anth.309: ppt. lecture-8: dynasties 0-2 elite tombs (e.g., abydos vs. saqqara), saqqara elite tombs,...

ANT 309:

Egypt in the Age of the Pyramids

(Predyn.–Second Intermediate Period: 5,000-1550 BC)

Lecture 8:Early Dynastic Egypt: Dyns.0-2

© Notes & images compiled by Gregory Mumford 2016

How does one determine the location of a royal burial in Dyns.0 and 1-2?

• An Egyptological debate arose in the late 1800s–early 1900s, & continued later,

regarding whether Egypt’s earliest kings were buried at Abydos or Saqqara.

• Items bearing royal names appeared in BOTH the Abydos tombs (at Umm el-

Qaab) and in multiple tombs at Saqqara –during Dynasties 1-2.

• The Abydos tombs had small-medium subterranean substructures, and lay far

to the south of the capital at Memphis (beside the Saqqara cemetery).

• The Saqqara tombs had small-medium substructures & huge superstructures,

and lay near the capital at Memphis (beside the Saqqara cemetery).

• Some MK-NK evidence emerged for the building of royal cenotaph tombs

(i.e., dummy tombs) at Abydos, which later became equated with Osiris’ burial

place and a cult centre for Osiris.

• Could Abydos contain small royal cenotaph tombs?, whilst the real, huge royal

tombs lay at Saqqara, beside the royal capital? (still debated into 1980s-1990s).

• Why did multiple large tombs at Saqqara yield the royal names of individual

rulers? Did this represent queens and princes associated with each ruler?

• Could a closer study of various features from both the Abydos and

Saqqara tombs yield an answer and resolve this issue???

EARLY DYNASTIC

Mortuary Architecture:

TOMBS

Housing for the Dead.

Royal Tombs

Versus

High Officials

Saqqara

Abydos

ROYAL TOMBS

Location of the royal burials

Saqqara versus Abydos

ABYDOS:

SAQQARA:

EARLY DYNASTIC (Dyns.1-2) ROYAL TOMBS at Abydos:

• Note: The Abydos Umm el-Qaab tombs had a link(?) with what

were initially a few separate, large enclosures in the valley.

Dynasty 1 Elite Saqqara tombs (top) versus Abydos royal tombs (bottom)

Aha Djer Djet Merneith

(or Den)

Adjib?

or

Semerkhet

Dyns.1-2

Saqqara elite

tombs (top)

versus

Dyns.1-2

Abydos

royal tombs

(bottom)

Qa‘a? Peribsen Khasekhemwy

No comparable tombs

from Saqqara

The Location of the Royal Burial Place (Saqqara vs. Abydos)

SAQQARA: (New capital) ABYDOS: (traditional hometown)

Large mastaba superstructure No surviving superstructures



Mastaba tomb not specific to Superstructure type unknown

royal burials (= elite) (except in one case?)



Small substructure (burial rm.) Same/larger substructure (burial)



Subsidiary burials outside tomb Subsidiary burials in two tombs,+



Some boat burials (private) Fleet of boat burials: “W. Mastaba”

(NB: Also at Helwan) (later popular in royal tombs)



1 hidden mound (Qn.Her-neith) Subterranean mounds (+ surf. Mound?)

and stepped structure No stepped precursor to Step

(S3038) over burial shaft Pyramid (only a funerary

and under mastaba. enclosure, like Sed court)

(precursor to Step Pyramid)



NO restrictions on the quantity Umm el-Qaab burial ground

of elite burials at North restricted to burials of

Saqqara (and retainers) rulers ONLY (and their

immediate retainers)



NO twin stelae (Dyns.1, late 2) Twin royal stelae (D.1, late D.2)



Twin stelae (early Dynasty 2) NO twin stelae (early Dyn.2)

= Royal tombs at Saqqara = No royal tombs at Abydos



NO funerary enclosure Funerary enclosure per king

(except for northern royal burials) (+ subsidiary burials)



Some subsidiary burials More subsidiary burials;Djer=580



Numerous jar-sealings of kings Numerous jar sealings of kings

in multiple tombs of (one elite tomb per ruler)

high officials (not all can

be royal tombs)



