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1.0. Chapter 1- Introduction and Background

1.1. Introduction

The rationale to offer guidance and counselling services to secondary school pupils is clear. The

secondary school years is a periods of academic, social, personal, emotional and intellectual

growth for most adolescents. By resolving physical, emotional, social and academic difficulties of

the students and by helping students understand their learning strengths and weaknesses; their

academic achievement can be improved and their overall development can be enhanced. On top

of this, the increasing complexities in the society, industrial and technological development,

changes of the nation's educational system and increasing number of students necessitated the

provision of effective guidance and counselling service more than any other time. Thus, supporting

adolescents in all aspects of their development is very critical to their success.

Gysbers (2007) define guidance as a process of helping the individual find solutions to his/her

own problems and accept them as his own. Gillie et al. (2002) state that guidance is a general

label, an umbrella term that covers all the means whereby an institution identifies and responds

to the individual needs of pupils/students and thereby helping the individual to develop his or her

maximum potential. Counselling, on the other hand, is a subset of the general term we call

guidance services.

The purposes of guidance and counselling (G&C) programs for school children are many folds.

It is evident that G&C programs have significant influence on improving discipline problems,

enhancing pupils’ grades, strengthening social skills, helping students make wise decision on

career development and college choices, and developing positive study habits and study skills

(Lapan et al., 1997).

Career information makes possible systems that support career development and processes such

as career guidance and career education. Career information is absolutely the one tool upon which

nearly every step in the process of making informed and considered career decisions depends.

Informed and considered career decisions result in improved matches between people and their

work. Such matching manifests itself in improved utilization of education and training resources,

higher levels of worker satisfaction, preferred patterns of employment stability and mobility,

increased income and benefits, and many attendant benefits to families and communities.

Career guidance professionals may facilitate the career development process. Not all people will

engage in all steps, and the sequence may vary; but however obtained, informed and considered

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career decisions represent a match of person and work in which the individual’s skills, interests,

values, beliefs, and purposes fit, align with, inform, and contribute to work, and work contributes

to the individual’s well-being and life goals (Whiston and Sexton, 1998).

In this study, the contextual use of the main variables in the problem was as defined below:

Career is a general work description that includes occupation, vocation and profession. Career is

a sequence of jobs, positions or occupations which one is engaged in all through his or her life. It

is the totality of work – paid and unpaid – that one does in one’s lifetime (Baker and Taylor, 1998).

Information is variedly defined as raw data processed into usable form and becomes a basis for

decision making (Hutchison and Sawyer, 1996). Another meaning according to Hicks (1990) is

that of information being used in a conceptual schema language as any kind of knowledge about

things, facts, or concepts of a universe of discourse that is exchangeable among user. This study

adopted the first definition of information above.

Career information is the intelligence that guides workers (and the professionals who advise them)

in the analytical process of examining, comprehending, and making decisions about the world of

work (Gillie et al, 2002). Career information comprises occupational information, industry

information, education and training information, financial aid information, and career

development process information (Ibid). Career information is an essential component of career

information systems, career guidance, and career education.

Thus from the above definition, it is vivid that pupils in secondary schools must know about

various careers in the world of work so as to decide which one to pursue. As such, career

information in this study was viewed as information on a varied number of careers that pupils in

secondary schools could pursue depending on their competences and interests. It is also worth

noting that career guidance and counselling services were not used so much in this study as the

focus was on careers information which can be provided either through guidance or counselling.

A secondary school is a part of the education systems that runs from early childhood to tertiary in

the education setup (Mwanakatwe, 1968). It is sometimes differentiated into junior and high

school levels but it may also be a one way system (Ibid). For this study, secondary schools was

taken to mean all those schools that run from Grade 8 to Grade 12.

1.1.1. Role of Information in Career Decision Making

Information has now been acknowledged by many as a factor of production in the same context

as labour, land and capital are. Some have elevated information to one of the four main ingredients

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of modern industrial activity, side by side with labour, energy and flow of materials (Lundu, 1996).

It is being recognized as an essential catalytic element in development efforts to improve the living

standards of the population and for economic growth.

According to Kahneman and Tversky (2000), a decision is a reasoned choice among alternatives.

Every decision is made within a decision environment, which is defined as the collection of

information, alternatives, values and preferences available at the time of the decision

(Triantaphyllou, 2000). An ideal decision environment would include all possible information; all

of it accurate, and every possible alternative. Decision making is the study of identifying and

choosing alternatives based on the values and preferences of the decision maker. Another

definition of decision making according to Kepner et al (1965) is that of it being the process of

sufficiently reducing uncertainty and doubt about alternatives to allow a reasonable choice to be

made from among them. Every decision making process is viewed as producing a final choice

(Monahan, 2000).

The definitions above stress the information gathering function of decision making. It should be

noted here that uncertainty in decision making is merely reduced rather than vanquished. There

are few decisions that are made with absolute certainty because complete knowledge about all the

alternatives is seldom possible (Ibid). Pupils in secondary schools therefore require relevant,

timely and rightly packaged information when making career decisions. This would help them in

choosing careers that will bring personal satisfaction and fulfilment at the same time.

Informed and considered career decisions are the product of a career development process that

includes experimenting through work sampling, volunteering, or employment, creating awareness

of options, exploring possible career pathways, reviewing available information, clarifying

interests, values, and skills through assessment, reflecting upon experiences, relating education

and training options to occupational goals, consulting with knowledgeable people in the field of

interest, formulating plans for education, training, career entry, and retraining, making decisions

and refining plans, implementing and adapting plans, and applying the career development process

throughout the lifespan (Lokan et al, 1993).

Career information is part of a nexus of products, services, and processes that facilitate informed

and considered career decisions. As depicted in the graphic below, career information extends

outward in a direction of increased complexity and value. The outer circles of increased

complexity act upon career information in extending, organizing, relating, integrating, and

applying it to myriad human situations. The outermost circle provides a feedback loop that

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informs, improves, and extends the reach and effectiveness of career information, processes, and

services (Phillips, 2008).

Figure 1- Complexity and value of Career information Model

(Source: Carl D. Perkins Vocational and Technical Education Act of 1998 Reauthorization)

Giving young people the tools and knowledge to realistically plan for their future is a primary goal

of education. Career information is important for the youths today who are characterized by

directionlessness which is a result of rapid shift from traditional cultural ways and occupations to

the modern, global identities and technological change paradigm with its new demands (Sadler,

and Reisenberger, 1997). Most of the school leavers do not feel equipped to make informed

decisions on careers and they are at a loss as to where to turn to for guidance.

Pupils in secondary schools are given an education that plays a key role in their development. It

equips them with relevant skills, knowledge and values to enable them participate in national and

global development. In Zambia, as is the case in many other developing countries educational

setting, it is significant that a majority of pupils are unaware of training opportunities and

requirements at various levels of post secondary schools education (Okumu, 2009). Career

information needs to be provided and accessed by pupils in secondary schools in order for them

to make well informed decisions that will help them make smooth transitions from school to higher

institutions; from school to work, and from school to lifelong learning in this twenty-first century.

Gysbers, (2007) captures this 21st century scenario as a time when organizations are developing

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global identities; and technological change is rapid. Okumu, (2009) states that with the

complexities of unemployment and the technological shifts in today’s labour market, young people

need not only information but also the skills they can get to ensure they make sound career

decisions.

Thus the crucial role of information in decision making need not be emphasized. It facilitates the

development of individuals into responsible, accountable, participative, expressive citizens who

make well informed rational decisions. To this end, lack of appropriate information in the decision

making process would entail making of decisions that would be unsound; regrettable sooner or

later or even failure at all to make any decision. Therefore, for right decision making either at a

personal level, corporate level or governmental level, accurate, timely, relevant, complete and

reliable information is key.

1.2. Background Information Career information enables secondary school pupils to have such skills as evaluating themselves

realistically and understanding their abilities, making sound decisions, working effectively and

independently and comparing themselves realistically (Gysbers, 2007). These skills need time to

develop. It is therefore imperative that career guidance is taught in a coordinated way in schools.

Unfortunately, this is not the case in many countries. For example, in Britain, the Skills

Commission concluded that the government should give funding and political support for career

information and guidance for all adults and young people. Millions are stuck in “a wrong job”

says the survey (The Standard, pp. 29.)

Career guidance should be integrated into the subjects taught in the school because it would help

relate the subjects to the careers the students would join. This would be helpful especially in the

case where the career teacher cannot cope with the normal teaching workload, the great numbers

of students seeking career information, lack of resources and knowledge since career teachers have

no formal training (Howieson and Semple, 1996). When the subject teachers and the career

guidance teacher work as a team, the students stand to gain in their ability to understand

themselves and to make career choices (Ibid).

Career information and guidance should have a curriculum and program as is the case in most

states in America. The American School Counsellor Association (ASCA), for instance, has

developed National Career Development Guidelines that have been adopted in 46 states

(American Counselling Association, 2003). Similarly, in Canada the Ministry of Education and

Training has a career guidance program that runs from elementary grades and continues through

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secondary. In contrast, in most third world countries Zambia inclusive, career guidance is provided

in a haphazard way and is a fringe benefit instead of being directly linked with students learning

(Rukwaro, 2011).

Sources both print and online, are necessary in order to help students to keep focused on their

careers. In the United States of America, a vast majority of schools stock computerized and non-

computerized career information sources and college catalogues as well as conducting testing for

career planning (Hughes and Karp, 2004). In many African countries, the situation is different

mainly due to lack of government policy and commitment (Rukwaro, 2011). In many secondary

schools in Kenya, for example, even a newspaper is hard to come by. This is not different from

the Zambian scenario too. Watts (2010) commenting on this situation states that relevant reading

materials on career information for both teachers and students is lacking. Students therefore need

to be guided in order to be able to choose careers that are commensurate with their abilities and

interests.

In Zambia, career information is provided through guidance and counselling in secondary schools.

