book published
TRANSCRIPT
i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
It is great pride to express my heartfelt gratitude and sense of appreciation to
Associate Professor Jay Prakash Dutta, Department of Agriculture Economics and
Agribusiness Management, Agriculture and Forestry University and Chairman of my
Advisory Committee for his scholarly and affectionate encouragement, continuous
guidance and invaluable suggestions.
I am highly indebted to Mr. Surya Mani Dhungana, Department of Agriculture
Economics and Agribusiness Management, Agriculture and Forestry University and
member of my advisory committee for his invaluable suggestions, constructive comments
and prudent advice.
I am grateful to Asst. Prof. Shiva Chandra Dhakal, Asst. Prof. Santosh Marahatta,
Asst. Prof. Rishi Ram Kattel, Mr. Pankaj Raj Dhital, Mr. Nabin Babu Khanal and Faculty
of Department of Agricultural Economics for their valuable support in managing the fund,
encouragement and suggestions.
I express my profound gratitude to Prof. Narendra Kumar Chaudhary (Dean, IAAS), Prof.
Dr. Gopal Bahadur K.C. (Assistant Dean for Academics), Assoc. Prof. Shyam Sundar Pant
(Campus Chief, Rampur Campus).
It is my pleasure to extend my sincere gratitude to Mahima Bajracharya, Balram
Regmi and Geeta Kharel who have helped me in collecting the data during the field study.
My sincere thanks goes to all respondents of Arghakhachi District for their good
hospitality, providing reliable information and cooperation for the study.
ii
My special thanks goes to my seniors Binod Ghimire, Sudip Subedi and Sanjiv
Subedi for guiding me in preparing this report. I am also thankful to my seniors Surendra
Subedi, Ramesh Acharya, Sanjay Dhakal, Subash Gautam, Rajendra Lamichhane, Tilak
B.C., Jeevan Subedi, Chandika Lama for guiding me in preparing this report. I want to
acknowledge my colleagues Sandesh, Pankaj, Manish, Dipendra Lamichhane, Bibek,
Achyut, Santosh Tiwari, Mahesh Basyal, Prabin, Sashi, Dipak, Pratik, Deny and Raj for
their suggestions, accompany during the preparation of report. I would like to
acknowledge my juniors Sandip, Dinesh, Narayan, Umesh, Bishal, Nrip, Aman, Yogendra,
Subodh, Biplov, Krishna, Sarita, Anuma, Sudha, Dipa, Ashish, Santosh for their support
and accompany.
Last but not the least, my deep gratitude goes to my Parents Babu Ram Sapkota, Shanti
Devi Sapkota, my elder brother Mr. Bijay Sapkota and Mrs. Parbati Poudel, my elder sister
Kalpana Sapkota, brother in law Deepak gyaw for
their affection, inspiration, and support to head my overall career.
Thanks to all who helped me knowingly or unknowingly in this study.
Mahesh Sapkota
iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title Page
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS i
TABLE OF CONTENTS iii
LIST OF TABLES vi
LIST OF FIGURES vii
LIST OF APPENDICES viii
ACRONYMS ix
ABSTRACT xi
1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Background 1
1.2 Statement of the problems 3
1.3 Rationale of the study 3
1.4 Scope and Limitation of the study 4
1.5 Objectives 4
2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE 5
2.1 Gender issues in agriculture 5
2.2 Gender roles in agriculture of Nepal 6
2.3 Concept of decision making 7
2.4 Decision making in agricultural production 7
2.5 Sources of information used by farmers 7
2.6 Socio-economic factors in cereal crop production 8
2.7 Production trend and marketing problems 8
2.8 Dependency ratio 10
iv
3 METHODOLOGY 11
3.1 Study area 11
3.2 Source of data 12
3.3 Techniques of primary data collection 12
3.3.1 Interview 12
3.3.2 Focus group discussion 13
3.4 Survey design and data collection procedure 13
3.4.1 Interview schedule design 13
3.4.2 Pre-testing 13
3.4.3 Sampling methodology 13
3.4.4 Field survey 13
3.5 Data processing and analysis 14
3.5.1 Data processing 14
3.5.2 Data analysis 14
3.6 Problem ranking 14
3.7 Dependency ratio 15
4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 16
4.1 Gender 16
4.2 Ethnicity 16
4.3 Population Distribution 17
4.4 Dependency ratio 18
4.5 Educational attainment 19
4.6 Occupation of respondents 20
4.7 Access to extension services 21
4.8 Land Holding Pattern 22
v
4.9 Irrigation 22
4.10 Seed purchased status 23
4.11 Access to loan 24
4.12 Crop area 24
4.13 Seed Amount 25
4.14 Crop Variety 25
4.15 Production of cereal crop 26
4.16 Productivity of major cereal crop 26
4.17 Gender involvement in farmer group or co-operative 27
4.18 Food security 28
4.19 Cooking Fuel 28
4.20 Water Supply 29
4.21 Problem ranking 29
4.22 Gender inclusion: 30
4.22.1 Ownership of properties 30
4.22.2Household level decision making 31
4.23 Remedial measures suggested by farmer to cope with agricultural
problems
33
5 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 34
5.1 Suggestions 36
LITERATURE CITED 37
APPENDICES 41
vi
LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
1 Gender of Household Head in Study Area, 2014 16
2 Population Distribution in study area by gender, 2014 18
3 Educational status of the respondent in the study area, 2014 20
4 . Occupational pattern of respondents in study area, 2014 21
5 21
6 Land Holding Pattern of the respondent in the study area, 2014 22
7 Irrigation facilities in study area, 2014 22
8 Seed purchased status (last year) of respondents in study area, 2014 23
9 Loan access for agriculture in study area, 2014 24
10 Area under different crops (in ropani) in study area, 2014 24
11 Amount of seed for different crops in the study area (kg) 25
12 Crop varieties grown by the respondent in the study area 26
13 Total production of cereal crop in study area, 2014 (kg) 26
14 Productivity of major cereal crop in study area, 2014 (kg/ropani) 27
15 Membership of farmer group or co-operative in study area, 2014 27
16 Food sufficiency status in the study area 28
17 Source of fuel for cooking in study area 28
18 Sources of water supply by gender 29
19 Perception of respondent regarding existing problems in Agriculture 30
20 Ownership of properties of household by gender in study area, 2014 31
21 Role of gender on household level decision making 32
vii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
1 Ethnicity of respondents in the study area by gender 17
2 Dependency ratio in the study area 19
3 Percentage of irrigated, partially irrigated and rainfed land 23
