ata horse transport annotated bibliography 2010

Horse Transport: An annotated bibliographyby

Sharon E. Cregier

Copies of these articles from A(A)TA (www.aata-animaltransport.org) member Sharon Cregier’s collection of hundreds may be obtained through inter-library loan. On-line access is usually reserved for users of academic libraries subscribing to the publisher’s online journals. Interlibrary loanservices are frequently free or there may be modest user and copying fees.

If you are unable to get copies (some are scarce), Sharon may provide copies under certain circumstances. The cost then ranges to about $5.00 per page. It is best to consult your reference librarian at any public library. It is also advisable to read the original before citing findings. The annotations are to be taken as indicating the existence of the work but not necessarily as indicating its conclusions. Some of the scientific documents are rather opaque in presentation.

References are arranged alphabetically by author under the section heading. Multiple contributions by an author are arranged with the most recent date first.

Researchers, historians, and authors involved with horse transport are invited to submit their work for possible inclusionin this bibliography.

The bibliography is updated as time permits. Annotating or listing of an article does not indicate endorsement by the ATA orcompiler. The information is for educational purposes only.

Articles are in English unless otherwise indicated.Fr=French. De=German It=Italian Ru=Russian Po=Polish

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© Sharon E. Cregier 2010

SC=Serbo-Croat

Sharon E. Cregier, F.I.A.S.H. (Hon., Edin.)“Cheiron’s Court”P.O. Box 1100Montague, Prince Edward IslandCanada C0A [email protected]

Categories

Air, Feeding, Behavioral, Illness and injury, Overviews, Regulatory, Surface, Ventilation

Air Transport

AVMA. 2005. Heightened security precautions may cause problems for horse transportation. June 1, 2003. AVMA News avma.org Illus. 2pp

The question of grooms equipped with tranquilizers became acuteafter 9/11. The AVMA expresses their concerns for meeting the needs of the animal, safety, and legal aspects. The AATA programof certifying competent grooms has ameliorated some of the concerns about irresponsible use of tranquilizers.

Bowles, M. 2002. Air transport of competition horses to WEG in Jerez 2002. Equiworld Magazine September 2pp www.equiworld.net/uk/ezine/0902/air.htm

Bowles identifies areas of risk in flying horses: Two a.m. departures, noisy, elevated loading ramps into the fuselage, horses required to remain in place while stalls built around them, vibration, noise, thermal stress, substrate treads on

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pallets which do not allow flat support, long road or air journeybefore final flight to Jerez such as the 3 hour flight to Germany, a two and a half hour road trip to Amsterdam, and an 11 hour flight from there to Los Angeles and a 14 hour road trip from their to Idaho for dressage horse. Ascent and descent times are reduced by reducing the flight level to 25000 feet. The author notes that DHL designates professional grooms althoughthe horses may be accompanied by their personal grooms or riders though some nationalities are considered far more trouble than their horses.

Briggs, K. 1999. Pan Am games. TheHorse.com October Article ID 0383. 7p

Briggs describes how 25 South American horses were flown to Winnipeg from Uruguay, Venezuela, Argentina, Perus and Chile. Feed from Canada was imported by the teams prior to boarding, allowing gradual acclimation to the Canadian fodder. Grooms rehearsed the loading and unloading procedure with each horse. During the flight, they were 3 to a pallet. A few required a tranquilizer. In Winnipeg, the horses were enclosed in a stuffy hockey arena for a 10-day quarantine, increasing the stress on the horses. Brazil chartered its own plane. But inadequate, faulty equipment meant delays which jeopardized the mandatory quarantinestay. A mock emergency rehearsed hundreds of volunteers and veterinarians.

Cargolux. 2001. HorsesO/B Cargolux Freighters. AATA Globalfilev2000 No. 63. Nov. 12. 3p

With 30 years of experience in horse transport, Cargolux uses craft with easily adjusted air, temperature and ventilation. Bedding, water carriers, and first-aid kit are provided.

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Veterinary inspections are documented. Tarmac transport to the craft is kept at 5km/hr. The genders are segregated, males aheadof females, each flown with the nose facing the direction of travel. Some horses present problems loading into the flight containers. All are in their containers at least an hour before take off and are the last cargo to be loaded. Cargolux uses certified horse grooms. Cargolux clientele are transported either by Cargolux or affiliates from and to South America to the US and from and to the UAE and to and from Iceland and Europe, Macao, Australia and N.Z. With representation on IATA and the A(A)TA, Cargolux is kept apprised of environmental concerns and is certified with the USDAAnimal Welfare Act. Carter, G. C. 1975. Observations on problems associated with transport of horses from overseas.Animal Quarantine. Australian Department of Health. Jan-Feb. 4:1Illus. 15-17.

Carter accompanied a July 1973 charter flight from the UK toSydney. He reports on a total of 14 flights totaling 397 horses and ten breeds, from performance to pony and draft types for combined flight and fueling times of 40 to 50 hours. The arrangement of horses in pallets and and feed is described. Because the boxes were solid to wither height, the author was concerned about the lack of air circulation around the horses–which stall designers say they cannot provide-- and the provisionof blowers during stopovers.

Horses shipped by sea from New Zealand to Australia risked streptococcal infection as did the fourteen consignments flown toSydney, a condition unchanged from 100 years of reports of sea travel.

In the author’s experience, mild travel stresses such as poor feeding and gastrointestinal upsets resolve within 8 days of

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arrival. Heat stress was noted particularly in ponies. Part of the problem was worm burdens with horses from the U.S.A. and ponies from the U.K. showing the heaviest burdens.

All animals were given electrolyte therapy after arrival. The use of some prophylactics are considered to be of little consequence in prevention but have implications for drug reactions during and after transit. Carter is reluctant to advocate the routine use of tranquilzers due the unpredictable effects.

Doyle, K.A. 1993. Import of horses from Europe: an insect-proofcontainer. Australian Veterinary Journal July 70:7 Illus. 277-278.

A thorough evaluation by the Australian Quarantine and Inspection Service (AQIS) passed these insect-proof jet stalls (Instone Airstable®) as safe to convey horses from the U.K. through the United Arab Emirates, Hong Kong, or Singapore to Australia. Doyle describes the construction of the stalls, the provision of ventilation and filters and the use of an air conditioner when the plane is on the ground. Observation by John Thornton, head of the department of companion animal medicine and surgery at the University of Queensland, found that the insect-proof stalls were capable of shipping the horses long distances without physiological or respiratory detriment to the horses. The horses were quarantined on arrival to further discourage any possibility of African horse sickness by the biting midge. Following further testing and flights, the easternroute for an insect-proof horse container will be periodically reviewed.

Küper, S. 2003. [The Historical Development of Air Transportation of Horses 1924-2000]. Die geschichtliche Engwicklung des Flugtransports von Pferden (1924-2000). Hannover: Tierärtzliche Hochschule Hannover. Illus. 9 Tables 192

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refs. 145 pp.

Relying on news clippings, Animal Transportation Association sources such as Cregier, Santarelli, the Live Animal Trade and Transport journal (succeeded by Migrations published by the ATA),journals of veterinary history, and Lufthansa archives, the author also interviewed shipping personnel and performance horse owners for their flight experiences. After noting the air-lifting of horses by balloon in the 18th century, she traces the development of container and transport environments pre- and post-International Air Transport Association (IATA) guidelines, with particular reference to loading and unloading. Küper argues that not enough has been done to improve air transport for horses, that more work is required to prevent flight-related illnesses. Her research reveals that little has changed for horses in flight since the 1960s despite the development of equipment such as self-contained, inspect pr00f shipping stables. Air shipment, due to its speed, is a vector in spreading disease requiring quarantine periods. The precautions and shipping conditions demanded by such as Peden and International Racehorse Transport are detailed. Although the author believes 1924 is the first year an equine was flown, a 1920 flight of 100 pound pony from Los Angeles to Santa Barabara for a show has been photographed (sec). As well, horses, and sometimes carriage teams and their carriage and passenger were also air lifted by balloon in the 19th century andlater as a circus stunt.

Leadon, D. P. [ca. 1999] Horse transport: History, current practices, the future and veterinary recommendations. Published online by RIRDC (Rural Industries Research and Development, Australia) and available in free pdf format.

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https://rirdc.infoservices.com.au/downloads/99-073.pdf 6 recommended readings. 28p

A review of developments to date, Leadon cites the hundreds of flights and horses flown long distances as necessitating continuing studies of the journeys’ effects, particularly with regard to the Australian horse industry. The booklet complementsthe work on shipping fever by professor Daria Love.

Leadon gives a synopsis of land transport history (for a complete history, see S. E. Cregier, 1981. Alleviating Surface Transit Stress on Horses. University Microfilms), and reminds us that early rail transport allowed the horse to raise and lower its head at will.

Air transport developed rapidly for performance horses. Each mode of transport affects the horse slightly differently with the greatest attention having been given to air transport. Air stall design, placement, and configuration to suit various aircraft requirements and attendants’ responsibilities are noted.

The document is larded with statistical sources and numbers involving land transport in Europe including pleasure and slaughter transport numbers. Leadon follows the pioneering definition of stress established by Fraser et al in 1975 - the requirement of an animal to make abnormal adjustments in an attempt to maintain equilibrium of physiological and psychological states.

Leadon divides door to door air journeys into those less than 12 hours as short, between 12 and 24 hours as medium, and those greater than 24 hours as long. His experience records journey effects in as few as 6 to 8 hours. To test the opinion that short haul flights were unduly challenging to yearling thoroughbreds, Leadon participated in a study involving travelingyearlings from Ireland to Newmarket, a 5 hour trip by road and air. Short haul air journeys with competent staff were found to have few consequences for the naïve youngster.

Medium haul transports, monitored by rectal temperature,

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weight and blood changes, emphasised the importance of contingency plans for weather or other delays. The majority of horses arrived in Hong Kong with few health problems.

A long haul flight from London to Sydney in a chartered Boeing 747 carrying 112 horses in open stalls monitored not only physiology, but also humidity, air temperature and quality. Blood samples noted the changes in horses with respiratory challenges endured during the flight. Introducing a veterinary service during flight reduced recovery time by 50% in subsequent flights.

Leadon also discusses the development and possible limitations of the jet stall design compared to open stalls’ apparent success in limiting shipping fever problems.

Leadon concludes with a detailed list of recommendations fortransporting horses, from journey planning to post arrival.

Marks, D. 1993. International shipping of competition horses. Jl. of Veterinary Science. 13:11 609-614 3 refs. [To be annotated. This is a super article]

Murphy, Barbara. 2004. Equine jet lag. Equine Disease Quarterly. October 13:4, 2-3.

Shuttle stallions and performance horses are affected by thetime zones involved in international travel. Light signals to the brain, out of circadian sequence, disrupt the normal signals on a cellular level. Using the similarities between human and equine “clock” genes, it is dedeuced that horses are affected much as are human athletes. Heart rate, respiration, body temperature, water loss, neuromuscular, aerobic capacity, cardiovascular and metabolic systems, are affected. Human sprinters crossing six time zones eastward suffered slower performance times for four days following the journey. Runners suffered performance loss on second and third days.

The speed of recovery following flight through multiple time

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zones is dependent on pre setting biological clocks to accord with digestive rhythms at the destination country. Eastward journeys require exposure to early morning light several days in advance of the trip. Westward journeys require exposure to evening light.

The Maxwell H. Gluck Equine Research Center at the University of Kentucky, Lexington, is conducting extensive research into methods of counteracting the effects of jet lag. These include colic, shipping fever and dehydration.

Although the article invites readers to contact the author, numerous attempts by this bibliographer to reach graduate research assistant Murphy by e-mail and telephone were not returned.

Stewart, M., T.M. Foster, J.R. Waas. 2003. The effects of air transport on the behaviour and heart rate of horses. Applied Animal Behaviour Science. Vol. 80. 1 tb., 5 figs., 27 refs. pp. 143-160.