Narmer & Semerkhet not All Dyn.1 & late Dyn.2 kings

attested by sealings attested by sealings



New capital at Memphis Abydos = traditional home of

(administrative centre) Thinite rulers (*Dyn.1)



Mastabas with mound and Umm el-Qaab subterranean mound

stepped structure are (and Hierakonpolis temple

precursors to Step Pyr. “mound”) may =precursors to

Step Pyr. within its enclosure

Saqqara

Abydos

ROYAL TOMBS

Location of the royal burials

confirmed mostly at Abydos

LATE PREDYNASTIC

TO EARLY DYNASTIC:

Ca. 3,200 - 2686 BC

HIGH OFFICIALS

TOMBS AT SAQQARA:

ABYDOS:

SAQQARA:

North Saqqara mastabas

Saqqara:

Mastaba tombs of

the elite.

Saqqara: Elite tombs, high officials

North Saqqara tombs:

• Mud brick, rectilinear superstructures

with elaborate buttressing & niching

(“palace façade”).

• Double enclosure wall around Tomb 3357

(an official under King Aha).

• Subterranean burial chamber and side

magazines (variability in plans and time).

• Superstructure initially has many rooms

(e.g., Tomb 3357: 27 rooms for provisions)

• Tomb 3357 had a small model estate in

mud brick on its exterior the north side:

Buildings, granaries, and boat grave at

a small scale

• NB: Some retainer burials for D.1 officials.

(Separate burial pits around mastaba)

• Dynasty 2 elite tombs vary much more in

size and details.

Saqqara

Abydos

Saqqara: Mastaba tombs of the elite.

Dynasties 1-2: Mastaba tomb types.

Two niches on Eastern side (perhaps emulating king’s twin stelae)

Southern niche most important chapel

Dynasty 2: mastabas.Substructure:

- Larger subterranean burial

complexes duplicating houses:

For example:

- Burial chamber = bedroom

- Side chamber = dressing rm.

- Side room = water jars

Superstructure:

- Generally became simpler.

- Palace façade decreased D.1

- Some tombs already had stela

Dynasty 2: Stela of a princess.

Offerings depicted for provisioning for the afterlife (= insurance!).

Dynasty 2: Stela of an official.

Saqqara Dynasties 1-2: Subterranean stairway access.

Dyn.2 / 3: - Rectilinear “House” coffin for contracted/flexed burial.

Private - Panelled coffins from Saqqara, Tarkhan, and Beni Hasan.

- Previous coffins comprised of rectangular wooden boxes.

The “short coffin” (for contracted/flexed burials)

The later “long coffin” (for extended burials)

Provisions:

Early Dynastic mastaba tombs are characterized by many chambers and/or

numerous containers with provisions for the afterlife: i.e., ensuring food supply.

Saqqara Dynasties 1-2: Mastaba tombs.

• Model estate i.e., dwelling in afterlife

• Boat burials i.e., transport in afterlife (rare)

Some other boat burials at Helwan (options).

Saqqara:

- Retainer burials

Tarkhan:

- Poor burial

LATE PREDYNASTIC

TO EARLY DYNASTIC:

Ca. 3,200 - 2686 BC

LOWER OFFICIALS’

TOMBS AT HELWAN:

Early Dynastic Helwan:

• Opposite Saqqara, East Bank of Nile

• Major cemetery for lower officials, etc.

HELWAN: Early Dynastic cemetery- 10,000 middle-lower class tombs & graves

Some wealthy tombs at Helwan

EARLY DYNASTIC

Ca. 3000 - 2686 BC

Private coffins

& early mummification?

Dyn.1 Tarkhan:

Short coffin

Length 91.2 cm.

- Wooden components

often recycled from parts

used in housing, etc.

- Traces of linen reveal that

the deceased had been

wrapped originally.

- Body flexed on right side.

PRIVATE MUMMIFICATION: Dyn.2 Saqqara:

• Female body excavated by Quibell in 1911.

• Body flexed on its left side.

• Probably treated with natron(?).

• Linen wrapped skull and limbs remaining (over 16 layers).

• Limbs wrapped individually.

• Outer linen layer modelled to portray genitalia.

Dyn.2 / 3: Rectilinear “House” coffin for contracted/flexed burial.