viii
LIST OF APPENDICES
Appendix Page
1 Ethnicity of respondents in the study area by Gender, 2014 41
2 Dependency ratio in the study area, 2014 41
3 Religion of respondents by gender in study area, 2014 41
ix
ACRONYMS
MoAD Ministry of Agricultural Development
% Percentage
GDP Gross Domestic Product
AGDP Agricultural Gross Domestic Product
Kg Kilogram
ha Hectare
GO Government Organization
INGO International Non-Government Organization
CBO Community Based Organization
ICIMOD International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development
VDC Village Development Committee
DADO District Agriculture Development Office
CBS Central Bureau of Statistics
HH Household
SPSS Statistical Package for Social Sciences
HHH Household Head
F Frequency
x
No. Number
HYV High Yielding Variety
IPM Integrated pest Management
FYM Farm Yard Manure
TV Television
& and
xi
ABSTRACT
This study was conducted to assess the socio-economic status and gender role of cereal
crop production in two VDCs of Arghakhachi district. A pre-tested semi-structured
questionnaires were used to collect the information from the respondents. Two VDCs were
selected purposively and 60 HHs (30 from each VDC) were selected randomly for the
survey. Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) and Microsoft Excel were used for
data processing. Cereal crop production has great contribution in HH income and
livelihood upliftment. The study area was male dominated and distribution of male
population was found more in Khanchikot. The ratio of dependent population was higher
in Thada VDC, which was 0.51 in Khanchikot and 1.02 in Thada. Agriculture was the
major occupation in the study area. This study revealed that the irrigation facility was
better in Thada. The average area under rice (7.46 ropani) was more followed by wheat
(4.58 ropani) and maize (4.35 ropani) in the study area. Hybrid variety of rice, HYV of
maize and local variety of wheat was most popular. Seed was higher for wheat (10.73 kg)
followed by rice (8.75 kg) and maize (6.5 kg). Total production of rice was higher (924.23
kg) than maize (393.04 kg) and wheat (166.18 kg). The productivity of cereal crop was
very low and it was less than the productivity of Arghakhachi district. An extension service
was very poor in the study area and participation of respondents in farmer group or co-
operative was less. The major problems in the study area were lack of technical assistance,
lack of irrigation facilities and low quality seed. Male owned more in the Household
properties like house, land most. Technology related and direct money related activities
were decided more by male. However, laborious activities were done by male and tedious
works were done by female. Works like labour management, input purchase for crop and
crop selection were done by female. Division of work wisely, provision of technical
xii
assistance, better irrigation facility, better plan and policies from government will lead
towards increasing the yield and productivity of cereal crops.
1
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
Nepal is an agrarian country where majority of the people are engaged in
agriculture for their livelihood. About 66 % of total economically active populations is
involved in agriculture (MoAD, 2014). The share of agriculture to the national GDP is
about 35 %. Majority of the people are engaged in agriculture but the economy is still
lagging behind. Therefore, commercialization in agriculture production is inevitable for
economic development of nation.
The major cereal crops of Nepal are Rice, Maize and Wheat. Majority of the people
give emphasis on cultivation of these crops and are dependent on these crops for their
livelihood. Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is one of the most important cereal crops for more than
20 % to GDP and 58 % to AGDP of
Nepal (Bhatta et al., 2008). In Nepal, rice is one of the most important staple cereal crops
which is extensively cultivated over 1,420,570 hectares of land with the production of
4,504,503 ton and the productivity of 3,171 Kg/ha (MoAD, 2012/13). In Arghakhachi
district, rice is cultivated over 8,672 hectares of land with the production of 25,437 ton and
the productivity of 2,933 Kg/ha (MoAD, 2012/13).
Maize (Zea mays L.) ranks at 2nd position in Nepal after rice and is a major crop for
majority of the people. It is cultivated over 849,635 hectares with the production of
1,999,010 ton and the productivity of 2,353 Kg/ha. In Arghakhachi district, it is cultivated
over 16,914 hectares of land with the production of 49,441 ton and the productivity of
2,923 Kg/ha (MoAD, 2012/13).
Wheat (Triticumaestivum L.) ranks at 3rd position in Nepal after Rice and Maize.
Wheat is cultivated over 754,243 hectares of land with the production of 1,727,346 ton and
2
the productivity of 2,290 Kg/ha. In Arghakhachi, wheat is cultivated over 7,340 hectares of
land with the production of 13,698 ton and the productivity of 1,866 Kg/ha (MoAD,
2012/13).
These crops also provides bi-products like straw for thatching and mat-making,
fodder for livestock, bran for poultry and fish ponds and husk for fuel. Despite being major
cereal crops, their productivity is still low in Nepal as compared to Asia and Worldwide.
Gender issues in agricultural development have become a common area of concern
at global, regional
knowledge and skill in relation to agriculture have not been acknowledged in the past.
Women in rural areas have traditionally fewer rights and fewer income opportunities than
men, often because of patriarchal and conservative thinking, according to which the man is
perceived as the main productive working force (Schussler, 2002).
Women have less right, lower education and poor health status, less income, and
less access to resources and decision-making than men (Subedi, 2002). Equality between
women and men or gender equality is very important in promoting the equal participation
of women and men in decisions; supporting women and girls so that they can fully exercise
their rights; and reducing the gap access to and control of
production, income generation and management of natural resources, community
organization, and domestic responsibilities are essential for sustainable development.
