CONTENT

1. The Concept of Interpersonal Communication………………………………… 16

2. Small Group and Team Communication……………………………………… 23

3. Persuasive Communication……………………………………………………. 31

4. Professional Etiquette and Public Relations……………..………………………38

5. Advertising, Promotion and Exhibition…………….………………………….. 51

6. Reports and Proposals………………………………..…………………………..56

7. Meetings and Documentation…………………………….….…………………..70

8. Presentation………………………………………………….………………….. 76

9. Recruitment………………………………………………….…………………...81

Business Communication II lecture notes

Compiled by: Peace M. Adzadi

INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION

The Concepts of Interpersonal Communication

People around the world are in constant communication. This is done to share ideas,

express our feelings and thoughts, gather information, and exchange messages with other

people. Communication includes writing and talking, as well as nonverbal

communication (such as facial expressions, body language, or gestures), visual

communication (the use of images or pictures, such as painting, photography, video, or

film), and electronic communication (telephone calls, electronic mail, cable television, or

satellite broadcasts); communication is a vital part of personal life and is also important

in business, education, and any other situation where people encounter each other

(Lievrouw, 2005). It is through communication that people are brought together to share

ideas.

Definition of the concept and explanation of key terms

Definition

Interpersonal communication is the process of message transaction between people,

usually two, who work toward creating and sustaining meaning. Three components of

interest in this definition are: process, message transaction and shared meaning. We now

look at each in turn.

Interpersonal communication as a process - This means it is an ongoing activity that is

always changing. The cultural environment provides the context for communication.

People will normally talk of issues of concern and topics of interest.

Message transaction

This refers to the simultaneous exchange of verbal and non verbal messages between two.

Messages are the means by which we communicate with one another. However, mere

messages are not enough to establish interpersonal communication. This brings us to our

third element of shared meaning.

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Shared meaning

Meaning is central to our definition of interpersonal communication because it is what

people derive from a message. Parties engaged in interpersonal communication should

have the same meaning of the message they exchange. Our relationship with the person

we are communicating with, our background and some previous information we have on

an issue contribute to the meaning we make out of a message. When we communicate

interpersonally, we work toward creating and sustaining meaning.

The context of interpersonal communication

Psychological context - This is who you are and what you bring to the interaction.

Your needs, desires, values, personality, etc., all form the psychological context

("You" here refers to both sender and receiver).

Relational context - It refers to your relations to the other person. Whether you

communicating with your boss, subordinate or a colleague will determine how the

interaction is conducted.

Situational context deals with the psycho-social "where" you are communicating.

An interaction that takes place in a classroom will be very different from one that

takes place in a bar.

Environmental context deals with the physical "where" you are communicating.

Furniture, location, noise level, temperature, season, time of day, all are examples

of factors in the environmental context.

Cultural context includes all the learned behaviors and rules that affect the

interaction. If you come from a culture (foreign or within your own country)

where it is considered rude to make long, direct eye contact, you will out of

politeness avoid eye contact. If the other person comes from a culture where long,

direct eye contact signals trustworthiness, then we have in the cultural context a

basis for misunderstanding.

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A Dyad

A dyad is a conversation or communication between two people, and it is the smallest

unit of interpersonal communication. How well the people know each other, whether they

perceive each other as equals, and their reasons for being together are the most important

influences on their interpersonal communication. Some dyads exist over a long period of

time, as in a marriage or partnership.

Communicating well in a dyad requires good conversational skills. Communicators must

know how to start and end the conversation, how to make them understood, how to

respond to the partner's statements, how to be sensitive to their partner's concerns, how to

take turns, and how to listen. Together, these abilities are called communication

competence. Shyness or reluctance to interact is called communication apprehension.

Persuasion is the process of convincing others.

The influence of Information and communication technology on Interpersonal

Communication

The use of Information and communication technology in several ways means that

interpersonal communication is no longer only oral or face -to-face.

1. The tremendous flow of new gadgets as the means of Interpersonal communication,

such as mobile phone, SMS, instant messenger and video chatting, has made it possible

for people to communicate with each other without necessarily being at the same

location. This ease of communication has many profound effects. In the business world,

deals can be made through emails teleconferencing and video conferencing. Mobile

phone technology has also made it possible for people to check and send messages on the

go, allowing us to be connected 24-7.

2. With the invention of the Internet, the world has effectively become a global village.

People from two corners of the world are now able to easily converse with each other

quickly and easily through the means of cyberspace. For instance, wireless text

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messaging system offers many plans to its user, apart from being a great means of

instantly reaching someone. It is great when we can speak to someone in a few words

when we have no time to call him. Moreover it is the cheapest means of interaction

besides other benefits like having innumerable free packages.

The internet has indeed made it easy and convenient for people to keep in touch with one

another. It has brought new channels of social contacts, communication methods,

information sharing and influenced interpersonal relationship globally. The Internet has

changed the lives of mankind to such a great extent that Internet communication is

considered a necessity in modern times. Email has established itself as a fast, free and

convenient method to send messages, replacing traditional mail in the process, making it

possible for people to keep in touch with each other.

3. Possessing one’s own PC has created a latest trend in the digital world of today. With

the ever growing demand and new reforms in the Information Technology Industry, the

world is getting smaller. Ones far distant relative or friend is just a click away from him.

With the help of several social networking channels, it has become possible to

communicate with your near and dear ones, whether residing at the remotest corner of the

globe, at no cost, without leaving the comforts of your house!

Negative Impact

In the office, despite all the advantages offered by technology as mentioned earlier, there

are many negative implications to be considered as well.

1. Simple messages which used to be delivered face-to-face are now being sent through

the cold impersonal means of email. This has effectively reduced socialization within the

office, thus contributing to the weakening of bonds within the workplace.

2. In addition, emails and video conferences, as convenient as they may be, just cannot

entirely replace the feeling and warmth of a person’s handshake or presence. Deals may

be negotiated through emails, but many businessmen today still want to view their

business partners face-to-face in order to size their potential partners up before

committing to any deals.

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3. Television has become a convenient substitute for family time. This is the time where

families would have spent quality time together, socializing and talking. However, this

has been replaced by television programs which engage one or more of the family

members thus reducing the social interaction between them. Today, it is common for

people to plan activities around television programs. This has reduced the communication

between parents and their children due to the lack of quality time spend together. The

bond is weakened as compared with previous generations and this has a profound impact

on society as a whole.

4. The use of computers and surfing on the internet are also having the same effect.

In conclusion, technology has indeed made tremendous impact to society as well as to

our interpersonal communication. The ease of communication may have been improved

but our lives have become more impersonal as a result. We are now more connected in

today’s globalised world, but are ironically more isolated from our friends and family as

a result of the new technologies from the information age.

The value of interpersonal communication at work

In a family or friendship relationship, the primary role of communication can be simply

to create and maintain that specific relationship.  In a business environment, each

interpersonal relationship exists within a complex network of interrelated

relationships.  As a result, the ability to communicate interpersonally—that is, with

people as people—becomes a foundational skill for virtually any other organizational

activity. Experts agree that good communication is one of the keys to being successful in

today's competitive job market. People must be able to communicate with each other on a

daily basis to keep the work flowing in an orderly fashion, and to deal with work issues

as they arise. Some benefits of interpersonal communication to work include the

following:

1. Interpersonal networks provide a two-way exchange of information. Individual

participants can obtain clarification, explanation and negotiation. This characteristic of

interpersonal networks often allows them to overcome problems of message distortion

caused by excessive noise.

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2. They generally have a significant effect in persuading an individual to form or to

change a strongly held attitude.

3. In many situations, they can help to resolve conflict because they provide a means to

air personal feelings and deal with misunderstandings or grudges.

4. Interpersonal communication permits the exchange of personal, affective (emotional)

information. It is especially important in establishing and maintaining friendships.

Interpersonal communication skills, however, are put to more demanding test in office

situations, where we must communicate with a wide variety of people to solve personal

and organizational problems.

5. Effective interpersonal communication skills are key to achieving success in business

and having better social or personal relationships. Misunderstandings can lead to delays,

which ultimately affect the productivity of the company.

BARRIERS TO INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATIONS

1. Language Barriers

While verbal cues aid interpersonal communication, it is clear that differing use of

language can cause confusion and difficulty in understanding. Poor language skills can

create a barrier to interpersonal communication; whether the messenger has a lack of

knowledge of the language itself or a lack of understanding of certain terms,

misunderstandings can arise.

2. Technological Barriers

While email and text messaging have provided many new and quick ways to

communicate, they can also be barriers to interpersonal communication by removing the

personal aspect of the communication. It has been shown that 45 percent of

communication comes from tone of voice, eye contact and body language, all of which

are lost in communication using today's technology.

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3. Personal Barriers

Every person has his own filter of life experiences which he places on each

communication he has. Whether he has communicated with someone who resembles the

messenger, or who is in the same position or stature as the messenger, a receiver can

sometimes anticipate or translate a message in a way that the sender did not intend.

Personal barriers and experiences can affect the interpersonal communication experience

due to no fault of the communicators.

How to Overcome Barriers to Interpersonal Communication

1. Select the right channel. Many communication channels exist, although they are not

all appropriate to use. For example, saying "Good morning" through an e-mail is much

less personable than saying it face-to-face.

2. Use the right language when sending messages. Receiving audiences may have

different backgrounds. Using the right tone and words can help avoid sending a technical

message to an audience unfamiliar with technical terms.

3. Engage in active listening. Rather than focusing on how to reply to the person when

listening or reading a message, effective communicators will actively listen first and then

formulate their response.

4. Avoid confusing nonverbal communication. Nonverbal communication includes

your physical reactions when sending or receiving a message. Other parties may be

confused when nonverbal language suggests the sender or listener does not care about the

message.

5. Seek feedback. Feedback allows for the clarification of messages as needed. This also

helps improve future communication because senders will know which barriers exist with

certain receivers

                                                            

Interpersonal Skills

One of the most important means we have of influencing human relations is

communication. Interpersonal communication is, in fact, the foundation of all human

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relationships. While all communication is "interpersonal" because it takes place between

people, the term interpersonal communication usually refers to communication that takes

place in face-to-face situations involving two or three people.

    Listening, speaking, and sending and interpreting nonverbal messages are necessary

skills to communicate effectively. In addition to being able to listen, speak and interpret

nonverbal messages, effective interpersonal communication depends on our attitudes

toward and assumptions about others. Because human relations and interpersonal

communication are so closely related, how we feel about others will partially determine

how well we communicate.

All our great ideas to drive business results are useless unless we can communicate them

with others. Why do some people fail to connect with others? What do successful people

do that enables them to so easily win acceptance and support? How do they create those

warm and positive feelings in others? Good interpersonal skills can make the difference

between success and failure. Our ability to communicate effectively with others helps us

to build trusting relationships.                                                                             

 

SMALL GROUP AND TEAM COMMUNICATION

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Small group communication involves a small number of people, usually engaged in face-

to-face interaction, actively working together toward a common goal. Small group

communication occurs in classrooms, the workplace, and in more social environments

(for example sports teams or book clubs).

Small Group

A small group is generally defined as a group that consists of at least three members or a

maximum of around twelve to fifteen members. A group that has just two members or

more than fifteen members would not come in the category of a small group. A small

group may be a professional group, an educational group or a social group. The members

belonging to it will have a common bond or interest or goal that brings them together.

Even though the number of members is less in a small group, effective communication

between them is still important. To further understand small group communication, we

need to examine the three primary features of small group: group size,

interdependence/interaction, and task/goal.

Characteristics of Small Groups

Three characteristics define a small group: size, type of interaction and action& goals

Size: A small number of people: A small group should have at least 3 members otherwise

it would simply be a dyad. A group of eight makes it difficult for people to participate

freely. Five is considered the most productive size for a small group because it is large

enough to supply the needed information and to share the workload, yet small enough to

give each member a chance for maximum participation. In business, however groups of

15-20 are common, perhaps explaining why groups seem to function poorly and slowly.

Having an uneven number in a group is also a good idea because it can prevent votes

from ending up in ties.

Face-to-face-interaction: This is simply a meeting that occurs in the presence of all the

group members. Group members must be able to communicate freely and openly with all

of the other members of the group. Groups will develop norms about discussion and

group members will develop roles which will affect the group's interaction.

A common goal: Just having the same goal is not enough. To be classified as a group,

members must be working together to achieve a common goal. A group must have a

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common purpose or goal and members must work together to achieve that goal. The goal

brings the group together and holds it together through conflict and tension.   Small

groups always share a common purpose. The purposes, however, vary in nature and

importance. The personnel in most departments would constitute a small group; and a

committee of the disciplinary committee members of an organization, meetingto discuss

issues concerning discipline would be a small group.

Communication Patterns

How well group members communicate with each other influences the speed with which

the group is able to communicate and make decisions. The communication pattern in a

group may be either centralized or decentralized, depending on the extent to which the

leader controls the flow of communication among group members.　 Centralized communication patterns: These occur when the leader restricts

communication flow so that most of the communication taking place must pass through

him or her. Group members are discouraged from communicating directly with each

other. Centralized communication patterns include the wheel, the chain, and the Y. These

patterns are best for solving simple problems when a quick decision is necessary. A

supervisor, for example, might ask all the members of her or his staff for an opinion

about a particular subject. Each staff member would have the opportunity to discuss the

subject with the supervisor, and the supervisor would take all the opinions into account

when making the decision. None of the staff members, however, would discuss the

subject with other staff members until after the decision was made. Such a

communication pattern can help a supervisor make a better decision than she or he might

make alone, and it allows staff members to contribute without greatly slowing the speed

of the decision.