The Ministry of Education has the mandate to provide careers information. The ministry is guided

by the vision to provide quality, lifelong education for all which is accessible, inclusive and

relevant to individual, national and global needs and value systems. Its mission is to guide the

provision of education for all Zambians so that they are able to pursue knowledge and skills,

manifest excellence in performance and moral uprightness, defend democratic ideals, and… Thus

the ministry is entrusted with the responsibility of developing not only individuals into responsible

citizens but also that of putting up infrastructure that will facilitate their development such as

schools.

However, the Ministry of Education has not had documents on career information provision in

schools until recently in 2004 when it developed two modules one and two on the same. Though

the modules are not primarily intended to cater for career information provision as evidenced from

a shallow coverage of the subject, they lay out some background to career information provision.

The School Guidance Services Unit of the Ministry of Education has produced various guidelines

to help the school in particular (Ministry of Education, 2004).

Under the guidelines, guidance and counselling is not to be considered a subject with a specifically

allotted slot on the timetable, it is rather a comprehensive programme meant to be integrated into

the total school programme and be part of the curriculum (Ibid: 64). The Head Teacher is entrusted

with the overall responsibility for making sure that a G&C programme is established and two

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teachers designated as Guidance Teachers depending on the size of school. Thus the Head Teacher

is an overseer of the G&C programme in a school.

The Guidance Teachers are the contact persons between the school and MOE G&C Unit support

systems. All the responsibility to provide career information and to organize activities that involve

the dissemination of career information lies within the Guidance Teachers. It should be noted too

here that these Guidance Teachers must also assume full responsibility of their own slots on the

timetable (Ministry of Education, 2001). This has created negligence where provision of career

information is concerned. Furthermore, the Ministry of Education has suggested some methods to

be used to give careers information to learners. These include hosting careers exhibitions;

establishing careers corner; conducting educational tours; forming careers clubs; holding careers

talks, and providing reading materials on careers (Ministry of Education, 2004). Whether these

methods have been implemented or helped in the provision of careers information is highly

debatable.

The University of Zambia exists basically for teaching, research and public service. This takes

place at different levels. Teaching mainly takes place at undergraduate level while research takes

place at postgraduate level and also the faculty in the institution does research for various purposes.

The University offers public service through some of its individuals being asked by organizations

or government to offer professional advice or help on some committees or wherever deemed fit.

Thus for the University to carry out its aims or goals, it is guided by the vision to be a leader in

provision of higher education in the region, celebrated for providing comprehensive and rigorous

teaching-learning, research and scholarly programmes that are responsive to needs of the

individual, industry and society. Its mission is to be a centre of excellence in higher education for

individuals industry and society through the provision of quality education, research and scholarly

programmes for strategic human resource development, in order to promote national and regional

development, through relevant and appropriate partnerships.

In order to achieve its vision and mission, the university library plays a critical role. The library

provides the much needed information to students at both undergraduate and postgraduate levels

and to the teaching faculty. It facilitates teaching, research and also the provision of public service

by providing individuals with the information on various issues. Hence the library is such an

indispensable tool in the provision of education and ultimately to the development of individuals

who will be responsible and useful in their communities and the nation as a whole. Thus the

university compliments the core business of the Ministry of Education.

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There is a huge discrepancy in the way career information and guidance is handled in the

developed world as compared to the developing world. Yet the world has become a global village

and there is need to prepare youths to seize international careers and opportunities.

1.3. Statement of the Problem The decision of which programme to pursue at university or college is very important to secondary

school students, their teachers and parents. This importance is underscored by the fact that often,

this decision determines the career that the pupils will take for the rest of their working lives.

Access to careers information would enable pupils to understand the educational and career

opportunities and the decision that they must make in choosing careers which should be

commensurate with their abilities and talents. Deciding on the future career is not quite easy. It is

even more difficult when you lack the necessary information on the different types of careers. In

an ideal situation the process of career development stretches throughout one’s lifetime with a

greater emphasis during the secondary and tertiary years (Hughes and Karp, 2004).

Secondary school teachers play an important role for students during their formative years by

fostering the intellectual and social development of their students (Isaacson, 1985). They provide

their students with an environment and the proper tools to develop into responsible adults.

However, though recognizing the importance of career information, no school has paid appropriate

attention to the work (Jassat and Liebenberg, 2004).

In most countries, there are gaps and overlaps in the career information and guidance services.

Availability is uneven. Few countries, it seems, have coherent policies, systems and delivery

structures for career information and guidance that support transitions across the span of life,

learning and work (Hoyt and Lester, 1995). Apparently, it is evident from a number of studies and

through observation from the case of the University of Zambia students that in most secondary

schools in the developing world, career information is less provided if provided at all. It is in view

of this that this study was conducted in order to explore, through the review of literature various

issues underlying the provision of career information in secondary schools using School of

Education first year students at the University of Zambia as a case study.

1.4. Objectives of the Study This study was guided by the following objectives:

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1.4.1. General Objective To examine the provision of careers information in secondary schools for informed career

decisions.

1.4.2. Specific Objectives 1.4.2.1. To establish whether pupils in secondary schools have access to careers

information.

1.4.2.2. To investigate the extent of access to careers information by pupils.

1.4.2.3. To determine the extent of awareness of careers and their requirements

by pupils in secondary schools.

1.4.2.4. To evaluate the relevance of careers information to careers choices.

1.4.2.5. To examine the adequacy of provision of careers information by careers

facilities, programs and information.

1.4.3. Research Questions

The study was guided by the following research questions:

1.4.3.1. Do pupils in secondary schools have access to careers information?

1.4.3.2. To what extent do pupils access careers information at secondary

schools?

1.4.3.3. Are pupils aware of careers and their requirements while at secondary

schools?

1.4.3.4. To what degree is the career information obtained in secondary

schools useful in making career choices in tertiary educational

institutions?

1.4.3.5. How adequate is the careers information provided by careers facilities,

programs and information?

1.5. Rationale of the Study Since Informed and considered career decisions are linked to improved educational achievement,

attainment, and efficiency, pupils who make informed and considered career decisions are more

likely to graduate from secondary school and to succeed in postsecondary education. Therefore,

though this paper was primarily for academic purposes, it was hoped that the results of the study

in one way or another could impact positively on the secondary schools’ need to provide careers

information as it is vital for informed career decision making and also that the study could add a

speck of knowledge in the recognition of the critical important role of careers information not only

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to the benefit of individual pupils but also to their families, communities and ultimately to the

whole country.

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2.0. Chapter 2 -Literature Review

2.1. Introduction

In order to understand the underlying issues in the provision of careers information in secondary

schools, this chapter of the study explores the various theoretical frameworks which best helped

in the understanding of the problem and also other studies conducted in the area under

consideration, filling the gaps and extending prior studies. The theoretical framework on which

the study was based comprised theories that explain why people choose one career instead of

another.

2.2. Theoretical Framework

2.2.1. Introduction

A theoretical framework is an examination of the existing theories in relation to the research

objectives. It refers to a set of interrelated variables, definitions and propositions that present a

systematic view of a phenomenon by specifying relations among variables with the purpose of

explaining a phenomenon (Oso and Onen, 2005). The theoretical framework in this study is

derived from theories examined on career information guidance. These theories show how various

variables interrelate, causes and effects, and explanations that will bring understanding of current

issues in career information provision situation and career decision making.

This study was based on Trait and Factor Theory postulated in 1909 by Frank Parson and Theory

of Personalities whose exponent is John Holland. Frank Parson’s Trait and Factor Theory posits

that a choice of vocation depended upon: an accurate knowledge of yourself, your aptitudes,

abilities, interests, ambitions, resources, limitations and their causes; thorough knowledge of job

specifications, requirements and conditions, success, advantages and disadvantages,

compensation, opportunities and prospects in different lines of work, and the ability to make a

proper match between the two.

The major assumptions underlying Trait and Factor theory include: individuals and job traits can

be matched, and that close matches are positively correlated with job success and satisfaction. On

one hand, John Holland’s Theory of Personalities proposes that people can function and develop

best and find job satisfaction in work environments which are compatible with their personalities.

The personality types and work environments are labelled as realistic, investigative, artistic, social,

enterprising, and conventional. A more detailed discussion of Frank Parson and John Holland’s

theories will be done in isolation respectively.

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2.2.2. Trait and Factor Theory

Frank Parson (1909) held that career decision is the greatest decision (Muro and Kottman, 1995).

His theory is used in career counselling. Trait and Factor Theory engulfs three basic factors which,

if taken into consideration would help a person in choosing a career that would bring satisfaction

and productivity. An individual has to understand him/herself, his/her talents, abilities, aptitude,

interests, ambitions, resources, limitations and their causes. These personal traits have to be

matched with knowledge of job specifications: the requirements of the job, conditions, success,

advantages and disadvantages, compensation, opportunities, and prospects in different lines of

work. A decision on what line of work one will pursue will then be reached. This would lead a

person to a job that would be satisfying thus leading to productivity.

However, this theory does not consider the aspect of change in an individual and therefore the job

can be dissatisfying. On the other hand, job conditions and trends do change for various reasons

and thus become dissatisfying. Nevertheless it is hoped that a person who had a great ability to

analyse in the first place before choosing a job will be able to analyse the cause of dissatisfaction

and know what steps to take.

This theory also disregards socio-economic contexts that may force people to take whatever job

is available irrespective of his/her personal traits or even job conditions. The theory also would be

more comprehensive if it sought to elaborate why one has the traits he/she finds him/herself

possessing. It would have helped the person understand him/herself.

2.2.3. Theory of Personalities

The first publication of John Holland’s theory was in 1959 in a publication entitled “A Theory of

Vocation Choice” (Muro and Kottman, 1995:352). This theory was espoused to organize data

about people in different jobs; organize the data about different work environments, suggest how

people make career choices; explain how job satisfaction and vocational achievement occur.