In an ideal Nepalese farm, man generates income and his wife involves in domestic
activities (Bhattarai, 2002). Women have to perform almost all agricultural tasks except
ploughing the fields. They contribute sixty percent of the agricultural labor force
(HMG/NPC, 1998).
3
In addition, women still carry out their work without much help from agricultural
support mechanisms such as extension agencies, input suppliers and credit institutions.
Women farmers receive less than 5% of extension services worldwide (LEISA, 2002).
Women, as producers, still remain largely invisible and unsupported.
1.2 Statement of problems
Farmers have limited resources for production and farming is subsistence. Most of
them have low economic status due to low level of production. Nepalese society is male
dominated society. Women are major actors in agriculture but their participation is
confined to fieldwork and minimum participation, while men control over decision making
and productive activities including marketing (Bhattarai, 2002).
Lack of national policy, low economic return, lack of organized market, shortage of
input supply, lack of technical know-how, weak extension services are major causes for
low production and product
varieties at affordable price are major constraint for increasing production.
The involvement of women in agricultural decision making like planting, fertilizers
and seed buying, sowing and harvesting of the crops, etc. is vital for the development.
Agricultural productivity cannot be substantially increased, nor can rural poverty be
improved (Kumar, 2000). It is assumed that if women farmers are provided with more
information, modern agricultural practices and technical know-how as a target group along
with male farmers, agricultural production will increase (Shrestha, et al, 1984).
1.3 Rationale of the study
Since long time cereal crops have been using for human and animal consumption.
y is the participation of
4
women in developmental as well as production activities. There is limited research on the
gender related work in cereal crop farming.
The study will provide better understanding of the consequences of current patterns
-making on sustainable agricultural
development. This study may helps the growers to increase their productivity, helps
different donors, INGOs, NGOs and policy makers to invest and make different strategy to
cope with the problems. Through the findings of this study, attempts could be made to
rectify possible defects and strengthen the prospects in cereal crop production.
1.4 Scope and Limitation of the study
The findings obtained would have importance in formulating gender sensitive plans
and programs in agriculture sector, especially in cereal crop production. It would be
helpful to formulate policies related to income generation and food security. As many
GOs, INGOs and CBOs are working in the field would utilize this findings. Budget
constraints, land topography, time constraints may be the limitation during the study.
1.5Objectives
The overall objective of this study is to assess the socio-economic status and gender
role in cereal crop production in Arghakhanchi.
Specific Objectives
To assess the socio-demographic components of cereal crop producers
To identify the constraints of different cereal crop production
To suggest remedial measures to increase crop productivity
6
History believes that it was women who first started cultivation of crop plants and
initiated the art and science of farming. Even today, women are traditionally known for
their seed selection ability (Swaminathan, 1985).
2.2 Gender roles in agriculture of Nepal
Gender roles and responsibilities between men and women in a household are
affected by cultural, social, economical and agro-ecological conditions as well as
government policies (Bajracharya, 1994).
In Nepal, 72.8 percent population of active women are engaged in agricultural work
and categorized as farm worker whereas only 60.1 percent of active men are engaged in
this sector (CBS, 2001). The participation of women in the agricultural labor force is
estimated at 52 to 82percent (WFDD, 2000). Men are involved in marketing activities and
social gatherings.
Subedi et al (2000) reported that women have lower education levels, lower access
to information sources and limited participation in training. In poor families men feel no
shame in undertaking household tasks. But, in rich families men feel humiliation in helping
their wives with household activities.
enormous volume of work they carry out but also because a variety of agricultural
activities come under their prime responsibility (Joshi and Koirala, 2005).
The increasing migration of male family members for subsidiary employment and
education has further added extra task of male members to female farming women
(WFDD, 2000).
household maintenance,
women engage in a range of activities to gain cash and supplement household income
(UNICEF, 1987).
7
2.3 Concept of decision-making
Simon (1960) defines decision making is same as managing. He stated that
decision-making as synonymous with managing, he would be referring not merely to the
final act of choice among the alternatives, but rather to the whole process of decision.
2.4 Decision making in agricultural production
Adhikary (1987) found that the role of women in decision making is inversely
related to the farm size in crop production. Bajracharya (1993) observes that poor women
have a strong decision making role as compared to economically better off women.
Decision making process can vary by the nature of crop husbandry. In Nepal,
women make decisions related to vegetable production while men make most decisions in
relation to the cultivation of other food crops (Bajracharya, 1994). Unlike, crop-specific
decisions, some decisions on post-harvest activities are made jointly by men and women
(Devkota, 1999).
Some researchers have found that women make more decisions than men with
regard to crop production activities. Actually that might be due to consideration of
on crop selection, seed selection, use and amount of manure, time of weeding, time of
harvesting, methods of storage, crop yields and grain to be consumed, and crop processing
(Acharya and Bennett, 1981).
2.5 Sources of Information used by farmers
Farmers were found using different type of sources to receive marketing
information. Among the different sources, the most important (92.2 percent) was
friends/traders. The radio was found in the second position and telephone call was in the
third position followed by the newspaper and notice board respectively (Karki, 2002).
Similarly, maximum sources of information for the use of improved seeds, chemical
8
fertilizers, pesticides and agricultural tools were from friends, neighbours and relatives
(Upreti, et al., 1992).
2.6 Socio-economic factors in cereal crop production
Factors like socio-economic status, economic motivation, frequency of contact with
extension worker and mass media exposure were significantly associated with the level of
adoption of improved practices of rice cultivation in Chitwan district of Nepal (Dongol,
1979). Korean communities concluded that family size is positively associated with the
adoption of farm practices (Wang,1967). The contribution of four other variables such as
educational level, income level, economic motivation, and attitude towards use of plant
protection chemicals were found to be statistically not significant (Gogoi and
Gogoi,1989).A process in which community members and specially the poor farmer their
own groups or organization based on common development interests and needs that are
best served by organizing themselves as a group (Pandey,2002). Training is a process , by
which individuals are helped to acquire certain specific skills related to a given set of
operation in certain specified contexts only. It ensures mechanical and methodological
replication of certain roles operation (Chattopadhyay, 1996). Frequency of contact between
farmers and extension workers facilitated the adoption of new technology. (Dhital, 1991).