Decentralized communication patterns: These work better for more complex problems. In

this pattern, the leader encourages all members to communicate freely. The leader may

control the group by keeping it focused on the problem, but the leader does not control

who communicates with whom. The principal decentralized communication pattern is

known as the circle.

Communication Climate Communication climates in groups are either open or closed,

depending on whether they encourage or discourage communication flow. An open

communication climate is one in which people feel comfortable stating their true

opinions. A closed communication climate is one in which people either avoid

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communicating completely or conceal their true opinions while stating what they think

someone (usually the leader) wants to hear. In general, open communication climates

produce more frequent and higher quality communication than closed communication

climates, as we would expect.

Types of Small Group Communication

1. Brainstorming

Brainstorming is a type of communication that is designed to help a group generate ideas.

During brainstorming sessions, members of the group initially come up with as many ideas

as possible. After a number of ideas have been presented to the group, members evaluate

these ideas and decide which ones are the most appropriate for their goals. For brainstorming

to be effective, group members should not edit themselves or their peers, and allow the free

flow of creativity.

2. Information Sharing

Small groups that get together to share information have members who are in the group

to educate other members and to learn from other members. In some cases, these types of

groups may be made up of students who are studying for exams. When small groups get

together to share information, they may engage in different discussion patterns based on

the topic of conversation. For example, a group that is studying history may frame its

discussion chronologically, and discuss the points the members want to cover based on

the date the historical events occurred. In other cases, information sharing may take place

by topic, so that members of the group discuss one broad topic at a time and then move

on to the next.

3. Problem Solving

When a small group engages in problem solving, it needs to reach a decision about a

specific dilemma. In these sessions, members of the group define the problem, identify

and evaluate possible solutions, and then select the best solutions for the problem. Some

of the issues that this type of communication may address are the causes of the problem,

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the consequences that the problem may create and how long the problem has existed as

well as possible solutions to the problems.

4. Groupthink

Groupthink is a type of small group communication problem that occurs when members

of the group feel pressured to agree with each other. When this type of communication

occurs, members of the group are so concerned about being cohesive that they stifle

creativity and may not be able to make the best decisions. Symptoms of groupthink

include when group members are warned that dissent will not be allowed, when group

members are afraid to share ideas and remain quiet, and when group members are afraid

of the group's leader.

Teams

Teams are groups that have been formed for a specific purpose or task. The groups

formed in work situations to carry out a project as well as the groups formed to play a

game are examples of teams. A team may include members of different groups; people of

different races, genders, sexual preferences and leisure tastes can come together to form a

team for a purpose. Teams tend to have clear objectives, and more or less specified roles

and duties, usually related to professional concerns.

Effective Team Communication

For a team to operate smoothly there must be an open and effective communication.

Communication is about expressing and conveying your thoughts, feelings, opinions and

ideas to another person or a group of people. Good communication skills can help you

keep your head up and confidently take charge of unfamiliar situations. People are more

likely to listen to you, if you can express yourself well, and this is particularly useful in

influencing and negotiating important personal, social or business matters. It also comes

in handy while resolving conflicts and dealing with difficult people. Some people are

born with effective communication skills, but others need to develop them. Developing

effective communication skills requires repeated practice, which you can do by putting

yourself frequently in situations where you have to interact with a variety of people.

Consider joining social clubs or public speaking and debate clubs to polish up your skills.

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Effective communication is important because it allows each team member to voice

his/her opinion in a clear way, providing his or her input and obtaining a clear

understanding of the objective. With good team communication, a group can produce

accurate and impressive results.

Importance of effective Team Communication

Let us consider team communication with regard to the workplace. Most companies and

organizations have people working in small teams. This has been found to be more

effective and productive than a single individual toiling away at a project. When you have

three, four or more people working on an issue, you have the advantage of having access

to more ideas and solutions for the project. Such groups will have more checking

safeguards against any flaws in the plan and will be able to establish more network

connections. When compared to a single person, a group is also more likely to take on

and complete large-scale, complex projects, efficiently and quickly. However, for the

team to operate smoothly there must be open and efficient communication between its

members. Team communication is important for the following reasons:

Project-related information needs to be shared.

Each member of the team needs to be acquainted with the team goal and his/her

role in the team.

Each team member has specific skills and knowledge that must be utilized and

imparted to other members in the course of the work.

Any question or issue about the project must be broached and shared in order to

resolve them.

Any decision taken must be conveyed to all the members.

Effects of ineffective communication on teams

Poor communication between team members can unnecessarily delay an entire project

for the following reasons.

The members may not understand what is needed and may waste time and energy

in doing what is not required.

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The members may misunderstand one another and develop personal animosities.

This can affect their desire to work together and thereby the quality of the work.

The members may not be clear of the sequence of the things to be done and this

can either hold up the project or play havoc with the deadlines.

The members may not know what to change or how to make themselves more

efficient.

PERSUASIVE COMMUNICATION

Persuasion is communication intended to influence choice. To persuade is to limit the

options that are perceived as acceptable. (Brembeck & Howell, 1976) Persuasive

Communication refers to the process of having listeners understand and accept the

sender’s message. Examples of such messages are: advertising, public relations

communication, interviews and, telemarketing among others. Force and tricks should not

be used in persuasion. The receivers of the persuasive message must weigh the logic and

evidence and make their own decisions. The sender only helps to influence the decision.

Achieving success in persuasive communication

Most of us do some persuading every day. In our daily conversations, we frequently need

to convince others that our point of view is correct or persuade them to do something they

wouldn't ordinarily do. The following measures will enhance our persuasion.

Present the benefits of your message to your listeners   

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To persuade someone, you have to convince him or her that doing as you suggest will be

to her or his benefit as well as your own. The listener's point of view is important. That is,

what does the listener currently believe? What is the listener currently doing in place of

the action you would like the listener to perform? How will the listener benefit from

believing what you say or from doing as you ask?

Concentrate on those beliefs and actions related to the topic for persuasion. You won't,

for example, need to know the religious beliefs of the secretarial personnel in your

organization to persuade them to change their procedures for records management.

Persuading orally requires many of the same techniques of written persuasion. When the

situation is informal, you'll omit many of the details you would need to persuade in a

formal situation. It’s easier, for example, to persuade a friend to join you for lunch than it

is to persuade an executive to invest in a new piece of office equipment. Because the

investment is small and the benefit is obvious, your friend should be easy to persuade. It

will however require more effort to persuade an executive to invest in a new production

plant that he has not thought of himself. The investment for the executive, however, is

larger, and more risk is involved. To persuade the executive, you would need to provide

specific details about the benefits and prove that those benefits would be realized.

Know your target audience

In order to be successful at persuading, find out as much as you can about your listener’s

current beliefs and actions attitudes before you attempt to influence his or her opinion or

course of action. In some cases you may be able to learn all you need to know by asking

some informal questions of a few members of the group you wish to persuade. In other

cases, you may need to distribute a questionnaire to group members to discover their

attitudes. Still in other cases, you may have to infer their attitudes based on what you do

know about them. However you learn what you can about your audience’s attitudes and

current actions, that knowledge gives you the starting point for your persuasive Message.

    Think of persuading as a journey; you wish to lead your audience from where they are

now to where you wish them to be. You are responsible for leading then; merely

describing the destination is not enough. Some of your listeners may move quickly from

one point to the next; some may not move at all. But unless you make the trip with them,

beginning at a point they are ready to accept and moving carefully from point to point at

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a pace they are willing to accept, none of them will reach the destination you desire.

Encourage a two-way communication 

In asking for and providing information, you have the right to expect the other person to

cooperate in the communication process. Most people will be as helpful as they can be. In

a persuasive situation, however, the person who wishes to persuade must assume full

responsibility for the success or failure of the communication. The other person is under

no obligation to be persuaded. In fact, the other person may try to resist being persuaded.

When you communicate to persuade, you'll need to overcome the other person’s natural

inclination to resist.

Decision making process

When people are persuaded, they must make decisions. You must take note of this fact

and your intention should be to help the decision making.

People go through five steps in reaching a decision.

1. In the first place there is an awareness of a need to be met or a problem to solve.

2.At the second stage the person(s) concerned consider a variety of available options that

can possibly meet the need. For example, they must decide between, Ariel and other

detergents, primodal classes and other remedial classes, MTN and Vodafone,UPSA

and other tertiary business education providers.

3.Thirdly, they evaluate options. At this stage the people consider the advantages and

disadvantages of each option.

4. At the fourth stage, various options are then weighed one against the other.

5. Finally, the decision makers select the option that will best solve the problem or meet

the need. 

Design the message in a way that will enable your listeners make decisions the way you

want, while at the same time focusing on the needs of your listeners.

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Factors leading to Persuasion

Persuasive communication experts have identified four main factors in persuasion as

follows:

The evidence and logic of the message

The credibility of the persuader

The psychological needs of the listeners

The opinions held by key people in the audience

1. Evidence and logic of the message

Evidence is defined as factual statements and opinions originating, not from the

speaker, but from another source (McCroskey, 1969). Evidence forms the basis for

the logical arguments a speaker develops. Logic is from the Greek word logos or

reason and refers to the study of orderly thinking, the sequence of thoughts and ideas

as they relate to one another. Logic is that which connects the various pieces of

evidence in a meaningful and persuasive argument. Let your argument and evidence

be logical.Some listeners need large amount of evidence to be persuaded. Others

however need new evidence and arguments before they can be persuaded. Know your

audiences and decide on what will persuade them.

2. Credibility of the speaker

Credibility is the second factor of persuasion. A credible person is someone whom others

can believe and place their confidence in. People are more persuaded by someone they

see as competent, powerful trustworthy and objective. Research has found that the greater

a person’s credibility, the more persuasive a person is.

3. The psychological needs of the listeners

To be successful at persuasive speaking, you must also adapt your argument to the

psychological needs of your listeners. Your audience may choose not to believe your

evidence no matter how good it is. But if you get your audienceto believe that your topic

is important to them and their specific needs, they are more likely to consider your

evidence as persuasive. In situations of internal persuasion, know the needs that motivate

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managers and employees, then design your messages for effective communication. For

external persuasive communication, know your target audience and assess their needs in

order to succeed in persuading them.

1. Opinion of key listeners.

In almost every group, there is a key person whom others look to for advice. To persuade

the group, the speaker must first persuade these key people or opinion leaders. These

people will in turn influence the group.

Techniques of Persuasion/Persuasive practices

The communication practices most commonly associated with persuasion are efforts to

secure attention (as in personal selling and advertising) and engaging in arguments. In

both cases, the result depends on the skills with which communication channels are

selected and exploited. Generally, you want to secure the attention of your listeners and

ensure the conditions necessary for your message to be accepted. The following

approaches may produce a positive response.

1. Gain the audience’s attention

Show interest in the people you are talking to. Make them feel they are important to the

proceeding. The messages designed to gain attention must focus on the clients. Convince

the listeners that it is in their best interest to listen to your message. Effective

interpersonal communication skills can facilitate the process.

In personal selling, for instance, you can start the process with just plain friendly talking

“off-topic”, different from what you’re trying to sell. Just chat with people about

whatever they might be interested in, and also look out for topics of common interest.

Build a feeling of rapport, trust and liking to be most effective in achieving your goal.

2. Present the problem you want to solve and then explain it. Convince your listeners that

the problem is real and that your solution is the best. If you think your listeners have an

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alternate option, start with that option and prove why it will work before you convince

them that you have the best solution.

3. Persuasive communication is an interactive process, and securing feedback is an

important aspect of the process. Ask questions that can attract your listeners’ attention

and also to check the receiver understanding, reactions and perspective. Look and watch

out for verbal and non-verbal signs of interest and potential agreement.

4. Anticipating and Handling objection

The objections are the negatives that the readers might have against your message. E.g.

the PC is too expensive.

Acknowledge and deal with them in the following ways:-

Remove them: Persuade the person that they are not actually negative factors.

Reduce them: Show that although there is a negative element, it is a minor matter, and

that the benefits outweigh the negative elements.

Turn them into a plus.

5. Ask for the action you want

Get the commitment of the person you are persuading. Get them to accept your message

and act on it. Give your listeners reasons to act promptly either by summarizing any

additional benefits or by offering a new benefit.

Ethics of Persuasion

Persuasion is not about deceiving or misleading the audiences. In organizational settings,

the win-lose approach to persuasion is generally unproductive because the long-term

reputation of the organization will be damaged by repeated efforts toexploit its various

stakeholders. In this Internet age, bad publicity about a company can be quickly

communicated around the globe. The techniques of persuasion talked about so far will

only be effective if receivers are taken seriously throughout the process.

Since the 1990s, many organizations have begun to take interest in business ethics and

corporate governance. Organizations are being compelled by their various publics to

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develop codes of conduct to regulate their activities. Persuasive communication raises a

number of ethical issues. Notable among them is the use of lies and deceptions in such

areas as advertising and selling. Employee, supplier and shareholder relationships can

also be affected by unethical behaviours in persuasive communication. Unethical

persuasion practices are also likely to be illegal or contrary to industry standards.

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PROFESSIONAL ETIQUETTE AND PUBLIC RELATIONS

One of the most important functions your interpersonal communication skills will

perform for you will be to help you establish an image of professionalism. Your behavior

in the office and with the public will be important factors in your success in an office

career.

Office Etiquette

While what is considered proper etiquette will vary from office to office, certain rules of

behavior are fairly universal. Many of the well-accepted rules of etiquette are based on

effective techniques of interpersonal communication. The following will help project a

positive image of yourself and your organization.

