agricultural production and marketing in peri-urban hanoi

Tran Duc Vien Nguyen Vinh Quang Pham Tien Dung

Bui Thi Gia

Agricultural production and marketing in peri-urban Hanoi

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AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION AND MARKETING IN PERI-URBAN HANOI Tran Duc Vien Nguyen Vinh Quang Pham Tien Dung Bui Thi Gia Hanoi, The Hague, February 2005 This report is a co-production of: Centre for Agricultural Research and Ecological Studies (CARES), Hanoi Agricultural University Wageningen University and Research Centre

Project background The urban growth in East and Southeast Asia is often faster than what governments and city planners

can manage. Consequently, the developments in the urban fringe are hard to control, resulting in

chaotic patterns of land use. Spatial and agro-ecological motivations hardly play a role in decision-

making about the form and the direction of urban expansion. To improve this situation an integrated

approach is needed which brings researchers, policymakers and other stakeholders in city planning,

waste management, food production, food safety and marketing together. For that purpose, a

consortium of research institutions from the Netherlands, Portugal, China and Vietnam started in

November 2002 a project with the title: “Seeking Synergy between Urban Growth, Horticulture and

Environment in Asian Metropolises” (SEARUSYN). The objective of the project is:

To contribute to the synergy between urban growth and agricultural development in the urban fringes

of Hanoi and Nanjing, to improve the welfare of rural and urban communities.

The project activities are divided in three phases of about one year each.

2003/04: City level analyses:

Platform building and pilot area selection: analyses at municipality level, identification of

major stakeholders, selection of pilot study areas

2004/05: Local level analyses:

Collecting and analysing relevant aspects of spatial, socio-economic and environmental

developments in the selected pilot study areas.

2005/06: Integration:

Formulating scenarios for sustainable horticulture in the pilot study areas.

The project is funded by the International Co-operation programme (INCO) of the European Union

(EU-RTD programme "Cooperation with third countries and international organizations") and the

International Co-operation Program of the Dutch Ministry of Agriculture, Nature and Food Quality.

Detailed information on project activities and outputs can be found at the project website:

www.searusyn.org

Project partners

www.lei.nl

Mr. Ben Kamphuis (Project co-ordinator) Agricultural Economics Research Institute (LEI) P.O. Box 29703 2502 LS the Hague,The Netherlands Tel: (+31) (0)70 3358329 Fax: (+31) (0)70 3615624 E-mail: [email protected]

www.alterra.nl

Dr. Leo van den Berg Alterra Green World Research P.O. Box 47 6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands Tel: +31 317 474435 Fax: + 31 317 42 4988 E-mail: [email protected]

www.plant.nl

Dr. Eefje den Belder Plant Research International P.O. Box 16 6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands Phone: +31 317 47 57 92 Fax: +31 317 41 80 94 E-mail: [email protected]

www.unl.pt

Prof. Ana Firmino Center of Studies for Geography and Regional Planning, New University of Lisbon Av. De Berna, 26-c 1069-061, Lisbon, Portugal Tel: 351-21-7933519 Fax: 351-21-7977759 E-mail: [email protected]

www.njau.edu.cn

Prof Qu Futian, China project team leader Dr. Guo Zhongxing, China project co-ordinator College of Land Management, Nanjing Agricultural University TongWei Road no. 6, Weigang 1 210095 Nanjing, China Tel: 86-25-4395078 / 4396531 Fax: 86-25-43976531 / 4395078 E-mail: [email protected]

www.hau1.edu.vn

Dr. Tran Duc Vien, Vietnam project team leader Mr. Nguyen Vinh QUANG, Vietnam project co-ordinator Centre for Agricultural Research and Ecological Studies (CARES) , Hanoi Agricultural University (HAU) Gia Lam Hanoi, Vietnam Tel: +84 (4) 8765607 Fax: +84 (4) 8766642 / 8634612 E-mail: [email protected]