Extension teaching methods involving personnel contact are perceived more than those of
the mass media (Pyakural, 1971).
2.7 Production trend and marketing problems
Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is an important cereal crops which contributes to 20 % to
GDP and 58 % to AGDP (Bhatta et al., 2008). In Nepal, rice is one of the most important
staple cereal crops which is extensively cultivated over 1,420,570 hectares of land with the
production of 4,504,503 ton and the productivity of 3,171 Kg/ha (MoAD, 2012/13). In
Arghakhachi district, rice is cultivated over 8,672 hectares of land with the production of
9
25,437 ton and the productivity of 2,933 Kg/ha (MoAD, 2012/13). Maize (Zea mays L.)
ranks at 2nd position in Nepal after rice and is a major crop for majority of the people. It is
cultivated over 849,635 hectares with the production of 1,999,010 ton and the productivity
of 2,353 Kg/ha. In Arghakhachi district, it is cultivated over 16,914 hectares of land with
the production of 49,441 ton and the productivity of 2,923 Kg/ha (MoAD, 2012/13).
Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) ranks at 3rd position in Nepal after Rice and Maize. Wheat is
cultivated over 754,243 hectares of land with the production of 1,727,346 ton and the
productivity of 2,290 Kg/ha. In Arghakhachi, wheat is cultivated over 7,340 hectares of
land with the production of 13,698 ton with the productivity of 1,866 Kg/ha (MoAD,
2012/13).
There are various aspects of production and marketing problems reported by the
different authors. Generally main governing factors of agriculture marketing problems are
poor market infrastructure development, legal and institutional mechanisms (Thapa et al.,
1995). Lack of marketing infrastructure and facilities caused slow pace of transformation
in agricultural production system. Access to market is expensive due to lack of
infrastructure like transportation that caused inaccessibility of locally produced commodity
to domestic market. The right has been encroached especially on marketing issues
(Sedhain et al., 2002).
The general problems such as remoteness, lack of improved seed and fertilizers,
lack of technical knowhow, poor condition of the farming families, lack of extension
services, lack of mechanization an lack of collection and storage facilities, marketing etc.
have been affecting the use of improved technologies for maize as in case of other crops.
In addition, the habit of farmers of using traditional practices and decreasing trend of farm
manpower during the recent years due to employment opportunities in Gulf countries has
created another problem in the community (Barakoti, 2001).
10
Many factors are associated with low yields of crops in Nepal. Low level of
fertilizer use, low level of seed replacement, loss of soil fertility, lack of dry land
production technology, limited irrigation facilities, unavailability of improved variety and
minimum use of production technology are some major factors responsible for low yields.
Low soil fertility is considered to be one of the major cause of the decline in agricultural
productivity (Kaini, 2004).
According to Adhikari (2002) several vegetable production constraints of
vegetable, the most common constraints faced by the farmers are disease problem, Lack of
irrigation facility, insect-pest and quality seeds. Likewise, the marketing constraints of
vegetables are lower price, fluctuation in price, lack of organized market and transportation
facilities. Ahmed et. al. (1996) pointed out different vegetable marketing constraints such
as high perishability, glut during the peak season, lack of storage and proper transportation.
2.8 Dependency ratio
The conventional dependency ratio is defined as the ratio of population in the 0-14
years age group (young population) and those 60 years and above (old population) to the
population in the productive age groups, i.e., 15-59 years. The overall dependency ratio of
the country is 84.4 percent. In other words, roughly about 100 persons in the productive
ages have to support 84 dependents in terms of the basic necessities of life. The
dependency ratio increases further if the economically inactive people in the productive
ages are excluded and added to the dependent population. There is a wide difference
between the dependency ratio in the rural areas (92) and in the urban areas (59). Among
the ecological belts the mountain region has the highest ratio (101) while the hill has the
lowest (91). The discrepancy is even wider among the geographical regions or the
analytical domains. The urban Kathmandu valley has the lowest ratio (45) while the
highest is recorded in the rural mid and far western hills (107) (CBS, 2001).
12
Figure 2. Map of Arghakhanchi district showing the VDCs
3.2 Source of data
Both the primary and secondary data were used. Semi structured questionnaires
were used to collect the required information. Focus group discussion was also done to
triangulate data obtained from respondents. The secondary information was collected by
reviewing different publication from district level government and non-government
organizations and co-operatives, report from national level organizations namely, Ministry
of Agriculture and Development (MoAD), District Agricultural Development Office
(DADO), Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS), etc.
3.3 Techniques of primary data collection
3.3.1 Interview
Primary data was collected through interview schedule. The information on
existing production system and various problems related to production of cereal crop were
collected. Information about socio-demographic status, cereal crop production, economic
status and gender role for household level decision were also collected from the selected
farmers.
13
3.3.2 Focus group discussion
One focus group discussion per VDC was conducted. The focus group discussion was
helpful in verifying the information coll
report on indicators that cannot be done through household surveys.
3.4 Survey design and data collection procedure
3.4.1 Interview schedule design
A set of questionnaire was prepared for the collection of primary data. The major
variables included in questionnaire were household socio-demographic status, farmer
access to extension services, cereal crop production, membership in farmer group or co-
operatives, food security, cooking fuel, problems faced in agriculture enterprise and their
remedial measures, gender role on decision making and ownership of household
properties.
3.4.2 Pre-testing
The pre-testing of the constructed questionnaire was
Sandhikharka VDC of Arghakhachi district. Then correction of interview schedules was
done accordingly.
3.4.3 Sampling methodology
The two VDCs of Arghakhanchi districts namely Thada and Khanchikot were
purposively selected. Both VDCs are connected in the road corridor was used in the
sampling framework. Thirty households from each VDC were selected by using simple
random sampling. Thus, total field survey households sample was 60 HHs.