Private Panelled coffins from Saqqara, Tarkhan, and Beni Hasan.

Previous coffins comprised of rectangular wooden boxes.

- The “short coffin” (for contracted burials)

- The “long coffin” (for extended burials)

- i.e., emerging changes in mortuary practices

LATE PREDYNASTIC

TO EARLY DYNASTIC:

Ca. 3,200 - 2686 BC

OTHER BURIALS

IN EARLY DYN. EGYPT:

Other Early Dynastic cemeteries:

• Minshat Abu Omar (Delta) yielded

8 elite burials and smaller graves

implies local social hierarchy

(administrative officials)

• Tarkhan: yielded pit graves with a

mud brick lining, wood lining, and

roofing.

• Hierakonpolis: produced simple pit

graves with a few pots.

• Naqada has a massive mastaba

tomb, associated with a queen,

suggesting she originated from here.

• Hence, we see a complex hierarchy

reflected in the mortuary customs.

• Otherwise, there is a concentration of

numerous ED burials and wealth near

the new capital: Memphis.








roofing.











Dyn.1 Tarkhan: Short coffin 91 cm

Wooden components often recycled

from parts used in housing, etc.

Traces of linen reveal that deceased

had been wrapped originally.

Body flexed on right side.

Early Dynastic and residual appearance later: Container burials with lids.

E.g., Early Dynastic burial from Beni Hasan.








roofing.











Simple tumulus burials

- Continuing into ED period

EARLY DYNASTIC

Domestic Architecture:

DWELLINGS

Housing for the living.

Protodynastic – Early Dynastic rendition of settlements:

Early Dynastic Palace:The royal palace/serekh enclosing the

King’s name (e.g., Djet) in a palace

surmounted by the royal Horus falcon.

Palace façade: initially represents a timber

and matting structure with door rolls.

The Palace Façade & Bovines:

• Façade surmounted by Bovine heads

• Narmer’s apron: bovine heads & tail

• Private niched tomb with bovine heads

• Royal Bull motif (= an elite-royal motif).

Hierakonpolis

Hierakonpolis:

Early Dynastic

“palace” entryway

and part of the

adjacent town.

Hierakonpolis:

Early Dynastic state structure:

“Palace” or similar elite building.

Postdates earlier temple mound

to south (different alignment).

Administrative centres:

• A variety of administrative centres

are evident throughout ED Egypt:

Hierakonpolis:

• ED town at Kom el-Ahmar.

• Niched mud brick complex

ED “palace” vs. administrative

centre.

• appears to be state-built structure!

Hierakonpolis

Hierakonpolis

Early Dynastic

Palatial entry

with niched

royal gateway

enclosing the

town behind it.

Kemp (2005): reconstruction.

Buto:Stratum 5

Early Dynastic

town (Dyn.2/3).

Very large elite /

public structure with

some buttressing.

Buto: Stratum 5 Early Dynastic town (Dyn.2/3).

Suggestions: (1) Part of a funeral complex

(2) Part of a royal estate (residential)

(3) Elite structure with another function

Walls preserved to 60 cm in height

• Paved and decorated with colours (geometrical patterns)

• wooden roof destroyed by fire

• seal impressions and much pottery

Elephantine (Aswan):

Early Dynastic settlement

at Egypt’s southern

frontier.

Fort and town.

ABU = “Ivory Town”

Elephantine

Elephantine: Early Dynastic – Old Kingdom

town.

Elephantine (Aswan)• 50 x 50 m Dynasty 1 fort

protecting Egypt from A-Group

Nubians (ca. 3,500-3,000 BC)

Aswan (Elephantine): Early Dynastic to Old Kingdom town.

East Island:

Satet shrine

Housing

Dynasty 1

Fort

Name:

Abu = “Ivory”

= trade with

Nubia

Aswan pink

Granite =

an additional

resource.

El-Kab:

Early Dynastic

settlement remains.

El-Kab

El-Kab:

New evidence

argues that

circular wall

= OK-FIP

Town wall cross-section

EARLY DYNASTIC

Cultic Architecture:

TEMPLES

Housing for the gods.

Early Dynastic cult centres:

• Evidence from some texts, pictorial

representations, & archaeology.