Body temperature, heart rate, social activities, balancing and resting behaviors were recorded together with ambient temperatureand humidity. 16 horses were observed on flights of 3-4 hours. All but one had had previous flights. A second study was of 19 horses on flights of 10-15 hours. None of the long haul horses had traveled by air. The authors argue that results increase in validity when physiological measures are recorded together with behavioral reactions. The authors observed the horses from the time they were truckedto the flight, in the air, through downloading at their destination. Balancing postures were categorized into either reactions to the movement of the transport or were intentional aswhen the horses chose to rest rumps against a wall or doze. Loading and truck transport tended to increase heart rates, with some lowering of heart rate as the truck journey progressed.Heart rates peaked as the aircraft became airborne then decreased

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and remained constant for the duration of the trip, approaching resting levels, until touchdown. All body activieties were greatest during ascent and descent than transit, with horses resting a hind leg in transit but standing squarely during ascentand descent. Heart rates displayed no significant difference between flights. Truck loading, unloading and tarmac transit recorded the higher heart rates. Social behaviour increased during the last period of long haul flights more so than the short haul flights. Horses ate throughout the flight, though were not inclined to drink on the long haul flight, and were calmer duringthe flight than when in transit by truck. Behavior threatening ahorse’s welfare, such as biting a stablemate, kicking and hittingthe stall sides, was most obvious during ascent and descent and during a long 19-hour delay. Stall type did not affect heart rates.

Behavioral

NB: Loading procedures meant to overcome loading phobias avoid considering assaults on its balance and protective behaviors onceloaded and under weigh. Because a horse loads well is not a sureindicator of its ability to travel without incident nor is it a sure indicator of the transport environment’s suitability to transport. Loading and unloading continue to be considered the flashpoints for injuries to horse and handler.

Boureau, V. E. Gaultier. 2002. [Transport phobias in horses: a clinical ethological approach I - Symptomatology] La phobie des transports chez le cheval: approche par l’éthologie clinique I - Sémiologie. Pratique Veterinaire Equine 34:135 pp. 13-17.

The authors recommend non-prescription calmants and desensitization and behavioural therapy to overcome transport

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phobias. Drugs are expensive, can involve the prescriber in risks and responsibilities and are implicated in doping tests.

Catelli, J., M. Tassara, R. Giménez, G. Perrone; J. Caviglia. 2008. [Wellbeing during the transport of horses]. Bienestar en el transporte de caballos. Veterinaria Argentina 25: 242 6 refs. pp. 106-109. Spanish. Original courtesy of Dr. Cyril Roy,Atlantic Veterinary College, Department of Health Management. Translated for the ATA by: Dr. Anthony H. O’Malley, Saint Mary’s University International Development Studies. [ATA members who would like a copy of the translation, and the implications for regulating changes in the way horses are transported, please email Sharon Cregier, bibliographer, [email protected]).

The authors are involved in ground and air transport of animals in Argentina. From their experience, the management of pathologies, or lack of management, related to transport, and thestudy of national and international literature, they conclude that rear face transport is most beneficial to horses. The primary cause of injuries and illness is due to the poor state ofhorse transport design and construction. The authors note pathologies associated with short trips differ from those associated with longer trips. Noise is a contributing factor to health and injuries. The authors are adamant that the horse mustnot be transported transversely due to loss of balance and injuries. A low head, air conditioning and [in flight] correct air pressure is essential to maintaining good health. The authors found that the most favorable position to transport an animal is the head facing the rear of the vehicle, with the body either oblique or parallel to the longitudinal axis.Front-facing is contraindicated in good transport design. The authors summarize a health monitoring plan beginning 60 days before transport followed by a 3 day rest at the performancedestination.

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Cregier, S. and C. Santarelli. 2007. Current research on horse transport workshop. Animal Transportation Association (AATA) Newsletter. Second Quarter. 30:2, p. 8

Summary of a workshop given by professor of applied animal ethology at Texas A&M to the ATA 33rd international conference, San Diego. Prof. Friend reported no meaningful differences regarding the ability of horses to balance whatever side of the commercial flat deck semi-trailers they were tied or whether slant front or rear load. Hot weather transport induced significant signs of dehydration by unwatered horses after 26 hours of continuous transport. Horses watered during transport did not show fatique until after 28 hours. For trips of 16 to 23hours’ duration, one to one and a half hour rest stops at 6 to 8 hour intervals did not induce resting behavior. Horses in low-density groups avoided bites and kicks better than medium and high densitites. Flow through ventilation is desirable. Provision of hay or bedding during transport increases contaminants.

Cross, N., F. van Doorn, C. Versnel, et al. 2008. Effects of lighting conditions on the welfare of horses being loaded for transportation. Jl. of Veterinary Behavior 3:1 25 refs. pp. 20-24

The incidence of injuries to horses and handlers during loading into trailers or vans led to a question of the use of lighting to reduce loading hazards. Eight horses trained to enter a trailer for food were then cued to enter from a dark or lit arena into a dark or lit trailer. All attempts recorded increased heart rates. Speed of loading was not affected, thoughhorses asked to enter a trailer from a lit arena displayed more avoidance or exploratory behavior. Entering from a lit arena into a dark trailer heightened negative emotions.

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Ferguson, D.L. and J. Rosales-Ruiz. 2001. Loading the problem loader: the effects of target training and shaping on trailer-loading behavior of horses. Jl. of Applied Behavior Analysis 34:4 pp. 409-423

Five quarter horses mares had been trained to load through the use of aversive tactics. The mares were trained to approach a target which was then variously positioned in a trailer and the horses cued to approach the target. The horses could be loaded by a different handler into a different trailer.Fletcher, J. 1006. Travelling better with hindsight. Horse and Hound. August 22. pp. 62-63.illus.

The author, a veterinary surgeon, notes that horses in standard transport have difficulty maintaining their balance and risk serious injury. Frequently overlooked or ignored signs of traavel stress are tight mouths and tense bodies. More obvious are diarrhoea, sweating, stamping, pawing, vocalising. The author summarises research done by the Animal Health Trust and the University of Edinburgh Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies. Although facing the rear of the side-load, rear unload Ford Cargo lorry was a new experience for the horses, heart ratesremained significantly lower, thy moved less, were quieter and held their heads and necks in a more normal position.

Fowler, M.E. 1995. Restraint and Handling of Wild and Domestic Animals. 2nd ed. Ames: Iowa State University. illus. Extensive refs. following each chapter.

Although the author illustrates the standard methods of roping, pushing, loading a horse into standard transport, he makes the interesting observation that in the case of crates containing large hoofed animals, the crate should be placed on transport with the hind end facing the front of the vehicle.

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Rhinos transported by truck or in an airplane should also have the tail end toward the front. “Sudden stops then result in the animal bumping its hindquarters insteard of its head against the craate wall.”

Fraser, D., J.S.D. Ritchie and A.F. Fraser. 1975. The term “stress” in a veterinary context. British Veterinary Jl., vol. 131. 27 refs. pp. 653-661

The “mother of all stress references”, this essay delineates the history of the concept, areas of disagreement concerning the term, and how a general acceptance of the term will change the way in which we look at animals and care for them. The authors argue not for a particular manifestation of stress, but for looking at the animal holistically as it will be influenced by a combination of factors and conditions.

Friend, T.H., H.A. Keen, C. Iacono. 2007. Activity of unrestrained horses during on-truck rest stops. Jl. of Equine Veterinary Sceince. December 26:12 3 figs. 12 refs. pp. 573-577.

Hour long rest stops were studied for signs of meaningful rest during transport of 16 to 20 hours. If meaningful rest could be obtained, the necessity for unloading to rest during long hauls could be minimised or eliminated. Horses were penned in low, medium, and high densities. High desnity groups were most activein jostling for water. Water deliberately withheld from adjacentgroups did not necessarily lessen the activity of the unwatered groups as they appeared to move and jostle about 20 minutes afterthe adjacent, watered horses had slaked their thirst and were settling back.

Horses did not show signs of fatigue at the second hour-long rest stop.

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Friend, T. H., H.A. Keen, and C. Iacono, T. Martin. 2006. Activity of unrestrained horses during on-truck rest stops. Jl. of Equine Veterinary Science. 26:12 3 figs 12 refs. pp. 573-577.

One hour rest stops were studied to determine if they offered meaningful rest after 8 hours of transport and before unloading at the terminus. Transport duration lasted 16-20 hours on singledeck semi-trailers. Groups that had access to water during rest stops showed greater activity with the denser groups most active.Activity during the rest stops appeared to maintain the same level. The horses comprised various ages, breeds, and genders typical of a slaughter load.

Gebresenbet, G., I. Wikner, G. van de Water, et al. 2003. Smartsystem for surveillance of animal welfare during transport. Deutsche Tieärtzliche Wochenschrift 110:12 16 refs pp. 494-498 Planning a route helps estimate sanitation and food requirements and assists in tracing individual animals. A Germantransport surveillance system can identify individuals, note loading and unloading places and time, monitors air quality, vibration and animal behavior. A central monitoring center can alert the driver to any anomolies. Also availaable are additional sensors to record heaart raate and vibration. The system is offered to vehicle manufacturers, hauleiers, farmers, slaughterhouses and retailers. (S.a. Ippoliti, et al. 2007)

Ippoliti, C., A. di Pasquale, G. Fiore, et al. 2007. Web-based geographic information system for monitoring animal welfare during long journeys. Veterinaria Italiana 43:3 9 refs. 753-759.

European Union regulations have encouraged s system of traceability within member states. Prototype equipment which records geographic coordinates and animal welfare conditions has

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been tested under the auspices of the Joint Research Centre of the European Commission. Authorised monitors can follow the progress of the vehicle and observe the sensor data.

Nelson, S. 2003. O’Brien Animal Transportation & Services: Facing backward equals forward progress in horse transport. California Riding Magazine September. illus. pp. 116–118

OATS 40 years of experience in shipping domestic and exotics led to owner Jim O’Brien designing an of air conditioned horse transport which maintains the integrity of the horses’ balancers – head, neck and forequarters. Horses travel able to lower theirheads to maintain respiratory hygiene. In O’Brien’s experience, horses recover faster, lose less weight in shipping, and rest comfortably during transit. Loading from a platform and unloading directly from a ramp has increased the safety of horsesand handlers.

Ninomiya, S., S. Sato, R. Kusunose, et al. 2007. A note on a behavioural indicator of satisfaction in stabled horses. AppliedAnimal Behaviour Science 106:1/3. 13 refs. pp. 184-189.

Three stallions and three geldings were trained to press a button either 3 or 12 times to obtain a food reward. The reward was consumed in the test stall and the animal returned to its home stall. The fewer muzzle presses appeared to encourage more standing-rest behavior with lowered heads and lateral positioningof the ears than food rewards requiring more muzzle presses. Parker, R., R. Watson, E. Wells, et al. 2004. The effect of blindfolding horses on heart rate and behaviour during handling and loading onto transport vehicles. Animal Welfare November 13:4, 13 refs pp433-437(5)

Fifteen horses considered to have good ground manners were tested with blinkers or blindfolds in the stable, in an arena,

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and while loading onto a truck. Where handlers were least experienced and blindfolds were used, the heart rates increased in all situations. Blinkering had less effect on heart rates.

Shanahan, S. 2003. Trailer loading stress in horses: behavioraland physiological effects of non-aversive training. Jl. of Applied Animal Welfare Science 6:4 263-274

Trailer loading is acknowledged as a point of hazard to horses and handlers. Ten problem loaders were allowed 7 minutes to loadduring which heart rates and saliva cortisol were measured. Significant increases were recorded. Following the attempts, thehorses were given leading and obstacle exercises in six 30 minutesessions over a two week period. The sessions mimicked trailer loading. Following training, loading time, heart rates and cortisol levels decreased. Good loaders recorded higher cortisoland heart rates than poor loaders.

Toscano, M.J., T.H. Friend. 2001. A note on the effects of forward and rear-facing orientations on movement of horses duringtransport. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 73:4 15 refs. pp. 281-287

The researchers made three trips with two forward facing and two rear facing horses transported simultaneously in commercial straight-deck 16 wheel trailer. The horses were observed for thenumber of forward and backward movements during transport in order to estimate the effect of heads fore or aft on the ability to maintain balance. The course was rectangular, reversing direction at the end of each lap and totaling 14.4 km. Bumps, turns, and straght aways were incorporated with a hard stop at the end of each lap. Rear facing horses were found to move more [perhaps because they were less rigid and more fluid in their stance? sec] than the front facing horses, though it was not considered statistically significant. The authors observed that

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some horses did have a better ability to maintain balance in one direction or another and suggest that individual characteristics may play a greater role than orientation.