Prof. Trinh Luan Institute of Sociology Tran Xuan Soan, 27 Hanoi, Vietnam Tel: 84 4 9727970 Fax: 84 4 9784631 E-mail: [email protected]

CONTENTS

1 Introduction----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 7 2 Contributions of agriculture to Hanoi's economy------------------------------------------------------------------ 8

2.1 Factors Influencing to Agriculture Sector Contribution in Hanoi GDP----------------------------- 11 3 Vegetable market structure in Hanoi------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 18

3.1 Historical Background----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 18 3.2 Current Situation of Hanoi Vegetable Market ----------------------------------------------------------- 20 3.2.1 Safe Vegetable Market --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 20 3.2.2 Common Vegetable Market in Hanoi---------------------------------------------------------------------- 23 3.3 Vegetable Origins ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 24 3.4 Vegetable Market Organisation----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 24 3.5 Processing and Export---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 25

4 Opportunities and challenges of Hanoi agriculture ------------------------------------------------------------- 26 4.1 Opportunities ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 26 4.2 Challenges------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 26

5 Conclusions -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 28

Seeking East Asian Rural Urban Synergy ICA4-CT2002-10025

SEARUSYN Hanoi peri-urban agriculture 6



1 INTRODUCTION

Hanoi, the Capital of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam, is considered as a centre for economics, politics and social-culture of the Country. It has a very important role in the economic construction of the country. Although agriculture does not so much contribute to the Capital's economy but it is still important in immediately providing foods, food stuffs for people in the area. That is why it is worth to be studied.

In recent years, due to rapid development of the urbanisation as well as the growth of population, infrastructure and new living quarters of the Capital, Hanoi agriculture has been influenced a lot as its land was lost for the above purposes. To be able to better understand the whole picture of Hanoi, therefore, it is necessary to evaluate those influences to Hanoi's agriculture. This report describes the contribution of agriculture to Hanoi's economy and the developments in the agricultural production and market structure. Based on the findings of the report, some opportunities as well as the challenges will be discussed for the development of the future agriculture of Hanoi.



2 CONTRIBUTIONS OF AGRICULTURE TO HANOI'S ECONOMY

As shown in Table 2.1 and Figure 2.1, the contribution of agriculture to the economy of Hanoi is smaller than that of other sectors in the region. In the period of 1993 to 2002, agro-forestry and fishery sectors in Hanoi's GDP reached the highest number (6.8%) in 1993. This number reduced to 2.4% in 2002. While the contribution of other sectors has been increasing namely manufacturing industry, electricity, gasoline and water supply from 21.1% and 1.3% respectively in 1993; and in 2002 these numbers are 22.2% and 4% (Hanoi Statistical Yearbook 1993-2002). The reduction of the contribution ratio of the agriculture to Hanoi GDP is suitable with the developing trend of an economy but the reasons for the reduction need to be analysed and they will be important base for development of the agriculture.

TABLE 2.1

CONTRIBUTION OF DIFFERENT SECTORS TO HANOI'S GDP BY YEARS (%)

Year 1993 1995 2000 2001 2002 2010

1. Agriculture-Forestry 6.6 5.2 2.8 2.5 2.3 3.02. Fishery 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.1 3.Mining Industry 0.3 0.9 1.6 1.3 0.5 4. Manufacturing Industry 21.1 21.4 21.5 21.4 22.2 5. Electricity, gas and water supply 1.3 1.9 4.1 4.5 4.0

Total (Million of VND by the price of 1994) 12,021,365 19,994,842 21,999,460 24,842,774

Source: Hanoi Statistical Yearbook 1993-2002.

Structure of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of Hanoi economical portions by

years (%)

0%20%40%60%80%

100%

1993 1995 2000 2001 2002

6. Others

5. Electricity, gas andwater supply4. ManufacturingIndustry3.Mining Industry

2. Fishery

1. Agriculture-Forestry

FIGURE 2.1

The above analysis shows that the role of agriculture in the development of the city's economy has been reduced over the years. The trends of this reduction are shown in Table 2.2 and Figure 2.2.