Buto:

• Mud brick shrine dating to Narmer

(beside an ED “palace” complex).

Elephantine:

• An early shrine to goddess Satet

Hierakonpolis:

• A mound of clean sand 42 x 48 m

• A stone revetment wall around it.

• Main Deposit:

- King Scorpion macehead

- Stone statuettes of Khaserkhem

- Small votive figurines

- Hundreds of ivory items

Early Dynastic glyptic art:

Emblem of goddess Neith

E.g., Protodynastic Hierakonpolis

Early Dynastic glyptic art:

Emblem of goddess Neith




Buto:



Elephantine:


Hierakonpolis:



• Main Deposit:





Buto: Early Dyn. shrine.

Temple of Wadjet cobra

goddess.

Dyn.1: “Two Ladies” title

(Nebty-name)

Pyramid Texts: Wadjet

associated with Dep

(one of twin cities of Buto:

Pe and Dep).

Buto = NW Delta

4 x 7 m Early Dynastic shrine

Buto: Early Dyn. shrine.

Temple of Wadjet cobra

goddess.

Dyn.1: “Two Ladies” title

(Nebty-name)

Pyramid Texts: Wadjet

associated with Dep

(one of twin cities of Buto:

Pe and Dep).

Buto

Elephantine (Aswan):

Early Dynastic shrine to Satet: 8 x 10 m

- A local, late Predynastic goddess

at Abu: “Ivory/Elephant Town”

(= later Elephantine; Aswan).

Elephantine




Buto:



Elephantine:


Hierakonpolis:



• Main Deposit:





HIERAKONPOLIS:

- Early Dynastic shrine and votive

Offerings below Old Kingdom level.

Temple of Horus of Nekhen

- Closely associated with kingship

- Falcon-deity worshipped at several

sites (Hierakonpolis; Edfu;

Tell el-Belamun; Letopolis)

Hierakonpolis

Models and glyptic

revealing various

designs for Early

Dynastic shrines:

Plus evidence for ...

(a). Timber frame;

(b). Mat covering;

(c). Interior altar/shrine

(d). Interior cult figure(s)

(e). Range in size from

small to large shrine

(f). Various types of votive

offerings, food, drink, +

(g). Private to state cult

centres (for deities)

(h). Private-royal mortuary

cults ...

Early Dynastic to Old Kingdom votive deposits from

a. Elephantine

b. Hierakonpolis

c. Abydos

- animal & human figures

- stone & ivory figurines

- scorpion & scorpion tails

- Plaques with animal heads

(e.g., hedgehog popular at

Elephantine)

- Vases

- Maceheads

- Palettes

- Natural pebbles

& flint nodules

Hierakonpolis:•Early Dynastic Temple wall block fragment of granodiorite (Khaserkhemwy)

Temple

of Horus

King and goddess

Seshat in a temple

foundation ritual:

laying out four

foundation pegs.

Hierakonpolis

Gebelein:

Early Dynastic Temple wall block

fragment (temp. Khaserkhemwy).

Temple of Hathor

- King participating in a foundation

ritual (well-attested later in Egypt).

- Deity closely associated with

motherhood (often shown as a cow)

Gebelein

LATE PREDYNASTIC

TO EARLY DYNASTIC:

Ca. 3,200 - 2686 BC

International

Relations:

PREDYNASTIC – ED

EGYPTIAN

ITEMS, MATERIALS

& INFLUENCE IN

SW PALESTINE:

MESOPOTAMIA

SYRIA

PALESTINE

N. SINAI

S. SINAI

Expanding Early Dynastic State:

• Egyptian influence appears to have

expanded abroad in Dyn.0 -early Dyn.1

a.Lower Nubia: A-Group

b.N-Sinai-S.Palestine EB Age Canaan

North Sinai-South Palestine:

North Sinai (& South Sinai [Den])

• Seasonal camps yield

serekh-names on pottery jars

(= mostly King Narmer)

• Most jars = Egyptian fabrics

• Some jars = local imitations

South Palestine:

• En-Besor (st.III) has yielded pots with

serekh-names: Djer, Den, Anedjib,

Semerkhet(?) (90+ seal impressions)

• Mostly Egyptian pottery (bread moulds)

• Site interpreted as a customs station

• Egypt loses control of this area when

Early Bronze Age Canaanite cities

extend control into this region.