Zucca, D., M. Minero, M.R. Buono, et al. 2007. [Investigation on transport of athletic horses] Indagine sulle problematiche di transporto del cavallo sportivo. Ippologia 18:4 December 6 figs. 3 tb. 18 refs.

35 horses from 3 riding establishments were reported on for transport problems. 31% of the horses were considered to have problems. Slant loads, horse boxes, and trailers were used. Loading showed the greatest problem. Stronger construction of transport and more space per horse is advised. The authors suggest that transport behavior records be used to guide the transport handling of the individual horse.

Feeding and Watering in Transit

Briggs, K. 1998. Nutrition: The movable feast. April TheHorse.com Illus. Article ID 0498 6p

Nutritionist Briggs identifies the factors contributing to dehydration, distress, weight loss. The transport environment and orientation can affect how well the horse maintains its appetite. Thoroughbred racehorses belonging to one stable travel 1000 miles loose in a stock trailer, arriving “considerably fresher” than those in standing-stalls. Mangers are advised against as horses have a tendency to get a foreleg stuck in them. Grain is best cut back if going on a long trip. Portion-sizedbagged feeds make it easier for an assistant to feed the horses, though requiring storage in a portable cooler. At each stop, assess and adjust the trailer environment. Whensafe, allow the horse to roll, pick grass, and stretch.

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Cregier, S. and C. Santarelli. 2007. Current research on horse transport workshop. Animal Transportation Association (AATA) Newsletter. Second Quarter. 30:2, p. 8

Summary of a workshop given by professor of applied animal ethology at Texas A&M to the ATA 33rd international conference, San Diego. Prof. Friend reported no meaningful differences regarding the ability of horses to balance whatever side of the commercial flat deck semi-trailers they were tied or whether slant front or rear load. Hot weather transport induced significant signs of dehydration by unwatered horses after 26 hours of continuous transport. Horses watered during transport did not show fatique until after 28 hours. For trips of 16 to 23hours’ duration, one to one and a half hour rest stops at 6 to 8 hour intervals did not induce resting behavior.

Gibbs, A.E., T.H. Friend. 2000. Effect of animal density and trough placement on drinking behavior and dehydration in slaughter horses. Jl. of Equine Veterinary Science 20:10, 18 ref. p. 643-650

Detailed measurements and water trough placements when the open-topped single-deck slaughter horse trailer was parked are given. Where 0.8m of troughs were placed on each 2.4 metre of sidewall,on both sides of a compartment with 12 loosely loaded horses, thehorses had adequate room to maneuver to water. Horseswith less room to maneuver took more time (25 minutes) to initiate drinking as compared to the 15 minutes of the loosely loaded horses with plentiful troughs and water. Trough placementin corners or on one side only had a detrimental effect on encouraging more densely loaded horses to drink. Some were prevented from drinking.

Iacono, C.M., T.H. Friend, R.D. Johnson, et al. 2007.

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Preliminary study on the utilization of an onboard watering system by horses during commercial transport. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 105:(1/3) pp. 227-231

Water was provided on board during rest stops. The horses wereobserved to see if water was accepted and if it reduced weight loss. Two bays of horses received water during a 1 hour rest stop while a third bay or compartment was not watered. During the 16 and 23 hour trips, water was was offered twice. On the 28hour trip, water was offered 3 times. Almost all the horses offered water drank within the first 20 minutes of the first session. Cooler weather resulted in more lag time, 21-60 minutesbefore the horses drank. Slightly less weight was lost by the watered horses.

Mars, L.A., H.E. Kiesling, T.T. Ross, J.B. Armstrong, L. Murray. 1992. Water acceptance and intake in horses under shipping stress. Jl. of Equine Veterinary Science. 12:1 11 ref. pp.17-20 Quarter Horse mares after four hours of transport were offeredeither familiar New Mexico State University water or water at their destination, Armstrong Equine Service. Apple or clover flavor was used to increase water intake. Water intake was similar for both sources of water at destination, though more AESwater was consumed on day 3 of arrival. In the second experiment, all water was from AES, the mares subjected to 4 h of transport but six contined to AES receiving flavored water and six remained at NMSU after transport with flavored water. Mares showed a preference for apple on day 1 and2. Without flavoring, mares consumed more water at NMSU than AES. The indications was that horses adjusted to new water more easily in a familiar environment.

Illness and Injury

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American Endurance Ride Committee. 2008. Minutes: Board of directors meeting: Teleconference May 5.aerc.com/Documents/BoardMinutes/Minutes20080505.pdf

An investigation into the equine fatality at the Manzanita Ride, October 14, 2006. An experienced competitor’s 22 year old mare was in transit 5 hours to the competition site. The mare appeared slower at the end of a 14 ½ mile ride, was refusing water. Despite veterinary treatment and transport to a clinic for surgery, the mare was euthanized when a large firm fecolith was found. The rider believed that the condition was exacerbatedby the trailer ride as the mare drank less than normal at the time and throughout the ride, possibly due to cold weather.

Animals International. 1988. Improvements in horse transportation–Argentina to Italy.Animals International Summer 4:26 p. 9

World Society for the Protection of Animals and the International League for the Protection of Horses recorded the deaths of 600 horses during seven voyages between Buenos Aires, Argentina to Bari, Italy. Conditions improved for one shipment accompanied by an ILPH officer. 1430 of 1431 horses arrived in Bari in good condition after 24 days and in extreme weather conditions. The horses were fed, watered, under veterinary care and kept together 3 mos. prior to the voyage. Buyers selected only the healthiest. 400 horses were deemed unfit to travel by the Argentine veterinarian. The Captain of the vessel ensured a safe passage for the horses even when it meant a nearly 3 day delay. A 24 hour patrol of the pens was maintained throughout the journey. The good care taken was negated at the Bari end by inadequate trucks, poorly trained personnel at the loading ramps.

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Animals International. 1988. Travelling circus cruelty. AnimalsInternational. Summer 4:26 p. 10

A summary of a 25,000 mile voyage of 3 female Indian elephants part of a traveling circus. The animals were confined to a 40x8x9 1/2 foot container for two months of high heat and humidity when not allowed to land in Taiwan. The animals were further held up for three months on a muddy lot with no drainage for feces or urine whilst in Singapore when not allowed to travel to New Zealand. Foot rot was present. Lions and tigers were left in substandard conditions in Auckland for over 4 months until theAuckland SPCA provided some relief. The lack of communication between shippers and owners led to the deplorable conditions and the banning of circuses in some municipalities in N.Z. and Australia.

Appel, von G., A. Briese, K. v. Hollenben, G. v. Mickwitz, M. v. Wenzlawowicz. 1995. Tödlicher Unfall eines Pferdes durch einen zu niedrigen Querbalken über der Boxentür. Dtsch. tierärtzl. Wschr. June. 6:102 Illus. 27 refs. p. 233-4 De En abstract

Studies on the necessary height for entries to stabling and transport are recommended following the death of a horse which struck a low cross-beam. Current law is inadequate in this regard.

Anzai, T., Y. Fukunaga, T. Matsumura, H. Imagawa, M. Oikawa. 2001. Serological examination for viral infection among young racehorses transported by vehicle over a long distance. Journal of Equine Science: Japanese Society of Equine Science. 12:4, p.135-137.

29 racehorses were tested for equine herpesvirus, equine adenovirus, equine rhinovirus and coronavirus and other

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respiratory agents. 18 febrile horses showed no evidence of infection but 4 of the 11 nonfebrile horses sharing the same transport as two seropositive for coronavirus seroconverted aftertransport.

Ball, M. 2005. Severe dehydration. TheHorse.com February. Article # 5521

Dehydrated horses can be identified by sunken appearance of eyes and loss of luster of outer surface of cornea. Depression and elevated heart rate may be indicated. A cross-country event can average a 5-gallon loss of water by a horse. Prompt veterinary attention is required in cases of severe dehydration. Where the animal has been deprived of water for several days due to frozen sources, offer water one quart at a time every few hours until it has had its fill and can be allowed unlimited access. Rapid consumption of water can cause serious brain disease in horses as well as dehydrated pigs.

Ball, M. 2005. Emergency transportation. TheHorse.com March Article ID 5609 2pp

Private haulers taking injured or ill horses to veterinary care need to plan on mechanical and medical preparedeness as well as aback-up plan. A veterinary evaluation should be obtained before transporting an injured or ill horse. Be prepared to offer supportive therapy to prevent shock, keep records of the horse’s vital signs and behavior, know how to apply a splint, avoid contamination. Loading a horse with a fracture requires a groundlevel platform.Baucus, K., S. Ralston, C. Nockels, A. McKinnon and E. Squires. 1990. Effects of transportation on early embryonic death in mares. Jl. of Animal Science. Vol. 68, pp. 345-351. 2 figs. 1 tb. 22 refs.

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54 mares age 4 to 15 were confirmed pregnant at 12 days post insemination. One group was transported 16 to 22 days after confirmation, group two, not transported after 16 to 22 days of confirmation, group three transported between 32 and 38 days of gestation, and group four not transported after 32 and 38 days ofgestation. The study investigated the influence of transport on plasma cortisol and progesterone as it might affect early embryonic death. The transport elicited measurements indicating acute stress when traveled in a slant load trailer four nine hours or 472 km. Embryonic death occurred in some mares 3, 7, 10,and 13 days following transport.

Briggs, K. 1998. Trauma-free trailering. TheHorse.com April Article #0498 7pp Briggs advises that first step in safe transport is owner and mechanic rig inspection which she details. On board, a cell phone, emergency road kit for horses and humans become vital equipment. Urges thinking through every possible emergency scenario, warns against the characteristics of live weight under tow, the importance of a balanced load, padding the horse againstinjury, and maintaining healthy trailer temperature.

Caola, G., A. Ferlazzo, M. Panzera. 1984. Serum content of creatinine and creatine phosphokinase in the horse after transport. Clinica Veterinaria. 15 ref. 107:2. pp. 46-48. Italian.

12 healthy adult horses transported for 130 to 200 km recorded creatinine and creatine phosphokinase having risen from 19 mg/litre and 19 mU/ml to 27 and 112 respectively.

Collins, M.N., T.H. Friend, F.D. Jousan, S.C. Chen. 2000. Effects of density on displacement, falls, injuries, and orientation during horse transportation. Applied Animal Behaviour Science. 67:3 pp. 169-179. 16 refs.

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A single-deck, open-topped commercial semi-trailer transported 30 mares, 29 geldings twice around a 7.28km course for 25-36 minutes. Each trip comprised 2 60 degree turns, four 90 degree turns, two 120, degree turns, one 180 degree turn, 6 hard brakes and 6 rapid accelerations. The horses were travelled in the middle compartment of the semi in either crowded or roomy conditions. 40% of the horses fell in the crowded conditions, 17percent in the low-density conditions. 64% of the horses suffered injuries in the crowded conditions and 29% in the less crowded. Their favored orientation did not differ between roomy or crowded conditions.

Crisman, M.V., D.R. Hodgson, W.M. Bayly, H.D. Liggitt. 1992. Effects of transport on constituents of bronchoalveolar lavage fluid from horses. Cornell Veterinarian. 82:3. 32 ref. pp. 233-246.

Little or no change in was observed in pulmonary phagocyte activity in 7 healthy Thoroughbred horses shipped 1160 km in over36 hours when measured 12 hours, 7, and 14 days following transport. During transport, stops were made every two hours to water the horses, a protocol not always followed by typical transporters. The authors suggest that potentially damaging changes do occur if the horses are transported in a dusty environment or are transported following an exertional performance.