3.4.4 Field survey
The field survey was conducted during 6th May to 11th May, 2014. The respondents
were interviewed by visiting their homes. The interview timing was fixed as per the
14
immediately after filling the questionnaire. One focus group discussion in each VDC was
done.
3.5 Data processing and analysis
3.5.1 Data Processing:
Data collected through household survey was cleaned, coded and compiled and
entered in SPSS (Statistical Package of social science) software. The data was processed
using SPSS software. Frequency counts, cross tabs, comparison of means were done to
generate meaningful information.
3.5.2 Data Analysis:
In the statistical analysis mean, frequency, percentage, etc. was studied using
descriptive statistical tools including cross tab. As per necessity pictures, graphs,
diagrams was used that sufficiently extrapolate the prevailing status of farming
system, crop production status, gender role.
3.6 Problem ranking
The index was found mainly taking into account the qualitative data. On the basis
of responded frequencies, index value
perception on the extent of problems faced in agriculture enterprises. Then the indexes of
importance for the problems were calculated in order to draw valid conclusion and making
reasonable decision. The index of importance was computed by using the formula:
N
fSI ii
imp
where,
Iimp= index of importance
Si =ith
15
Fi = frequency of ith importance given by the respondents
N = total number of respondents
To rank the problems faced by the producers, twelve different problem statements
were taken into consideration namely, lack of technical assistance, lack of irrigation
facilities, low quality seed pesticide unavailability low price of agricultural product high
cost of seed lack of machinery, unavailability of seed on time, lack of storage,
unavailability of market, unavailability and high cost of fertilizer, lack of transportation,
disease and pest for cereal crop production and marketing. These all problems were related
with the cereal crop production and marketing.
3.7 Dependency ratio
The dependency ratio is defined as the ratio of population in the 0-14 years age
group (young population) and those 60 years and above (old population) to the population
in the productive age groups, i.e., 15-59 years.
DR= Number of dependent family member/ Number of economically active
member
Where,
Dependent family member = Age group of 0-14 years + Age group of Above 60
years
Economically active member = Age group of 15-59 years
17
(A) Khachikot (B) Thada
(C) Total
Figure 1: Ethnicity of respondents in the study area by gender (A) Khachikot VDC
(B) Thada VDC and (C) Total
4.3 Population Distribution
Table 2 shows that male population distribution was 51.33 % in male headed HH
and equal % of female and male (50 %) in female headed HH. Male population was found
more in Khanchikot however female population was more in Thada.
36.8
52.6
0
10.5
36.4
27.3
18.2 18.2
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Brahmin Chetri Janajati Dalit
Male Female
42.9
14.3
38.1
4.811.1
0
44.4 44.4
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Brahmin Chetri Janajati Dalit
40
32.5
20
7.5
25
15
30 30
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Brahmin Chetri Janajati Dalit
18
Table 2: Population Distribution in study area by gender, 2014
Gender Gender of Family Member VDC Total
Khanchikot Thada
No. % No. % No. %
Male Female 42 44.21 68 51.91 110 48.67
Male 53 55.79 63 48.09 116 51.33
Female Female 31 48.44 30 51.72 61 50
Male 33 51.56 28 48.28 61 50
Total Female 73 45.91 98 51.85 171 49.14
Male 86 54.09 91 48.15 177 50.86
4.4 Dependency ratio
Mainly the economically active populations are the population belonging to the age
group of 15-59 years that have productive capacity as considered by Government of Nepal.
Age group below 15 years and above 59 years is considered as dependent population.
Altogether 0.82 male and 0.69 female were dependent on economically active population
in study area (Figure 2). Altogether 0.78 were dependent on economically active
population (Figure 2). Female headed HH were more dependent in Khanchikot but male
headed HH were more dependent in Thada.
19
Figure 2: Dependency ratio in the study area
4.5 Educational attainment
Altogether in the study area it was found that majority (28.70 %) of the HH
members had acquired primary level education in male headed HH however majority
(32.26 %) were literate in female headed HH. Table 4 shows that majority were literate in
both male headed and female headed HH in both the VDCs except the case that majority
(36.92 %) had received primary level education in male headed HH in Thada.
0.46
1.13
0.82
0.60
0.79
0.69
0.51
1.02
0.78
0.00
0.20
0.40
0.60
0.80
1.00
1.20
Khanchikot Thada Total
Dep
ende
ncy
ratio
Male headed HH Female headed HH Total
20
Table 3: Educational status of the respondent in the study area, 2014
Gender Education status VDC Total
Khanchikot Thada
No. % No. % No. %
Male Illiterate 14 15.05 19 20.43 33 14.80
Literate 19 20.43 19 14.62 38 17.04
Primary 16 17.20 48 36.92 64 28.70
SLC 16 17.20 25 19.23 41 18.39
PCL(+2) 15 16.13 14 10.77 29 13.01
University level 13 13.98 5 3.85 18 8.07
Female Illiterate 16 22.86 4 5.71 20 16.13
Literate 19 27.14 21 38.89 40 32.26
Primary 10 14.29 7 12.96 17 13.71
SLC 10 14.29 14 25.93 24 19.35
PCL(+2) 12 17.14 8 14.82 20 16.13
University level 3 4.29 0 0 3 2.42
4.6 Occupation of respondents
Majority of the family members were having Agriculture as their main occupation
in the study area and the same was true for the VDCs under study in both male headed and
female headed HH. It can be clearly seen that the percentage of respondent going outside
was higher. Involvement of people in non-governmental service was least only 1.97% and
1.23 % in male headed and female headed respectively. It was interesting to know that
about 21 % have gone abroad in female headed family.