South Palestine

N. Sinai

PALESTINE / CANAAN (SW LEVANT):

Agricultural produce: e.g.,

-Olive oil

-Wine-Resins

-Livestock & by-products

Minerals, etc.: e.g.,

-Bitumen (Dead Sea)-Salt

-Sulphur

Metals: e.g.,

-Copper (Wadi Feinan, N. Arabah)

Finished products: e.g.,

-Stone vessels (EB I)

-Flints

-Pottery vessels (containers for other items)

Security: e.g.,

-Asiatic Bedouin & city states

Trade routes:

-Eliminate costly “middleman” to SYRIA

Personnel: e.g.,

-Captives / slaves labour source

Late Predyn.-ED Egypt

has intense contact with

N. Sinai S. Palestine:

It held highly desirable

materials & commodities

SYRIA

Predynastic

Egyptian

influence in

**Chalcolithic and

*EB I-II South Sinai:

• Egyptian pottery

• Egyptian beads

• Egyptian molluscs

(Aspatharia Rubens)

**Chalcolithic = much of the Predynastic period in Egypt

*EB I = Early Bronze Age I in Syria-Palestine

= contemporary with late Predyn. – early Dyn.1 in Egypt.

EB II = Early Bronze Age II in Syria-Palestine

= contemporary with late Dyn. 1 to Dyn. 2 in Egypt.

Predynastic

Egyptian

influence

in EB I South

Palestine (late

Predyn.-Dyn.1):

Egyptian-style

buildings at ...

(a) En-Besor &

(b) Tel Erani

Trade vs. Colony

Mound of En-Besor

Predyn. Egyptian products in Chalcolithic

and EB I (Predyn.-Dyn.1) South Palestine:

• Egyptian imported pottery

• Locally-made Egyptian pottery

• Hybrid Egyptian-Palestinian forms

• Pottery incised with Egyptian serekh-names

(Kings Ka; Scorpion?; Narmer; Aha; Den?).

Significance: Control? Trade? Diplomacy? Etc.

Predynastic

Egyptian

products in

Chalcolithic

and EB I

S. Palestine:

Egyptian-style

flint tools

Chalcolithic = much of Predynastic.

EB I = Early Bronze Age I in Syria-Palestine

contemporary with late Predyn.- Dyn.1

EB II = Early Bronze Age II (late Dyn.1 – Dyn.2)

Predynastic

Egyptian

products in

Chalcolithic

and EB I-II

S. Palestine:

Egyptian-style

copper tools

Predynastic

Egyptian

products in

Chalcolithic

and EB I

S. Palestine:

Egyptian-style

Stone palettes





Predynastic

Egyptian

Products

in Chalcolithic

and EB I South

Palestine:

• possibly Egy.

“alabaster”

(i.e., calcite)

mace heads

Note: debated

origin for

pear-shaped

mace heads

(Egypt versus

Palestine).

Predynastic

Egyptian

Products

in Chalcolithic

and EB I South

Palestine:

Egyptian

jewellery





Predynastic

Egyptian

Products

in Chalcolithic

and EB I South

Palestine:

Egyptian/Nile

molluscs

(Aspatharia

rubens)

Nile catfish

PREDYNASTIC – ED

EGYPTIAN

ITEMS, MATERIALS

& INFLUENCE IN

SYRIA-LEBANON:

MESOPOTAMIA

SYRIA

PALESTINE

N. SINAI

S. SINAI

Predynastic

Egyptian

influence

in EB I

Syria:

• Egyptian

pottery

a). Lug-handled

vessels

(F-ware)





PREDYNASTIC – ED

EGYPTIAN

ITEMS, MATERIALS

& INFLUENCE IN

MESOPOTAMIA:

Predynastic+

Egyptian

influence

in EB I

Mesopotamia

• Non-

indigenous

gold from

Tepe Gawra

Egyptian gold?

GOLD?The only preserved Egyptian(?)

trade product with Mesopotamia

(probably also aromatics, etc.)