• Be courteous: Say "please" when you want something and "thank you” when someone

has helped.

• Be friendly: Assume the best of others. Let them know that you enjoy their company

and act in a way that will enable them to enjoy yours

• Be helpful: Do what you can to help others. Help your supervisor when she or he needs

an extra hand, and help your subordinates when they're having problems. Everybody

appreciates extra help from time to time.

• Be gracious: Don't be too proud to let others help you. Most people enjoy helping when

they can.

•Be constructive: Avoid senseless complaining. Work in a positive way to correct

problems, and don't waste time complaining about petty annoyances. Every job has

some minor problems that aren't worth worrying about.

• Be observant: Be aware of others' feelings. Try to communicate with them according to

their moods. If your supervisor has had a hard day and is feeling defensive, for

example, delay asking for a favor until a more opportune time.

• Be discreet: Some matters can be discussed in public, others cannot. Differences of

opinion, for example, may be best discussed by the people involved before the matter is

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made public. Likewise, criticisms-of supervisors or subordinates-should be handled

privately. For example, if your supervisor has criticized you in front of your colleagues,

you should save your reply until you and your supervisor can speak privately.

Office etiquette is one of the ways a business maintains its image of professionalism.

This image is helpful not only for increasing office efficiency but also for establishing

positive public relations.

Public relations – an overview

DEFINITIONS OF PUBLIC RELATIONS

Like most subjects or disciplines, public relations has as many definitions as there are

authors and practitioners in the field. These authors and practitioners offer varying

definitions based on their knowledge, experience and practices perspectives.

“Public Relations is the deliberate, planned and sustained effort to establish and

maintain mutual understanding between on organization and its publics.”

- Institute of Public Relations, USA

“Public relations is the attempt by information persuasion and adjustment to engineer

public support for an activity, cause, movement or institution.”

- Edward L. Bernays

“Public Relations is a combination of philosophy, sociology, economics, language,

psychology, journalism, communication and other knowledge into a system of human

understanding."

- Herbert M. Baus

“Merely human decency which flows from a good heart.”

- Charles Plackard

“Good performance, publicity appreciated because adequately communicated.”

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- Fortune (Magazine)

“The Management function which gives the same organized and careful attention to

the asset of goodwill as is given to any other major asset of business.”

John W. Hill

"Public Relations is distinctive management function which helps establish and

maintain mutual lines of communication, understanding, acceptance and cooperation

between an organization and its publics; involves the management of problems or

issues; helps management to keep informed on and responsive to public opinion;

defines and emphasizes the responsibility of management to serve the public interest;

helps management keep abreast of and effectively utilize change, serving as an early

warning system to help anticipate trends; and uses research and sound and ethical

communication as its principal tools."

- Rex F. Harlow

NEED FOR PUBLIC RELATIONS

Investing in Public relations will help the organization to achieve its objective effectively

and smoothly. Public Relations is not creating good image for a bad team. Since false

image cannot be sustained for a long time. Organizations need PR for the following

reasons.

1. Even an organization with the highest quality product or services still needs an

effective Public Relations campaign for attracting and motivating the public to

the product or service or towards the purpose of their programme.

2. It is not only to encourage the involvement from the public and also resulting in

better image. An effective Public Relations can create and build up the image of

an individual or an organisation or a nation.

3. At the time of adverse publicity or when the organisation is in crisis an effective

Public Relations can remove the "misunderstanding" and can create mutual

understanding between the organisation and the publics.

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ELEMENTS OF PUBLIC RELATIONS

•A planned effort or management function.

•The relationship between an organization and its publics

• Evaluation of public attitudes and opinions.

• An organization's policies, procedures and actions as they relate to said

organization's publics.

•Steps taken to ensure that said policies, procedures and actions are in the public

interest and socially responsible.

• Execution of an action and or communication programme.

•Development of rapport, goodwill, understanding and acceptance as the chief end

result sought by public relations activities.

Public Relations in organizations

The public relations (PR) function in any organization is usually carried out by

employees who have specialized in that field. Public relations, as the name suggests, is all

about the relationship between the organization and the general public.

PR draws on several specialist fields, involving people as varied as publicity agents and

promoters from the entertainment industry, political lobbyists, analysts and advisors,

newspaper and broadcast journalists, management consultants and advertising

copywriters. Commentators have often noted that the PR profession seems unable to

escape its reputation for engaging in disreputable practices. The main criticism is that PR

is used to create a false impression of an organization, individual or issue in the minds of

the public. In reality, while it is possible to identify many examples of bad practice, PR

can be a valid form of persuasive communication. It is used by all kinds of organizations,

including charities, pressure groups and political parties.

The language of today’s PR professionals reflects the concept of multiple stakeholders.

They talk in terms of developing a long-term dialogue with their various ‘publics’, (see

the figure below), each of which has different information needs. The UK’s Institute of

Public Relations (IPR) has defined this communication role as: ‘The planned and

sustained effort to establish and maintain goodwill and mutual understanding between an

organization and its publics’ (IPR 2003). In the next section, we consider the PR

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activities that are used to enhance the mutual understanding between an organization and

its publics.

An organization’s dialogue with its stakeholders

Source: Effective Organizational Communication, p232

PR activities and communication channels

Organizations engage in many types of PR activity, which make use of particular

combinations of communication channels. The choice of channel should be based on a

combination of research into the needs of the various publics and an awareness of the

organization’s objectives.

Different communication channels are more or less effective at transmitting different

kinds of information. Some types of communication are information rich while others are

medium rich. In addition, communications flow in different directions within

organizations. A major internal communication channel is e-mail, which is convenient

but needs to be handled carefully. External communication channels include PR/press

releases, ads, Web pages, and customer communications such as letters and catalogs.

Campaign groups

Media organizations

Customers

Suppliers Employees

Local communities

Governmentdepartments/agencies

Banks Shareholders

Organization

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Practitioners are also experimenting with emerging channels, notably the internet and the

new breed of transnational television channel, such as MTV, CNN, Eurosport and BBC

World.

Corporate advertising and brochures

Organizations sometimes promote themselves, rather than specific products or services.

Brochures and annual reports are sent to major customers, suppliers, financiers and

shareholders. These are often made available on corporate websites, either in an html

version, as a series of hyperlinked pages, or retaining the original hard copy features by

encoding it in ‘pdf’ (portable document file) format.

Sponsorship

Sponsorship is a public relations activity in which a corporation pays for all or some of

the costs associated with a project, program, activity, a person or an event in exchange for

recognition. Sponsorship can take the form of a simple donation, based on employee

interests or charitable activities, such as sponsoring a company team that is taking part in

a fund-raising half-marathon or cycle race. In case of the latter athletic facilities may bear

the name of a company and the name of a sporting competition may be preceded by the

name of a company. Corporations may have their logos and brand names displayed

alongside those of the organization undertaking the project or program, with specific

mention that the corporation has provided funding. Large corporations sometimes offer

sponsorship to organizations with higher status or a perceived ethical stance (e.g.

universities, schools, hospitals, charities), in the hope of enhancing their public image. It

enables the investor (sponsor) to derive some benefits from any such entity.

Sponsorship is similar to advertising in that both are used to communicate an

organization’s message and image for a product, brand or service to the target market.

However, unlike advertising, sponsorship persuades indirectly by linking the sponsor’s

message to an event or organization although the sponsor’s contract may include

advertising at the event. Sponsorship brings the sponsoring organization to the limelight

through the media. It also makes the public aware that the organization is not only profit

oriented, but is also concerned with the well-being of the people.

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Lobbying

Lobbying refers to an attempt to connect to people with political power in order to

influence them to support one’s action, needs or beliefs. Lobbyists have an important

role, providing decision-makers with well-researched briefing materials, technical advice

and arguments in support of their respective positions. Governments often make use of

these ‘expert’ briefings when drafting complex legislation. However, the activities of

some lobbyists are highly suspect. For example, rewarding politicians for raising specific

issues in parliamentary debates, or in specialist ‘select’ committee meetings, is a morally

dubious activity that has prompted several public controversies, while bribing politicians

to vote in a particular way is generally regarded as a corrupt and illegal practice.

Day-to-day procedures

Seemingly routine activities, such as the time taken to answer an external telephone call,

can have a big impact on the way that an organization is perceived. For example, if in-

coming callers with simple queries are passed from department to department, they are

likely to share their experiences with others; if these ‘stories’ accumulate, the

organization may find itself with a poor public image that is difficult to

counteract.Improved staff training programmes and better-constructed computer

databases could reduce such problems. More generally, the lesson for all organizations is

to monitor the effectiveness of all communication channels, however humble they might

appear. Take complaints seriously, particularly where a pattern is detected, and ensure

that routine procedures are operating satisfactorily.

Other methods-media relations and news releases

Public relations practitioners make extensive use of media relations, press briefings and

news releases, which are considered in the next section. They also communicate directly

with stakeholders at exhibitions and by hosting special events. The next section focuses

on news release, one of the most widely-used and cost-effective communication

channels, with applications to public relations and other areas of promotional activity.

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Media relations

The media, which in the context means television, radio, newspapers and magazines, can

be seen as a kind of indirect route to the public. Journalists research your business and

listen to your briefings, then report their findings to a wider audience as news stories.

These stories can deliver powerful messages, since much of the media, and the trade

press in particular, are perceived as relatively impartial and fairly well-informed. Because

of this, their reports and editorials tend to be accepted more readily than material that an

organization issues directly. The other advantage of this communication channel is its

cost-effectiveness. You have to pay for advertising, but any messages that a journalist

communicates are essentially free. There is only one catch; the PR practitioner has to

deliver the kind of stories that make news. So what makes a story newsworthy? The best

stories go beyond everyday experience, or include at least some element of originality.In

addition the potential coverage of a story depends on whether it is being presented to

international, national, local or specialist media, each of which has its own distinctive

agenda and practices.

Press Releases

A press release is an announcement which a company sends to the press and other media

regarding important events of an organization which it considers to be newsworthy. It is

usually about important events or developments in an organization. A press release is

not an advertisement but it can result in useful publicity for the company issuing the

release. It can be considered as an unpaid for ad but written in a ‘news’ style.

One of the aims of PR is to influence the general public through the mass media such as

newspapers, television, radio and the information service. The job of the PR person in

any organization is to be constantly on the lookout for newsworthy events, products,

developments and stories of human interest and then turn them into a press release or

press conference among others.

Why companies send press releases to the media

Companies may send press releases to the media for some of the following reasons

- relocation of offices

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- introduction of new products

- purchase of new buildings

- special events such as company anniversary, plant closure, etc.,

- changes in top personnel

- opening of new branches

- warnings to the public, eg. foods and drugs board

- any development that is negatively affecting the image of the company

If you are responsible for helping to provide public relations material, here are some

guidelines to follow. Effective PR material must:

- be factual and newsworthy

- appeal to human interest

- contain up-to-date information

- be appropriately distributed

- be produced professionally

Purpose and Audience

A press release has two purposes and two audiences.

a) The first audience is the journalist. The purpose is to attract his attention and

interest and to persuade and enable him to use the material.

Your press release must therefore be of interest to the editorial team of the

publications you select. They may receive several releases everyday and you will be

competing for their time and attention. Your release must therefore be newsworthy.

b) The second audience is those who will read the publication. The purpose is to

communicate the PR message.

The implication is that the press release will primarily be written having the needs

and expectations of the journalist in mind. However the journalist himself has the needs

and expectations of his readers in mind. If the journalist is convinced that your release is

of interest to the readers and he/she is also interested in such releases, then you are more

likely to be successful with him.

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While organizations can pay to obtain advertising space, obtaining editorial space trough

press release is subject to the editorial team finding the press release interesting and

usable. Apart from the large and high profile organizations and individuals, who by their

very nature are of interest to a range of media and who might command a more proactive

approach from the media, securing media coverage is a communications challenge.

Because of this, it is important to improve your chances of success by being aware of

media expectations of how and in what format information is received by them.

Editors who receive the press release may publish an edited version, publish it as written

or contact the initiator to find out further details. Unfortunately 90% of press releases are

thrown in the editor’s waste paper basket. Only 5-10% is actually used. To make sure

your press releases are in this small percentage, special writing skills are needed:

Guidelines for writing press releases

A press release should be written with the following in mind:

It should be concise and contain relevant facts that address six fundamental news

questions –

who? who is involved?

what? what is happening?

when? when is it happening?

where? where is it happening?

why? why is it newsworthy?

how? how is it happening

The most important facts should be placed at the beginning. This increases the

chance that they will be included in an edited version of the story

Present the information in a clear and simple format

Provide relevant contact details for journalists wishing to clarify points, and add

background notes for editors.

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Use the third person point of view.

Write as though you are the newspaper editor, talking about your company as an

outsider.

Structure

headline - Compose an appropriate, snappy heading

opening - A good opening paragraph is essential to grab the

editor’s (and ultimately the reader’s) attention. Give

the main essence of the message in this opening.

Middle - Central paragraphs should be short and self-contained

so that the editor can cut them out if necessary

without ruining the sense or the flow.

Close - A conclusion or a summary may be appropriate at the

close, or a brief repeat of the main message. It is

often useful to include a quotation from a key person.

Note

a) Comply with the accepted standard format demanded and understood by the

media to whom releases are sent.

b) Stand out as being of genuine interest from the very large number of releases

received.

Signposting and gaining attention

A press release should carry the words ‘Press Release’ (or News Release) at the top.