21
Table 4: Occupational pattern of respondents in study area, 2014
Gender Occupation VDC Total
Khanchikot Thada
No. % No. % No. %
Male Agriculture 40 63.49 68 76.40 108 71.05
Business 1 1.59 4 4.49 5 3.29
GO service 6 9.52 1 1.12 7 4.61
NGO Service 1 1.59 2 2.25 3 1.97
Abroad 13 20.63 11 12.36 24 15.79
Wage labor 2 3.17 3 3.37 5 3.29
Female Agriculture 24 63.16 27 62.79 51 62.96
Business 1 2.63 1 2.33 2 2.47
GO service 4 10.53 1 2.33 5 6.17
NGO Service 1 2.63 0 0.00 1 1.23
Abroad 7 18.42 10 23.26 17 20.99
Wage labor 1 2.63 4 9.30 5 6.17
4.7 Access to extension services
Majority of the respondents were not accessed to extension services in the study
area. It was found little bit more access to extension services in Thada.
Table 5 extension services in study area by Gender, 2014
Gender Extension service VDC Total
Khanchikot Thada
F % F % F %
Male No 19 100.00 15 71.40 34 85.00
Yes 0 0.00 6 28.60 6 15.00
Female No 9 81.80 8 88.90 17 85.00
Yes 2 18.20 1 11.10 3 15.00
22
4.8 Land Holding Pattern
Altogether the total land holding size and own land was 13.07 and 12.53 ropani
respectively. Rented land was 4.75 ropani and rented out was 3.67. Total land holding size
and own land was more in Khanchikot than in Thada. Land under rainfed condition was
more in khanchikot as compared to thada VDC.
Table 6: Land Holding Pattern of the respondent in the study area, 2014
Land Status (in ropani) VDC Total
Khanchikot Thada
Total land holding 15.82 10.32 13.07
Own Land 15.42 9.65 12.53
Rented Land 0.00 6.33 4.75
Rented Out land 2.00 7.00 3.67
4.9 Irrigation
Altogether 7.09, 4.50 and 9.33 ropani was irrigated, partially irrigated and rainfed
land in study area. The irrigation was found better in Thada than Khanchikot. Most of the
HHs in Khanchikot were dependent on rain water. It can be clearly noted that the
percentage of rainfed land (61.57) and irrigated land (61.79) in khanchikot and thada VDC
respectively from the figure 3.
Table 7: Irrigation facilities in study area, 2014
Irrigation status (ropani) VDC Total
Khanchikot Thada
Irrigated land 2.86 9.67 7.09
Partially irrigated land 4.5 0 4.50
Rainfed land 11.79 5.98 9.33
23
Figure 3: Percentage of irrigated, partially irrigated and rainfed land in study area of
Arghakhanchi district, 2014
4.10 Seed purchased status
Majority of the respondents purchased seed (60 %) in male headed HH but majority
of the respondents did not purchase seed (60 %) in female headed HH in the study area.
The same was true for Khanchikot but the finding is opposite in Thada.
Table 8: Seed purchased status (last year) of respondents in study area, 2014
Gender Purchase seed VDC Total
Khanchikot Thada
F % F % F %
Male No 4 21.10 12 57.10 16 40.00
Yes 15 78.90 9 42.90 24 60.00
Female No 8 72.70 4 44.40 12 60.00
Yes 3 27.30 5 55.60 8 40.00
14.93
61.79
33.89
23.50
21.51
61.57
38.2144.60
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
Khanchikot Thada Total
Rainfed land Partially irrigated land Irrigated land
24
4.11 Access to loan
Majority of the respondents had no access to loan in study area. Respondents were
accessed to loan in only in male headed HH as indicated by table 9.
Table 9: Loan access for agriculture in study area, 2014
Gender Loan for agriculture VDC Total
Khanchikot Thada
F % F % F %
Male No 17 89.50 16 76.20 33 82.50
Yes 2 10.50 5 23.80 7 17.50
Female No 11 100.00 9 100.00 20 100.00
4.12 Crop area
From the table it could be observed that 2.69, 4.60, 4.71 ropani of land per
household was used for cultivation of rice, maize, wheat respectively in Khanchikot.
Similarly 9.58, 4.09, 4.43 ropani of land per household was used for cultivation of rice,
maize wheat respectively in Thada. In total it was found that rice was cultivated in more
area (7.46 ropani) followed by wheat (4.58 ropani), maize (4.35 ropani), tori (4 ropani),
lentil (2.50 ropani), barley (1.33 ropani).
Table 10: Area under different crops (in ropani) in study area, 2014
Crop VDC Total
Khanchikot Thada
Rice 2.69 9.58 7.46
Maize 4.60 4.09 4.35
Wheat 4.71 4.43 4.58
Barley 1.33 0.00 1.33
Lentil 0.00 2.50 2.50
Tori 4.00 0.00 4.00
25
4.13 Seed Amount
From the study it could be observed that amount of seed requirement of
wheat(12.33 kg) was more as compared to rice (7.63 kg) and maize (7.79 kg) in
Khanchikot. But in Thada amount of seed requirement of rice (9.25 kg) was more as
compared to maize (5.18 kg) and wheat (8.80 kg). In total we found that seed requirement
of wheat (10.73 kg) was more followed by rice (8.75 kg) and maize (6.51 kg).
Table 11: Amount of seed(kg) for different crops in the study area, 2014
Name of crop VDC Total
Khanchikot Thada
Rice 7.63 9.25 8.75
Maize 7.79 5.18 6.51
Wheat 12.33 8.80 10.73
Barley 2.50 0.00 2.50
Lentil 0.00 2.00 2.00
Tori 4.50 0.00 4.50
4.14 Crop Variety
From the table 14 it is evident that 4, 22, 16, 6, 2 respondents were using local and
HYV of rice, HYV of maize, local variety of wheat, local variety of barley, local variety of
tori respectively in Khanchikot. Similarly, 14, 16, 13, 2 respondents were using hybrid
variety of rice, local variety of maize, local variety of wheat, local variety of lentil
respectively in Thada.