TABLE 2.2 GROSS OUTPUT OF AGRO-FORESTRY-FISHERY BY YEARS

(AT PRICE OF 1994 Unit: Mill. dongs)

Year

1993

1995

2000

2001

2002

2010

Ratio 2002/1993

Agriculture - Cultivation - Animal husbandry - Services

562,627

314,558

-

633,070

330,088

-

763,906

446,446 34,028

733,483

481,639 37,667

750,608

513,592 36,141

866,344

850,115 73,396

1.33

1.63

Forestry 18,479 13,470 10,418 10,670 11,976 6,930 0.65

Fishery 32,965 43,948 64,975 67,398 75,140 359,830 2.28

Source: Hanoi Statistical Yearbook 1993-2002 and Hanoi Landuse Planning 2001-2010, 2001.

FIGURE 2.2

In terms of the real value, from 1993 to 2002 only the gross output from forestry has dropped from VND18,479 million to VND11,976 million while almost gross output from every agricultural components has increased considerably, e.g.. The gross output of the cultivation, animal husbandry, and fishery increased 1.33, 1.63 and 2.28 times respectively, especially fishery gross output increased 2.8 times.

Although the gross output of the agriculture increases gradually by years, its contribution portion to the city's economy reduces. This proves that the growth of agriculture gross output is much slower than that of other economic components of the region. This is good sign but it is essential to find out the solution to push up the agricultural development speed in the context of increasing urbanization, which is decreasing the agriculture land.

In order to increase the agricultural contribution to Hanoi economic, we need to push up the agricultural production development higher in 2010 as well as predicted in Table 2.3 and Figure 2.3 shows the structure change of Hanoi agricultural economic components in last ten years. The portion of most components increased from 1993 to 2002, but the portion of the animal husbandry and fishery

Gross output of Agro-forestry-fishery by years (at price of 1994)

0

500,000

1,000,000

1993 1995 2000 2001 2002 2010

Year

mill

.don

gs

- Cultivation

- Animalhusbandry- Services

Forestry



increased more. They are of 33.9% to 39.21% and 3.5% to 5.12% respectively, while the portion of the cultivation has decreased from 60.60% to 52.73% and to 2010 by our prediction, the increasing gross output will mainly be caused by animal husbandry and fishery. They will be 44.5% and 8.6% respectively (Hanoi Landuse Planning 2001-2010, 2001).

Although the portion of the cultivation in the agriculture has decreased, it is still higher than other components (52.73% in 2002-Hanoi Statistical Yearbook 2002). So the development of the cultivation need to be considered in order that the cultivation is not backward compared to the other agricultural economic branches. In addition, it should have special consideration in animal husbandry and fishery having favourable condition to develop as it is also very important for the development of the agriculture.

Because the urbanisation have been occurring strongly up to the year of 2010, it will takes more land of agricultural sector so in order to keep up and increase the contribution portion of the agriculture, it need to be increased its yield per an area unite for both the cultivation and animal husbandry as well as fishery. In addition, it should increase the development of agriculture service.

TABLE 2.3

GROSS OUTPUT STRUCTURE OF AGRO-FORESTRY-FISHERY BY YEARS (%)

Year 1993 1995 2000 2001 2002 2010

Agriculture - Cultivation - Animal hubs. - Service

60.6 33.9

-

61.6 33.0

-

58.22 33.90

2.25

54.74 36.79

2.51

52.73 39.21

2.18

43.4 44.5

3.1

Forestry 2.0 1.2 0.84 0.87 0.76 0.4

Fishery 3.5 4.2 4.79 5.09 5.12 8.6

FIGURE 2.3

0%20%40%60%80%

100%

1993 1995 2000 2001 2002 2010

Year

Gross output structure of Agro-forestry-fishery by years (%)

FisheryForestry- Service- Animal husb.- Cultivation



2.1 Factors Influencing to Agriculture Sector Contribution in Hanoi GDP

There are many factors that influence the agricultural gross output such as population, labour, land, capital, technology, etc. The analyses are as below:

Table 2.4 and Figure 2.4 present the change in the population and labour of Hanoi. In the period of 1993 to 2002, the agriculture population has decreased considerably from 734.8 to 675.3 thousand persons while the non-agriculture population has increased from 1,484.9 to 2,171.8 thousand persons (Hanoi Statistical Yearbook 1993-2002). These are suitable to the rule of the economic development not only in Vietnam but also in other countries. This is the same meaning to the contribution portion decrease of the agriculture to the Hanoi economy.