Some organizations have special stationery printed for this purpose.

The date and time of the release should come next, preferably at the top left-hand side of

the first page. If you are releasing the information before the event in order to invite the

journalists to cover the event or to allow time for the story to be written or coincide with

the event, you may not want it published before a certain date. Use an EMBARGO

which is a request to the media to delay publication until the specific date and time stated.

It should be clearly stated: ‘EMBARGO’: not to be published before (time) on (date).’

Underline or use capitals for emphasis.

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A short descriptive heading should indicate clearly the contents of the release or aim to

generate interest in it.

The first sentences are crucial and need to summarize as far as possible the total message.

Place the most important or newsworthy facts at the top of the release.

Provide evidence

Try to attribute opinions to third parties where possible: for example, having an

accountant saying ‘……………….. this event is being arranged for all those who are

interested in minimizing their tax liability’ is better than ‘….this event will of great

interest to all those wanting to minimize their tax liability.’

Encourage follow-up

Always provide some brief background notes (for example, company or product

information if relevant) and full day time contact details to make it easy for the recipient

to clarify the message or find out more.

Presentation

Type the message with double spacing and wide margins and leave reasonable gaps

between paragraphs. This allows the recipient to make notes on it.

If the release runs to more than one page, make sure it says ‘continued’. Breaking a

sentence at the end of the page will make it more likely people will turn over. To make it

absolutely clear that there is no more, many put ‘end’ at the foot of the last page.

Style

Use a style appropriate to the audience: short paragraphs, short sentences and two short

words rather than one long one. Keep it brief, long enough to put over the message and

on to a second page if necessary, but no more. Stick to the facts and present them

concisely.

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Choosing Appropriate Media

National and international media

Only the largest organizations are likely to be in a position to secure national or

international media coverage on a regular basis. For example, the major publicly-quoted

companies are of interest to the wider public as consumers, investors or employees. This

would not be the case for a small enterprise with a limited client base, other than in

exceptional circumstances. For this reason, it is not worthwhile issuing news releases to

this audience, unless your story has a wider resonance (e.g. where a team of employees

has made a major discovery, or the organization has become involved with a more

newsworthy partner)

The national media tend to take a pro-active role, telephoning for comments on a

particular issue and sending out their own journalists and photographers. This means that

organizations generally have a very limited influence on the end product. PR managers

often see a relaxed 45-minute interview with a broadcast journalist turned into what they

regard as a, ‘wholly unrepresentative’ 10-second ‘clip’ that is inserted into a television

news story. To overcome this problem, interviewees and writers of press releases often

structure their words into ‘sound bites’, short and memorable phrases that the journalist is

more likely to use in an uncut form. The international and national media also monitor

local media for suitable stories. For example, the leading national newspapers make use

of news agencies and local representatives (i.e. ‘stringers’), to ensure that they have

coverage around the world. These sources are ready to feed back any interesting news

item, which may occasionally turn into major stories. These offer additional points of

entry for organizations seeking more extensive coverage.

Local and regional media

The newspapers, television and radio stations that serve a local area may be ‘hungrier’ for

stories than their national counterparts. However, they do have strict selection criteria.

For them, the main factor is the ‘local angle’. For example: Does the story, irrespective of

where it takes place, concern people from this area? Does it refer to famous people who

are visiting the area? Does it provide information on local events, proposals or

controversies? Due to their limited resources, local newspapers may be more likely to

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reproduce the content of a news release, probably in the form of extracts, rather than

originating their own story. They may also make use of photographs that are supplied to

accompany a story.

Specialist media

Even the smallest organizations may be able to get into one of the many specialist media,

including broadcast programmes, publications and websites. Consumer-oriented

publishers cover a vast number of leisure and lifestyle interests such as yachting, football,

music and cookery. There is also an extensive business or ‘trade’ press, which serves all

kinds of industrial and professional interest groups (e.g. catering, quantity surveying,

social work, mechanical engineering, medicine, and farming). The main advantage of

specialist media is that it enables an organization to target messages at well-defined

audiences, and to obtain informed feedback on subject specific issues. However, for the

same reason, these media may not be suitable for more general messages.

Positive PR tips

1. Positive public relations are built on honest, friendly communications with the public.

Everyone to whom you talk about the company-whether on or off the job-constitutes the

public with whom you are establishing a relationship on behalf of the company. And each

of those people will carry your messages to others. As an employee, it is your

responsibility to be an effective representative of your company.

2.    Visitors to your office deserve first-class treatment. Be courteous and helpful. Do

what you can for them without letting them violate company rules or your supervisor's

wishes. Remember, too, that once you have helped them as much as you can, you are not

responsible for entertaining them. Learn to say no without giving offense. Your

supervisor, for example, may wish to see only those people who have scheduled regular

appointments, and you may have a visitor who wants you to make an exception in his or

her case. Unless you know for certain that the exception is justified. you'll have to

convince your visitor to make an appointment for later and to return at a time convenient

for your supervisor .

3.    Your public relations duties will not end when the work day is over and you are on

the way home. When you work for a company, people expect you to know what the

company is really like, and they will listen carefully to what you say about it. If you

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criticize the company or its products, you will influence those with whom you come in

contact. Keep your critical remarks within the company. Work to change what needs

changing. If you can’t be proud of the company you are working for, change jobs. You'll

be better off to the long run.

4.    Also remember that some of what you see and hear at work may be confidential.

Military contracts, new products, personnel changes or problems, and new advertising

campaigns are just a few things most companies consider confidential. As an office

professional, you'll have access to a wide variety of important information, and it will be

a temptation to show others how much you know. Unless you are sure that something is

public knowledge, assume and maintain its confidentiality. Your friends will admire you

for your loyalty to the company, and the company will reward you for it.

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ADVERTISEMENTS, PROMOTIONS, AND EXHIBITIONS

Introduction:

Promotion is the element in an organization’s marketing mix that serves to inform,

persuade and remind the market of a product, and or the organization selling it, in the

hope of influencing the recipient’s feelings, beliefs, or behaviour. All types of

organizations become involved in some form of promotion, whether it is to sell their

products and services, attract funding from donors, campaign for a change in legislation

or simply to improve their ‘image’ in the minds of key stakeholders. As a result, most

managers become involved at some point in their careers in preparing promotional

materials. For example, they may be commissioning a newspaper advertisement, drafting

a news release or helping to design an exhibition stand.

Elements of the promotional mix

These are some aspects of the ‘promotional mix’, the ways that an organization

communicates with the world around it. It has the following components:

advertising

direct marketing

public relations

exhibitions and displays

corporate sales promotion

personal selling.

The Importance of Promotional Techniques to the Manager

Organizational managers will need to have a sound understanding of the wide range of

communication channels that are used to promote the ‘brand’, whether these are

operating at the level of specific products, strategic business units, or the organization as

a whole. Such knowledge will help managers for the following reason.

1. It will enable them make an effective contribution to the process. The practical tasks

required to produce promotional and campaigning materials are often contracted out to

specialists, such as advertising agencies, public relations (PR) firms and exhibition

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consultants. However, experience suggests that it is very useful to gain an understanding

of what these professionals are up to.

2. In many smaller organizations, including some charities and campaign groups, managers

may have a more direct involvement in these activities, perhaps as part of a small in-

house team.

3. By taking a ‘global’ view of promotion, managers are also able to assess the overall

effectiveness of the existing promotional mix, and to take action to reconfigure and

enhance specific channels where necessary.

Communication Channels of the promotional mix

This section focuses on some communication channels that often form part of the

promotional mix – adverts, sales promotion and exhibitions. We concentrate on assessing

the ways that persuasive messages are conveyed in each channel. This allows you to

apply many of the underlying principles of persuasive communication. You will also

have an insight into how to prepare your own promotional materials and also preparing

‘briefs’ (i.e. project specifications) for an agency, comparing the sales ‘pitches’ of

competing firms or simply working with specialists from one of these areas. Vast

amounts of money can be wasted if clients fail to communicate their requirements clearly

to external agencies or in-house teams. These initial communication breakdowns have an

adverse effect on the outcome, in the form of over-priced and unsuitable advertising, PR

and exhibition materials. We begin by looking at the role of advertising, and its close

relationship with techniques of sales promotion.

Advertising

Markets have existed from the earliest times, and wherever people have sold goods or

services, they have advertised. However, the advertising industry is a more recent

phenomenon, a mid-nineteenth century response to mass production (creating products

and markets) and mass literacy (creating the books and magazines in which adverts were

placed), which has become a global industry. Most of the expenditure is on ‘display’

advertising, mainly commissioned by organizations to promote their goods and services.

Other important categories include: recruitment advertising; financial and legal notices;

and classified advertising (i.e. ‘small ads’, which are mainly placed by individuals). All

this activity means that adults and children are exposed to hundreds of advertising

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messages every day. Many of these are both highly sophisticated and expensive to

produce. However, there are less expensive forms of advertising, through regional

newspapers, for example.

Communication objectives of advertising

Advertising can serve a variety of communicationobjectives, including:

creating or increasing awareness e.g. informing the target market of a new

service, brand name or social issue);

informing or educating (e.g. explaining how to make better use of a service,

advising members of risk groups of potential health threats);

stimulating various types of ‘purchase’ decision (e.g. encouraging people to buy

a product, switch between competing brands or donate to a particular charity).

Success in advertising requires the organization to present persuasive messages to

specific audiences. Individual advertisements can be very striking, but they rarely operate

in isolation. They are usually run alongside a number of related advertisements, plus

other promotional devices, as part of a coordinated ‘campaign’. This combined effort is

designed to reinforce the core messages through repeated exposure in various formats.

Key elements in an advertising and promotional campaign

Advertising is all about exposure and impact. An isolated advert, however well-crafted, is

unlikely to have any lasting impact because it is unlikely to reach sufficient receivers, and

those that are exposed to it may not absorb the message on the first occasion. Therefore,

advertisers develop integrated ‘campaigns’ that run over an extended period. To

illustrate some of the key elements of a campaign, select any brand and describe how you

would develop an advertising campaign, as the product moves from the development

stage to its initial launch in the market. For the purpose of this lecture, we shall use the

brand “vegetale”.

Market research

You could begin by investigating the market, its principal characteristics and long-term

potential. The following are questions that can help in the case of the brand Vegetale,

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which is being positioned as an alternative to meat. Who buys food for the household?

What are the recent trends in meat consumption? What are the existing alternatives to

meat, and how are they perceived by both consumers and non-consumers? What do

people know and think of Vegetale and the company’s other products?

Identifying target market(s)

Market research, together with your own instincts, should suggest how the market is

segmented, and indicate the nature of your target customer. In the case of a product

launch, the initial focus is likely to be on so-called ‘innovators’ and ‘early adopters’, the

sub-groups who are first to experiment with an innovative product (Roger 1995). In the

Vegetale example, your research suggests that the demographic profile is likely to

comprise females aged 20 to 35 from various socio-economic groups (professionals and

skilled workers).

Developing campaign objectives

It is important to establish what the organization is trying to achieve through its

advertising campaign. Objectives are usually quantified, so that the success (or

otherwise) of the campaign can be measured. Advertisers are particularly interested in the

level of awareness of a product, and how far this is converted into trial purchases. In the

example, you have decided to aim for a 25 per cent unprompted recall of Vegetale in your

target market, by the end of a three-month media campaign. Unprompted recall means

that, in a follow-up survey of the target group, respondents can describe the

advertisement without being given a brand name or similar prompt by the interviewer.

Planning and budgeting

In most organizations, budgets are tight, and campaigns have to be designed within these

constraints. Planning decisions include the channels to be used (e.g. newspaper and

television adverts, direct mail, in-store promotions), and the timescale of the campaign.

Project management techniques are used to schedule and co-ordinate the different

activities. The budget for vegetale is sufficient for you to run the following: full-colour

adverts in six women’s magazines, with accompanying ‘advertorial’ (i.e. sponsored

editorial articles that are used to provide more detailed information on the product); a

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series of radio adverts on a regional music station that caters for the target age group; and

a month-long programme of in-store tastings, run in conjunction with the three largest

multiple food retail chains. In the second phase of the campaign you plan to run a ‘buy

one, get one free’ (or ‘BOGOF’) promotion, supported by additional magazine

advertising. You are considering whether to deliver single-portion samples of Vegetable

to selected addresses, as part of an on-going market research survey (a technique

sometimes referred to as knock and drop).

Drafting material – key messages

Alongside the campaign planning, you need to recruit people to create the advertising

materials. Individual adverts are built around ‘key messages’, and the real skill of

advertising agencies is to convert these messages into memorable words, sounds and

images. For example, your key messages might be that Vegetable is a new, nutritious,

low-fat product, derived entirely from natural vegetable ingredients, which can be

prepared much like meat and which has a similar texture to veal. How do you convey this

to your audience?

Communicating with an advertisement

An effective advertisement is likely to have two distinguishing features: messages

summarized briefly, and messages reinforced using more than one medium. With an

emphasis on the target audience and their creative approach, advertisements display many

of the best features of effective communication, many of which can be applied in other

aspects of organizational life. Advertisers can select from a wide range of possible

format, matching the style of delivery to the specific needs of the audience and the nature

of the message.

The ways that advertising messages are formulated raises many interesting

communication issues, with broader social and cultural implications. The best way to

explore the various options available to advertisers, and to reflect on the wider

communication issues that they raise, is to gain some practical experience of creating

your own advertisement. When selecting the preferred treatment, it is essential to keep

the target audience in mind, and to construct messages in ways that they are likely to find

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both meaningful and attractive. Perhaps, the easiest trap to fall into is in developing

material that appeals to you, the designer, rather than to those with whom you are seeking

to communicate.