EARLY BRONZE I-II

NEAR EASTERN

ITEMS, MATERIALS

& INFLUENCE IN

PREDYN-ED EGYPT:

MESOPOTAMIA

SYRIA

PALESTINE

N. SINAI

S. SINAI

SOUTHWEST ASIA:

AFGHANISTAN:

- Lapis lazuli (indirect trade)

MESOPOTAMIA:

Sumer; Babylonia; Assyria

Pottery (containers):

- Late Uruk ware (EB I-II)

Seals/amulets:

- Cylinder seals (EB I-II)

Architecture:

- Niched / palace façade

- ”Wall cones” (e.g., Buto?)

Motifs:

- Hero separating 2 animals

- Boats

- Garments, etc.

?

Syro-Mesopotamian relations / trade with Egypt

SYRIA

MESOPOTAMIA

Mesopotamian Products in Predynastic

Egypt: Lapis lazuli from Afghanistan

• Lapis lazuli as inlay in 5th millennium BC+

• Lapis lazuli as jewellery (Tomb 11 Hierakonpolis)

Mesopotamian

Influence in

Protodynastic to

Early Dynastic

Egypt:

• Buildings with a

niched façade.

(“palace façade”)

Egyptian mastaba:

Mesopotamian

Influence in

Protodynastic to

Early Dynastic

Egypt:

• Palace façade

motif:

Egyptian mastaba: Sumer (Uruk 4ab) Sumer (Susa):

Mesopotamian

Influence in

Protodynastic to

Early Dynastic

Egypt:

Mosaic wall-cones?

Buto (tenuous

connection): Mesopotamia:

Mesopotamian

Products in

Protodynastic to

Early Dynastic

Egypt:

• Mesopotamian

pottery in Egypt

Mesopotamian

Influence in

Protodynastic

To Early

Dynastic Egypt:

• Cylinder seals

& sealing

impressions

in Egypt

Mesopotamian

Influence in

Protodynastic

to ED Egypt:

“Gilgamesh”-hero

figure separating

two animals

Mesopotamian

Influence in

Protodynastic

to ED Egypt:

Mesopotamian-

Style garments

(including hat)

Egypt:

Gebel el-Arak

Knife handle:

Mesopotamian

Influence in

Protodynastic

to ED Egypt:

• Mesopotamian-

animals with

entwined necks

Sumeria

Mesopotamian

Influence in

Protodynastic

to ED Egypt:

• The Mesopotamian

language is (mostly) no

longer believed to have

influenced development

of Egyptian hieroglyphs

LOWER NUBIA:

A-GROUP culture(contemporary with

Egyptian Naqada 1-3+)

ca. 4,000 – 3,000+ BC

A-Group culture: (4000-3000 BC)

Lower Nubia (N. Sudan):

• Distinct Lower Nubian culture

• Lies south of Aswan: 1st to 2nd Cataracts.

• Contemporary with Naqada I-III

• Mostly represented by excavated graves

(including G.A. Reisner excavations)

• A-Group pottery:

Characteristic “egg-shell” ware beakers

• A few graves have leather clothing, bags,

and headgear with a fringe.

• Some graves have animals (goats; dogs)

• Egyptian (Naqada) items are present,

reflecting trade (beer; wine; oil).

• Virtually no A-Group items in Egypt

(which desired African materials: ivory+)

BUT still have pottery, etc. From Nubia.

Predynastic

Egyptian

influence

in A-Group

Nubia (Sudan)

4,000-3000 BC

Egy. Naqada 2

Pottery, etc.



• Some settlements have been found:

a. Reed huts

b. Rock shelters

c. A few stone slab-based dwellings

• Agriculture emerges even later in Nubia,

ca. Naqada IIIb/Dyn.0-Dyn.1 (3000 BC)

at the time of Terminal A-Group.

• 3 major late A-Group sites = known

at Sayala, Dakka, and Qustul.

Qustul may yield evidence for a Nubian

king/chieftain:

- Wealthy A-Group graves with imported

Egyptian tools and stone containers.

- Mace heads with gold handles.