Deboer, S. 1989. Transporting horses wth severe leg or body injuries. Equine Veterinary Data. 10:15. p.260-261

Fazio, E. and A. Ferlazzo. 2003. Evaluation of stress during transport. Veterinary Research Communications. 27 (Suppl. 1). 28 refs. pp. 519-524

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An animal’s experience, length of trip, type of confinement, breed, rearing environment, body weight and health will affect its behavioral and, physiological responses. The authors describe the responses common to adverse stresses in loading procedures and during transport. In the experience of some scientific observers, a horse nervous following its first loadingexperience will adapt by the 10th journey provided the environment is suitable to its needs. Distress is evidenced through vacalizing, escape attempts, or kicking. During road transport, vehicle design, stocking density, ventilation, driver behaviour and road type will affect responses. Horses are prone to dehydration, though horses provided with greater floor area manifest loawer white blood cellcount, total protein concentration and neutrophil to lymphocyte ration. Transport to a performance event can result in cortisol levels in horses similar to those in performance horses at rest before a competition. Horses appear to be most stressed during the start of a transport event with younger or naieve horses morestressed than older ones though young horses appeared more adaptable to long transport than older horses. Further data concerning length of trip, age and breed are given for ACTH, endorphins, and readings affected by thyroid releases.

Evers, S.L. 2003. Equine emergency rescue seminar. TheHorse.comDecember 9. Article ID 4793 4pp

A detailed summary of equine rescue training tactics demonstrated by Dr. Rebecca Gimenez of Technical Large Animal Emergency Rescue (tlaer.org). Sponsored by Hagyard-Davidson-McGee, mud rescue, transport of the recumbent horse, equipment and techniques which avoided using the head, tail, or legs to shift the animal, were studied. Veterinarian Dave Becker briefedpublic and rescue personnel on rescuing horses, and people, from horse trailers.

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Ferlazzo, A., E. Fazio, C. Murania, et al. 1993. Physiological responses of stallions to transport stress. In: Proceedings of the International Congress of Applied Ethology, Berlin. M. Nichelmann, H.K. Wierenga, S. Braun, eds. 10 refs. pp. 544-546.

Summarises the response of 30 stallions trucked 47 to 300 km following the breeding season. Arabian and Arabian-crosses appeared, according to cortisolemia results taken before and immediately after transport, showed that they appeared to be mostaffected. Responses were independent from the journey length, indicating an adaptation over time and miles to the environment with the exception of distances between 180 and 240 km when the cortisol results were high. Loading and confinement was suggested as an influence in cortisol levels.

Foreman, J. H., L. L. Hungerford. 1992. Transport stress-induced pneumonia in young horses. Equine Athlete. September-October 5:5 3 suggested readings. p. 14

136 horses averaging 36 months from different sources were transported in 5 shipments 515 km. Within 14 days of shipment, just over 70% developed pneumonia or a lower respiratory tract infection similar to clinical experience.

Friend, T. 2000. Dehydration, stress, and water consumption of horses during long-distance commercial transport. Jl. of Animal Science. 78:10. p. 2568-2580. 23 ref.

The author recorded dehydration, stress responses and water consumption patterns in horses watered and denied water before transport, watered during and no water during transport. Transport in an open top trailer was conducted for 30 hours. Treatments for the non-watered horses were terminated after 30 hours due to severe dehydration. Watered horses appeared to be

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able to continue for two more hours. Stationary horses penned inthe full sun had slightly greater dehydration than the horses transported. The author concludes that transporting healthy horses more than 24 hours in hot weather without water causes severe dehydration. Even with water, transport for more than 28 hours is harmful due to increasing fatigue.

Galuppo, L.D. 2004. Equine fractures: emergency first aid and stabilization techniques. Horse Report. 22:4. pp. 1, 3-4.

Details on transporting injured horses.

Gimenez, R. 2008. Details on horse trailer injuries. Sept. 9. Personal correspondence. Dr Gimenez reports most common incident seen in rescue calls and reported is horses going over the breast bar. See also: tlaer.org

Giovagnoli, G., M. Marinucci, A. Bolla, A. Borghese. 2002. Transport stress in horses: an electromyographic study on balancepreservation. Livestock Production Science. 73:2/3, p. 247-254.30 refs.

8 warmblood horses had heart rate and muscular activity recorded. Muscular activities were also filmed. The measurements indicated that efforts to balance during transport resulted in physical and emotional stress related to road conditions and the driver’s driving ability.

Green, A.R., J.L. Purswell, R.S. Gates, L.M. Lawrence, R.J. Coleman, E.F. Wheeler. 2003. Methods for assessing horse well being during transport. Paper 034092. ASAE Annual Meeting.

The study describes an ingested temperature reader to record heart rate and body temepearture. offers a telemetry based system

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to measure body temperature and heart rate as a means of monitoring how well a horse is doing during transport.

Hartung, J. 2003. Effects of transport on farm animals. Veterinary Research Communications Vol. 27 Suppl. 1, pp. 525-527

Meat quality is affected by transport conditions. Transport causes severe stress, risks spreading disease, and risks inducingdisease during transport. Although 315 million farm animals are transported within the EU annually, horses comprise the smallest percentage of these. The primary cause of transport stress, injury, and related disease is due to shipping unfit animals and then subjecting unfit or well animals to a transport environment which suppresses the immune system. Vibrations, poor driving, climate, density, deck heights, lack of food and water, vehicle motion and length of journey affect welfare. Hartung’s reviews of the current research indicate that six hours of transport is the maximum before animals begin “to develop an energy deficit” though this can be mitigated on longerjourneys with feeding and watering and “more frequent breaks thanrequired by the present . . . regulation.” Improved vehicles, not fixed limits on transport time, are key to delivering healthycargo. How well an animal travels depends on how it was raised – pasture raised cattle seem to travel better than bulls from confinement, for example. He recommends that drivers and handlers be paid for caretaking, “not for speeding.” Loading and unloading should be reduced to a minimum. This is a readable summary of how pathogens thrive in transport conditions and how and what transport stressors increase susceptibility. Hartung recommends maintaining familiarfeed, good ventilation, maintaining maternal antibodies and care,not subjecting animals to weaning procedures before transport, keeping the group shipment within a familiar herd, and scrupulous

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hygiene at every stage of the journey.

Hungerford, L.L., J.H. Foreman, S.D. Folz. 1993. Risk factors for respiratory diseases associated with transport in horses. Equine Atlhlete. 3 ref. 6:2

Ito, S. Y. Fujii, T. Uchiyama, M. Kaneko. 1992. Four cases of rhabdomyolysis in the thoroughbred during transportation. Bulletin of the Equine Research Institute. (29). p.1-5.Japanese. Summary: Eng.

Jansson, N. 1997. Fractures in horses: first aid treatment and transport to hospital. Frakturer hos hest: forstehjaelp og transport til hestehospital. Dansk Veterinaertidsskrift. 80:9. 6 ref. p. 390-392.

Katayama, Y., M. Oikawa, T. Yoshihara, A. Kuwano, S. Hobo. 1995. Clinico-pathological effects of atmospheric ammonia exposure on horses. Jl. of Equine Science. 6:3. 6 ref. 99-104.

Horses were exposed to different ammonia levels in a trailer for 40 hours. One horse was exposed to a level of 2-17 ppm was believed to be the usual concentration for standard trailers. The second horse was exposed to 40-130 ppm for 40 hours. Exposure caused coughing and , heavy nasal discharge and microscoping swelling of the cilia tips in the trachea in horse 1. Horse 2 lost cilia and there were degenerative changes of thetrachea.

Killyer, M.H., F.G.R. Taylor, C.J. Proudman, G.B. Edwards, J.E. Smith, N.P. French. 2002. Case control study to identify risk factors for simple colonic obstruction and distension colic in horses. Equine Veterinary Jl. 34:5. 27 ref. p. 455-463.

Risk factors for simple colonic obstruction and distension

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(SCOD) were found to be crib-biting/ wind sucking, 24-hour a day confinement and travel within the previous 24 hours.

Kawamoto, K. H. Sato, M. Oikawa, T. Yoshihara, M. Kaneko, H. Matsuda. 1996. Jl. of Equine Science. 7:2, p. 43-46.

Nerve growth factor (NGF) was measured in 11 horses transportedlong distance by truck. NGF is thought to play a role in the developing of equine shipping fever.

Leadon, D.P., J. Daykin, W. Backhouse, C. Frank, M.A. Atock. 1991. Environmental, hematological and blood biochemical changesin equine transit stress. In: Proceedings of the Annual Convention of the American Association of Equine Practitioners. 5ref. 36. pp.485-490.

Temperature, humidity, and other environmental changes were monitored during the air transport of 112 horses from England to Australia. These conditions varied significantly during loading,unloading, and while parked and in the air. These conditions added to the challenge of airborne particulates. 7 horses developed shipping fever on arrival.

McClintock, S.A., A.P. Begg. 1990. Suspected salmonellosis in 7broodmares after transportation. Australian Veterinary Jl. 17 ref. 67:7. pp.265-267.

After 48 hours of transport in an open truck, 7 Standardbred mares were released into pasture. One mare was dead that eveningand another the next morning. One other mare was mildly ill and one exhibitied acute endotoxic shock. 3 mares remained clinically normal. 4 weeks after recovery, the endotoxic shock mare delivered a foal.

McCue, M., E.G. Davis, B.R. Rush. 2004. Diagnostic evaluation,

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clinical management, and transport of recumbent horses. Compendium on Continuing Education for the Practicing Veterinarian. 26:2. 10 ref. pp. 138-148

When additional support and testing is required, transporting arecumbent horse requires additional precautions. Steps toward this are noted.

Mendell, C. 2007. Respiratory viruses detected at shows, sales. July 18 TheHorse.com Article 10034 2p

4% of the horse population at four shows and sales (Thoroughbred, Quarter Horse, Appaloosa, mixed breed) were found to be shedding EHV-1 and 2% shedding EHV-4, though horses may appear to be asymptomatic. Transport and mixing of animals contributes to a high rate of shedding.

Naylor, J.J., V. Jones, S.L. Berry. 1993. Clinical syndrome anddiagnosis of hyperkalaemic periodic paralysis in Quarter horses. 17 ref.

16 horses were studied. 14 belonged to a line known for suscepibility to HPP and 8 had HPP. Transport exacerbated clinical abnormalities.

Niebuhr, D. V. 2006. Metallurgical failure analysis of a horse trailer: A criminal investigation. Jl. of Failure Analysis and Prevention August 6:4 Springer ISSN 1547-7029 (Print) 1864-1245 (Online) pp. 11-16 pdf 419.3 kb

This article is probably on available to registered patrons of academic libraries who subscribe to the Springer database or acopy might be obtained from the author whose e-ddress is [email protected].

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In clear, spare English, the illustrated article details the forensic investigation of a critical tailgate hinge on a two horse trailer. The stallion fell out of the trailer onto a public highway. The horse’s subsequent collision with a following vehicle killed the three occupants of the vehicle. Theinvestigation determined that the hinge was in poor shape at the start of the journey and could not in any event have been in place as maintained by the defense. Your faithful bibliographer maintains that had the horse been transported rear face and properly tethered, the whole ramp could have fallen off and the following traffic would not have been endangered. Nieburh is with the California Polytechnic State University —Materials Engineering, #1Grand Ave., 93407 San Luis Obisop, CA

Nelson, T. 2008. New Veterinary facility will greatly improve quality of care: Creature comforts. helenair.com 2pp

Mare down in trailer, having brought traveling companion down, too, brought to clinic. Requires general anesthetic to suture hind legs, tend to gaping wounds and deep tissue trauma.

Oikawa, M., S. Hobo, T. Oyamada and H. Yoshikawa. 2005. Effectsof orientation, intermittent rest and vehicle cleaning during transport on development of transport-related respiratory diseasein horses. Jl. of Comparative Pathology. Vol. 132. 15 figs. 32 refs. pp. 153-168

Twenty healthy horses were variously transported 1500 km in an enclosed truck, some facing the direction of travel and some away. Groups 1, 2, and 3 horses were traveled for 37 hours. Group 1 horses were traveled facing forwards and given 30 minutes rest for every 4 hours driven. Group 2 horses were loadfacing away from travel and given similar rests. Group 3 horses were front face and rested 2 hours for every 4 hours on the road.