We close this section with a brief reflection on the complementary role of sales

promotion, and the unique communication challenges presented by this channel.

Sales promotion:

In the introduction, we noted that advertising and sales promotions are often closely

connected channels. Conventional approaches to advertising reflect a ‘one-way’, linear

model of communication, in which the primary aim is to code the persuasive message in

a way that minimized the scope for noise. While the advertising message may be

thoroughly researched (e.g. by securing feedback from ‘focus groups’), the mode of

delivery through mass media appears to leave the ‘receiver’ in a relatively passive role.

The importance of this insight is highlighted by the case of sales promotions, such as

product samples and special offers. These are widely-used promotional techniques, which

do seek a direct engagement with the receiver. Typical applications of the product sample

include ‘trial size’ shampoos, attached to magazines or delivered to the door, and cut-

down versions of computer software packages, supplied as CD-Rom or downloaded via

the internet. However, once the receiver becomes an active participant in the process,

there is considerable scope for unanticipated effects, which can prove disastrous for the

unwary communicator, because they often miscalculate the response of consumers.

There is a general lesson from these cases of ‘bad practice’. There is considerable scope

for error when organizations seek to engage with ‘receivers’. Communicators need to

consider their outgoing messages very seriously, and have an imaginative grasp of the

way that people are likely to respond.

Exhibitions and events

Exhibitions and events enable organizations to interact intensively with various

audiences. As such, these channels have great potential for persuasive communication.

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Organizations can attend a wide range of ‘business to business’ trade fairs and regular

events, such as the film industry’s sub-regional festival in Burkina Faso. There are also

many consumer-oriented exhibitions, covering industries such as house-building, food

manufacturing and travel. Many organizations invest in expensive exhibition stands,

which require considerable staff time, both in setting-up and to maintain the exhibits. So

is this an effective channel for promotional messages? Exhibitions do offer unique

communication opportunities, arising from direct and simultaneous contact with many

existing and potential customers. For example, academic book publishers attend many

international conferences, enabling their representatives to interact with customers,

discuss book proposals with potential authors and monitor developments in research and

practice.

Exhibitions are also a popular venue for new product launches. In some sectors, such as

car manufacturing, companies sometimes invest in dramatic ‘roll outs’ of their latest

product, with musical fanfares, dry ice and laser displays. However, these high-budget

performances have become something of an industry cliché, and there is an increasing

interest in more focused and interactive alternatives. For example, the organization may

arrange a series of regional ‘open days’ for an invited audience, drawn from its network

of distributors or agents, existing customers and journalists. Exhibitions are also used to

entertain key clients and suppliers, monitor competitor activity, build lists of prospective

customers (or ‘prospects’), obtain media coverage and foster relationships with

journalists and commentators.

Staging ‘events’ – an alternative approach to persuasion?

Exhibitions are one form of ‘event’, which may engage the interest of the media along

with others. An alternative way to obtain media coverage is to stage an event that is

designed solely for the purpose of creating a compelling news story. There is a long

tradition of potential protest, which has made use of this approach to overcome social and

cultural barriers and ensure that marginalized voices are heard. For example, the civil

rights activist Mahatma Ghandi led a number of protests, including the famous salt

march, which highlighted inequitable trading conditions in colonial India (Ghandi 1993).

More recently, the environmental campaign group, Greenpeace has perfected the

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technique with carefully-staged events that attract the world’s media (e.g. abseiling down

tall buildings, unfurling colourful banners and making appearances in unusual costumes).

Greenpeace and other campaigning organizations also ensure that journalists ate given

access to photo-opportunities, increasing the potential for high-profile media coverage.

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BUSINESS REPORTS AND PROPOSAL WRITING

BUSINESS REPORTS

A business report is a structured written document that provides an account of something

witnessed, examined or carried out together with the recommendations given or

conclusions arrived at.

It is an objective and impartial presentation of facts to specific person(s). The information

contained in the reports may pertain to events, conditions, qualities, progress, results,

problems and suggested solutions/ recommendations. It includes several different forms

such as a general business report, business analysis, financial plan, and others.

We normally report on an issue to an individual who needs the information but was not

present at the event or cannot do the investigation himself. Reports provide information

for decision making. They may help the receivers understand a complex business

situation, carry out operational and technical assignments or plan procedures, solve

problems and make policies.

As an employee, you will mostly be writing a report to:

- A section head

- A department head

- A senior manager

- A colleague etc.

Other occasions requiring reporting are:

- Team briefings

- Presentations

- Meetings with shareholders, directors or chief executives

An effective report is one that is written appropriate to its purpose and audience, accurate,

logical; clear and concise; and is well organised into clear section headings. These

sections enable readers to find and focus on specific pieces of information.

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Purpose, audience and types of Reports

In order to write an effective report, it is important to keep in mind what your audience

needs to know; this will determine the type of report you will need to write and the

amount of detail to be contained therein. Some questions you need to keep in mind

include: Who is the report written for? How is it relevant to them? Why has the report

been written? Why should they read the report? What will the audience do with the

information? What are the topics covered? What are the recommendations or outcomes?

It is most important to think about your reader(s) in terms of their wants, needs and

expectations. The level of knowledge they have on the topic and their individual areas of

expertise could impact greatly on how your report is received.

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Planning your report

The following steps are important in planning your report

1. Defining the purpose - read the brief carefully - identify key

words - make sure you know what is really

being asked

2. Defining the audience - determine your audience's level of

understanding - determine what your

audience needs to know

3. Establishing parameters - determine the scope and level of detail

required - determine the length of the

report and what can be covered in that

length

4. Gathering information - make sure the information you gather is

relevant, contemporary and factually

correct - make sure that you transcribe

facts and figures correctly

Types of Reports

There are numerous types of reports that are widely used in business. These range from

short informal or semi-formal reports to longer formal reports. But any business report

writing should follow the same fundamental points. The format is determined by the

purpose of the report, the amount of detail required, and the audience for whom it is

intended. Generally, reports are classified as formal and informal. The difference between

formal and informal reports is seen in length, complexity of material and format.

Informal reports

Informal reports are generally short. They are mostly the regular and routine reports

produced in organizations - sales reports, training reports; appraisal reports etc, Informal

reports can also be presented in a memo format.

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Structure of the Informal Report

The Title: Reports of Communication Skills Training…

Introduction: Brief background of the report: what the report is about and why it is being

written

For weekly reports, progress reports etc., an introduction might not be

needed.

The main report/ Findings/Discussions: This is where the key

information and findings will be presented.

Conclusions and/or recommendations

Details of who has compiled the report

Other formats may also be used for short reports. For example:

Pre-Printed Report Form

A report form usually consists of questions to gain specific information that can be stored

manually and/or entered onto a computer.

Letter Report

If a short report is written for a reader outside the organisation in which it was written, it

may be written as a letter report. This report is usually written in the first person and

active voice (e.g. “I consider that …” rather than “It is considered that …”) and is more

informal than a long report. A letter report shares certain features with normal letters –

features that would not normally be found in a report: it is written on letterhead and

includes the address of the reader, salutation (Dear …), close (Yours Sincerely/faithfully)

and signature. On the other hand, a letter report is more structured than a normal letter. It

has a subject line, which is sometimes seen in letters, and an introduction and conclusion

which are similar to those of a letter in that neither is prefaced by a heading. The body of

the letter, however, is in report format, with headings and sub-headings clearly defining

the sections and sub-sections.

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Memo Report

A memo report may be written to a reader who works in the same organisation as the

writer. Because the writer is likely to know something about the reader and his/her

requirements and level of knowledge of the subject matter, the memo report does not

need to contain detailed background information about all of the things to which it refers.

This report is written on memo paper and follows the memo format. However, it is longer

than the conventional memo (two pages or more) and is therefore divided into separate,

labelled sections. The memo report is usually written in the first person and active voice

(e.g. “I consider that …” rather than “It is considered that …”) and is more informal than

a letter report.

Short Informal Report

The short report is generally less than four pages or 1200 words in length. It has fewer

parts than a longer report and may use headings to guide the reader through the ideas

being presented in the body of the text. Because the report is written in an informal or

semi-formal style, first person and active voice are preferred (e.g. “I consider that …”

rather than “It is considered that …”).

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49

50

51

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LONGER INFORMAL / SEMI-FORMAL REPORT

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Longer informal or semi-formal reports contain more information and deal with the

material in much greater detail than short informal reports. The longer report is more

structured and has more sections than the short report. Headings and sub-headings are

used to guide the reader through the sections and sub-sections. Because it is informal or

semi-formal, first person and active voice are preferred.

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55

56

57

58

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The structure is as follows:

Title page

Summary

Introduction

Body of the report - findings and discussion

Conclusions and recommendations

Appendices (if applicable)

Formal Reports

Formal reports are mostly extensive documents that are researched, written and presented

much like a traditional scholarly research paper. They deal mostly with complex

problems, and are commonly written for a large audience who do not know the writer,

and are sent outside an organisation. Third person and passive voice should be used (e.g.

“It is considered that …” rather than “I consider that …”).

In addition to the main parts, they also contain formal elements such as a title page, a

letter of transmittal, a table of contents and a list of illustrations among others.

Short Formal Report

Short formal reports are normally written by middle level management to senior

management or by a committee to an appointing body.

The main elements of this kind of reports are as follows:

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i. Title: At the top of the report or on a separate sheet (title page) should be the

title of the report. This should spell out the subject of the report, the name of

the recipient, the author’s name and the date of completion.

ii. Executive Summary

This is a summary of the report entire report. The idea is that an executive can read the

summary and if it appears logical and in line with expectations the recommendations can

be followed without the need to read further.  This is in fact the most important part of

the report and should be written after the entire report has been written, even though it

should appear before the complete report. It contains the main ideas, recommendations

and purposes of writing the report.

The executive summary is normally in four parts

Introduction, objectives/purpose, methodology if unique otherwise,

methodology is not included in this section.

Main results of findings with actual values/concrete figures.

Interpretation of results or findings in terms of significance and

implications.

Recommendation in terms of action(s) policy/policies etc needed.

Each part is stated in a few sentences.

No abbreviation or acronyms are used unless absolutely necessary.

Excludes table, graphical presentation etc and references to them

It is aimed at decision –makers who do not have time to read the entire

document, yet need some information from it for a meeting, decision etc.

If the report is not very long, the executive summary might be excluded.

iii. Terms of Reference/Introduction

The introduction should say why the report is being written.  Reports are

nearly always written to solve a business problem. Reports may be

commissioned because there is a crisis or they may be routine. This section

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covers the scope and purpose of the report and may include some details in

the title.

iv Procedure or Method

This outlines the steps taken to make an investigation, collect

data and to put events in perspective. This section should include brief description of

primary and secondary research. This information is not always read by executives, but

that doesn’t mean it isn’t important, because without thorough research and analysis the

author will not be able to come to effective conclusions and create recommendations. 

v. Findings

Here the information obtained as a result of the investigation is presented with

appropriate headings and sub headings. The content should be complete, concise and

clearly structured in a logical order. Sometimes the word “findings” is not used in the

report, but it is normally assumed that the main part of your report will be the information

you have found.  

vi. Conclusions

This section allows for a summary of main findings (if the report is complex and

lengthy). For a simpler report, it may include actions taken or decisions reached (if any)

as a result of the investigation. The conclusions should summarize the main findings. Do

not include diagrams or graphs in this area. Also do not present new information. This

section should be concise and, clear. It should follow the order of the findings and lead

naturally into the recommendations.

vii. Recommendations

If this is included in the TOR, the writer of the report may suggest

the solution to the problem investigated so that the recipient will

be able to make a decision if necessary. Best practice is that business reports should

include recommendations or at least suggestions. These should be logically derived from

the conclusions.

Depending on the length, references and appendices may be included.

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Structure of the Long Formal Report

Cover letter/memorandum

Cover

Title page

Summary

Table of contents

Table of illustrations, figures, tables, etc. (if applicable)

Introduction

Body of the report – methodology, findings and discussion

Conclusions

Recommendations

Bibliography

Appendices (if applicable)

Glossary or list of abbreviations (if applicable)

Index (optional)

Cover Letter/Memorandum

Write a cover letter if the report is to be sent to a reader outside the organisation.

Write a cover memo if the report is to be sent to a reader inside the organisation.

The letter/memo should contain a salutation (“Dear …” for a letter), statement of purpose

(“Here is the report on … that you requested”), a brief overview or summary (“In this

report you will find …”), acknowledgements (“Several people proved to be of great

assistance to me…”), and a courteous close (“Thank you for the opportunity to

investigate … If you have any questions about the report, please contact me”).

Cover

A report may be bound into a folder or professionally produced as a book.

The cover should be attractive.

The report title should be on the cover and spine.

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Title

The title should be complete and comprehensive, without being so long that it is difficult

to grasp.

E.g. “Report on the Proposed Identity and Image Management Programme of the

University of Professional Studies

Title Page

Title of the report

Name and position of the person who wrote the report

Name of the person (or organisation) for whom the report was written

An alternative to having a separate title page is to set out this information at the top of the

first page.

Executive Summary

The summary is a quick overview of the aim, conclusions and most important aspects of

the report.

The summary is designed to be read by people who are too busy to read the whole report.

It is therefore essential that it be brief, comprehensive and interesting.

The summary is usually written last.

Table of Contents

Page numbers are listed next to each heading and sub-heading.