According to our prediction up to 2010, the Hanoi agricultural population will be 500 thousand remaining. This is one of the factors influencing to gross output of the agriculture in the future, as a reduction of the population leads to a reduction of the agricultural labour forces.

TABLE 2.4 HANOI POPULATION CHANGE BY YEARS

Year 1993 1995 2000 2001 2002 2010

* Population (1000 persons) - Agriculture - Non-Agriculture

734.8 1484.9

751.5 1583.9

845.9 1894.4

675.1 2114.1

675.3 2171.8

500 3016

* Persons in labour participation age (person) 320440 328064 427759 398647 329812

• Persons in Agriculture-forestry labour (person) - 3,291 2,272 2,263 2,113

• Labours in Fishery (person) - 354 308 301 318

• Labours in Mining industry (person) - 5,370 4,717 4,651 5,169

• Manufacturing Industry (person) - 95,394 101,360 103,897 112,429

Total (person) - 363,359 416,914 424,216 445,238

Source: Hanoi Statistical Yearbook 1993-2002 and Hanoi Landuse Planning 2001-2010, 2001.



FIGURE 2.4

Other factor relating to agricultural gross output is land resource for agriculture in the region. Table 2.5 and Figures 2.5a and 2.5b show that agricultural land area had not been changed from 1993 to 2002 but comparing in the period 2000 to 2002, it decreases so much from 44,822ha to 43,995ha (Hanoi Statistical Yearbook 2002). Agricultural land reduces mainly in three districts such as Tu Liem, Thanh Tri, and Gia Lam. The areas decreased much more are in Thanh Tri and Tu Liem. Tu Liem's agricultural land area has been reduced from 5,319ha in 1993 to 4,009ha in 2002, then in Thanh Tri, the number is from 5,559ha to 5,025ha because of urbanization occurred strongly in the last recent years (Hanoi Statistical Yearbook 1993-2002). The structure of agricultural land used for last ten years has changed considerably. The land for annual crops reduces strongly from 39,947 ha to 37,526 ha while the land for permanent crops increased from 286 ha to 1,923 ha. The area for fishery and garden is also increases noticeable (Hanoi DARD, 2003). Hanoi DARD (2003) has planned for the year of 2010 the annual crops land will be reduced a large area, the land for permanent crops will be approximate 2.5 times and grass land 7.3 times increasing to compare to that of 2002.

TABLE 2.5 AGRICULTURAL LAND USED BY YEARS (HA)

Items 1993 1995 2000 2001 2002 2010

Agricultural land 43,326 43,602 44,822 44,550 43,995 33,365Land for Annual crops 39,947 40,040 38,454 38,127 37,526 25,180Land for permer. Crops 286 575 1,610 1,753 1,923 4,755Grass land 132 157 88 88 88 640Water surface for agriculture 2,961 2,830 3,234 3,229 3,096 2,790Gardens - - 1,436 1,353 1,362 Agriculture capable land 289 102 557 446 443 Agriculture land by districts Gia Lam 8,924 9,158 9,139 9,128 9,098 5,870 Tu Liem 5,319 5,332 4,201 4,177 4,009 2,410 Thanh Tri 5,559 5,622 5,190 5,174 5,025 3,040 Quarters 695 627 1,806 1,728 1,609 1,640

Sources: Hanoi DARD, 2003 and Hanoi Landuse Planning 2001-2010, 2001.