- A stone incense burner with a seated

ruler on a boat, holding a flail and

wearing Upper Egyptian White Crown.




a. Reed huts

b. Rock shelters








king/chieftain:







Mid-Late A-Group, Cemetery at Sayala




a. Reed huts

b. Rock shelters








king/chieftain:







Late A-Group,

Cemetery L

at Qustul

LATE PREDYNASTIC

TO EARLY DYNASTIC:

Ca. 3,200 - 2686 BC

SUMMARY:

Early Dynastic royal tombs versus elite tombs:

• Royal tombs begin to have distinct characteristics via royal name stelae,

large separate valley enclosures, and some Dyn.1 sacrificial retainer burials.

• Elite tombs begin to be distinct via their size and wealth in possessions and

provisions, and share some features with royal burials: buttressing & niches

(i.e., royal valley enclosures), boat burials, retainer burials, etc.

• Many ED royal burials are placed at Abydos, apparent home town of Egypt’s

earliest rulers and later associated with a deity: Osiris, Lord of the Dead.

• Some ED royal burials are placed at Saqqara (near capital at Memphis), and

may reflect either a personal preference to be associated with the new capital,

or a different family line: i.e., civil war? Usurper? Marriage ties with the North?

• The wealthiest, largest private burials in ED Egypt appear at Saqqara, and

reflect the location of both courtiers and the court at the capital: Memphis.

• A huge middle class cemetery appears at Helwan, SW of Saqqara/Memphis,

and represents the emerging bureaucracy that ran the new state administration.

• Most of ED Egypt, other than Saqqara and Abydos, lacked huge tombs &

wealth, arguing for a centralization of both power and wealth at the new capital

during this period: i.e., provincial high officials moving to, living at , and being

buried at Memphis (some lower level family & officials residing in provinces).

Emerging Early Dynastic burial practices and beliefs:

• Numerous real provisions (food and drink) of all types are placed in multiple

chambers adjacent to the burial chamber in elite – royal tombs.

• Many ED stelae portray elite seated at a banquet table receiving a choice

selection of food and drink –the base requirement of survival in life & afterlife.

• Many tombs contain furnishings and possessions that either replicate, or

represent, items used in daily life: bedding, furniture, clothing, jewellery, games,

hunting equipment, travel boats, etc.

• Some Dyn.1 royal & elite tombs have retainers placed in burials beside the

owner’s tomb, suggesting the requirement of service personnel to attend to the

elite during the afterlife.

• Some royal-elite tomb architecture replicates components from housing

in life: e.g., bedrooms; living rooms; storerooms; granaries; bathrooms; etc.

• Some elite burial features contain representative magic: i.e., models of

some things, such as model boat and an estate, may stand in for the real thing.

• A focal niche and chapel for family visits to the tomb superstructure imply a

felt need for delivering offerings before the portrait of the deceased at a banquet

(later expressing an invocation offering to priests & family on such stelae).

• The elite deceased is increasingly preserved as in life, and shown as in life.

Increasing social stratification and craft specialization in ED Egypt:

• The requirements of a larger state and an increasingly stratified society in-turn

creates more craft specialization and social stratification (graves tombs).

• Peasant farmers supplying needs of non-agricultural citizens within state.

• Lower level bureaucrats organizing & maintaining provincial farming, irrigation,

taxation, re-dispersal of materials & products, etc. between centre & provinces.

• Writing and mathematics: maintaining records, counting, communicating, etc.

from a low level to higher level bureaucrat (scribal schools and limited literacy).

• Diverse craftsmen producing tools, weapons, containers, jewellery, furniture,

ships, housing, temples, tombs, industrial components, and numerous other

things (1000s of diverse items from functional specialty items to luxury items).

• High level officials: ensuring the running of government, and other institutions,

including cultic activity.

• Priesthood and deities: ensuring the well-being of state and provincial deities,

their priesthoods, and the local-regional and state populace and land in general

i.e., Building, maintaining, embellishing, temples and priesthoods of deities.

i.e., Building and maintaining mortuary complexes & priesthoods for deceased

• Security and international relations: securing the nation, its borders, and its

relations with adjacent regions and peoples: military; emissaries; traders; etc.

Emerging urban lifestyle in ED Egypt:

• Many villages to larger towns in the Nile flood plain were sited on higher

ground, such as turtle backs (geziras) and relic levees (i.e., old river banks).