Holland proposed that people can find job satisfaction in work environments that are compatible

to their personalities. He classified personality types and work environment into six types which

he labeled Realistic, Investigative, Artistic, Social, Enterprising and Conventional (RIASEC) (see

figure 2, pp.15). The closer the match of personality to the job, the greater the job satisfaction. He

also stated that although all types are part of us, one type is usually most prominent and through

self-analyses, one would know the prominent one. The theory was applicable to both men and

women but it was noted that there was a question of gender bias for most women tended to score

on mainly three personalities: artistic, conventional and social. Holland attributed this to gender

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which caused many women to display greater interest in traditionally female-dominated

occupations.

This theory emphasizes self-knowledge and knowledge of work environment for wise career

decision making.

RIASEC denotes:

Realistic–basically involves physical demands. People work with tools, machines, or animals.

Technical competence and the ability to manipulate things is the most important aspect of these

jobs. These personalities like to work with their hands, separate from people, on concrete tasks.

Investigative - basically involves intellectual challenges that require using reasoning,

mathematics, or scientific principles to solve problems. Problem solving, abstract thinking, logic,

and creativity are essential competencies for these jobs. These personalities enjoy puzzles,

intellectual challenges, and working independently to solve problems. Examples of such careers

are computer science and urban planning among others.

Artistic - basically involves free, open, creative environments in which people have very little

structure. Creativity and personal expression are essential competencies for these jobs. These

personalities enjoy freedom and unstructured situations in which they can express themselves in

original ways through various media. Journalism, media and theatre arts are in this category.

Social–basically involves people working together to support and understand each other.

Communication and listening competencies are essential for these jobs. These personalities feel a

strong need to be in a cooperative, supportive environment. Social work, nursing, teaching are in

this category.

Enterprising–basically involves persuading other people to do what one wishes. Communication,

leadership, management competencies are essential for these jobs. These personalities like to use

data and /or their social skills to get others to do what they want, accomplish group goals, and to

achieve higher status. Such people fit in marketing and business among others.

Conventional - basically involves carefully organized, structured, and planned environments in

which people keep records, file papers, organize data and work under close supervision of another

person. The most important competencies for these jobs are organization and the ability to

carefully follow orders. These personalities enjoy settings that are highly structured in which they

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have little autonomy. Examples of such settings may include accounting and office systems

administration.

The theory does not also explain that personalities do change, and thus one may not be satisfied

with a job which one chooses before the change. Similarly, the job may change due to global

trends. Nonetheless it may have been assumed that one who gets dissatisfied with a job due to

change in personality will be expected to move to one that is compatible with the new personality.

The same is expected to happen to one who gets dissatisfied with a job due to change in the job.

Mobility to a compatible job with one’s personality is expected.

Furthermore, it would have been of great help if an explanation was given as to how one acquires

the personality that he/she has. This theory also disregards the socio-economic contexts that may

force a person to take whatever job is available irrespective of his/her personal traits or even job

conditions.

Figure 2- Holland's Hexagonal Relationship of Occupational classes,

(Source: Attridge, W. C)

2.2.4. Justification in choosing the two theories

There are many theories on career guidance, counselling and development like that of Super’s and

Ginzberg’s et al. Life Span Theory. The theory proposes a developmental model of career

development. The theory can be viewed as concentrating much on the development stage of

Artistic Conventional

Social Enterprising

Realistic Investigative

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students/pupils in the early years of their (primary) education. However, for this particular study,

the researcher has settled on aligning the study to Parson’s and Holland’s theories due to these

theories’ appropriateness and continued dominance in career practice overtime and to under gird

counselling for career practice (Patton, 1990). Some of the ways these theories continue to

dominate and under gird career practice include the following:

Parson’s first element, self-knowledge, was to be assessed through test of abilities, aptitudes and

inventories of interest. This is in keeping with contemporary practice of career assessment.

Holland’s work on understanding of one’s personality influenced and pushed the development of

interest inventories further. The second element, which relates knowledge about the world of

work; and which Holland referred to as work environment is still an important concept in career

planning and development and it has led to organized classifications and descriptions of

occupational information. Parson’s third element of true reasoning alludes to the cognitive

processes and analytical skills as fundamental to career decision making; a concept that is in

keeping with contemporary career guidance concepts.

Parson’s and Holland’s theories are still relevant and they inform contemporary career counselling

in the above ways and also in introducing key concepts in understanding career development. a

study done in the United States of America by Osborne and Baggerly (2004) in which Florida

Public Schools’ Counsellors were asked whether they used any career theory in their practice,

found out that three fourths were using a career theory in their practice; and Holland’s RIASEC

theory was the most popular, perhaps due to the number of applicable tools such as elf-Directed

Search. In another observation made in Osborne and Baggerly (2004) study, the top three

identified theories were based on trait and factor approach. A conclusion was thus made by the

Osborne and Baggerly that this suggests that trait and factor theory still has prominence in

informing career decision making. Isaacson (1985) also observed that every theory of career

development has in it aspects of trait and factor theory and is regarded as a bedrock of all career

guidance and counselling theories.

For all these reasons among others, the researcher will employ Parson’s and Holland’s theories

for this study because they auger well with the study and the principle concepts of these theories

are still used to inform and communicate career practice and research.

2.2.5. Relevance of the Theories to the Study

Parson’s wise choice of vocation which is based on a clear knowledge of oneself, of the job and a

matching of the two calls for true reasoning. Reasoning can only be done where there is

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information to enable one to weigh the alternatives and arrive at a decision. Parson called career

choice the greatest decision.

Knowledge of self in terms of academic potential, attributes, talents, interests, values,

expectations, resources, “do not appear suddenly on the day students are ready to leave school as

they require substantial time and attention to develop, be assimilated and used by students

beginning with elementary school” (Gysbers, 2007). One needs to be engaged in several services

and activities such as career day/week where dissemination of career information through group

discussions, films, talks and visits to organizations are done. An individual can also be helped to

understand him/herself when the career counsellor collects and analyses the student’s personal

data and relates it to the wider social, cultural, economic and vocational context. In this way, the

student will understand him/herself and the career suitable for them.

Understanding of oneself is important to a pupil especially in the context of socio-cultural-

economic changes taking place. UNESCO (2002) stated that access to information through media

and other forms of technology is giving young people aspirations that for the most part, cannot be

satisfied in their environment. These aspirations that the pupil is exposed to must be carefully

adapted and fine-tuned by the career counsellor to fit in with the realities in Zambia and the world.

Parson’s theory also presses emphasis on the need for knowledge of the jobs. The variations of

the job world ought to be understood. No longer can one think of a job in a specific industry or

country. For now we are all employees of various industries and countries. For instance, someone

who has a bachelor’s degree in education can work as a banker or a lecturer in one university can

be an external examiner in universities in other countries; an employee in Lusaka office is in touch

daily with the multinational company offices in Beijing, Canberra or Tokyo. With each passing

day, the world of work changes in order to suit the global changes and remain on the cutting edge

of knowledge and best practices. Quite a number of workers and their organizations in which they

work are developing global identities (Gysbers, 2007). Career counselling and dissemination of

knowledge of jobs must take cognizance of the intricacies of a rapidly changing world and jobs.

There are various types of jobs in the world of work; some are part-time, short stint, volunteer,

casual, permanent, temporary, among others. When the pupil is given information on jobs, it must

encompass all these dynamics.

Holland’s Theory of Personality is modeled after Frank Parson’s Trait and Factor theory. Like

Parsons, Holland also stresses self-knowledge in order to know which of the six personalities –

realistic, investigative, artistic, social, enterprising and conventional – is your type. He agrees that

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each of us has a bit of the personality types but one is dominant. To know which one needs self-

analyses, an individual’s personality type “could be identified by preferences for school subjects,

extracurricular activities, hobbies and work” (Ibid). This can be done in school and home by the

subject teachers, career teacher and parents, among other.

Holland also did not attempt to give an explanation as to how people become the types they are.

Holland simply asserted that people simply tended to reproduce themselves. Holland did not take

into consideration the changes in personalities or even work organizations that happen due to

varied reasons over time.

Both Frank Parson’s and Holland’s theories regard self-knowledge and career information

essential for career decision making.

2.2.6. Conclusion This study was on provision and access to career information in order to ensure that a career

decision is made that will be a catalytic transition to job satisfaction. This is in view of the

prevailing scenario in Zambia where people enter careers which they are not interested in or have

no ability in (Ministry of Education, 2004). It was hoped that if these theories are taken into

consideration and information given on self and job analyses, especially in secondary schools, the

tide of Zambians landing in the jobs that are not complementary to their abilities and interests will

be stemmed.

2.3. Empirical Review There are many studies and reports on career information provision in secondary schools. Several

studies have found that career classes, workshops, and structured groups are useful interventions

(Muro and Kottman, 1995; Gillie and Fall, 2003; Watts, 2010; Rothman and Hillman, 2008) that

produce a variety of documented outcomes.

Ogle (2001) found that lower student-counselor ratios resulted in increased college-going rates for

high school graduates, an effect that persists when taking into account socio-economic and

demographic differences. Increasing the amount of time that students spend talking with

counselors and teachers about students’ plans is associated with increased achievement in

mathematics, science, and reading.

Blustein (2002), notes that researchers and policy analysts are linking educational development

and career development. There is an emergent understanding that students who have an awareness

of the career relatedness of education are more likely to engage and achieve in school. Blustein

18

cites two meta-analyses (Baker and Taylor, 1998; Evans and Burck, 1992) and three specific

studies that document academic gains from career interventions. Another study of a systematic

guidance program (Lapan, Gysbers, and Petroski, 2001) found that seventh graders had improved

attitudes toward education and better grades than students who did not take part in the program.

Dykeman et al. (2003) posit that career interventions lead to increased academic efficacy and

motivation, two variables that are known to be related to improved academic achievement. In their

study, academic planning counselling was found to have a positive influence upon mathematics

achievement. The authors speculate that mathematics is particularly susceptible to influence,

because counsellors can help students understand how mathematics relates to their lives and future

plans.