0

1000

2000

3000

4000

1000

per

son

1993 1995 2000 2001 2002 2010

Year

Agricultural Population by years

- Agriculture

- Non-



FIGURE 2.5 a

FIGURE 2.5 b

Agricultural land reduced leads to sown area of the annual crops is reduced too. In the Table 2.6 and Figures 2.6a and 2.6b we can see that after 10 years, total area of annual crops has reduced from 88,199 ha to 84,283 ha. The change of the sown annual crops area occurred strongly in Tu Liem district with the number from 11,006 ha in 1993 to 6,663 ha in 2002 and then Thanh Tri is 9,032 ha reduces to 7,620 ha. This proves that urbanization process have influenced strongly to urban agriculture, it was presented by taking away the agricultural land (Hanoi DARD, 2003).

Sown area of annual crops reduces mainly to the area for foods crops from 76,465 ha in 1993 to 61,981 ha in 2002. While vegetable, beans areas increases from 6,751 ha to 8,808 ha, the areas for industrial crops increase from 4,516 ha to 6,835 ha after 10 years. The increase of sown areas of two these kinds of crops provides good opportunities to increase the agricultural gross output and the contribution of agriculture to the economical structure of the city, because these are crops having high marketable characteristics and more capable for intensive farming. On the other hand, the marketing demands to these crops are developing both in its quantity and in quality.

Comparing to 2002, the sown area of food crops reaming about a half and vegetable and bean will increase about twice in the year 2010.

0

10,000

20,000

30,000

40,000

Ha

1993 1995 2000 2001 2002 2010

Year

Agriculture land Used by Years (ha)Land forAnnual crops Land forpermer.cropsGrass land

Water surfacefor agricultureGardens

02000400060008000

10000

Ha

1993 1995 2000 2001 2002 2010

Year

Agriculture land by districts

Gia lamTu liemThanh triQuaters



TABLE 2.6

SOWN AREA OF ANNUAL CROPS BY YEARS (HA)

Year 1993 1995 2000 2001 2002 2010

Total 88,199 86,973 87,833 83,392 84,283 Food crops 76,465 71,111 62,271 82,667 61,981 35,850Vegetables, beans 6,751 8,755 9,137 8,341 8,808 15,080Industrial crops 4,516 6,475 6,074 6,354 6,835 7,400Of which Tu Liem 11,006 9,898 7,542 6,774 6,663 4,160Thanh Tri 9,032 8,893 8,016 7,348 7,620 5,280Quarters 97 74 1,576 1,160 946 440

Sources: Hanoi DARD, 2003 and Hanoi Landuse Planning 2001-2010, 2001.

FIGURE 2.6a

FIGURE 2.6b

The annual crop sown areas reduced mainly are two kinds of food crops, which are rice and maize. The sown area of the annual crops decreases but their yields increase in some last recent years that is why the rice gross output still more increasing in 2002 compared to 1993. The same comment for maize, its gross output from 25,608 tons in 1993 to 28,747 tons in 2002. Gaining these achievements is owing to improvement of applied technologies in agriculture such as corn varieties with intensive farming and higher yielding varieties.

02000400060008000

1000012000

Ha

1993 1995 2000 2001 2002 2010

Year

Sown area of annual crops by districts, years (Ha)

Tu Liem

Thanh TriQuaters

020000400006000080000

100000Ha

1993 1995 2000 2001 2002 2010

Year

Sown area of annual crops by years (ha)

Food cropsVegetables, beansIndustrial crops



While the areas for food crops decrease, it is increasing both the area and the yields for the vegetables in all kinds and flowers. For ten years, the sown areas for vegetable of all kinds increases from 5,423 ha to 7,939 ha in 2002, it leads to increase its gross output increase from 90,304 tons to 144,626 tons in 2002 (1.5 times increase).

The size of flower planting is a surprised number: its area increased 4 times and the production increased 6 times. Specifically in 7 years, income from flowers increased from 11,670 million dong to 79,189 million dong (Hanoi Statistical Yearbook 1995-2002). This is a good remark for growing contribution portion of the agriculture to the City's economy in order to replace to the agricultural production deficiency as losing the agricultural land by urbanisation.