• The emerging provinces had larger/dominant towns, of which a few places

began emerging as a prime provincial centre within each province: e.g., seat of

a former Predynastic chieftain/ruler, a cultic centre (Hierakonpolis; Abydos),

a trading centre (Aswan), a strategic locality (Memphis), etc.

• Some towns have a fortification/enclosure wall (el-Kab; Aswan): i.e., a flood

barrier and defense (e.g., against desert tribes; other provinces; wild animals)

• Town shapes range from circular to ovoid, to irregular shapes.

• Town components vary depending upon individual status: i.e., state capital,

provincial capital, cultic centre, trading centre, agricultural town/village, etc.

E.g., Royal palace and administrative complex (presumed at Memphis);

E.g., Residences for high officials & bureaucracy (presumed at Memphis);

E.g., Residences for provincial administration (e.g., Buto; Hierakonpolis);

E.g., Residences for others: poorer to middle and upper classes (Awan);

E.g., Streets, open areas (markets), interior enclosures (temples; forts; palaces).

E.g., Diverse industrial quarters, workshops, etc. (including outside towns);

E.g., Temples, shrines, etc. within cities, towns and villages (varying in size);

E.g., Adjacent cemeteries (often in desert; on raised land in delta floodplain);

Emerging Early Dynastic temples and shrines:

• Most temples and shrines are built of unbaked mud brick, like housing, but

display one or inner sanctuaries (e.g., 3 living quarters for triad/family of deities),

outer halls (e.g., reception areas), and enclosures (separation from secular).

• Some late Early Dynastic temples display stone features or construction:

E.g., Khasekhemwy built a stone temple at Gebelein and Hierakonpolis.

• Temple architecture begins to become increasingly specialized:

E.g., Tripartite shrines, altars, decoration, enclosures, votive offerings, etc.

• Votive offerings display a range of wealth in materials, form, & intention:

E.g., Food offerings: i.e., sustenance for deities (and priesthood)

E.g., Everyday items: e.g., jewellery, clothing, etc. (i.e., clothing deity, etc.)

E.g., Specialized items for specific requests: e.g., leg model: healing ailing limb

• Some cult centres receive greater attention, reflecting greater importance:

E.g., Abydos cult and its links with ED royal burials and later Osiris cult.

E.g., Hierakonpolis cult and its link with Horus and state kingship

• Some cults remain fairly small and impoverished:

I.e., Minimal importance to the state and provincial officials

I.e., Maintained by local populace, addressing local needs

• Other cults become increasingly important as their role changes:

E.g., Satis cult in Elephantine; Min cult in Coptos (much later = stone temples).

Emerging and changing Predynastic-Early Dynastic international relations:

Mesopotamia:

• Lapis lazuli from Afghanistan; much influence and trade from Mesopotamia

(e.g., pottery; cylinder seals; building forms; wall cones?; art motifs; etc.)

Syria:

• Egyptian pottery, etc., in Syria (Byblos); Syrian pottery, etc., in Egypt.

North Sinai – Southern Palestine:

• Egyptian buildings, pottery, jewellery, weaponry, tools, palettes, local imitations,

and royal names across N. Sinai & in S. Palestine in late Predyn.-Dyn.1.

South Sinai:

• Turquoise in Predyn-ED Egypt; 1% Egyptian Dyn.1 pottery in S. Sinai (trade?)

Lower Nubia:

• Egyptian pottery, etc., in Lower Nubia; some Nubian pottery etc. in Egypt; trade

Upper Nubia and NE Ethiopia (“Punt”?):

• Probable ivory, incense, ebony [African Blackwood(?)], obsidian, etc.

Western Desert Oases (and Libyan tribesmen):

• Probable contact and trade with the oases & desert tribes: natron, etc.

Eastern Desert and Red Sea coast:

• Stone quarries (for construction, statuary, containers, and tools).

• Galena, copper, gold mines (for cosmetics, jewellery, tools, weaponry, etc.)

• Red Sea shells (for jewellery)

i.e., All areas outside Nile flood plain = “foreign lands” (friendly to hostile).

anth.309: ppt. lecture-8: dynasties 0-2 elite tombs (e.g., abydos vs. saqqara), saqqara elite tombs,...

Documents