If desired, a numbering system may be used for organising the table of contents and

report:

Table of Illustrations, Figures, Tables, etc. (if applicable)

Include separate tables of illustrations, figures (i.e. graphs and diagrams) and/or tables if

the report is four or more pages long and contains a number of graphics, figures or tables.

Introduction

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The introduction is the beginning of the major part of the report. Its aim is to provide all

the necessary information so that the reader can understand the main discussion and the

body of the report.

It is the place for a broad, general view of your material. Avoid details that belong

properly to the body of the report or the appendices.

Authorisation or terms of reference:

What is the problem or issue being reported on? Who asked for the report?

Purpose:

Why is the report being written?

Background information:

What was the sequence of past events leading to the present problem or issue?

Scope:

What aspects of the topic will be dealt with? What will be excluded? What kind of

information will be presented?

Definitions of technical terms and words that you intend to use in a special sense

Methodology

Outline the method of investigation or research:

When and how was the information obtained?

Outline the sources of information:

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Where was the information obtained?

Findings

Present the facts and results that were obtained through the investigation or research.

Restrict the content of this section to factual information of high credibility. Opinions

should be located in the discussion section of the report.

Divide the section into sub-topics and use sub-headings.

Arrange the sub-topics in accordance with a basic plan or logical progression. For

example:

Discussion

Analyse and evaluate the facts already presented.

Present your expert opinions. Avoid emotional statements or opinions expressed in a

“parent” tone.

Based on the results of your research, argue the case for and against various courses of

action, estimate the possible effects, and then recommend a suitable course of action.

If you wish, briefly include some additional material to support your argument, e.g.

graph, diagram, table, picture.

Throughout the discussion, refer to any appendices you have attached to supplement the

information in the body of the report.

Conclusions

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Summarise the discussion

Summarise your findings and inferences

Emphasise the significance of your subject matter.

Refer briefly to any wider consideration, outside your terms of reference, on which your

report may have a bearing.

Recommendations

Make recommendations based on your findings and inferences.

Be as specific as you possibly can.

State clearly what action should be taken as a result of your recommendations, and by

whom.

Use subjunctive mood, e.g. “That … be [past tense of verb]”

Set your recommendations out step by step and in a logical sequence.

Do not put more than one step in each recommendation.

Always number your recommendations.

Keep your explanations out of the recommendations. If it needs explaining, do so in the

discussion section of the report.

If you expect a “knockback” on some of your recommendations, include some

alternatives in the recommendations.

Don’t be afraid to recommend further investigation if you feel you still don’t have the

answer when it is time to write the report.

Close

Signature

Printed name

Position

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Name of organisation or committee

Date that the report was completed or signed

Bibliography (if applicable)

Record the bibliographic details (i.e. author, title, edition, publisher, place of publication,

and year of publication) for the sources of information used.

List the sources of information alphabetically by author.

Appendices (if applicable)

The appendices contain data (such as charts, tables, photographs, maps and statistics) that

support the body of the report. These are located in a separate section to avoid disrupting

and cluttering the flow of the discussion.

Glossary or List of Abbreviations (if applicable)

If the report is particularly complex and involves terminology that the reader may not be

familiar with, include a glossary (mini-dictionary) to explain the meaning of words and

terms.

If there are a number of abbreviations (acronyms, initials or shortened words), create a

list of abbreviations and what they stand for.

Index (if applicable)

If the report is over 20 pages long, an index will help the reader find specific information

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BUSINESS PROPOSALS

A proposal is an offer or bid to do a certain project, provide services, and sell a

solution, an idea, a product. A proposal asks the audience to approve, fund or

grant permission to do the proposed project.

Types of Proposals

Proposals can be divided into several categories:

Internal/External/Solicited/Unsolicited

Internal Proposal

An internal proposal is written to someone within your organization. For example,

a proposal to your head of department for a certain subject to be included in the

academic programme, establish departmental library or strategies to increase your

company’s market share.

External Proposal

This is a proposal written from one separate independent organization or

individual to another such entity. Example is an independent consultant proposing

to run a training programme for an organization or to automate the business

processes of an organization.

Solicited Proposal

A solicited proposal means the recipient of the proposal requested it. This is

normally in the form of Request for proposals (RFP) or invitation for bids (IFB).

The issuer of the RFP has a problem that requires a solution.

He requests a number of vendors/service providers to submit a proposal. A

solicited proposal aims at encouraging competition so that the recipient can obtain

the lowest price, best quality, an innovative approach, etc.

At times too, a proposal is requested just in compliance with the organizational

policy.

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Unsolicited proposal

Unsolicited proposals are those in which the recipient has not requested the

proposals. In such a case, you may be seen as intruding, so you must sometimes

convince the reader that the problem or need exists before you can begin the main

parts of the proposals. Use your best persuasive skills to overcome any resistance

that the reader might put up. An executive summary is very important for an

unsolicited proposal.

The Fundamental Elements/Structure of a proposal

A. Cover Letter

This is written after you have finished writing the proposal. It is however the first

item to be seen by the recipient and constitutes the reader’s first impression about

the proposed project. It should be straightforward and grab the attention of your

reader. Briefly state the main strengths of your proposal. Emphasize what

differentiates your proposal from others. Examples can be the expertise of your

technical team or references of satisfied customers.

Close your cover letter on a cordial note. This should focus on getting the

commitment of your reader. The closing should be warm and personal.

B. Cover/Title Page

The cover and title pages are essentially the same - content wise.

For the cover page, use graphical appeal. The title page would be black and white

and contain identical or similar information as the cover. The cover/title page has

four components: The title, the name of the client or recipient of the proposal, the

name of your firm/your name and date.

The name of the client is usually at the top whereas your firm is placed at the

bottom. This shows you are proposing to improve the client’s business, not selling

your service. The title should clearly state the proposal’s name without being too

lengthy.

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C. Introduction/Background

This section discusses what has brought about the need for the project. You must show a

clear understanding of the problem you hope to solve and the kind of action required to

solve it.

Highlight key points that make your firm well suited for providing it.

The introduction should be short and interesting. If the audience of the proposal knows

the problem very well, this section might not be needed. If the proposal is unsolicited, a

background section is indispensable.

D. Benefits/Feasibility of the project/significance

Most proposals discuss the advantages or benefits of doing the proposed project.

Describe the solution to the problems identified. This acts as an argument in favour of

the project. In an unsolicited proposal, this section is particularly important. You are

trying to sell the project to the audience. Use all the relevant persuasive communication

skills.

E. Technical Approach/Methodology/Procedure

This section must demonstrate that you understand the problem and have the

methodology for solving it. This shows the reader that you have a well-thought out

approach to the project. Prove that your methods can adequately address the problems.

Let the audiences know what you are about and persuade them that you are a good choice

to do the project.

F. Project Team

Present your project team to your reader. For the key staff, you should provide a brief

resume that describes the person’s qualification. Let your audiences know that you have

the knowledge and needed staff to execute the project

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Special emphasis should be placed on the project manager because he/she is the technical

person. Show that the Manager is authoritative in the subject under consideration, with

excellent oral and written communication skills, strong organization skills and a track

record of successful projects.

G. Relevant Experience

Your description of relevant experience is a vital part of the proposal. Describe your

previous work in the area. This section must establish the qualification of your team,

magazine, articles, conference papers etc., written by your team members, if any, should

be summarized in this section. Copies of complete papers could be included in the

appendix. Quote similar or larger projects that you have successfully performed for other

clients.

Include the names and telephone numbers of a few references.

H. Project Budget

This is the quantitative part of the proposal. The following categories should be

estimated: labour, travel, equipment, supplies, communication, telephone, fax, sub

consultants, miscellaneous, contingency among others.

I. Schedule/Time Table

The time for the project is specified in some detail. It should cover the project

completion date as well as the milestone for project. If you cannot site specific dates, cite

the amount of time needed for each phase of the project.

J. Conclusion

The final paragraph or section of the proposal should bring reader back to the focus on

the positive aspects of the project.

K. Appendix: Items such as brochures, company accounts, statistical data you referred

to in your report

NB. Some parts might not be included in some proposals.

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COMMITTEES, MEETINGS AND DOCUMENTATION

Committees

A committee may be defined as a small body of people appointed by a parent body to

meet to discuss certain matters (as defined by terms of reference) with a view to making

group decisions or recommendations on behalf of the parent body.

Committees are frequently used within an organization as means of delegating authority.

Classification of Committees

Committees can be classified according to function and duration.

a) Executive Committee

Executive Committees have power to govern and administer (manage and

direct). The board of directors of a limited liability company can be considered

a “Committee” appointed by the shareholders since it governs and administers

the operations of the Company. It is a group of directors appointed to act on

behalf of and within powers granted to them by the board of directors.

Typically, it consists of a chairperson, vice chairperson, secretary and a

treasurer.

b) Standing Committees

They are formed for a particular purpose on a permanent basis. Their role is to

deal with routine business delegated to them at weekly or monthly meetings. A

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standing committee is usually granted jurisdiction over a particular area by a

parent body

c) Ad hoc Committees/Working Committees

They are formed to complete a particular task.

An ad hoc committee can be described as a fact finding or special committee

which is short-lived and once it has achieved its purpose and reports back to the

parent body, if ceases to exist.

d) A Sub Committee

A sub Committee may be appointed by Committees to relieve the parent

committee of some of its routine work.

e) Joint Committee

This may be formed to coordinate the activities of two or more committees of

representatives form employers and employees may meet in a joint consultative

committee. it can either be permanent or appointed for a special purpose.

f) Steering Committee

It is a committee that provides guidance, direction and control within the

organization.

Advantages of committees

a) Creating new ideas.

Group creativity may be achieved through brainstorming.

b) Blurring Responsibility

When a Committee makes a decision, no individual will be held

responsible for the consequences of the decision.

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c) They are democratic because they allow for greater participation in the

decision making process.

d) Representative

they allow all relevant interests to be involved in the decision-making

process and they bring together the specialized knowledge of the people.

Disadvantages

a) They may be too large for constructive action.

b) They are time-consuming and expensive. The cost can be estimated in

terms of time taken by committee members to deliberate on issues and

secretarial cost in terms of the preparation of proceedings and the

distribution of minutes.

A Meeting

A meeting constitutes another major medium of face-to-face communication. A meeting

refers to any interaction, formal or informal between two or more people to give and

receive or gather information.

The Role of Meetings

- Meetings provide an opportunity for a dialogue between members, allowing

exchange of information views and opinions.

- Meetings serve as a platform for solving problems. Ex. The recent student

disturbances, several meetings were held to find a solution to the problem.

- They are also used to make policies and other decisions

- To give information.

- They also help in building good inter-personal relations.

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Major Documents of a Meeting

A. Notice

This refers to the announcement of an invitation to the meeting. It gives the details

regarding the group, date, time and place of meeting. The notice of a meeting will be

prepared and circulated in advance according to laid down regulations.

Sample

Zenith Bank

Independence Avenue,

Accra

Notice of Meeting 10th March, 2014

Please be informed that the next meeting of the customer relations officers will be held at

the conference room of Alisa Hotel on Tuesday 21st March 2011 at 10.00 am.

I hope it will be convenient for you to attend.

Thank you (optional)

Dorcas Turner (Secretary)

B. Agenda

This refers to the list of items to be discussed at the meeting. It is good practice to

circulate the agenda in good time before the meeting.

The agenda helps the participants to know the subject to be covered at the meeting

and to prepare their comments, contributions, questions etc. accordingly.

It also helps the chairman to control the meeting. At times the minutes of the

previous meeting, reports and proposals are circulated in advance with the notice and

agenda so that participants will come prepared.

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For some formal meetings, ex. AGMs, formal rules may be set down about the

time of sending out the notice and agenda Ex. 14 days or 21 days as the case may be.

Sample

Zenith Bank

Independence Avenue,

Accra

Customer Relations Officers Meeting

Tuesday, 21st March 2014 at 10.00 a.m at Alisa Hotel

Agenda

Reading of Previous Minutes

Matters arising from minutes

New Business

Any other Business

The Chairman’s Agenda: This is slightly different from the one circulated to everyone

else.

a) Each item on the agenda is followed by brief notes, information updates,

background details, explanations, reminders of when an item was previously

discussed.

b) A wide right hand margin is left for the chairman to make his own notes as the

meeting progresses.

Minutes

This is the written record of a meeting, approved by those present. They are the

factual record of proceeding and resolutions of a meeting.

The primary function of minutes is to place on record the proceedings of a

meeting as a basis for subsequent action.

Format of Minutes

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Title : Minutes of the Customer Relations Officers of Zenith Bank, held at Alisa

Hotel on December 21, 2013 at 10.00 am.

- Present :Mahama Adams - Chairman

Kofi Owusu - Member

John Kwame - Member

Doreen Sam - Member

Vanessa Turner - Member / Secretary

- Apologies

Apologies for absence were received from Emmanuel Frempong and Carlota

Brown.

- Opening

The Chairman called the meeting to order at 8.00 am after which the opening

prayer was said by John Kwame for the start of proceedings.

Minutes of the Previous Meeting

The Minutes of the last meeting were read and signed as the record of proceedings

/ subject to the following corrections.

Matters arising out of minutes

New Business

Any other Business / Other Matter

Closing

…………………………………….