According to the New Zealand Education Review office report (1999), schools have the

responsibility to provide appropriate career information and counselling to all students, but special

attention is recommended to be paid to those who are nearing the completion of their education

cycle. They have to be provided with specific career guidance and counselling to enable them to

make informed decisions on further education. Similarly, Hoyt and Lester (1995) stressed the

importance of comprehensive career information that should be organized into instructional

programs offered to all students. Requirements for a variety of jobs are changing as new jobs are

emerging while others become obsolete.

In their contribution to careers decision making, Jassat and Liebenberg (2004) explained that

career guidance and counselling is an important avenue through which students acquire the ability

to make rational career decisions, and by extension, programmes for study at universities that

impact on their future working lives. This understanding is based on the fact that during the career

counselling process, all aspects of an individual’s life are considered as an integral part of the

career making and planning. After orientation into their degree programmes in a number of

academic institutions, a significant percentage of students come wishing to revise their degree

programmes, citing dislike for some aspects thereof. Secondly, others come to change, from

degree programmes they were admitted into after choosing them as first choice and meeting the

degree programme requirements, to others degree programmes they perceive to be better (Lugulu,

2011). The inter school transfer process carried out during orientation period in Kenya assists this

category of students. The number transferred thus is however, very small and it leaves a large

group of students dissatisfied (Ibid).

19

As Koontz and Weihrich (1990) observe, decision making is the selection of a course of action

from among alternatives, they recognized it as a major part of planning. For the decision reached

to be rational, the decision maker must have a clear understanding of alternative courses by which

a goal can be reached under existing circumstances and limitations. They must also have the

information and ability to analyses and evaluate the alternatives in the light of the goal sought. For

students, the goal here refers to the future careers, and choosing relevant degree programmes

prepares them for the desired end. Lastly they must have the desire to come to the best solution by

selecting the alternative that must effectively satisfy goal achievement (Ibid). In relying on the

manpower planning theory therefore (Herbert, 1962) it is necessary to align educational

opportunities to economic needs and aspirations. Otherwise it may lead to oversupply of

manpower in some areas which may lead to wastage in their training and impose a heavy

opportunity cost or failing to train manpower in the other critical but supposedly unpopular areas.

A survey by the Vietnam Education Science Institute found out that 70 percent of high school

pupils do not receive career education (Kellett and Conger, 1995). Most students kept quiet when

they were asked about the career education curriculum for 10th graders. No 11th grader could

answer the question; saying that they would only decide what they would become when they finish

the 12th grade (Ibid).The problem of many high school students now is that they do not know

what they would study and what jobs they would take. A lot of pupils said the same thing that they

would ask others or their parents to decide what to do next after finishing high school (Johnson,

1988).

A study was conducted to investigate the selection of undergraduate student degree programs in

Moi University, Kenya (Lugulu, 2011). It explored the attitudes and perceptions of the participants

on what determines the choice of undergraduate degree programmes. A mixture of Quantitative

and Qualitative methodologies and Case Study research design was used. Simple random sampling

technique was used to select 11 schools out of 15 and stratified random sampling to select 754

respondents to constitute the sample. A questionnaire was administered to 742 student respondents

in order to measure their perceptions, attitudes, values and behaviour on the subject of study and

also to identify key research themes that were probed further. Three Focus Group Discussions and

ten face-to-face interviews were conducted with selected respondents who were believed to be

more knowledgeable about the selection of students’ in undergraduate degree programs (Ibid).

Document analysis of the archival documents was also done. Descriptive statistics such as

frequencies and percentages were used to determine and explain proportions. In the light of

findings, the study concluded that the level of career guidance and counseling provided in

20

secondary schools was neither well planned nor organized. In addition, there were no clear policies

within which the service is provided. Students’ degree programme decisions were guided by other

factors rather than interest. Universities do not sufficiently market degree programmes in

secondary schools.

In Australia, a report examined young people’s participation in career advice activities while at

school and their perceptions of the usefulness of the advice they receive (Rothman and Hillman,

2008). The data are from the 2003 15 year old cohort of the Longitudinal Surveys of Australian

Youth (LSAY). Most members of this LSAY Y03 cohort were in Year 10 in 2003. The present

report examines how much career advice students accessed in Years 10, 11 and 12 across three

years of data collection (2003–2005). A smaller group of the cohort was followed each year; this

group was in Year 10 in 2003, Year 11 in 2004, and Year 12 in 2005. For this group of more than

5000 young people, analyses were conducted to determine what influences their perceptions of

the usefulness of career advice while at school.

The findings of the study were that all students in the LSAY Y03 cohort participated in at least

one type of career advice activity across Years 10, 11 and 12. Most activity occurred in Year 10,

when 99 per cent of students accessed at least one activity (Ibid). On average, Year 10 and Year

12 students reported accessing five different types of activity, and Year 11 students reported four

out of seven selected activities.

The most common type of career advice activity across Years 10, 11 and 12 was the distribution

of written material and handouts. In Year 10, 95 per cent of students received such material. This

was followed by a talk from the school’s career advisor; with 87 per cent of students reporting this

activity (Ertelt and Seidel, 1998).More than one-half of Year 10 students (54%) reported having a

talk from a representative of a TAFE institution or a university. By contrast, 76 per cent of Year

12 students reported this activity (Ibid). During that same period, employer representatives spoke

to 54 per cent of Year 10 students and 50 per cent of students in Year 12.

The most common grouping of activities included a talk from the school’s career advisor, written

materials, an individual session with the career advisor and—in Year 10—group discussion.

Members of the LSAY Y03 cohort were generally positive about the value of the career advice

they received at school, although some types of advice were seen as more useful than others. In

Years 10, 11 and 12, an individual conversation with the career advisor was perceived as the most

21

useful. For example, in Year 10, 60 per cent of students stated the conversation was ‘very useful’.

Group discussion was seen as the least useful at all three year levels.

The relationship between how useful cohort members perceived career advice at school and a

number of background factors highlighted some significant differences, but the overall influence

of these factors was extremely small. Gender and socioeconomic status had small, significant

influences on perceptions of usefulness, but explained less than 1 per cent of the variation in

usefulness scores.

Academic achievement as measured by students’ performance on PISA tests in mathematical

literacy, reading literacy, scientific literacy and problem-solving skills was statistically significant,

with lower-achieving students reporting that career advice was more useful, although the

contribution of this factor was very small.

One of the strongest associations was between perceptions of the usefulness of career advice and

the number of career advice activities accessed during the year. As young people participated in

more activities, they found career advice overall to be more useful. There was very little difference

between schools in students’ perception of the usefulness of career advice (Rothman and Hillman,

2008). Nearly all of the variation and only a small proportion of that variation could be accounted

for was because of differences between students.

Many countries have come to recognize the contributions of quality guidance and career

information services to the development of motivated learners who are productive and committed

workers (Bezanson and Kellet, 2001). However, there are many other kinds of services that also

contribute to the development of motivated and productive learners and workers. Examples of

such services may include community development services, economic services, front-line youth

services and the services of adult educators. The providers of these skill development and lifelong

learning services are important stakeholders in the provision of career information and guidance

services.

Some of the stakeholders important to a coherent career information and guidance system include:

the individual, families, employers, counsellors, social and community agencies, community,

peers/role models, government and schools (Ibid). Parents may be active catalysts for career

development and lifelong learning, but often require information and understanding about how to

do so effectively. Their potential contributions remain untapped. The involvement of employers

in career information and guidance services is not extensive (Watts, 2010).

22

It is clear as revealed from a number of studies that many students do not have information which

pertains to the career that they would want to get into. While in developed countries the scenario

could be better than that of the developing world, provision of careers information in both worlds

is still not as expected. It was therefore at the core of this study to have a further examination of

this issue and contribute immensely on the improvement of the foregoing problem.

23

3.0. Chapter 3- Research Methodology

3.1. Introduction

This chapter covers the methodology that was used in data collection and analysis. It discusses

research design, study population and justification, sampling procedure and sample size,

instrumentation, data collection procedures and data analysis techniques of the research study.

3.2. Research Design Research design is the conceptual structure within which research is conducted; it constitutes the

bedrock for the collection, measurement and analysis of data and interpretation of observations.

The important features of a research design are the advance planning of the techniques to be used

in analysing the data, keeping in mind the objective of the research and the time and financial

implications since most studies are done under these two constraints (Babbie, 2005; Kothari,

2004;).

The study adopted both qualitative and quantitative methodologies to maximise on the strength of

both (Best and Kahn, 1983). It also adopted a case study design in order to examine the careers

information provision in secondary schools for the process of students’ selection of career courses

programmes in public universities and colleges in their natural settings. It employed the

questionnaire methods of data collection.

3.3. Study Population and Justification In this study, the research population consisted of first year undergraduate students in the School

of Education at the University of Zambia. The rationale for the selection of first year students at

the UNZA was guided by the fact that these comprise a number of students from various secondary

schools in Zambia. Thus their diverse views on the matter helped in getting the much sought

information. Additionally, taking into account the time and cost constraints, the choice of this case

study made it ideal for carrying out this study.

3.4. Sample Size and Sampling technique A sample is a subset of the population having similar features to the population and representative

of the population. It constitutes selected elements from a population which is used to make

statements about the whole population. Observations made and conclusions of the sample are

representative of the entire population. A sample is considered to be representative if the analysis

made using the researcher’s sampling unit produce results similar to those that would be obtained

had the researcher analysed the entire population (Frankfort – Nachmias and Nachmias, 1996;

Cresswell, 2003).

24

In this study, the sample size consisted of 40 first year students in the School of Education at

UNZA, Great East Road main Campus. The choice of 40 respondents is influenced by the rule of

the central limit theory which states that a random sample equal or greater than 30 is able to

provide a normal distribution on the characteristics of the population under consideration (Blalock,

1972). A purposive sampling method was used to select research objects from various first year

programmes in the School of Education.