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Group 1 horses had the highest inflammatory and stress responses.Group 2 horses were transported rear face and given similar rest period had intermediate inflammatory responses. Group 3 horses were traveled facing oncoming traffic and given 2 hours rest for every 4 hours driven and had the lowest inflammatory response. Group 4 and 5 horses were traveled for 40 hours. Group 4 horses were transported front face with hay and no cleaning of the vehicle. Group 5 horses were front face and given pelleted feed and the truck washed and cleaned at each rest stop. Group 4and 5 were rested one hour for each 5 hours of driving. Inflammatory responses were higher in group 4 than 5.

Oikawa, M., S. Takagi, R. Anzai,H. Yoshikawa, T. Yoshikawa. 1995. Pathology of equine respiratory disease occurring in association with transport. Jl. of Comparative Pathology. 113(1), 20 ref. p.29-43

Transported 41 hours by road, three of 8 young Thoroughbreds suffered fever, coughing, leukocytosis and neutrophilia after thefirst 20 hours. Two of the three suffered airway inflammation, though viral cultures from lung lesions were negative for respiratory viruses. Transport is seen as threatening upper and lower airways leading to acute pneumonia.

Pfeiffer, C.J. 1992. A review of spontaneous ulcer disease in domestic animals: chickens, cattle, horses, and swine. Acta Physiologica Hungarica. 80(1/4), 82 refs. pp149-158

Crowding and transport, psychological, environmental, drugs andphysiological stress degrades the horses’ immunity. Dietary factors have yet to be implicated in spontaneous equine ulcers.

Raidal, S.L., D.N. Love, G.D. Bailey. 1996. Effects of posture and accumulated airway secretions on tracheal mucociliary transport in the horse. Australian Veterinary Jl. 73:2. 35

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ref. p.45-49.

Normal standing position vs. head lowered and the resulting purulent secretions were compared. Mucociliary clearance was rapid when the cranial trachea was lower than the caudal trachea.Horses whose heads were elevated for 24 hours showed increased bacteria in the lower respiratory tract and decrease in tracheal mucociliary clearance. The practice of tying heads up in transport and cross-tying contribute to lower respiratory tract disease.

Rodrigues, N., L. Fallavena, C. Pianta, C. Chiminazzo, L. Ribeiro. 2003. Causes of death on livestock during Expointer Show on years 1996-2001. A Hora Veterinararia. 22:132, pp. 24-30. Port. 22 ref.

Transport is implicated in the deaths of 2 horses with volvulus of the large intestine and estomacal rupture.

Ryden, G., J. Skidell. 1989. Pleuropneumonia in horses following transport. Pferdeheilkunde. 5:3, p.163-170. 18 ref. German. Summary in English.

12 horses following rail, air or sea transport developed pleuropneumonia. Over a course of five years and with treatment by drugs, seven of the horses recovered.

Schaefer, A.L., P.L. Dubeski, J.L. Aalhus, et al. 2001. Role ofnutrition in reducing antemortem stress and meat quality aberrations. Jl. of Animal Science. 79(E. Suppl.) 3 figs. 1 tb. 114 refs.

Schaefer delivered a presentation on the use of thermography indetermining the pre-shipment health of cattle (and horses) to slaughter. Thermography was acutely sensitive to developing

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fever and lowered immunity in the animals studied. In this paper, thermography is used to record the effect of removing animals from a familiar enviornment one to 48 hours before shipping. Schaefer recommends nutritional approaches to forestalling or preventing the physiological changes which stimulate the animal’s nervous reactions and lead to weight loss,energy depletion, irregular adaptation to heat or cold, and poor meat quality.

Shanahan, S. 2003. Trailer loading stress on horses: Behavioraland physiological effects of nonaversive training (TTEAM). Jl. of Applied Animal Welfare Science. 6:4. 14 ref. p. 263-274.

The Tellington-Touch Equine Awareness Method (TTEAM) was employed to retrain ten problem loaders in six 30 minute sessionsover two weeks with the owner. Loading time was decreased as was the heart rate and saliva cortisol during loading. The good loaders used in comparison had significantly higher heart rates.

Smith, B., J. Jones, J. Hornof, W., Miles, J.. Longworth, K., Willits, N. 1996. Effects of road transport on indices of stress in horses. Equine Veterinary Jl. 28:6, p. 446-454. 26 ref.

4 horses were studied for the effects of road transport on pulmonary function after 24 hours of transport. Each horse was transported once in a smooth riding leaf-spring/bias-ply tire equipped trailer and once with a torsion bar and radial tires which gave a rough ride. Horses were trailered over a 128km rural “freeway” of a constant speed of 72 km/h for 24 hours with a 25 min. rest stop after 4 hour and 15 minutes of transport.Temperatures within the trailer were recorded every minute. Suspension type did not affect heart rates and weren’t significantly different from the controls’ stall rates after the first two hours of transport. Decreased body weight and

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dehydration was evident post-transport. Although ammonia and CO concentrations were safe for humans, respirable articulates were above safe concentrations.

Stull, C. 1999. Responses of horses to trailer design, durationand floor area during commercial transportation to slaughter. Jl. of Animal Science. 77:11, p.2925-2933. 32 ref.

306 horses were transport to a Texas abattoir over distances of596 to 2496 km.Mean weight loss was 4%. Two-tiered transports inflicted more injuries than straight-deck trailers.After 5 hoursto 45 mins of transport, muscle fatigue and dehydration increased, especially after 27 hours. The more room per horse, the fewer injuries and fewer stress markers were recorded.

Stull, C., A. Rodiek. 2000. Physiological responses of horses to 24 hours of transportation using a commercial van during summer conditions. Jl. of Animal Science. 78:6. 34 ref. p.1458-1466.

145 mature horses were transported 24hours under summer conditions.Body weight immediatly on unloading showed a 6% loss. White blood cell counts increased with travel times and peaked atthe termination of transport.Lactate, creatine kinase, glucose concentration, and aspartate aminotransfease increased during transport but returned to baseline after a 24 hour post-transportperiod. These and other responses indicated that the horses had increased disease susceptibility and decreased energy availablty for athletic performance.

Traub-Dargatz, J.L., A.O. McKinnon, W.J. Bruyninckx, M.A. Thrall,R.L. Jones, A.M.MN. Blancquaert. 1988. Effect of transportationstress on bronchoalveolar lavage fluid analysis in female horses.American Jl. of Veterinary Research. 24 refs. 49:7

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Transport stressed mares demonstrated increased inflammatory cells 5 days after transport.

Turner, T. and S. Dyson. 2006. Sacro-iliac pain. Talking Horses. No. 9 May-July. Illus. 2p

Symptoms of sacro-iliac pain and therapy are described. [Sacro-iliac trauma has been reported in horses transported in straight-load trailers. This particular trauma is being aggressively studied at the University of Sydney, Australia in 2009. sec]

West, C. 2008. Traumatic brain injury in horses. TheHorse.com Article #11477

Young horses resisting direction commonly rear and strike theirheads or flip backward to strike their polls on the ground. Westdescribes the types of head trauma that occur, ways to recognize trauma to the frontal (blindness, lack of ractivity, compulsive wandering) or poll area (lack of reactivity, feeble extremities, facial nerve paralysis, bleeding into the guttural pouches), and management of the recumbent, injured horse. Recumbancy more than4 hours indicated poor chance of survival.

Yamauchi, T., M. Oikawa, A. Hiraga. 1993. Effects of transit stress on white blood cells count in the peripheral blood in Thoroughbred race horses. Bulletin of the Equine Research Institute. (30). 5 ref. p.p. 30-32.

337 Healthy Thoroughbred racehorses demonstrated an increase inleucocytes following transport. The increase was attributed to transport stress.

Yehya, G. 1994. Problems associated with international trade andthe movement of horses in the Middle East. Rapports de synthese sur les themes techniques presentes au Comite international ou

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aux commissions regionales. Paris:Office International des Epizooties. tab. p. 165-181 Commercial shipment of mainly Arabians exposes the horses to a long list of notifiable dieases. Different countries require different conditions of entry.

Overviews

Abbott, A. 2001. Physiological responses of horses in transit and the effect on welfare.VEIN.library.usyd.edu.au/links/Essays/2001/abbott.htm. 5 refs. 3pp

A student essay, Abbott summarises the stressors for horses during air and road transport. The degree of stress was measuredby behavior, biochemistry and haematology results. Contributing to poorer results were head restraint, lack of water, heat, journey delays, temperature and humidity control.

Blackshaw, J.K. 1983. Animal transport and behaviour. In: Noteson Some Topics in Applied Animal Behaviour Queensland: U. of Queensland pp. 74-81 22 refs

A capsule summary of the best treatment of sheep, pigs, cattle,horses before and after land or sea transport, the characteristics of loading and unloading facilities and how they affect animal behaviour such as why a wide chute should be used only for unloading, not loading, the preference of cattle and pigs for step inclines to load, preventing balking problems, the optimum height for sides of chutes for different species, accommodating to a variety of trucks, the conflicting data regarding loading from dark to light areas, the type of substratebest suited to load and unload, and orientation during various types of transport. Blackshaw also notes the three common problems apart from

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bodily injury as transit erythema (urine soakage), tetany or metabolic upset, shipping fever and its attraction to fatigued animals, and fatigue and exposure. This succinct and valuable overview is available online:http://animalbehaviour.net/JudithKBlackshaw/JKBlackshawCh6.pdf

Blancou, J. and I. Parsonson. 2008. Historical perspectives on long distance transport of animals. Veterinaria Italiana 44:1 illus. 29 refs. pp. 19-30

The authors begin this commendable report with transport practices in Roman antiquity. It goes on todescribe routes and conditions extending into the colonial exploration and expansion of the New World, Asia and the Pacific. Exotics, horses, camels,elephants or poultry in ships and wagons are considered. Transport conveyed animals to private parks, hunts, combat, and, such as race horses, competition, and shows. Most were containerized. Species ranged from boars, crocodiles, ostriches,elephants, bears, stags, to wild fowl. Travel distress was indicated by the refusal of animals to leave their cages following weeks of transport. The authors indicate ports of export, species, problems in reimbursement for lost cargo, problems getting elephants to board, use of horse vans (the cabularia of the cursus publicus), Arabian horses were generally restricted in disbursement in an attempt by the later Spanish Cortès to monopolise the market. The Bayeux tapestry is cited as an excellent source for studying the boarding and landing of 200 war horses. Crusaders’ horses embarked from Marseilles through a door then sealed and under water during sailing. Spanish colonialists’ various horse shipments are summarized. With the importation of non-native animals, disease spread in Africa from Asia, Argentina, Australia, and other countries. Capt. William Wright Bampton is credited with devising shipments

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and routes by 1795 that delivered stock from India to Australia without disastrous losses. Australian land companies relied on Peruvian multeers with the Austrlian agricultural Company becoming the largest horse stud in the colony. Despite the apparent care with which the Henty family shipped and housed their stock including pure bred horses, their early venture in Tasmania failed. The authors describe the hazards of the introduction of camelids into Australia. 18th and 19th century transport by van was reserved for dangerous animals, horses, or cattle. Train travel for military horses was instituted in the Crimean war. During World War II, a three minute maximum was allowed to load six horses or mules intotrucks into specially designated and designed trucks. A summary of the military use of ships and onboard conditisons from the Crimean War, WW I and WW II is given and there is a mention of the Burma Hump flights of horses and mules.

Bryant, J.O. 2008. Book excerpt from Olympic Equestrian: Getting there theHorse.com May 19 Article 11897

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The tragedy of Michael Plumb’s Markham mid-air panic is recounted from Joesph C. O’Dean’s book. Bryant then adds a summary of the concerns which faced the FEI veterinary commissionfor the 1996 games and other veterinarians about the 2000 Olympichorse flights to Sydney. Together with the Massachusetts Societyfor the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, a March 1999 conferencedetermined that ventilation, the position of the head during transport, and rest periods of 6 to 8 hours to recover from 10 hours of travel were vital for successful journeys.Olympic horses face quarantine restrictions, climate change, and the possibility of disease outbreak. Cregier, S.E. 1982. Reducing equine hauling stress: a review. Jl. of Equine Veterinary Science. 2:6 66 ref. pp. 187-198.