26
Table 12: Crop varieties grown by the respondent in the study area, 2014
VDC Type of variety Name of crops grown
Rice Maize Wheat Barley Lentil Tori
Khanchikot Local 4 7 16 6 0 2
HYV 4 22 8 0 0 0
Hybrid 0 0 0 0 0 0
Thada Local 3 16 13 0 2 0
HYV 1 8 9 0 0 0
Hybrid 14 4 0 0 0 0
4.15 Production of cereal crop
Altogether the production of major cereal crops were 924.23, 393.04, 166.18 kg in
rice, maize, wheat respectively. Rice and wheat production in Thada but maize production
was more in Khanchikot. Production other minor cereal crop production was barley (71.33
kg), lentil (185 kg) and tori (65 kg).
Table 13: Total production of cereal crop in study area, 2014 (kg)
Crop VDC Total
Khanchikot Thada
Rice 496.25 1114.44 924.23
Maize 424.83 362.14 394.04
Wheat 144.67 192.00 166.18
Barley 71.33 0 71.33
Lentil 0 185.00 185.00
Tori 65.00 0 65.00
4.16 Productivity of major cereal crop
The productivity of rice was 184.48 kg/ropani in khanchikot and 116.33 in thada.
Similarly, the productivity of maize was 92.35 in khanchikot and 88.54 in thada. The
productivity of wheat was 30.72 and 43.34 in khanchikot and thada respectively. In total,
27
the productivity of rice, maize and wheat was 123.89, 90.58 and 36.28 respectively. The
productivity was found very low and it was less than the productivity of Arghakhachi
district.
Table 14: Productivity of major cereal crop in study area, 2014 (kg/ropani)
Crop VDC Total
Khanchikot Thada
Rice 184.48 116.33 123.89
Maize 92.35 88.54 90.58
Wheat 30.72 43.34 36.28
4.17 Gender involvement in farmer group or co-operative
From the table 16 it is observed that majority of the respondents were not
associated with any farmer groups or co-operative. 21.10 %, 9.10 % respondents were in
farmer groups in Khanchikot. Similarly 23.80 % and 11.10 % were in co-operative and
both (farmer groups + co-operative in male headed and female headed respectively in
Thada.
Table 15: Membership of farmer group or co-operative in study area, 2014
Gender Membership VDC Total
Khanchikot Thada
F % F % F %
Male Farmer group 4 21.10 2 9.50 6 15.00
Co-operative 3 15.80 5 23.80 8 20.00
Both 1 5.30 0 0.00 1 2.50
None 11 57.90 14 66.70 25 62.50
Female Farmer group 1 9.10 1 11.10 2 10.00
Co-operative 0 0.00 1 11.10 1 5.00
None 10 90.90 7 77.80 17 85.00
28
4.18 Food security
From the study it could be observed that only 18.20 % respondents expressed that
they experienced food insufficiency condition in Khanchikot. Similarly only 11.10 %
respondents experienced food insufficiency in Thada. It showed that majority of the
respondents had food security.
Table 16: Food sufficiency status in the study area, 2014
Gender Hungry season VDC Total
Khanchikot Thada
F % F % F %
Male No 19 100.00 21 100.00 40 100.00
Female No 9 81.80 8 88.90 17 85.00
Yes 2 18.20 1 11.10 3 15.00
4.19 Cooking Fuel
Altogether firewood was the major source of fuel used for cooking purpose in the
study area and the same was true for the VDCs in study area. Nearly 20 % of the
respondents used biogas as fuel in thada VDC however none of the farmer used biogas in
khanchikot.
Table 17: Source of fuel for cooking in study area, 2014
Gender Fuel Type VDC Total
Khanchikot Thada
F % F % F %
Male LPG 0 0 1 4.76 1 2.5
Biogas
Firewood
0
19
0
100
4
16
19.05
76.19
4
35
10
87.5
Female Firewood 11 100 9 100 20 100
29
4.20 Water Supply
Altogether water supply was piped into house (35 %) in male headed HH but
public tap was the major (35 %) source in female headed HH.
Table 18: Sources of water supply by gender, 2014
Gender Sources VDC Total
Khanchikot Thada
F % F % F %
Male Piped into house 7 36.80 7 33.30 14 35.00
Piped into plot 10 52.60 1 4.80 11 27.50
Public tap 2 10.50 5 23.80 7 17.50
Tube well 0 0.00 1 4.80 1 2.50
Protected dug well 0 0.00 2 9.50 2 5.00
Protected spring 0 0.00 3 14.30 3 7.50
River/stream 0 0.00 2 9.50 2 5.00
Female Piped into house 2 18.20 1 11.10 3 15.00
Piped into plot 6 54.50 0 0.00 6 30.00
Public tap 2 18.20 5 55.60 7 35.00
Protected spring 1 9.10 3 33.30 4 20.00
4.21 Problem ranking
From the study it is observed that the major problem of the respondents were lack
of technical assistance followed by lack of irrigation facility, low quality seed, pesticide
unavailability, low price of agricultural product and so on in both the VDCs.
30
Table 19: Perception of respondent regarding existing problems in Agriculture
Problems VDC Total
Khanchikot Thada
Index value Rank Index value Rank Index value Rank
Lack of technical assistance 0.109 I 0.121 I 0.115 I
Lack of irrigation facilities 0.102 II 0.109 III 0.105 II
Low quality seed 0.093 IV 0.109 III 0.101 III
Pesticide unavailability 0.081 VI 0.118 II 0.099 IV
Low price of agricultural product 0.092 V 0.092 IV 0.092 V
High cost of seed 0.095 III 0.082 V 0.088 VI
Lack of machinery 0.092 V 0.080 VI 0.086 VII
Unavailability of seed on time 0.080 VII 0.051 IX 0.066 VIII
Lack of storage 0.052 X 0.073 VII 0.062 IX
Unavailability of market 0.068 VIII 0.033 XII 0.051 X
Unavailability & cost of fertilizer 0.047 XI 0.054 VIII 0.051 XI
Lack of transportation 0.053 IX 0.044 X 0.049 XII
Disease and pest 0.037 XII 0.035 XI 0.036 XIII
4.22 Gender inclusion:
4.22.1Ownership of properties
From the table it is clear that ownership of household properties like house, land
was owned by male. However, other properties like animal, phone, TV, furniture, cupboard
were owned jointly by male and female.