3.5. Data Collection Techniques The main data collection tool in this study was the questionnaire. Frankfurt-Nachmias and

Nachmias (1996) state that questionnaire is the main instrument in survey research. Researchers

use questionnaires so that they can obtain information about the thoughts, feelings, attitudes,

beliefs, values, perceptions, personality, and behavioural intentions of the research participants in

a large population. Questionnaires provide data in the same form from all respondents. The content

and organization of a questionnaire corresponded to researcher’s research objectives. (Johnson

and Christenser, 2008; Babbie, 2007).The questionnaire included both open and closed ended

questions allowing the respondents to give both direct and opinion answers. However, more closed

ended questions were used due to the desire for quantitative data which was analysed statistically

using a computer.

3.6. Data Analysis Techniques

The analysis and interpretation of the data was done through the use of computer software known

as Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 16.0 and Microsoft Excel. SPSS was

used to analyse quantitative data due to its ability to analyse quantitative data without difficulties.

Microsoft Excel on the other hand was used to analyse qualitative data due to its ability to produce

quality graphs and tables that are necessary in the analysis process.

25

4.0. Chapter 4-Data Presentation and Interpretation

4.1. Background Characteristics

4.1.1. Respondents by their sex

Figure 3- Respondents by thier sex

Majority of the respondents were female being 63% of the total respondents while the males

comprised only 38% of the respondents.

4.1.2. Respondents by their age groups

Table 1 -Respondents by age group

Age Group Respondents

16-19 11

20-24 36

25-29 2

30 and above 1

Majority of the respondents were of the age group between 20-24 years and comprise of 72% of

the all the respondents while 22% are aged between 16-19 years with those aged 25-29 being 4%

and those aged above 30 were only 2%.

Male, 19, 38%

Female, 31, 62%

Respondents by Their Sex

26

4.1.3. Respondents by program of study

Figure 4- Respondents by their programs of study

The majority of the respondents are studying Bachelor of Arts with Education which represents

49% of all the respondents while Bachelor of Arts in Environmental Education was second with

15% of the respondents with Bachelor of Arts with Library and Information Studies and Bachelor

of Science with Education being third with 13% each of the respondents followed by Bachelor of

Arts with Special Education and Bachelor of Adult Education representing 8% and 2%

respectively.

4.1.4. Respondents by province of secondary school attended

Figure 5-Respondents by secondary school attended

23, 49%

6, 13%

4, 8%

6, 13%

7, 15%

1, 2%

Programme of Study

B.A ED B.A LIS B.A Sp BSc ED B.A EED B.A AD

13

6 53

96

2 2 2 2

Schools attended by respondents

27

Majority of the respondents are from more highly urbanised provinces of Zambia such as Lusaka,

Southern, Central and Copperbelt provinces. Typically rural provinces have shortage of manpower

as most teacher tend to abandon the rural schools and careers masters have to spend more time

teaching than providing career guidance and counselling to pupils.

4.2. Access to Career Information

4.2.1. Whether the respondents received career information at their

secondary schools

Figure 6- Whether respondents accessed career information

Majority of the respondents did access career information and these represent 62% of the

respondents while those who had no access only present 38% of the respondents. The data also

reveals that majority of the respondents who had no access to career information where from rural

provinces and further that those who did have access to the information found it generally

irrelevant to their current career choices.

Of those who had no access to career information, 50% attributed it to lack of emphasis by the

schools on the importance and value of this information hence were generally not interested, 20%

of them attributed it to non-availability of careers guidance teachers in their offices while 30%

attributed it to lack of career guidance and counselling facility.

In terms of seeking access to careers information, only 8% of the respondents never sought careers

information while 82% sought to access the information and 10% never responded. And of those

who sought to obtain the careers information 56% sought it rarely while 44% sought it often.

Yes, 31, 62%

No, 18, 36%

NR, 1, 2%

Whether Respondents were provided with career information

28

4.2.2. Mode of career choice provision

Table 2- Mode of provision/Access to career information

Mode of Provision Respondents Percentage

Talks 4 12%

Teachers 16 52%

Leaflets 3 10%

School Careers Activities 3 10%

Visits from tertiary Institutions 5 16%

Majority of the respondents representing 52% of those who accessed career information accessed

it from their teachers in classroom set ups with 16% accessing it from visits from tertiary

institutions while the rest obtained it from independent talks, literature, and school careers

activities.

4.2.3. Hindrances to Accessing Career Information

Figure 7- Hindrances to accessing career information

There are several factors cited as hindrances to accessing career information by most pupils

however, majority attribute it to lack of access to careers masters due to various factors including

the careers master’s teaching engagements, the high pupil-careers master ratio and lack of

cooperation of careers masters. Others cited lack of programs by schools to promote and provide

career related information and some just had no interest also attributed to lack of proper education

on the value of career information.

16%

18%

20%

46%

Hindrances to accessing career information

Lack of interest Non-availability of CI programs

No Access to careers Masters Non Applicable

29

4.3. Awareness of Careers and Requirements

4.3.1. Extent of awareness of careers and their requirements

Figure 8- Extent of knowledge of careers and career requirements

Respondents were asked whether they were aware of careers and their requirements and 60% were

aware while only 40% were not aware. A follow up question however as shown in figure 6 above

reveals that though the majority of the respondents were aware, only 6, representing 12% of the

respondents were very aware while 20% were only quite aware of careers and their requirements

with the majority of 58% either never knew or were not very aware. The levels of awareness

therefore as illustrated in the number of responses reflects a decreasing level of awareness hence

a general lesser extent of awareness.

0

10

20

Very AwareQuite Aware

Not that AwareNot Aware at all

6 10 14 20

Extent of Knowledge of Career information

30

4.3.2. Sources of Information on careers and their requirements

Figure 9- Sources of career information on career requirements

Available Careers and their requirements as a critical part of career information at the time of

enrolment into the university was obtained in many ways with the majority being through career

talks at school and current or former university students and staff having 24% each followed by

parents and family members with 22% and internet and adverts with 18% the least being from

friends with 12%.

The school therefore only contributes as much as 24% with the rest of the 76% being from other

sources. This therefore implies that the majority of the respondents got information on career

requirements from sources outside the secondary schools.

Career Talks at Schools

24%

Current or former

students at the university

24%

Parents and family

members22%

internet and adverts

18%

Friends12%

Sources of information on career requirements

31

4.4. Career Information and Career Choices

4.4.1. Influence for current career (program of study) choice

Figure 10- Influences on career choices

Majority of the respondents had their career choice determined or influenced by their parents’

choices or decisions and this represents 42% of all respondents. 24% however had their career

choices determined by their Grade 12 results, a situation which would have been different had

adequate and relevant information been given before exams. Only 8% of the respondents were

influenced by their teachers. This implies that the career information obtained from schools

reduced in relevance at the point of making career choices. A follow up question revealed that

most of the students found the career information obtained from school largely irrelevant when

making their current career choices as they still had to seek for more and new information such

that 92% of the respondents had to seek extra information to make their career choices.

0 5 10 15 20 25

Teachers

Parents

Friends

University students/staff

Own Choice

Results

8

21

4

2

3

12

Influence on career choices

32

4.4.2. Current Career Choices, Career Information and Dream Careers

Figure 11- Satisfaction with current career choices

Asked whether they are satisfied with current career choices, the majority, as revealed in figure 7

above, expressed that they were not satisfied.

Asked again what career choices they would they have made if they had the career information

during their secondary school level of education that they currently have, only 8% chose their

current career choice with the rest falling prey to poor career information which limited their career

choices.

When asked why they would have made different career choices, majority stated that their Grade

12 results prevented them from pursuing their dream careers as they had little information of the

exact needed subject combination and requirements hence in principle got influenced by academic

performance.

12%

88%

Wether the respondents are satisfied with current career choices

Yes No

33

4.5. Adequacy of Provision of Career Facilities, Programs and

Information

4.5.1. Available facilities, programs and information

Figure 12- Availability of information, facilities and programs

As revealed in figure 10 above, majority of the respondents revealed that there were inadequate

programs and facilities in the schools from which to access career information despite the ready

availability of the information as revealed above. There is therefore a discrepancy between

availability of career information and their channel of dispersion being the programs and facilities.

Asked whether the available information was adequate, 70% found the information inadequate

while 30% found it adequate. Further, asked whether they found the facilities adequate, majority

being 78% found the available facilities inadequate with only 12% finding it adequate. As for the

programs, the majority (56%) found them useful in providing career information while 22% found

them useful with 14% not responsive while 8% had the question inapplicable to them since they

had no such programs.

0

20

40

ProgramsFacilities

Information

1411 31

36 39

19

Wether programs, facilities and information was available at the

schools

Yes

No

34

5.0. Chapter- Discussion of findings and Conclusion

5.1. Introduction

An established fact it is that information is foundational to proper planning and decision making

and that the quality of information is key to quality decision making. Given this case therefore,

correct, comprehensive, appropriate and relevant career information is a key ingredient to effective

career decision making which results into a proper match between an individual’s abilities and

skills with the job and career requirements and evidently so, pupils in secondary schools do not

have adequate and reliable information about their career opportunities and their requirement. This

chapter therefore discusses the research findings and their implications and impacts.

5.2. Characteristic features of career information provision in Zambia

5.2.1. Introduction

Information is generally accepted as a key decision making tool and input and given that the role

of the education institution is not only to educate the pupils on various subject matters but also to

provide career and lifetime guidance training and coaching, it is imperative that both aspects of

the roles of education be effectively and adequately covered in both curricula and extra curricula

activities. Career information is seen as part of a complex and process of child developmental

growth and coaching and that it is critical to career systems, career processes and career functions

in the light of the entire systematic and social societal function ( Phillips, 2008). Career

information is therefore a cornerstone of a well functional society as it provides avenues for the

proper preparation of pupils for appropriate and relevant job and career placement which

ultimately results into a specialised and well functional society in which every member contributes

their best.