Loading and transport difficulties were overcome and threat of injury to horse and handler and loss of tow vehicle control were reduced when horses were reversed from a platform into the traveling bay of a specially constructed two-horse trailer. A three-horse trailer is also illustrated. Anatomical stability ofthe horse was maintained on curves and during hard stops. The horses’ fleshy rumps, not bony heads, were presented to the featureless impact area. Horses were able to maintain balance off their forequarters, raising and lowering heads at will to balance automatically.

Cregier, S.E. 1984. Road transport of the horse: An annotated bibliography. 7th edn. (Atlanta: Word Wizards). 183 ref. 4 Appendices.

The final update to a 1970s challenge by Mike Hails of the Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux to locate sources on road transport of the horse. An earlier edition was reviewed in the Veterinary Bulletin 53: abst. 2164.Other than popular literature

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and very scattered observations in veterinary and historical literature, no dedicated interest in road transport of the horse was evident until after the publication of Cregier’s 1981 thesis,Alleviating Surface Transit Stress on Horses and her November 1982 article in the Jl. of Equine Veterinary Science. Appendices note Canadian and US horse abattoirs, horse slaughter numbers, NYS transport regulations, and an argument forcarcase trade,

Currie, E. 2000. Improving welfare of horses in transit. VEINlibrary.usyd.edu.au/links/Essays/2000/currie.htm 5 refs 3pp

The student author reviews research on falls and orientation on single deck commercial transport, the condition of horses at slaughter plants, and factors inducing pleuropneumonia. Horses were reported to avoid standing sideways to the direction of travel. Lower head carriage and a forward shift of weight were observed where facilities allowed. High density interfered with normal head carriage. The potential for muscle damage increased with the amount of effort required to balance. Unshod animals moved their forelegs more frequently. Transport allowing horses to lower their heads and eat normally was recommended.

Driessen, B., A. Wouters, J. van Thielen, R. Geers. 2007. [A future Belgian livestock transport training prgram: A current actor survey]. Een toekomstig Belgisch opleidingsprogramma voor dierentransporten: een enquête bij de huidige actoren. Vlaams Diergeneeskundig Tijdschrift 76:6 34 refs. pp. 388-400 Dutch

Belgium, in planning to conform with a regulation requiring a certificate of professional competence for animal transporters and handlers, canvassed the principals affected by the new regulations – livestock markets, transporters, handlers, supermarkets, animal rights organizations and consumers. Little enthusiasm was exhibited concerning a course on livestock

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transport, the exception being the transporters themselves, thouogh the majority (66%) did not feel it necessary to participate in a course. None were interested in detailed treatment of topics, such as hygiene, handling, and transport equipment, involving animal transport. Belgian authorities will consult training programs in other countries before designing their own.

Ellis, P. M. and K. L. Watkins. 2004. International movement ofathletic horses – quarantine and regulatory controls. In: EquineSports Medicine and Surgery. K.W. Hinchcliff, A.J. Kanaps, R.J. Geor, W. Bayly, eds. New York: Saunders. 43 refs. 10 pp

Cogent guide to economic, biological, political and econolgicalfactors in shippments, the role of the World Trade Organization, the Office Internationale des Epizooties, diagnostic tests and vaccines, import risk analysis, role of government officials, shipping agents, veterinarians, horse industry organizations including Federation Equestre Internationale. Horse passport requirements, quarantine controls, seasonal restrictions, protecting health and welfare during transit, residency restrictions. Includes contact information for major regulatory agencies and racing associations.

Friend, T.H. 2001. Review of recent research on the transportation of horses. Jl. of Animal Science 79(E). Suppl.):E32-E40 3 tables. 2 figs. 39 refs. pp. 32-40

The author summarizes studies associating transport with dehydration, orientation and behavior, loading density, origin ofinjuries, horse trailer design. At this time, more research is needed to optimize trailer design, suspension, and materials.

Geor, Ray. 2001. Travel diets. TheHorse.com Article # 2770. Geor outlines the causes of weight loss during surface

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transport, the importance of feeding management, keeping the horse hydrated during transport, and advocates 15-20 minute rest stops every four hours to check horse and trailer condition, air quality. This is a good summary of weight loss to journey lengthratios, whether in hot or cool weather. The energy consumed to maintain balance during transit is also emphasised. In line withthe American Horse Shows Association and the Massachusetts Scoeity for the Protection of Aniamls, the author also advises not exceeding 12 hours of transit time in a day, offering a forage based diet throughout the trip. Hay soaked to keep down dust, or high water content haylage is recommended. Feed weigh scales and marked water buckets help keep a close eye on consumption.

Houpt, K.A., S. Lieb. 1993. Horse handling and transport. In: Livestock handling and transport. Ed., T. Grandin. CAB International. 41 refs. pp. 233-252 Transport stall size, construction, restraint, loading, preconditioning, vehicle types, monitoring for stress are reviewed.

Japan Racing Association. 1994. Annual Report of the Equine Research Institute-1993. 30 refs.

Summarizes research in various areas including effects of accumulated stress, environment inside and outside transport vehicles.

Larter, C. 1984. Horses on wings,Wheels and Waves. (London: Regency Press). 25 illus.

The author was a licensed heavy goods vehicle driver using her own and assigned vans and trailers to transport horses throughoutthe UK, western, and eastern Europe. Her clients were European royalty, show horse, and Olympic equestrians. She recounts in

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enchantingly direct language the trials of dealing with a varietyof clients, horses, uncharted and unsafe roads and horse transport in various stages of disrepair.

Leadon, D., N. Waran, C. Herholz, et al. 2008. Veterinary management of horse transport. Veterinaria Italiana 44:1 illus.52 refs. pp. 149-163

The conditions pertaining to road, sea, and air transport are described with a view to alerting clinicians as to the health andbehavioral problems associated with each. Long distance transport by air requires special management. Using the records of the EU Trade Control and Expert System (TRACES), the authors are able to follow the international movements of horses and investigate the spread of disease. The authors describe several layers of European and international offices involved in the welfare and transport of horses. The rapid growth of international trade and horse events, epidemiology, and geography contribute to the growing challenges of biosecurity, inspection, quarantine, and regulation. For example, suspected contaminated horse plasma imported into Ireland threatened the industry there in 2006. Exotic disease has been introduced post-quarantine even in countries where stringent control is maintained. The unfamiliarity of handlers and other aspects of food, bedding, reduced ability to clear its respiratory tract in an increasingly noxious environment, and transport stress horses. Veteran travelers can also be adverselyaffected by confinement, isolation, and transport of various description. The loading procedure is of particular concern and the horse’s head must be protected. Window placement, or the lack of windows, in transport requires further study to increase the feeling of security for a horse. Leadon was one of the few to study ventilation in horse transport. (Like the study done by S. and O. Holmes, it has yet

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to be published). Air quality in transport is rapidly reduced and humidity may rise to unacceptable levels. Even where food isoffered in transit, horses tend to eat and drink less while the vehicle is in motion. Leadon cites reports recording lower heartrates in horses traveled facing away from the direction of road travel. Wider stalls and small box stalls are used where possible when flying horses to give them increased comfort. Flight grooms haveadditional, certified expertise in air safety. Weight loss up to4% of body weight is not unusual on flights of 24 hours or more. Added physical and chemical restraint is available for use by experienced personnel should the horse be one of the less than half of one percent who go berserk during flight. Injuries associated with double-deck horse transports of loosehorses are high. Leadon argues for better controlled studies of how transport may affect performance as the current physiologicaland biochemical markers may be either clinically insignificant orthe action of collection may skew the results. Respiratory disease remains the principle problem. Jet stalls,while facilitating handling and safety, are prone to a greater incidence of shipping fever than open stalls.

Leadon, D.P. 1994. Transport stress. In: The Athletic Horse: Principles and Practice of Equine Sportsmedicine. D. R. Hodgson and R. J. Rose, eds. (Phil.:W. B. Saunders). Illus. 19 refs.

After a paragraph on the history of horse transport by road,Leadon reports on the size and current practices road and air transport. Jet-stalls, insect-proof, and open stalls, loading and unloading practices, commercial vs. charter flights, and the reasons for their use and type of aircraft are given. While the ideal transport arrangements – one groom for every three horses, a clinician to travel with the horses – are noted, these are not always attainable due to costs and seating availability. Leadon describes transport stressors, especially the restraint of the

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head which contributes not only to loss of balance [sec] but alsoto respiratory illness, how to assess stress including forstalling shipping frenzy, manifestations of stress and laboratory measurements of distress incurred by road or air transport. Though short-haul road transport is said to have little effect on performance, long-haul air transport has recorded minorCK and AST rises. The horses which have lost less weight in transit tend to race better than those which have lost more. Pre- and post-transport dietary, detection of clinical conditionswhich indicate poor outcomes following transport, weight gains and losses, air hygiene precautions, and treatment of shipping fever are detailed.

Leadon, D. P. 1995. Tutorial article: Transport stress and the equine athlete. Equine Veterinary Education 7:5, 253-255 Illus.10 refs.

Leadon alerts veterinarians, clinicians, and grooms to factors affecting the care of horses in transit by plane, surfaceand sea. Exhaust gases, temperature and humidity, experience, feeding regimens, travel frenzy, and factors contributing to shipping fever are briefly noted. The article is valuable for its historic references to factors contributing to current poor outcomes. Practical means, such as posting wet and dry bulb thermometers throughout the cargo area to check humidity and temperature, are given. The crucial freedom of head and neck balance to reduce shipping fever is summarized. Clinical signs of shipping fever and treatment are noted.

Lee, J., K. Houpt, O. Doherty. 2001. A survey of trailering problems in horses. Jl. of Equine Veterinary Science. 21:5, 237-241. 22 ref.

Owners of 103 horses identified their trailering problems and

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re-training techniques. 53.4% had loading problems, 51.5% travelling problems especially (53%) when the vehicle moved off or (47%) went around a bend. Fewer than half (28.2%) had been rehabilitated. There was no statistical difference in breed for any problem or successful rehabilitation.

"Welfare aspects of the long distance transportation of animals",Published by Veterinaria Italiana, A quarterly journal devoted to veterinary public health, veterinary science and medicine published by the Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell’Abruzzo e del Molise ‘G. Caporale’ in Teramo, Italy , January-March 2008, Volume 44 (1)

North, Michael. 2004. I’m So Hungry I Could Eat A Horse! Estimated Economic Impact on the United States and the European Union Resulting from a Proposed Ban on Horse Salughter for Human Consumption. Thesis prepared for the Royal Agricultural College,Circencester, UK and Utah State University, Logan. Illus. 3 append. 68 refs. 143 pp.

North considers health, welfare of horses in transit, at sale yards, effect of parasites, drugs on meat quality. Legislation concerning killing methods and disposal is described. An economics major, he anticpated that the U.S. would lose $24,320,000 in sales and the value of the cull horse would decline. In Europe, French restaurants were particularly affected. Slaughter house owners, processors and horsemeat patrons were canvassed. Includes charts showing prices per poundper mont between 1990 and 2002.

North, Michael S., Dee Von Bailey, and R. A. Ward. 2005. The potential impact of a proposed ban on the sale of U.S. horses forslaughter and human consumption. Jl. of Agribusiness 32:1 Spring

The economics of horse slaughter and horsemeat consumption for

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human purposes on the export market to Europe is analysed. A loss to the economy of $300 per horse is predicted.

Waran, N., D. Leadon, T. Friend. 2002. The effects of transportation on the welfare of horses. In: Animal Welfare, Vol.1: The Welfare of Horses (Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers)

Research into the effects of transport on horses had previouslybeen scarce, presumably because it was thought their high value protected them from abuse. Potential stressors, such as loading,unloading, confinement, restraint, vehicle movement, rest opportunities, effects of feed and water, and design factors and recovery, are identified and different modes of transport assessed and possible improvements indicated. Patent devices used to “persuade” a horse to load are likely to cause more problems.

