “passive”, which merely received coin offerings, and the “active”, which is-sued coins, some types in small editions (Delestrée 2004, 332).

Coming back to the situation in the Geto-Dacian world we have to acknowledge that we have very lit-tle data on the political and economic role potentially played by the temples and sanctuaries. This is due, partly, to the scarce inventories found in the temples and the lack of written data, as well as to the scarce interest shown by Romanian researchers in approach-ing such topics. Therefore, at this time, the attempt to assign meaning to the presence of coins in the Dacian temples and sanctuaries seems daunting. The purpose of our enterprise was, at this moment, to collect and analyse all the available data, as well as to draw atten-tion to the phenomenon, based on the assumption that the role of coins could not have been much different from that played by temples in the classic and “barbar-ian” civilizations.

suggest that isolated coins, found in settlements, were not lost by accident but were deposited on purpose, as offerings.

Aside from their monetary function – which is not clear, since we are dealing with items that were not always meant to circulate outside the sanctuary – the coins can be regarded as mere “circular objects” (Poux 2006, 194). An example of that is the sanctuary in Corent, located inside the settlement, where the coins do not cross the sanctuary’s border and are concentrated next to the entrance, a place of crossing and exchange with the outside world, a place through which the goods made or purchased from the outside would go. The coins were spread in this area, together with other categories of coin-shaped items. Together with small bronze items they form “treasures”, the value of which is largely symbolic. The use of these items can be con-nected to a type of sacrificial economy with practices that are transmitted to us by Arrian (the Hunt, 33): in exchange for contributions in kind – game, cattle, wine brought to be sacrificed and consumed by the believers, the worshipper received fiduciary compensation (an item, possibly coin-like), considered to be a symbolic tribute to the deity (Poux 2006, 197).

Besides these aspects, the role of the sanctuaries in issuing coins was also approached, based on the observation that, in the later ages, the sanctuaries have


coins from geto-dacian sacred sites

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