It implies that the major properties is owned by male. Gender equality is necessary
since female also have equal contribution in agriculture sector as well as in all other
activities.
31
Table 20: Ownership of properties of household by gender in study area, 2014
Household properties Gender
VDCTotal
Khanchikot Thada
Male Female Both Male Female Both Male Female Both
HouseMale 17 2 0 20 0 1 37 2 1
Female 10 1 0 7 2 0 17 3 0
Land Male 13 5 1 18 2 1 31 7 2
Female 2 9 0 6 3 0 8 12 0
Animal Male 1 1 17 8 2 8 9 3 25
Female 0 5 6 0 1 6 0 6 12
Phone Male 3 1 10 6 1 7 9 2 17
Female 6 0 1 1 0 5 7 0 6
Cycle Male 1 0 0 4 0 1 5 0 1
Female 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1
TVMale 0 6 5 4 0 5 4 6 10
Female 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1
Chair and table Male 0 2 9 1 2 7 1 4 16
Female 0 0 2 0 0 3 0 0 5
Rice cooker Male 0 1 1 1 3 2 1 4 3
Female 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1
CupboardMale 0 5 6 1 4 6 1 9 12
Female 0 0 2 0 2 1 0 2 3
Sprayer Male 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0
Female 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
4.22.2Household level decision making
Male dominancy was found in decision making like business operation, product
sale, bank account, loan taking, meeting and training. Female decision making in selection
of crop, deficit labour use, input purchase. Combined effort in decision making like health,
schooling, marriage, social and religious function. From this we found that female were
mainly involved in tedious work. Male are like manager for managing different operations.
32
Table 21: Role of gender on household level decision making
Household decision Gender
VDCTotal
Khanchikot Thada
Male Female Both Male Female Both Male Female Both
Business operationMale 16 0 3 9 0 8 25 0 11
Female 10 1 0 4 1 3 14 2 3
Selection of cropMale 6 9 4 6 3 8 12 12 12
Female 4 7 0 2 6 1 6 13 1
Deficit labour useMale 4 7 8 8 2 2 12 9 10
Female 3 6 2 3 4 0 6 10 2
Input purchaseMale 4 7 8 6 2 8 10 9 16
Female 1 10 0 3 4 0 4 14 0
Product saleMale 4 7 8 7 0 11 16 7 19
Female 5 3 3 4 2 1 9 5 4
Schooling of childrenMale 0 2 11 0 1 12 0 3 23
Female 3 1 7 2 2 4 5 3 11
HealthMale 5 1 11 0 1 15 5 2 26
Female 3 1 7 0 3 5 3 4 12
Religious workMale 2 4 13 0 7 11 2 11 24
Female 3 2 6 1 5 3 4 7 9
Social functionMale 4 1 14 0 5 13 4 6 27
Female 1 2 8 0 6 3 1 8 11
Marriage Male 2 3 13 0 0 18 2 3 31
Female 2 3 5 1 1 6 3 4 11
Bank accountMale 6 1 12 11 0 4 17 1 16
Female 3 1 6 1 2 4 4 3 10
Loan takingMale 6 3 10 5 0 12 11 3 22
Female 3 2 6 4 1 3 7 3 9
Meeting attendingMale 12 1 4 6 2 4 18 3 8
Female 2 3 6 3 4 0 5 7 6
Training attendingMale 9 2 7 6 1 5 15 3 12
Female 3 2 6 3 3 1 6 5 7
35
The land holding size was higher in Khanchikot, which was 15.82 ropani in
Khanchikot and 10.32 ropani in Thada VDC. The average land under irrigation was 2.86
ropani and 9.67 ropani in Khanchikot and Thada respectively, which showed that the
irrigation facility was better in Thada.
The average area under rice (7.46 ropani) was found to be more followed by wheat
(4.58 ropani), maize (4.35 ropani) in the study area. The number of respondent purchasing
seed and non seed purchasing (50 %) respondents were found to be equal in the study area.
Majority of the respondents were found using hybrid variety of rice, HYV of maize and
local variety of wheat in study area. The seed used was more of wheat (10.73 kg) than rice
(8.75 kg) and maize (6.51 kg). The total production of rice was more 924.23 kg than maize
394.04 kg and wheat 166.18 kg. The productivity (kg/ropani) of rice, maize and wheat was
123.89, 90.58 and 36.28 respectively. The productivity was found very low and it was less
than the productivity of Arghakhachi district.
Majority of the respondents were not accessed with loan which were 82.50 % and
100 % in male headed and female headed HHs respectively. Majority of the respondents
were not involved in farmer group or co-operative. Very few respondents were found
involved in farmer group or co-operative in the study area. In the study area it is observed
that 5 % of the respondents expressed that they experienced food insufficiency condition.
Firewood was the major source of fuel for cooking purpose in the study area and the same
was true for the VDCs in study area. Altogether water supply was piped into house (35 %)
in male headed HH but public tap was the major (35 %) source in female headed HH.
The major existing problems in agriculture was ranked and found the major one as
lack of technical assistance followed by lack of irrigation facilities, low quality seed,
pesticide unavailability, low price of agricultural product, high cost of seed, lack of
machinery, unavailability of seed on time, lack of storage, unavailability of market,
36
unavailability and high cost of fertilizer, lack of transportation, disease and pest. Male
ownership was found more in the HH properties like house and land. Technology and
direct money related activities were decided more by male. However, laborious activities
were done by male and tedious works were done by female. Works like labour
management, input purchase for crop and crop selection were done by female.
5.1Suggestions
Provision of technical assistance, irrigation facility, quality seed should be made
available which can help to increase the production in study area.
Government policies and programmes should be directed towards increasing the
yield and production of cereal crops.
The problem of inequality must be addressed through awareness programme since
female has equal contribution in agricultural sector.
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