Regulatory and Codes

APHIS, 2009. Slaughter horse transport program (SHTP) June 4. 3pp. www.aphis.usda.gov/animal_health/animal_dis_spec/horses/horse_horse_transport.shtml

USDA funded studies at research at Colorado State University on the physical conditions of horses at slaughter plants, at ExasA&M on water deprivation, and at the University of California, Davis, on stress undergone by horses shipped to slaughter. Together with stakeholders, welfare groups, and slaughter plants,recommendations became part of the regulations in 2000. The regulations covered separation of genders and aggressive horses, food, water, rest, confinement, documentation, floor space and the phasing out of double deck transports and include provisions

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for monitoring international shipments. See: Code of Federal Regulations (9 CFR Part 88). A summary of prosecutions is given.APHIS also sorts fiction from fact concerning the photos of abused horses at a Texas plant and how injuries are acquired, summarizing Temple Grandin’s 1998 study.

de Brauwere, N. 2008. See: National Equine Welfare Council, below.

Dobereiner, B. 1985. Road transport of horses in trailers and in national and international lorries. Untersuchungen uber den Transport von Pferden in PKW-Anhangem und im nationalen und internationalen LKW-Verkehr. Munich: Tierarztliche Fakultat derLudwig Maximilians Universitat. 177p 47 ref.

50 two-horse trailers used in national and international transport were inspected. Most were of inadequate length, height, and width. Materials, fitting, and ramp did not conform to requirements for animal welfare. Loading problems and injuries were common. Similarly, most of the 34 trucks for national transport had the same problems. 21 trucks from the German Democratic republic, Poland and the USSR were on average worse. The spacing was less.

Harris, T. 1996 onward. AATA Manual for the Transportation of Live Animals by Road. AATA Manual for the Transport of Live Animals. Tim Harris 175 Jenkins, Dorval, P.Q. H9P 2W6 Second Edition ISSN 1366-2066 ISBN 0 9529861 2 4 Illus. Bibliog.159pp

Easily earning its informal reference as The BIBLE (Basic Instructions Before Loading and Embarking), the Manual succinctlydetails the health and transport strictures surrounding live animals brought into, leaving, or transported within the EuropeanUnion. Bison to bees, iguana to giraffe, the shipper will need

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to know types of behaviour associated with each species, requirements for space, temperature, hours in transit, disinfection requirements and stations, location of border inspection posts, veterinary services offices, documentation specifics for various type of animals, available training courses, and how to avoid violations.

“Due regard is also given to CITES (Convention on Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora) and OIE (Office International des Epizooties). There is a schedule of management authorities from the Arctic Circle to Ankara, and from Madrid to Moscow, as well as a bibliography and an introduction to the Animal Transportation Association (AATA) which has been involved with all these disciplines since 1976.

“This Manual will have a wide field of interest among all disciplines associated with livestock transportation including hauliers, farmers, manufacturers of livestock vehicles and containers, exporters and importers, enforcement and welfare bodies, training and assessment teams, government departments, animal handlers, zoological suppliers, veterinarians, national libraries and the insurance industry.”

European Commission. 2002. The Welfare of Animals During Transport (details for horses, pigs, sheep and cattle). Report of the Scientific Committee on Animal Health and Animal Welfare, March 11. http://ec.europa.eu/food/fs/sc/scah/out71_en.pdf 181 pp.

Measurements of behavior, welfare and disease, personnel training, preparation for loading, transport and unloading, floorallowance, deck heights, journey management, vehicle design, travel times, feeding and watering, driving quality, are covered.In sum, those transporting horses must do so by a means which

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maximises the safety of handler and live cargo, employs no coercive tactics, and allows the horse to assume a restful position in transit. The compilers do a thorough job of summarizing various research into the problems of transporting horses.

National Equine Welfare Council. 2008. Equine industry welfare guidelines compendium for horses, ponies and donkeys. 3rd edn. 54p

A U.K. guideline to the 2006 animal welfare acts in England, Wales, and Scotland. A cogent guide to body condition scoring, feeding, discipline, health, casualties, paperwork, housing, export, riding schools and liveries, fire, emergencies, fallen stock, the section on transport deals with types of vehicles, loading density, space requirements, segregation of genders and sizes, lairage, feed, water, and rest. The regulations and documentation apply differently according to whether an animal isregistered or unregistered, the destination, and the horse’s declared value. Commercial transport must be authorised by Animal Health and conform to complex regulations. Competency certificates are emphasised. The authors recommend freedom of movement of the head and neck to balance themselves and be allowed to lie down, especially if a foal or young horse subjected to a long journey.

Plath, B., A. Schutte. 1990. Height of the withers as a basis for calculating the minimum height of horse transporters. Das Stockmass des Widerristes als Grundlage zur Berechnung der Mindestraumhohe von Pferdetransporten. Tierarztliche-Umschau. 45:12. 9 ref. pp. 853-859.German with summary in English.

The 2 metre statutory height of horse transporters allows an

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increase for horses taller than 155 cm at the withers. Surveys reveal that the statutory height is insufficient. Small horses up to 148 cm and large horses from 170 cm did not exceed 40 cm inheight difference between head and withers. Transporters shoulduse the tallest horses at the withers plus 58 cm.

Reece, V. P., T.H. Friend, C.H. Stull. 2000. Equine slaughter transport: Update on research and regulations. Jl. of the American Veterinary Medical Association. 15 April. 216:8 bib. il. p. 1253-8.

Whiting, T.L. and R. A. Sauder. 2000. Headroom requirements for horses in transit. Canadian Veterinary Jl. Vol. 41. February. 1 fig. 5 refs. 132-133

Prepared with a view to modifying federal headroom clasuses, the authors note that current codes do not provide sufficient headroom to allow a full range of head motion for horses in transit in double-deck trailers.

Surface Transport

ADAS. 2008. Study to assess the effects of handling and transport on ‘unbroken’ ponies. Aug 31. randd.defra.gov.uk/Document.aspx?Document=AW0934_7973 2 refs [Many references do not appear to have been affixed to the digitized version. sec] 27p

This two year study observed unbroken ponies loading, in transit, unloading, at the sales yards, eating and drinking behavior throughout. Weaned foals were less aggressive than yearlings. Providing communal water at all times risked the spread of disease. Providing individual drinking vessels was

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impractical. Handling boards were found to exacerbate loading ashandlers tended to get too close to ponies. Experienced stockmenand flags were recommended. Multiple loading docks would ease loading. Mixed ponies moved as far from each other as possible, including in the sales rings. Ponies unloaded more quickly over time but loading times for low, medium and high pressure tactics remained the same for each group.

Anzai, T., Y. Fukunaga, T. Matsumura., H. Imagawa, M. Oikawa. 2001. Serological examination for viral infection among young racehorses transported by vehicle over a long distance. Jl. of Equine Science: Japanese Society of Equine Science 12:4 135-137

Fevered horses did not reveal any evidence of viral infectionsthough 4 of the 11 nonfebrile horses travelling in the same van as two horses seropositive for corona virus, contracted that virus.

Ball, M. 1998. Transporting horses. TheHorse.com April ArticleID 0498. Illus. 17p

Ball cautions against driving a van or trailer like a car, use of the cell phone when under weigh, necessity for an assistant during the trip. Ball draws on S. Cregier’s Jl. of Equine Veterinary Science Nov/Dec 1982 review article, Reducing equine hauling stress. Loading and motion are the most stressful parts of any trip. Ball supports rear face transport. He notes that offering warm water to drink in cooler weather significantly increases the willingness of horses to drink. Horses’ condition is checked every 4 hrs or so and to allow male horses to stale. While layovers may be necessary for horse and driver, they can pose disease and injury hazaards. Monitor over-heating and air quality. Don’t clip a horse moving from a cold to warm climate until he reaches his destination. Diesel exhaust can be more

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harmful than petrol exhaust. Standard head restraint during transport increased inflammatoryairway secretions. Prophylactic doses of penicillin did not reduce these secretions in horses with elevated, restrained heads. Transporting colicked horses is fraught with peril. Equip the transport with both cell and CB – the latter warns ofdeveloping road and weather conditions. Do not unload horses or attempt to rescue them following an accident or breakdown. Keep a fire extinguisher up to date and rated for vehicle fires. Ball gives an excellent summary of S. L. Raidal et al’s work from the Australian Veterinary Jl. June 1997 on transport and respiratory tract contamination and blood neutrophil function.

Baucus, K.L., S.L. Ralston, C.F. Nockels, A.O. McKinnon, E.L. Squires. 1990. Effects of transportation on early embryonic death in mares. J. Animal Science 68 345-351 2fg 2tb 22 refs

Serum cortisol, progesterone, and plasma ascorbic acid levels in transported mares was investigated. Though changes indicatingacute stress were noted in the transported mares, 9h of transportat the 3rd or 5th week of gestation did not appear to directly affect early embryonic death.

van den Berg, J.S. 2001. Effect of transportation on horses. http://bigfive.jl.co.za/transport.htm46 refs 11p

van den Berg notes little research has been done to determine what could improve the safety of transported horses. Rear facinghorses maintained better balance during rough driving conditions.Head restraint increases the bacterial load in the airways. Environmental changes in air transport contribute to respiratory infections. Horses transported more than 300km had 41% increased

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creatine levels. Barren mares transported over 12 hours had no alteration in oestrus, ovulation, or pregnancy rates. White blood cell counts can predict stress-induced Salmonella. van den Berg also summarizes pre-travel preparation, care and monitoring during transport. The prophylactic use of antimicrobials might be effective if the horses are travelled more than 8-12 hours. Because of the effect on water balance, concentrates are avoided prior to and during transport in horses transported more than 8 hrs. Water is best offered every 2-4 hours especially if the environmental temperatures are high. Increase in water and electrolytes may be negated by a higher excretion rate. Laxatives can cause excessive fluid losses. Post-trip monitoring can be done as effectively by the experienced eye as by lab tests.

Clark, D.K., T.H. Friend, G. Dellmeier. 1993. The effect of orientation during trailer transport on heart rate, cortisol and balance in horses. Applied Animal Behaviour Science. 21 ref. 38(3/4). pp.179-189.

16 same sex Quarter Horses and QH-crosses were transported about 17 minutes on alternate sides of a trailer, facing fore or back. Heart rate was recorded during and after loading, at the start of the vehicle, during transit and a hard stop. Rear facing horses were better able to maintain their balance. Transport increased cortisol and heart rate overall, though heartrate decreased as the journey progressed.

Cregier, S. and O. Holmes. 2008. Welfare of horses during transport. In: Proceedings of the International Equine Science Meeting, University of Regensburg, Germany. Illus. 24 ref 8p

Authors describe on-going problems with standard transport, based on designs for dead weight, and attempts to solve or contain them by physical barriers, specialised training, or

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force. The alternative is balanced transport designed for live weight. Balanced transport allows the horse complete engagement-disengagement of head and hindquarters and thoracic sling is described. An increase in handler and automotive safety results.

Erichsen, C., V. Rootwelf. 1994. Transport stress in horses with various methods of transport. Norsk Veterinaertidsskrift. 5 ref. 106:7. pp. 561-564. Norwegian.

Racehorses accustomed to transport – 3 mares, 3 geldings, 4 stallions – had their heart rate monitored while transported alone ina single axle horse box for 45-90 minutes or together in atruck for 4-12 hours. The heart rates were significantly lower when transported together in the truck than in the horse box. All heart rates were higher than when in the stables.

Friend, T.H. 2001. Review of recent research on the transportation of horses. Jl. of Animal Science 2 fig 3 tb 39 refs. pE 79 - E 40 Online at: http://jas.fass.org

The most important factor in maintaining balance is room to raise and lower its head or hind quarters and to take at least one step in any direction. Densely loaded shipments impaired horses’ ability to balance, increased injuries, and prevented rising after falls. Future studies should investigate trailer design and materials. Horses remain the most frequently transported livestock.

Garey, S.M., T.H. Friend, D.H. Signler, et al. 2009. Effects ofloose groups vs. indvidual stalls during transport and group vs. stall housing on glucocorticosteroids and DHEA in naïve yearling horses. Jl. of Equine Veterinary Sceince 29:5 pp. 413-414

The study recorded cortisol and dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA)

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among groups of yearlings, totalling 20 and never previously transported, transported in individual stalls as recommended by 2005 European Union regulations requiring transport stalls for non-registered horse in transit.