However several features of our career information provision systems in Zambia render it quite

dysfunctional and distortional to the general tone of society’s needs. This section therefore

discusses these characteristic features as derived from section 4.1 of the data presentation

supported by other findings within the entire chapter four hence provides a general outlook of the

entire research findings.

5.2.2. Gender and career information provision

OECD Council of Government Ministers (2011: 89) report notes that “gender differences in

educational choices appear to be related to student attitudes (motivation, interest) in studying a

particular subject rather than their ability and school performance.” This is clearly pictured in the

higher number of women in the school of education as noted in figure 3 which indicates that 62%

35

of students in the school of education are female simply because the school and field of education

has been stereotyped to be feminine while the school of natural sciences has been stereotyped as

masculine a feature which consciously or unconsciously is engrafted into the pupils’ school

environment composed of the majority of female teachers. This has resulted into greater career

path distortions for most females and general poor career performance in the education system as

teachers are not necessarily teaching based on their skills and abilities but by mere adherence to

societal career stereotyping. In Kenya, the situation is reported to even be worse as revealed by

Rukwaro (2011) that “girls in rural areas choose careers that are generally poorly paid because

they are in keeping with the socio-cultural norms.” This can be further hypothesised to be one of

the contributing causes of the failure of career guidance systems in secondary schools as well as

the provision of distorted career information provision the schools.

OECD report further notes that “gender gaps in performance are smaller than gender gaps in fields

of tertiary study, indicating that young women often do not translate their good school

performance into field of studies for higher education that offer better employment prospects, such

as STEM studies. Furthermore, even when women complete STEM studies they are less likely

than men to work in these sectors. While it is difficult to separate innate and learned behaviours

and to assess the influence of stereotypes, the effect of this gender imbalance is very clear. It

hinders women’s careers; it lowers their future earnings levels and deprives OECD economies of

a source of talent and innovation. Stereotyped school environments, activities, and career

information therefore has far reaching impacts especially on women evidently caught up in the

society’s career and social guidance distortions. Several other research findings indicate that career

paths in field of education, nursing, child care and support, catering and hospitality have been

relegated to women while the more high paying ones have been dominated by men.

The research findings further indicate that there is a much more general lack of interest in seeking

career information by women than it is for men comparatively such that 95% of the males sought

career information while at school and as for the women, the entire 10% of the none respondents

where female, 75% of those who never sought for career information being female and hence

statistically 88% of the girls sort for career information if we treat the non-respondents as blank

files (for statistical reference see data interpretation under figure 6).

The research findings indicate a similar trend in other countries including Ethiopia where Alemu

(2013) in a study on the Assessment of the Provisions of Guidance and Counselling Services in

Secondary Schools of East Harerge Zone and Hareri Region of Ethiopia reports that male pupil’s

36

utilization of the career guidance and counselling services was significantly higher than their

female counter parts. However while this study attributed it to sex role stereotyping Alemu’s study

attributed the discrepancy to fear of seeking help from career guidance counsellors.

5.2.3. Age and career information provision

Statistics on age in relation to career information seems unavailable in the many available avenues

of information sources. However, the data reveals that majority of the respondents’ age range was

20-24 which corresponds with Silanda et al (1999)’s statistical data on majority university

entrants. They note that “2 present of the 20-24 age group enter a university or some other form

of higher education” and this 2% age group constitutes the majority 72% University students

sampled from the school of education as noted by figure 7 of this report. The rationale for the late

career information introduction as stipulated in the education policy of Zambia dabbed “Educating

Our Future” is that learners are only mature enough to consider such matters after their ninth grade.

They state that it is believed that on completion of nine years of schooling the learner would be

more mature when facing career or educational choices, and would base these on a fuller

realization and understanding of his or her abilities, talents and interests.

This age group however is a youthful and productive age group which should have gone miles in

their career paths and results, however, it is at this age group that majority of the respondents gain

real and relevant career information and forces them into “alternative” career choices due to

mismatches in the career requirements demands and career qualifications possessed which would

have been avoided if correct, adequate and comprehensive career information was provided in

schools. This results in general mismatch of individual skills and abilities with job demands and

results into greater dissatisfaction with career choices and poor performance in the work place.

The need therefore to adopt an all age career guidance and training program embedded into the

existing levels and stages of education is a key imperative for effective career information and

guidance provision. Watts (2010) argues that the notion of an all-age careers service is supported

by the existing international evidence. The OECD Career Guidance Policy Review pointed out

that all-age services have a number of organisational and resource-used advantages. By allowing

a diverse range of services to be provided throughout the lifespan within one organisational

framework, they are potentially more cost-effective, avoiding unnecessary duplication of

resources. More recent reviews benchmarked against the OECD review, of the three major existing

examples of all-age services – in New Zealand, Scotland and Wales – have all been very positive.

Together, they indicate that an all-age service has an opportunity to think more broadly and more

37

systematically about the nature and applicability of its professionalism, the allocation of its

resources across the whole population, and the links between career guidance and public policy,

than is the case with age-segmented services, especially those that are embedded into particular

service sectors (e.g. schools). In effect, such a service provides a strong professional spine for a

lifelong career guidance system. So long as it recognises that it cannot provide all the career

guidance that is needed, and must pay significant attention to supporting embedded career support

in educational institutions, in workplaces and in the community, the evidence indicates that it

provides a particularly robust base for such a system.

In the USA, Section 29 of their Education Act of 2011 placed schools under a duty to secure access

to independent careers guidance for their pupils in school years 9 to 11 hence career information

provision is started in the early years. This is noted to be a statutory guidance from the Department

for Education. This means that recipients must have regard to it when carrying out duties relating

to the provision of careers guidance for young people. This guidance has been updated to help

schools plan for the extension of the duty to secure independent and impartial careers guidance

down to year 8 and up to years 12 and 13 from September 2013.

The purpose of this guidance as they review is to identify the key responsibilities of schools in

relation to careers guidance for young people. Schools therefore are noted to have a role to play

in supporting their pupils to make well informed and realistic decisions by providing access to

impartial and independent information and guidance about the range of education and training

options that are most likely to help young people achieve their ambitions.

The need to therefore carefully rethink our legislation and policies in Zambia is imperative as

evident from the success stories other countries such as New Zealand, Scotland and Wales and the

lessons learnt and by countries like the USA in their legislative and policy reforms. The age factor

therefore for introduction as well as intensive career information provision as well as guidance

and counselling of the pupils must be considered highly to begin with those at primary school

level.

5.2.4. Urban-rural schools disparities in career information provision

Characteristic of the career information provision system in Zambian schools is depicted by the

high levels of disparity in access to facilities, programs and information in relation to careers. This

is evident firstly in the low number of university entrant from rural provinces as compared to those

from urban provinces. Secondly, it is also evident in the fact that of the 18 respondents who did

not have access to career information, 15 where from rural provinces of Zambia representing 83%

38

of those who lack access to career information. The problem of lack of access to career information

is therefore seen as primarily a rural problem whereas the problem of inadequate and inappropriate

information is seen as primarily an urban problem.

These rural-urban disparities have thus resulted in greater inequalities and low social mobility for

the rural population especially that the rural population is primarily dependant on education as a

key mobility factor. The rural schools are faced with a lot of challenges which affect their ability

to effectively provide career information to their pupils and these include lack of man power in

terms of teaching staff which forces the careers master to take up full time roles in teaching rather

than providing career guidance programs. Secondly there is lack of adequate infrastructure and

facilities such as offices and material to aid in the career information provision process. Thirdly,

there is lack of well outlined programs by the schools since much of the programs require

collaboration with universities and colleges which are reluctant to do so in the rural areas

especially those not easily accessible by roads.

5.2.5. Conclusion

Career Information provision is a critical part of the roles of secondary school and as noted above,

that role has been poorly undertaken. The career information provision has been characterised by

such features as gender disparities to access of information, sex role stereotyping of career choices,

rural-urban disparities to access of career information, age gap differentiation of career

information provision, late adequate access to career information, and general collapse of the

relevance of the school’s role in the child career guidance program. There is therefore need to

effectively tackle these pertinent issues currently affecting the career information provision

process. Eyo et al (2010) in a similar study conducted in Nigeria unveiled that “gender and school

location significantly influenced students’ attitude towards guidance services. The results further

revealed that there are significant differences between attitude of male and female students in rural

and urban schools towards guidance and counselling services.” The gender, age and rural-urban

factors must therefore be carefully subjected to a rigorous policy analytic procedure to develop

policies with relevant institutional and legal frameworks to ensure proper implementation.

5.3. Access to career information in Zambia’s secondary schools

5.3.1. Introduction

Access to information is seen as a civil right and further embedded in the United Nations chatter

for children’s rights. Information is a key to informed decision making and lack of adequate

information results into serious error of judgement and this can even be fatal when that information

39

pertains to lifelong decisions such as career choices. Lack of access to career information is not

only a violation of the children’s rights but also a failure of the key objective of educational

institutions hence a critical need to ensure that there is adequate access to careers information.

However, the Zambian secondary school situation in terms of career information access is

worrisome. While it shows bright situations its real impact is quite negative as already seen and

as shall be further elaborated.

5.3.2. Access to career information

Chileshe (2006:3) in his doctoral thesis report makes the following profound statement

“Adolescence is a period of making choices, especially concerning the future. Stead (1987:13)

states that adolescents need assistance in making subject choices and deciding on careers. This

view is illustrated by Hamrin and Erickson’s (1939:9) and Kochhar’s (2003:19-20; 25)

observations that many young men and women enter higher education institutions with little

knowledge of the courses to be selected and careers to follow. Consequently, guidance and

counselling by schools is a systematic effort to improve the quality of choices. In view of the

above, schools should consider ways and means of giving assistance to the student in choosing his

or her career on a more informed basis. Therefore, schools should have effective G&C services

for the adolescents they serve.”