…………………………………

Recorder/Secretary Chairman

NB : It is normal for the minutes to record events in respect of each item on the

agenda

Types of Minutes

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i. Resolution Minutes: Resolution minutes records only the main conclusions

reached at the meeting.

ii. Narration Minutes: A concise summary of discussions leading to the

resolutions are recorded. This enables individuals to go on record with their

views. Sometimes, details of voting on a particular motion either as totals for

and against with abstentions are recorded.

iii. Action Minutes: This form of minutes makes provision for actions required

from individuals at a meeting. A column in the right hand side is provided

with the words. ‘Action by’: The name of the individual expected to take

some action on a particular issue is recorded.

Writing of Minutes

The production of clear and accurate minutes requires good communication skills- good

listening and writing skills.

Points to note:

1. Minutes are brief statements of proceedings in a meeting. However,

they need to be sufficiently detailed and complete to convey what

transpired at the meeting.

2. Where it is an accepted practice to record proceedings, it should not be

excessively long and from the major points and decisions made.

3. Minutes should be written in the third person using ‘he’ ‘she’ ‘they’ ‘them’ etc.

and in the past tense.

4. They should be simple statement of facts not opinions.

5. Minutes should be completed as soon as possible after the meeting.

Motions and Resolution, Amendment

During meetings, each item of business is put forward in the form of a proposal. The

proposal put to a meeting is called a motion. It should have a ‘proposer’ and usually a

‘seconder’ although the latter is not essential. It the motion is carried, it becomes a

resolution.

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A motion is carried if it wins the support or agreement of the participants. ie. It is either

carried or defeated. The original motion is sometimes amended in the course of the

debate and may then be carried in an alternative form as a substantive motion. A

proposal/ suggestion to modify a motion which has been put to the vote is referred to as

an amendment. The amendment itself must be agreed at the meeting.

Officers of a meeting

a) A Chairperson

Both formal and informal meetings will generally have a leader;a chairman who will

guide the discussions along the lines set by the agenda, keep order and encourage

contributions where necessary.

b) Secretary

The Secretary is the person with the responsibility of typing letters,

keeping records, arranging meetings etc. for someone.

Duties of the Secretary

Before the meeting

1. Fixing the date and time of the meeting in consultation with the

Chairperson.

2. Choosing and preparing the location of the meeting.

3. Preparing and issuing various documents

During the meeting

Assisting the Chairman and making notes.

After the meeting

Preparing minutes and communicating decisions.

　 　

 

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PRESENTATION

In a business environment a presentation takes place when one person talks to others

about a topic of business interest, a new product, and a change in company policy and so

forth. Some training programmes can also take the form of a presentation. In any form

of presentation, you are trying to convey a specific message to an identified audience.

Internally, a presentation can be made during meetings, seminars, training sessions etc.

externally a presentation can be made to customers, shareholders, board members etc. An

example is when a corporate head presents his/her strategic plan to board members.

Preparing to Present: Essential elements to consider

1. Purpose

The first element of the planning stage is identifying the purpose of the presentation. This

may include the following:

To inform the participants about policies and procedures, to teach the audience ex.

Orientation and training sessions in companies.

To persuade in order to sell products, ideas etc ex to persuade an audience to

approve a proposal.

2. Audience Analysis

This is the process of coming to understand a group of listeners well enough to prepare

the message in a way to gain acceptance for your ideas.

Your goal here is to develop enough insight about what the listeners already know about

the subject and how they are likely to react to the presentation.

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Find out:

whether the audience will be made up of directors, senior managers, colleagues

etc.

the size of the audience, level of knowledge, awareness of subject.

their expectations,

whether there will be resistance or not. Ex a presentation on a changing to an

existing order is likely to meet resistance.

3. Topic Analysis

In oral presentation generally, it is essential to have an in-depth understanding of

thesubject matter. This calls for a thorough research on your topic. When you know

your purpose, your audience, and decide on the main areas to be covered, proceed to

collect the needed facts.

Your research approach may follow the same approach as that of report writing. You can

also search your mind, use company files, gather information on line, and contact people

in your own company or other companies.

4. Content

Decide what to say and what not to say, considering the time available. If the presentation

is to be accompanied by a written version or hand out, the presentation should complete

rather than reproduce what the audiences already know. Think about the examples,

illustrations and other audio-visual aids.

5. Rehearsal

Rehearsal provides a final opportunity for running through the presentation in your head.

Practice out loud if possible. Record and listen to how your voice sounds.

6. Delivery

As is true with asking questions, giving information rarely presents problems in informal

situations. If you' asked an informal question and the other person doesn't understand

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your response, the other person will say so and give you another opportunity to answer.

In informal situations, speaker and "audience" agree to share the responsibility for

effective communication. In formal situations, however, the responsibility for effective

communication lies with the person for whom the communication is more important.

Formal situations also require a person to speak for a longer time than is usually required

by the questions and answers of informal situations.

When you have the responsibility for presenting information in a formal situation, your

presentation will be more effective if you keep the following guidelines in mind:

　

• Be aware of the audience: Why should your listener—or listeners—be interested in the

information you are presenting? What does your audience know already about your

topic? How much detail does your audience need to solve the problem?Because people

have a natural inclination to present information from their own point of view,

emphasizing those things that are interesting to themselves, they sometimes tend to

forget that the audience may not share their interests. Try to select and provide

information that will be of most interest to the audience.

• Make specific points.

Just as you are likely to obtain more and better information by asking specific questions,

you are likely to be better understood if you make clear and specific points. When

possible, make a list of the most important points before you begin to speak so that you

will be sure to include every thing you want to say. It alsohelps you remember all your

presentation and to guide you through the presentation in the correct order. This helps to

boost your confidence and acts as a guide to what you will say and in what way.

• Provide clear transitions from point to point; because much oral communication

depends on chronological or spatial relationships, listeners need to know what those

relationships are. Use transitional words and phrases to clarify the relationships between

your points. The following words and phrases can help orient a listener:

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　    first, second, third

    next, thus, however

    then, later

    in two weeks, two weeks ago

Structure

Presentations should always have a clear structure. They should typically have three

distinct parts: the beginning, the middle, the end.

Note: At times, it is important to introduce yourself and where the audience is a small

group, get them to introduce themselves.

The Beginning

This is an important stage. The purpose is to tell your audience what you are

going to cover. Outline what you are going to say and more importantly how you

are going to present it. Ex

Types of opening/techniques for arousing interest

Question: What do you think about cutting down your operating?

cost by half/increasing your ROI by 100% within a year?

Quotation:

A story: Something that makes the point, relates to the situation or people or draws

on a common memory. Ex. A presentation on employee can have any of the

following as a story.

We all remember 26th April, 1986Chernobyl disaster, the May 9, 2001 stadium

disaster, the September 11, 2001 bomb attack.

A factual statement: For total quality management, you can say something like. Do

you realize / Are you aware this company receives 120 customer complaints every

day?

The Middle

This is the core of the session. Its objectives are to:

To communicate the detail of the message

Obtain attention throughout the process

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Ensure acceptance of the message

Possible objections need to be anticipated and if necessary, dealt with.

The middle should take your audience through the presentation in a logical order, linking

together similar aspects of subject matter.

It is useful to include brief summaries from time to time to allow your audience to

remember your points.

Make sure the presentation remains visually interesting by using visual aids and

demonstrations whenever possible.

Generate attention through your own interest and enthusiasm

The End/Conclusion

This part summarizes what you have covered in an interesting way.

avoid adding new materials to the conclusion

do not make the conclusion too long

Presentation Techniques

Other aspects will contribute to successful presentation besides careful preparation.

a) Non-verbal cues

Body language and physical appearance are extremely important during presentation.

Being well dressed makes you look professional and boosts your confidence. Maintain

eye contact with your audience. This is very important in establishing rapport with your

audience.

Using your Tone

Presentation requires the presenter to speak for an extended period in a structured way to

a range of people. It may become necessary to practice projecting your voice or

undertake a vocal exercise to strengthen your voice.

Volume

It is also important to use the right volume variations in volume and pace can be used to

draw attention or emphasize key points.

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Pauses

Pauses can also be used for dramatic effect.

Presenting statistical information

Statistical information is the result of the analysis and manipulation of raw quantitative

data to give it meaning. Presenting a statistical data in an effective way is an important

and powerful skill in business communication, whether used in reports, presentations or

meeting. They highlight and create impact where it is difficult to clearly express your

ideas in words.

When statistical information is used, it must be set in a context which explains its

relevance to the point being made.

Tables

A table is a way of presenting information in a series of columns and rows. They are

often used when the information to be communicated is numeric. It is important to note

that the table is a summary device and a fuller discussion of the items in the table might

be necessary elsewhere.

For effectiveness

Each table should serve a single purpose

The table itself must have a title and each grouping of information

must have a heading, all of which must be as short as possible.

The number of columns and rows should be kept to a minimum

Graphs

The graphical presentation of numbers helps the receiver by encoding the message in

some kind of visual image.

Line graphs illustrate the movement of one variable against changes in another variable

Ex. Sales over time, sales against price

Bar Chart

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The bar chart is one of the most common methods of presenting information in a visual

form. They are used to show comparative values, example number of customers against

products/services of a company.

Pie Charts

These diagrams are used to show the relative sizes of component elements of a total.

They have the shape of a round pie with the component parts appearing as slices. Each

segment is labeled and often shows the value and or a percentage share. They are used to

display very simple information.

NB: During presentations it is important which particular statistical information / display

will best support your point.

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RECRUITMENT

Various letters and documents are involved in the process of applying for a job. In this

unit, we will look at the most common documents including application letters;

preparation of curriculum vitae; invitation to interview; references etc.

Application letter:

Application letters are the letters you write in connection with your job search. Your aim

is to gain the attention of your employer as you market your skills.

Types

a) Speculative/unsolicited application

This is a walk-in type of application. You are taking the initiative, which

means that the application is not in response to any advert.

What to do:

Conduct a research on the organization and its products and services so that you can

concentrate on areas of your CV that are relevant. Your letter should be presentable,

persuasive and timely.

b) Letters requesting an application form.

The organization is not interested in personal details at this stage, simply

refer to the advert and position and request the form.

c) Letters covering the enclosure of an application/CV

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Identify the advertised position you are applying for. Then in a few brief

paragraphs, you can highlight the areas of your CV that are particularly

relevant to the employer’s requirements.

Finally, indicate your availability for interview.

Sample: Structure and Style

i. Source of knowledge about vacancy, statement of desire to apply.

ii. Qualification, interest and/or experience relating to the post and

demonstrating skill, ability and achievement.

iii. Current circumstances: employed, student, availability for interview

or work

iv. Enclosure of C.V. closing remarks and anticipation of reply etc.

THE APPLICATION LETTER

INTRODUCTION

The purpose of this letter is to spark the interest of potential employers to get them to

read your CV and to give an interview. Your aim then is to market your skills and

abilities to your prospective employers to persuade him or her to ‘buy’ them.

WRITING THE LETTER

Gain the reader’s attention

The first paragraph should gain the reader’s attention and make your reader want to read

further, so:

a) Briefly summarize your qualifications

b) Mention the name of a mutual acquaintance, if the reader respects that individual

c) Refer to current or activities of the organization

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Build an interest in your qualifications and a desire for an interview. Here, identify your

skills and provide evidence of your potential value to the organization

Ask for action

The action you ask for is that the employer should read your CV and grant an interview.

CURRICULUM VITAE

A curriculum vita isa report on oneself, presented in sections with appropriate headings.

Content

A. Personal Details

Surname, forenames, sex, marital status, age, date and place of birth, nationality, address,

telephone number etc.

B. Education

Schools, university and other institution attended with dates, main subjects taken, extra

curricula activities, positions of responsibility.

Professional Qualification

Examining board, subjects, grades and dates of exams passed.

C. Work Experience

Organization, location, position, main duties, degree of responsibility, reason for leaving

D. Major Research Projects (if applicable)

Name: Daniel Opare

Title of project: Effect of Labor Turnover on Employee Morale

Type of certificate: B. Sc. degree

Awarding Institution: Institute of Professional Studies (IPS) Legon

Year: 2011

E. Publications if applicable

F. Conferences and workshops

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Title and type

Place and Date

G. Membership of Professional Association (where applicable)

H. Others

Driving license (if held) interests, hobbies, positions of responsibility held in clubs or

societies (not religious)

References: Names and addresses of 2 or 3 people who could confirm your credentials

and testify to your character.They may be employers, tutors or teachers depending on the

situation.

INTERVIEW

An interview is an interrogative conversation designed to obtain information from a

person or group of persons. It is a planned interaction with specific objectives. There are

two parties to an interview: the interviewer and the interviewee

The interviewer

He/she is the initiator of the interview. He/she takes control of the exchange with the

other party for a defined purpose. He introduces the interview, establishes rapport with

the other party, specifies the purpose of the interview, keeps the interview on course and

closes the interviews.

The Interviewee

He/she is responsible for providing accurate information to the interviewer.

  INTERVIEWS

Two typical business situations that require well-developed interpersonal communication

skills are interviews and small group meetings. Interviews display all the characteristics

of interpersonal communication: They have a life cycle, a communication climate, and a

degree of formality established by the two people involved. Interviews differ from other

interpersonal communication situations, however, in that they usually have a serious,

specific purpose and are deliberately established at a particular time to achieve that

purpose. Participants in interview agree to meet for the purpose of giving, receiving, or

exchanging information.

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Types and Purposes of Interviews

The participant who arranges for the interview always has a specific purpose in mind,

andthis is crucial to determining the communication that takes place. The different

purposes of interviews distinguish one from the other. The purposes fall into one of the

following categories: employment, orientation, performance appraisal, problem solving,

counseling/grievance and exit.