The yearlings were transported in diagonal stalls or loose on the same truck and exchanged locations in the trailer between trials. The yearlings were also switched from group to individual housing at the barn to study the effect of stabling ontransport reactions.While the researchers found no significant differences in DHEA, corticosterone, or cortisol blood concentrations for the transported horses, differences were foundfor horses associated with different stabling. Horses separated from their group into individual stalls apapeared to suffer higher stress related changes.

Gibbs, A.E., T.H. Friend. 1999. Horse preference for orientation during transport and the effect of orientation on balancing ability. Applied Animal Behaviour Science. 63:1. 10 ref. p.1-9

12 horses were transported either tied to the left or right side or left loose in a straight-deck topless trailer, transported four at a time for 4 laps around a 3.6m rectangular course, reversing direction each lap. Bumps, 90, 45, and 135 degree turns, and a hard stop at the end of each lap were taken. Horses tied on the left spent 52% of the time angling at 22-67 degrees away from the direction of travel. Horses tied on the right spent 59% of the time facing the direction of travel at 112-157 degrees. Loose horses spent 57% of the time facing the direction of travel either 22 degrees to the left or 67 degrees to the right of parallel. Unshod horses shifted more than shod. Slanted 45 degrees forwards, 45 degrees backwards, parallel forward and parallel backward, the latter slipped more than parallel forward, slant

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back or slant forward. The authors conclude there is a preference for 45 degree orientation but no preference for the direction of travel and balance was not affected.

Heidemann, S. 1984. Loading of horses for transport. Untersuchungen über das Verladen von Pferden zum Autotransport. Giessen:Justus Liebig Universitat. 38 tab. 41 ref. pp 119 German

287 of 650 questionnaires were returned from horse owners on how they transported their animals, the loading techniques used, traffic accidents occurring, and how the horses traveled. 64 of 199 horses were considered difficult. The tables summarisethe findings.

Kawamoto, K., H. Sato, M. Oikawa, et al. 1996. Jl. of Equine Science 7:2, Tb., 15 refs. pp. 43-46. Neurotrophic peptide or nerve growth factor (NGF) helps maintain neurons and is a factor in the healthy function of certain neutrophils. NGF increases under stress and may play a role in the development of fever. Eleven healthy young horses were trucked 1,041 miles over the course of 36 hours. While all but 2 showed an increase in NGF, 5 horses were particularly affected and fevered. NGF is thought to be associated with a rapid rise in neutrophils associated with shipping fever.

Kusunose, R., K. Torikai. 1996. Behavior of untethered horses during vehicle transport. Jl. of Equine Science. 7:2. 6 ref. p. 21-26

12 yearling Thoroughbreds were loaded loose. They were subjected to both normal vehicle speeds and repeated sudden stops. On the road, the horses fed less. While parked, the

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horses spent more time stationary. During normal travel, the horses increasingly faced away from the direction of travel. Thenumber of direction changes by the horses subjected to the abruptstop travel, did not significantly change. Transporting restrained horses with their heads facing away from the directionof travel is recommended. Larter, C. and T. Jackson. 1987. Transporting Your Horse or Pony. (London: David & Charles).illus. index. 128 pp.

A study of the advantages and disadvantages of trailers and horseboxes. Precautions to take when loading and unloading, use of rugs and tack, safety and driving precautions, accidents, legal restraints, rail, sea and air transport. Describes and advocates the first marketed rear face trailer.

McCarthy, R.N., L.B. Jeffoctt, I.JJ. Clarke. 1993. Preliminary studies on the use of plasma beta-endorphin in horses as an indicator of stress and pain. Jl. of Equine Veterinary science. 24 ref. 13:4, pp. 216-219.Immunoreactive beta endorphin, considered to be an indicator of stress, was measured in horses exposed to stressful activity and clinical situations. One hour of trailer transport did not increase the ir beta EP for horses accustomed to travelling.

Smith, B.L., J.H. Jones, G.P. Carlson, J.R. Pascoe. 1994. Body position and direction preferences in horses during road transport. Equine Veterinary Jl. 10 refs. 26:5, p.374-377.

--------. [The same article was also published in the American Jl. of Veterinary Research 55:7, July 1994, pp. 1007-1011].

Thoroughbred geldings transported loose and singly in a 4-horse stock trailer over a 32 km country road were studied in

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transit and while the trailer was stationary. The horses spent significantly more time facing away from the direction of travel but not when parked.

Smith, B.L., J.H. Jones, G.P. Carlson, J.R. Pascoe. 1994. Effectof body direction on heart rate in trailered horses. American Jl. of Veterinary Research. 17 ref. 55:7. pp. 1007-1011 Heart rates were higher for 8 Thoroughbred geldings, front or back facing, when transported loose in a stock trailer 32km on a country road. HR was not significantly different between horses facing forward or backward during transport or parked.

Smith, B.L., J.A. Miles, J.H. Jones, N.H. Willits. 1996. Influence of suspension, tires and shock absorbers on vibration in a two-horse trailer. Transactions of the ASAE. 39:3. 11 ref. pp. 1083-1092

Leaf-spring and torsion-bar, bias ply and normal and low pressure radials, and shock absorbers were evaluated. The trailer was a bumper-pull, 2-horse, tandem axle, forward facing trailer. Up and down movements were measured on each wheel and corner while the trailer crossed 14 25mm diameter cables aat intervals of 4.8 meters. Speeds were 40, 56 and 72km/h. Initial tests used 5 steel barrels weighing a total of 1000kg. These indicated that a leaf-spring with low pressure radials and no shock absorbers provided the smoothest ride. Bias-ply, with leaf spring and no shocks were also similar. Combined with normal pressure radials, the torsion bar gave theroughest ride. Shcok absorbers did not tend to improve ride quality. Horses transported 2 at a time over various combinations included measurements of acceleration on left and right front trailer subframe, left front hoof and left trunk of one horse andright of the other. Leaf spring with low pressure radials was smoothest. Horses on the right side suffered more vibration than

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horses on the left, possibly due to poorer asphalt edge conditions.

Stull, C., J. Morrow, B.A. Aldridge, et al. 2008. Immunophysiological responses of horses to a 12-hour rest during 24 hours of road transport. Veterinary Record May 10. 162:19 2figs. 2 tb. 19 refs. pp.609-614.

Thirty-eight horses were subjected to either a 24 hour non-stop journey or a 12 hour journey followed by a 12 hour rest period and concluding with a second 12 hour journey. the horses were transported loose in a straight deck commercial trailer and were not fed or watered during transit. There was no bedding. Six control horses from each group remained in paddocks and were not transported. The researchers compensated for diurnal differences in the blood samples collected. Following the transport experiment, Steptococcus equi was found in 7 of the 24 hourtransported horses and in 12 of the horses given the 12 hour rest, and two control horses in each group. A 12-hour rest maintained less disturbance to the lymphocytes andother cells and allowed some recovery. Horses given the 12 hour rest recovered faster than those transported non-stop for 24 hours.

Stull, C., A. Rodiek. 2003. Horse Report. How cross-tying affects horses during transport. October. 21:4 2p

Summary of work of C. Stulls and A. Rodiek on physiological responses of horses during transport when cross tied or loose. Tied horses had larger increases of stress parameters, especiallyserum cortisol, 24 hours following transport than loose horses. Restricted head movement compromised the immune system. The researchers recommend a small box stall for travel or, if ties are used, unloading every 6 to 8 hours to graze, move and rest.

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Stull, C., A.V. Rodiek. 2000. Physiological responses of horses to 24 hours of transportation using a commercial van during summer conditions. Jl. of Animal Sceience. 78:6, 1458-1466. 34 ref.

6 mares, 9 geldings of various breeds were transported in a commercial van 24 hours for 1622km in California summer conditions. Weight, body temperature, cortisol, lactate, and white blood cell counts showed a diurnal varation prior to transport. Body weight on unloading showed a 6% loss. WBC rose during transport, peaking at the end of transport. Dehydration increased during transport as did lactate, creatine kinase and aspartate aminotransferase. Glucose concentration increased withtransport and did not return to baseline at the end of the 24 hour post-transport period. Changes in muscle and energy metabolism could affect perfomance. Cortisol, neutrophil, lymphocyte also increased during transport, returning to baselineduring the post-transport period. These measurements indicated increased disease susceptibility and an effect on the horses’ athletic performance.

Stull, C. 1997. Physiology, balance, and management of horses during transportation. In: Proceedings: Horse Breeders and Owners Conference. Alberta, Canada. Jan. 10-12. Alberta Agricultural, Food and Rural Development. 17 refs. http://www.agric.gov.ab.ca/livestock/horses/hbo9703.html

Stull reviews the understandings to date on how a horse balances, the biochemical reaction of the body to transport, assessing stress, care before and during transit, health problemsin transit. Although Stull refers to a rear facing horse as displacing its weight to its hindquarters during braking, Roberts(whose paper she is describing), illustrated the weight displacement, correctly, as being maintained over the

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forequarters.

Knowles, T.G., S.N. Brown, S.J. Pope, C.J. Nicol, P.D. Warriss, C.A. Weeks. (2009) Response of untamed (unbroken) ponies to conditions of road transport. In press: Animal Welfare or from Defra at:http://randd.defra.gov.uk/Default.aspx?Menu=Menu&Module=More&Location=None&Completed=0&ProjectID=13767#RelatedDocuments 14 refs. 7 figs. 5 tb. 26pp

145 semi-feral ponies were transported singly, from the same farm over the same route to the same abattoir on a commercial air-sprung truck between January 2006 to May 2007. They were carried in groups of four or eight at both low and high stocking density rates. Blood samples and cameras recorded the effects. Lower stocking density afforded lower plasma cortisol and creatine kinase, reduced aggression and fewer losses of balance. Factors contributing to aggression were also recorded. The ponies ranged in age from under 6 mos. to 25-30 years old. The European legislation, drafted primarily for tame equidae, does not necessarily meet the requirements of feral animals. Droving and race facilities are described.

Waran, N., V. Robertson, D. Cuddeford, A. Kokoszko, D. Marlin. 1996. Effects of transporting horses facing either forwards or backwards on their behaviour and heart rate. Veterinary Record. 139:1, 10 ref. p. 7-11.

Transported in pairs in a lorry, six Thoroughbreds were transported facing one way on one leg of the journey and the reverse on another leg for a one-hour route. Sampled every minute, heart rates were significantly lower in rear facing horses and they tended to rest their rumps more. In the forward-facing position, the horses shifted more often, held their necks

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in a higher than normal position and called out more frequently. Backing the horses into the horse van, heart rates were lower. Heart rates during loading and unloading showed no difference in peak or average rate.

Ventilation

"Guide to the Ventilation of Livestock During Transport", Petter Kettlewell (Silsoe Research Institute), Malcolm Mitchell (Roslin Institute), Eddie Harper (Livestock Transport Consultant), April,2003 Available from the ATA website under research papers or Since November 2009 as a pdf from the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. http://www.fao.org/ag/againfo/programmes/animal-welfare/aw-docum/codes-of-practice-and-recommendations/en/item//icode/2/?no_cache=1

The U.K.’s DEFRA (Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs) funded this investigation into the ventilation requirements of livestock transport vehicles. While ideal body temperatures for sheep, cattle, calves, and pigs are delineated, this guide is applicable to other species as well. This is a readable introduction to the intricacies of air passage – counter-intuitively, it passes from back to front – through a typical transporter. The factors involved affect domestic and exotic animals. Behavioral responses to heat or cold stress are also listed. The desirability and limits of mechanical and passive ventilation systems are noted.

Mather, Ross. 1999. Grand prairie area loses four rodeo athletes. Robin’ & Rodeo News. February. Reprinted in Horse Action International, March 10:3 p. 15

On arrival at destination, the author and friends discover that

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their four horses are dead in the horse trailer from carbon monoxide. Author advises against idling tow or van while horses are aboard and avoid parking near vehicles which are also idling..

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