Given the value of informed decision making, the provision of adequate, comprehensive and

relevant information is critical in ensuring that career choices are made in an informed manner.

However, the Zambian situation is quite hideous in that though it shows that there are high levels

of access to career information (62% as noted in figure 6), majority of these are from urban areas,

and get largely inadequate and irrelevant information to real issues faced in career choice making.

The lack of access clearly shows that our education system as well as educational institutions have

rather lapsed in their effort to provide this information to their pupils and ensure that they are

adequately prepared for the after school life. The need to provide this information is the ultimate

goal of the education system which is career development and training. A gap in information

results in misplacement of human resource such that careers do not reflect individual abilities

fitness.

It is therefore due to lack of adequate access to career information that majority of the respondents

(88%, see figure 11) are dissatisfied with their chosen careers as they chose their current careers

on the basis of necessity due to results and subject combinations. The information therefore is

40

critical at every point of secondary and primary school level and must be emphasised as much as

possible.

5.3.3. Factors for lack of adequate access to career information

As Chileshe notes above, career choices begin with the choice of subject combinations at

secondary schools which unfortunately for the Zambian situation is done arbitrarily with no career

considerations and is often limited by the limited subjects available at the secondary school. The

subject provided at the schools often is as a result of availability of teaching staff that are in critical

shortage in rural areas due to rural hardships which teachers deployed there cannot stand. Further,

access to adequate and relevant career information has been barred by ineffective or unavailable

career guidance and counselling programs, facilities and information.

5.3.4. Conclusion

While there is evidently and statistically access to career information, it is just as factually evident

that this information is gender and urban biased, is limited and is largely inadequate as the ultimate

career decisions were made not using the information gotten while at the secondary school but

that gotten after secondary school. There is evidently failure by the schools especially in rural

areas to provide proper career information, and further to ensure that the schools have enough

facilities, programs and information for career guidance, counselling and training. The secondary

schools in Zambia therefore have to heighten their efforts in ensuring adequate and relevant careers

information is provided.

5.4. Career information and career choices

5.4.1. Introduction

To make career choices, career information is always obtained from various sources. The used

sources generally denoted unreliability and inadequacy. The need to therefore ensure that right

career choices are made is relegated much to the need to ensure that right career information is

obtained which in most cases is too late for most pupils. Early provision of career information

ensures that there is early preparation done for various desired careers and that the pupil is fully

aware of the odds and challenges of their desired and chosen careers. In Zambian secondary school

as shall be seen later, there is a great discrepancy in information provision such that the influence

of the school on their pupils’ career choices is limited and almost positively insignificant

ultimately.

5.4.2. Secondary school careers information’s influence on/relevance to career choices

Evidently, the role of career information obtained in secondary schools reduces in relevance at the

point of making career choices in universities. This is evident in that while as much as 62% had

41

access to careers information at school, only 8% used this information to influence their career

choices with the majority springing from parents (42%) while 24% from their secondary school

Grade 12 results, a situation which, as already noted, would have been avoided had adequate and

relevant information been given before exams by the secondary schools.

The research also reveals that the career information obtained from the secondary school is largely

irrelevant when making career choices as it was deemed by the respondents as inadequate, who

still had to seek for more and new information such that 92% of the respondents had to seek extra

information to make their career information. This therefore points to the general inadequacy of

the career information obtained at school in career decision making as also reported by Lugulu

(2011) who argue that career guidance and counselling provided in schools is inadequate to enable

students make informed choices of degree programs.

Invaluable to career choice is the knowledge of careers and their requirements. In terms of

awareness of careers and career requirements therefore, the awareness levels where high such that

60% were aware while only 40% were not aware. However, only 12% of the respondents were

very aware while 20% were only quite aware of careers and their requirements with the majority

of 58% either never knew or were not very aware. In other words, though the schools manage to

instil some level of awareness, the awareness levels are very low such that the information

provided is largely deemed irrelevant when making career choices as already seen above.

The failure to provide adequate and relevant career information has resulted in a majority of 88%

students dissatisfied with only 8% of the total pursuing their dream careers as the rest fell prey to

poor career requirement information which limited their career choices. The majority had their

secondary school (Grade 12) results baring them from pursuing their dream careers as they had

little information of the exact needed subject combination and requirements hence in principle got

influenced by academic performance. As also revealed by Lugulu (2011) in a similar study in

Kenya, students’ degree programme decisions were guided by other factors rather than interest.

5.4.3. Conclusion

While there is high levels of access to career information and while there are high levels of

awareness of careers and career requirements in secondary schools career information provision,

there is evidently low levels of relevance of the information to career choices as well as low levels

of awareness of the exact career requirements. The resultant dissatisfactions of this scenario is that

these would-be educators are likely to result into poor job performers hence poor performance and

motivation of their pupils. Career guidance and counselling is therefore a major issue in hindering

42

students in making right choices for their future careers as revealed by a study conducted by Khan

et al (2012) in Pakistan.

5.5. Availability of career information, facilities and programs in

secondary schools

5.5.1. Introduction

Many schools especially in rural areas are faced with real challenges when it comes to the

provision of career information to their pupils. This is primarily due to lack of adequate financial,

human and material resources as well as adequate infrastructure. As we shall see, the availability

of the necessary means and ways of providing career information when missing may result in poor

information service delivery to end user. As theorised in the D&M model (DeLone and McLean

2008), information service delivery in general and information systems in specific are only as

efficient dependant on the quality of technology used, the quality of the information used, the

usability of the technology/information if there is going to be a resultant satisfactory use of it, net

benefits and service quality.

5.5.2. Available career information delivery systems or channels

While at school, the major source of channel of delivery of careers information was classroom

lessons on careers representing 52% of those who access career information, with 16% accessing

it from visits from tertiary institutions and 10% from independent talks while the rest obtained it

from literature, and school careers activities. These statistics vary from studies conducted in

developed countries such as Australia where it is reported that on average, students were reported

to have accessed at least five different types of career information provision activities. This implies

that the majority 80% of the information delivery channels in Zambian secondary schools is

through verbal communication while only 20% is non-verbal. Effectiveness of verbal

communication alone tends to reduce with time as it suffers from memory loss (memory

interferences) hence tend to be more easily forgotten. The difference therefore between verbal and

non-verbal modes can be attributed in part to the “irrelevance” of the information.

At the stage of enrolment into the university however, there is a broader range of information

sources exposure not utilised in the secondary school. Information delivery systems or rather

sources now include the internet, media, families and friends, university faculty and students.

These include as broader range of both verbal and non-verbal sources as well as the inclusion of

ICTs.

43

5.5.3. Levels of availability and exposure to career information, programs and facilities

in secondary schools

The research findings reveal that there were inadequate programs, information channels and

facilities in the schools from which to access career information. While information is readily

available, there is a discrepancy between availability of career information and their channel of

dispersion being the programs and facilities.

Further, the available information was found to be inadequate by 70%, the facilities inadequate by

78% while the programs where found to be inapplicable by 22%. These findings are however not

strange to literature as even Alemu (2013:1) reports in his study that the schools guidance

and counselling programs did not have written plans, specific roles and responsibilities and private

counselling rooms. There was loose coordination among principals, teachers, and guidance and

counselling programs. Indicating that there were program, facility and informational huddles in

the provision of career guidance and counselling in secondary schools even in Ethiopia. Lugulu

(2011:196) also found that “the level of career guidance and counselling provided in secondary

schools was neither well planned nor organized.” Also indicating a problem with the career

information provision programs in Kenya where Rukwaro (2011) also found that there is need for

career information for teachers, parents and pupils because the existing career programme is

inadequate for efficient dissemination of career information for the pupils to be able to make wise

career decisions.

5.5.4. Conclusion

Information provision and dissemination is a complex process requiring systems, processes,

programs, facilities and technologies for effectiveness. This however is problematic in the

Zambian situation to attain because of various factors ranging from lack of availability of

resources, lack of political will, and poorly trained careers master. There is a critical shortage of

material, financial and human resources as well as administrative skills to effectively lay out

programs which will be relevant, appropriate and adequate enough for the career information need

of their pupils.

5.6. Conclusion The study and research has therefore unveiled a lot of issues pertaining to career information

provision in Zambian secondary schools as seen in both chapter four and chapter five of this report.

One fact however is clear and this is that the Zambian situation is not very different from that of

other developing countries including Kenya, Nigeria, Ethiopia and Zimbabwe in contrast to

developed countries such as Scotland, Australia, Wales and New Zealand.

44

5.6.1. Summary of major research conclusion

Several conclusions can be drawn in relation to the major research findings and these include the

following:

Gender inequalities still characterise the Zambian education system such that even in terms

of access to and provision of career information males seem to have an upper hand.

Career information provision in Zambian secondary schools has been characterised by sex

role stereotyping and is gender biased in favour of the males despite the fact that the

majority of the teachers are female.

Zambian schools in general and the secondary schools in particular introduce career

guidance programs late hence the results of their efforts are almost insignificant.

Rural-urban discrepancy exists in relation to career information provision such that pupils

in rural areas have lesser access to career information while those in urban areas have

greater access. This is due to the fact that they generally lack adequate material, financial,

and human resources as well as access to new career information, facilities and programs.

There is access by majority pupils to some form of career information in secondary school

which however is inadequate, and generally not relevant enough to make career informed

choices. Hence greater dissatisfaction due to career frustrations.

Channels for information provision in Zambian secondary schools are narrow and not

effective enough to achieve an effective and efficient career education system. There is

need to ensure that a much broader range of information sources, channels, systems and

programs are put in place.

Rural areas as well as most urban areas face financial, material and human resources

constraints hence have inadequate facilities, undertake inefficient and inadequate programs

as well as having lesser access to effective information sources and systems.