Employment/Selection Interview

This is a formal in-depth conversation conducted to evaluate an applicant’s acceptability

for a job/position. Nearly everyone goes through an employment interview at one time in

his or her life. For this reason, employment is the best-known purpose of interviews.

Most jobs require at least one screening interview, and the more important the job, the

more extensive the screening procedures.

   

The objectives of any selection/employment interview are to:

a) Find out whether a candidate is suitable for a particular job and the organization

offering the job. The interviewers determine whether the interviewee is the best

person for the job from the company's perspective.

b) Find out whether the job and the organization are suitable for the candidate.

Whether the candidate likes the organization. On the basis of information supplied

by the interviewer, the interviewee determines whether she or he likes the

organization and for that matter wishes to work for the company.

The first objective is well understood and forms the basis of most questioning

designed to allow the candidate the opportunity to demonstrate his/her ability in

relation to the requirements of the job.

The second objective offers the candidate the opportunity to find out more about

the organization, and the job. The information obtained helps him/her to decide

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whether he actually wants the job or wants to work for the organization. As a

result the interviewer has to provide the scope within the interview to allow the

candidate the opportunity to explore his/her concerns.

The bases of this interview are the job description and the applicant’s CV

or application form.

Orientation Interview

Orientation interviews provide facts, policy information, and/or job-related data. Their

most common use is to introduce new employees to the company and the work situation.

Orientation interviews for new employees include information about the company, the

role the employee's job plays in helping the company succeed, insurance plans, vacation

policy, and other fringe benefits. Orientation interviews can also be used to introduce

employees to new policies, procedures, or situations.

Performance Appraisal Interview

Most companies conduct performance-appraisal interviews to evaluate job performance

and to allow employees to discuss personal and career goals and problems with their

supervisors. Performance-appraisal interviews are designed to give both the employee

and the employer a clear understanding of the other's abilities and expectations.

The general purpose of an appraisal interview is to improve the efficiency of the

organization, ensuring that the individuals within it are performing to the best of their

ability. Within this overall aim, staff appraisal serves the following purposes:

a) to review performance and to determine whether the applicant is meeting

performance standards

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b) to determine the training need of employees. It helps in the career planning

and development of the employee.

c) It is also used for promotion and salary review of employees.

Problem Solving Interview

Problem-solving interviews are designed to explore and solve specific job-related

problems. An employer, for example, may interview all the secretaries in the entire

company to obtain a wide variety of opinions about the use of word processing

equipment, office furniture, or some other factor that will affect secretaries.

Grievance Interviews

A grievance occurs when an individual thinks he is being wrongly treated by his

colleagues or superior, unfairly appraised, blocked from promotion or discriminated

against. Grievance interviews are initiated by the subordinate/employee.

Grievance interviews form part of a broader procedure which structures the way in which

an employee may raise complaints about his treatment at work as in the instances cited

above. The procedure also spells out the steps to be taken to deal with the complaints.

On the surface, the aim of the interview is to resolve the grievance. However, the way

the solution is arrived at is equally important. Employees arrive at the grievance

interview with a sense of injustice. They should leave with the feeling that they have

received a fair hearing and consideration. The outcome of the grievance interview should

be satisfactory to all parties concerned. The process should be devoid of accusations and

counter accusations.

Disciplinary Interview

Disciplinary interviews are held to consider/determine whether adisciplinary action

should be taken against an employee, usually inaccordance with the organization’s

disciplinary procedure.The disciplinary interview is initiated by an employee’s manager

or supervisor. It aims to establish the truth about what has occurred. As such, it must not

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be regarded as one sided, but rather a two-way process to ascertain/obtain the facts of the

situation.

The need for careful preparation is crucial to the process. It should cover a thorough and

impartial investigation of all the issues.

Exit Interviews

Whenever an employee leaves a job, the supervisor (or if the employee is leaving the

company, the employer) should interview the employee to discover the reasons she or he

is leaving. Departing employees can frequently provide management with information

that can improve the company. Exit interviews also serve to express appreciation for the

employee's work, to provide tire employee with useful career advice, and to ensure that

the employee leaves with a positive attitude toward the company.

  Stress Interviews

Occasionally, an interviewer will deliberately conduct what is known as a stress

interview. Interviewers use this technique to see how the interviewee handles stress.

Some of the common stress techniques are:

•Making the interviewee wait an excessively long time before the interview begins.

•Having the interviewee sit in an uncomfortable chair.

•Depriving the interviewee of normal feedback by sitting in silence.

•Encouraging the interviewee to smoke and not providing an ashtray.

•Interrupting the interviewee continually.

Interview Structure

Since interviews are arranged to accomplish a specific purpose, successful interviewers

plan the interview in advance. The plan must be flexible enough to permit unscheduled

discussion, but every interview should have a clearly defined opening, body, and closing.

•Planning:

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In planning the interview, the interviewer should consider the questions she or he will

need to ask and what information should be supplied to accomplish the purpose of the

interview. The interviewer should also consider how much time will be required to

accomplish the purpose.

•Opening:

The opening of the interview should make the purpose of the interview clear. Also, the

opening should establish an open communication climate. Because most people feel at

least a little threatened by an interview, the most successful interviewers clarify their

objectives in a way that helps the interviewee feel comfortable.

　

•Body: The body of the interview provides the participants with an opportunity to

exchange important information. The question-and-answer format requires effective

listening and careful questions and answers. When the reason for the interview is a

difference of opinion, participants should be careful to resist the temptation to argue or

lecture.

　 •Closing:

The closing of the interview is a review and summary of the key points of the discussion.

Points of agreement should be emphasized, and the participants need to agree about

who will do what next. After the interview, participants should complete any required

action by the date agreed to. In certain interview situations, especially performance-

appraisal and counseling/grievance interviews, participants should receive a written

summary of the interview.

Interview Questions

The success of an interview depends on the questions asked. Because interviews have a

serious purpose and many people find them threatening, participants must be careful to

establish an open communication climate. An open communication climate ensures

accurate, honest information.

Open Climate Questions

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Open climate questions are those that encourage communication. Closed climate

questions discourage communication. Open and closed questions, however, are often

determined as much by the way in which they are asked as by the question itself. And to

complicate matters further, what is an open question to one person may be a closed

question to another. In general, open questions include leading questions, direct

questions, open questions, probes, , and hypothetical questions.

•Leading questions: These are used to confirm known information by guiding the

interviewee to a specific response. Questions of this variety are most useful early in the

interview to help the participants relax and adjust to the interview situation. Examples

of leading questions are: "You have three years' previous experience, don't you?" and

"Isn't it true that you are placed in our company as part of a work-study program at

UPSS?"

•Direct questions: These are questions that can be answered with yes no, owe other

limited response. No threatening direct questions, such as, Where did you go to high

school?" or "flow long did you work for Argon Labs?" are those for which the

interviewee can provide a positive answer. Some direct questions, however, might be

perceived as threatening and are closed climate questions. Examples of these include:

"Where did you go to college?" (when the person hasn't attended college) or "Do you

plan to start a master's program soon?" (the interviewee can't tell what answer the

interviewer desires).　

•Open questions: These are the interviewer's main tool for obtaining information. Open

questions require more thought and self-disclosure than leading or direct questions. For

this reason, open questions can be threatening if they occur too early in the interview.

Examples include: "Tell me about yourself:" "What do you expect to be doing 10 years

from now?" and "What do son think caused the problem?" Some questions that appear

to be leading or direct may actually be open questions. "Do you have any experience

with word processing equipment?" for example, calls for an explanation as well as the

initial yes or no answer.

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•Probes: These can be leading, direct, or open. They pursue some aspect of a pre, ions

response: "Did you say Ogden, Utah?" "Why would you prefer the Marketing

Department?"

 Helpful Interview Strategies

When you are in an interview situation-or in any other dyad for that matter remember

that the interview will be more successful if an open communication climate is

established and maintained. Whether you are the interviewer or the interviewee, you can

influence the communication climate. As an interviewer, remember to ask open climate

questions. As an interviewee, remember that not all interviewers have been trained to

ask open climate questions. Also, they may feel threatened by the situation and ask

closed climate questions unintentionally. Your answers can help them be less defensive

and more effective. Answer closed climate questions to the best of your ability, and try

to do so without feeling threatened and defensive yourself.

Control of Interviews

A trained interviewer maintains control of the interview by asking the right questions at

the right time and by providing appropriate feedback to encourage the interviewer to

supply the pertinent information. The interviewer should determine in advance whether

the interview will be tightly controlled, interviewer controlled, or open. She or he should

also determine approximately hose long the interview should last.

•Tightly controlled interviews: These are best for obtaining simple and specific factual

information. In a tightly controlled interview, the interviewer asks nearly all the

questions, which consist primarily of direct questions. Because these interviews afford

so little opportunity for the interviewee to participate fully in the exchange of

information, they are rarely used in business.　

•Moderately controlled interviews: These allow for more complete exchange of

information. Most business interviews a moderately controlled interviews lasting from

15 to 30 minutes and consisting of both direct and open questions. In a moderately

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controlled interview, the interviewer is able to explore the thoughts and feelings of the

interviewee and still complete the interview in a limited, predetermined amount of time.

•Open interviews: These consist of many open and hypothetical questions and are useful

for exploring attitudes, opinions, and problems in depth. An open interview is not

uncontrolled. The interviewer still has an objective and a plan for achieving it. But,

because the situation is important enough to require thorough exploration, the

interviewee is encouraged to develop extended answers that both participants discuss

fully. Open interviewed primarily for high-level hiring, problem solving, and

counseling/grievance interviews.

   

  Patterns of an Interview

1. A single one-to-one interview

2. A series of one-to-one interviews at the end of which interviewers compare views

and discuss final conclusions.

3. A board or panel interview with a group of interviewers.

4. A combination of one-to-one and board interview

Interviewing Skills

1. Ability to use appropriate questioning styles to obtain relevant, complete and

accurate information.

2. Ability to interpret other people’s body language and to use your own.

3. Active listening

4. Ability to construct logical argument.

Interview Tips

Dress appropriately for the industry; err on the side of being conservative to show you take the interview seriously. Your personal grooming and cleanliness should be impeccable.

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Know the exact time and location of your interview; know how long it takes to get there, park, find a rest room to freshen up, etc.

Arrive early; 10 minutes prior to the interview start time [or earlier if the event or employer instructs you to do so].

Treat other people you encounter with courtesy and respect. Their opinions of you might be solicited during hiring decisions.

Offer a firm handshake, make eye contact, and have a friendly expression when you are greeted by your interviewer.

Listen to be sure you understand your interviewer's name and the correct pronunciation.

Even when your interviewer gives you a first and last name, address your interviewer by title (Ms., Mr., Dr.) and last name, until invited to do otherwise.

Maintain good eye contact during the interview.

Sit still in your seat; avoid fidgeting and slouching.

Respond to questions and back up your statements about yourself with specific examples whenever possible.

Ask for clarification if you don't understand a question. 

Be thorough in your responses, while being concise in your wording.

Be honest and be yourself — your best professional self.  Dishonesty gets discovered and is grounds for withdrawing job offers and for firing. You want a good match between yourself and your employer. If you get hired by acting like someone other than yourself, you and your employer will both be unhappy.

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Treat the interview seriously and as though you are truly interested in the employer and the opportunity presented.

Exhibit a positive attitude. The interviewer is evaluating you as a potential co-worker. Behave like someone you would want to work with.

Have intelligent questions prepared to ask the interviewer. Having done your research about the employer in advance, ask questions which you did not find answered in your research.

Evaluate the interviewer and the organization s/he represents. An interview is a two-way street. Conduct yourself cordially and respectfully, while thinking critically about the way you are treated and the values and priorities of the organization.

Do expect to be treated appropriately. If you believe you were treated inappropriately or asked questions that were inappropriate or made you uncomfortable, discuss this with a Career Services advisor or the director.

Make sure you understand the employer's next step in the hiring process; know when and from whom you should expect to hear next. Know what action you are expected to take next, if any.

When the interviewer concludes the interview, offer a firm handshake and make eye contact. Depart gracefully.

After the interview, make notes right away so you don't forget critical details.

Write a thank-you letter to your interviewer promptly.

Interview Don’ts

Don't make excuses. Take responsibility for your decisions and your actions.

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Don't make negative comments about previous employers or professors (or others).

Don't falsify application materials or answers to interview questions.

Don't treat the interview casually, as if you are just shopping around or doing the interview for practice. This is an insult to the interviewer and to the organization.

Don't give the impression that you are only interested in an organization because of its geographic location.

Don't give the impression you are only interested in salary; don't ask about salary and benefits issues until the subject is brought up by your interviewer.

Don't act as though you would take any job or are desperate for employment.

Don't make the interviewer guess what type of work you are interested in; it is not the interviewer's job to act as a career advisor to you.

Don't be unprepared for typical interview questions. You may not be asked all of them in every interview, but being unprepared will not help you.

A job search can be hard work and involve frustrations; don't exhibit frustrations or a negative attitude in an interview.

Don't go to extremes with your posture; don't slouch, and don't sit rigidly on the edge of your chair.

Don't assume that a female interviewer is "Mrs." or "Miss." Address her as "Ms." unless told otherwise. (If she has a Ph.D. or other doctoral degree or medical degree, use "Dr. [lastname]" just as you would with a male interviewer. Marital status of anyone, male or female, is irrelevant

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to the purpose of the interview.

Don't chew gum or smell like smoke.

Don't allow your cell phone to sound during the interview. (If it does, apologize quickly and ignore it.) Don't take a cell phone call. Don't look at a text message.

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