5.6.2. Research and policy recommendations

Every social research must prove itself relevant to both the scientific community and social

community hence must be an applied to some degree. The extent of relevance shall therefore be

reflected in the recommendation for both policy and research. Given the above research findings

and conclusions therefore the following recommendations can be forwarded:

5.6.2.1 Policy Recommendation

The following are some of the few recommendations isolated to help redress the problems and

challenges identified in the research findings, discussions and conclusions and these include:

45

The Ministry of Gender and child development must step in with other stakeholder to assist

the Ministry of Education Science, Vocational Training and Early Education in developing

a Policy Document to help redress the gender inequalities in the career development and

counselling programs both at school and other places as well as help redress sex role

stereotyping as the current Gender policy has failed to yield effective results so far.

Zambian Schools need to introduce an all age career guidance process that does not

relegate the task of career guidance to secondary school as this stage is rather too late as

many would have already selected their subject combination which determines their career

choices.

Career guidance and training programs must be mainstreamed into the curriculum from

early childhood levels alongside sex role and gender education

There is need for increased funding by the Ministry of Education Science, Vocational

Training and Early Education for provision of adequate material, financial, and human

resources especially in rural areas to ensure the pupils gain access to career information,

facilities and programs.

The current high levels of career information access must be improved in terms of greater

access and adequacy hence schools must ensure compulsory career counselling, and

increasing avenues for promotion of career information.

Channels for information provision in Zambian secondary schools must be broadened to

include ICTs and visual technologies.

5.6.2.2 Research Recommendations

5.6.2.2.1 Introduction

Academic and professional literature in various fields has been flooded with various works on the

subject of careers. Several reports have been developed and published with many more

unpublished ones discussing it from its many facets and dimensions and the critical question which

emerges is of the relevance of this piece of work to academia and science. Here, a justification of

the relevance of this study will be presented in highlighting the significance of the findings and

make relevant recommendations to the research community for further investigations.

5.6.2.2.2 Significance and recommendation of findings

Given the characteristic features of Career information provision in Zambian secondary schools

which include: Gender bias towards the male, sex role stereotyping, Post adolescence career

training and information provision, inadequacy of information provision as well as an urban bias

to career information access, a new dimension to the characteristic problems of career information

46

provision has been significantly added. Having had unearthed these factors, several research

recommendations can be made which include:

A Gender policy evaluation study to further investigate the impact of this gender bias in

career information provision in Zambian Schools on career choices, development and

training. This is because while this study significantly revealed the gender bias, it is not a

policy monitoring and evaluation to ensure a comprehensive impact assessment is done in

that regard.

An investigation can be under taken on the provision of career information in the pre-

Secondary School levels of education to investigate the potential of an all age career

information policy in Zambian Schools

The impact of the post adolescence career information guidance and counselling program

can be undertaken.

A comparative investigation can be undertaken on the rural-urban Secondary school Career

information provision challenges and constraints in Zambia so as to further investigate the

extent of the discrepancy and develop policy, institutional and even legal framework of

action to ensure equality and equity is attained.

The research further reports that there exist a lot of challenges by Zambian Secondary schools in

the provision of career information dues to such factors as lack of facilities, and resources (human,

capital and material) as well as technical and technological factors in information acquisition,

processing and determination and delivery. Further investigations can therefore be undertaken on

some of the following informational gaps revealed by this study:

Information delivery systems in Zambian secondary schools on careers and their

requirements

Extent of non-availability of careers programs, facilities and information available to the

Zambian secondary schools and its impact on provision of career information to the pupils.

Availability of capital, financial and material resources to Zambian secondary schools’

guidance and counselling program and facilities

Use of ICTs in career information acquisition, storage, processing and dissemination in

Zambian secondary schools

5.6.2.2.3 Conclusion

Though this research, within its scope, has provided a lot of insights into the problems and

challenges of career information provision and has unearthed a lot of findings it must be noted that

47

with its many limitations of scope it has also left research gaps as those proposed above which

provide avenues for even further research investigations.

48

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Journal of Guidance and Counselling, 38(1), 31-44.

http://education.stateuniversity.com/pages/1698/Zambia-EDUCATIONAL-SYSTEM-

OVERVIEW.html

54

Appendixes

Appendix 1- Research Question

Instructions:

1. Do not indicate your name on the questionnaire.

2. Mark the answer that expresses your view with an X.

3. Write answers where required in blank spaces provided.

SECTION B

ACCESS TO CAREERS INFORMATION

5. Was careers information provided at your former secondary school? (If Yes, go to Q8)

a. Yes [ ]

b. No [ ]

SECTION A

BACKGROUND

1. Sex.

a. Male [ ]

b. Female [ ]

2. How old were you on your last birthday?

a. 16-19 [ ]

b. 20-24 [ ]

c. 25-29 [ ]

d. 30 and above [ ]

3. What is your programme of study?

...........................................................................................................................................

4. Which secondary school(s) did you go to? (State school name and province)

................................................................................................................................................

0FFICIAL USE

ONLY

55

6. If No to Q5 above, what are some of the reasons for not accessing and using the careers

information facility in order to gain access to careers information?

...................................................................................................................................................

...................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................

7. If Yes to Q5 above, how often did you seek careers information at secondary school?

..................................................................................................................................................

8. How was careers information provided? (State the methods).

...................................................................................................................................................

...................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................

9. Did you experience hindrances when accessing careers information? If any please briefly

explain.

……………………………………………………………………………………………….

……………………………………………………………………………………………….

……………………………………………………………………………………………….

SECTION C

AWARENESS OF CAREERS AND THEIR REQUIREMENTS

10. Were you aware of various courses you could choose for your college or university

education while you were at secondary school?

a. Yes [ ]

b. No [ ]

11. If you were aware of any courses, what was your level of awareness?

a. Very aware [ ]

b. Quite aware [ ]

c. Not that aware [ ]

d. Not aware at all [ ]

12. If Yes to Q 10 above, how did you know about the courses in colleges or universities?

...................................................................................................................................................

...................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................

56

13. Were you aware about the requirements for each course you knew while at secondary

school?

a. Yes [ ]

b. No [ ]

14. In your opinion, do you think secondary schools provide enough careers information

about various courses and their requirements to pupils?

a. Yes [ ]

b. No [ ]

SECTION D

SOURCES OF CAREERS INFORMATION

15. What influenced you to choose the course or programme you are doing?

a. Teachers through guidance and counselling [ ]

b. Parents [ ]

c. Friends [ ]

d. Other specify.....................................................

16. Was the careers information you received useful when making careers choice?

a. Yes

b. No

17. What sources of careers information were available at your secondary school?

i).................................... ii)...................................... iii)...........................

iv)..................................

18. Are you satisfied with the course you are studying?

a. Yes

b. No

19. If No to 18 above, what careers choices would you have made now? Give reasons for

such a choice.

………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………

57

20. Which source(s) of careers information did you find useful for career decision making

while at secondary school?

i)…………………………… ii)………………………….. iii)……………………..

iv)………………………….

SECTION E

ADEQUACY OF PROVISION OF CAREERS INFORMATION

21. Did the school provide any of the following? (Tick appropriate).

a. Careers programs [ ]

b. Careers facility [ ]

c. Careers information [ ]

22. If the school provided careers programs and careers facility, how useful were they in

providing careers information?

................................................................................................................................................

23. Did you find the careers information available at secondary school adequate? (If any

was provided)

a. Yes [ ]

b. No [ ]

24. If No to 22 above, give reasons why you think the careers information was insufficient.

………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………

25. What careers activities were put in place for providing careers information in secondary

school? (i.e. careers talks, visits by colleges or universities)

i).............................................. ii)............................................ iii)................................

iv)............................................

58

26. If there were any activities, do you think such activities were useful in providing careers

information?

a. Yes [ ]

b. No [ ]

27. What would you recommend to be done in order to improve careers information

provision in secondary schools?

………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………..

THANK YOU...

59

Appendix 2- Budget

Activity 1 – Secondary Data Collection (Literature review)

Activity/items Cost (ZMK)

Internet browsing K50

Transport to and from school for research purposes K50

Food K200

Subtotal K300

Activity 2 – Preparation of Research Proposal (Proposal writing)

Stationary Cost (ZMK)

Plain Paper (2 reams) K60

Pens (pack of ten) K15

Writing pads (2) K16

Typing and Printing of draft proposal K90

Printing and binding of final research proposal K40

Subtotal K221

Activity 3 – Preparation and pre-testing of data collection Instruments

Activity/Items Cost (ZMK)

Cost of typing and printing of questionnaire K36

Cost of pre-test sample material K50

Food K80

Subtotal K 166

Activity 4 – Data collection

Activity/Items Cost (ZMK)

Photocopying of 50 copies of questionnaires K70

Food K150

Subtotal K220

Activity 5- Data Analysis and Interpretation (Report Writing)

Activity/Items Cost (ZMK)

Typing and colour printing of the draft research report K210

60

Printing and binding of final Research Report K80

Subtotal K290

Contingency K150

Grand Total K1, 3471

1 The budget was affected by unforeseen expenses due to the elongated period of the research. The planned budget was K841.

61

ACTIVITIES MONTH September October November December January February March April May June July August

WEEEK 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4

Verification of

research topic

Plan

Actual

Literature review Plan

Actual

Compilation of

research proposal

Plan

Actual

Developing Research

tools

Plan

Actual

Editing/submitting of

final proposal

Plan

Actual

Assessment Plan

Actual

Pre-Testing of

Research tools

Plan

Actual

Data collection Plan

Actual

Data editing/coding

and entry

Plan

Actual

Data Analysis and

interpretation

Plan

Actual

Report writing Plan

Actual

Final Report editing

and submission

Plan

Actual

62

Appendix 3- Work Plan (Gant Chart)2

2 The discrepancy between the planned and actual execution of activities is mainly attributed to changes in the University of Zambia academic calendar and partly due to unforeseen challenges.