The growing of flower and vegetable area will be more intensive by our planning in 2010. That is 3,000ha and 12,950ha respectively (Table 2.7 and Figures 2.7a, 2.7b and 2.7c).

TABLE 2.7 AREAS, YIELD, AND GROSS OUTPUT OF HANOI'S ALL KIND ANNUAL CROPS

Years 1993 1995 2000 2001 2002 2010

Paddy - Areas (ha) - Yield (Quintal/ha) - Gross output (ton)

55586

35.5 197263

56086

36.8 206296

54162

41.5 224601

52358

37.4 195667

52212

39.0 203479

34880

45.3 158006

Maize - Area (ha) - Yield (quintal/ha) - Gross output (ton)

10578 24.2

25608

9658 22.6

21815

12055 26.3

31675

10309 27.5

28371

9769 29.1

28474

5270 35.0

18445

Vegetables of all kind - Area (ha) - Yield (quintal/ha) - Gross output (ton)

5423 166.5 90304

5732 169.9 95095

7985 179.5

143345

7479 188.9

141303

7939 182.2

144626

12950 187.3

242553

- Flowers Area of all kind (ha) - 389 1,562 1423 1641 3000

Soybean - Area (ha) - Yield (quintal/ha) - Gross output (ton)

2333 11.4

2658

2303 10.4

2389

2583 10.4

2698

3150 13.9

4378

Groundnut - Area (ha) - Yield (quintal/ha) - Gross output (ton)

3512 11.8

4152

3700 11.6

4290

3770 9.5

3589

4250 15.1

6417

Fruit trees - Area (ha) - Yield (quintal/ha) - Gross output (ton)

2346

32323

2533

33560

2662

33062

4862

49900

Source: Hanoi Agriculture Planning to 2010, 2003.



FIGURE 2.7a

FIGURE 2.7b

FIGURE 2.7c

0100002000030000400005000060000

Ha

1993 2000 2002

Year

Sown Areas of main crops (ha)

PaddyMaizeSoybeanGroundnut

0

50000

100000

150000

200000

250000

Ton

1993 1995 2000 2001 2002 2010

Year

Gross Output of all kind annual crops (ton)

PaddyMaizeVege.of AllSoybeanGroundnutFruit

02000400060008000

100001200014000

Ha

1993 1995 2000 2001 2002 2010

Year

Sown Areas of Vegetables, Flowers, Fruit (ha)

VegetableFlowerFruit trees



It is important that the animal husbandry is one of the fields having lager contribution to gross output of the Hanoi agriculture. The animal husbandry contributes its gross output to the Hanoi agriculture not only directly but also indirectly to increase cultivation production by its side products used as fertilisation for crops. The analysing results of the animal husbandry situation of Hanoi in last ten years are presented on the Table 2.8 and Figure 2.8 below. Total pig herds increased from 261,837 heads in 1993 to 366,589 heads in 2002 corresponding 1.4 times larger and this increase is mainly belong to non-governmental sector (Hanoi Statistical Yearbook 1993-2002).

The buffalo's herds reduced one-half of the herds. This proved that the economical role of buffaloes is less important in the present marketing economic today. While the cattle herds increased a little, after 10 years it is only about 3,000 heads increasing. This is limitation of the animal husbandry production development that needs to be concerned. It is surprised that the appearance and development of milk cow, from 1993 to 2002 herd total increase twice but it still is very small in the practice. In the future Hanoi DARD planned the pig herds will be 474,740 heads, the cattle herds will be 59,800 and milk cow herds will be 5,247 heads (see Table 2.8 and Figure 2.8).

TABLE 2.8 STATUS OF ANIMAL HUSBANDARY (HEAD)

Year 1993 1995 2000 2001 2002 2010 Pig herds Total - State - Non State

261,837 1,146

260,691

271,560 1,141

270,419

307,908 1,096

306,812

338,950 1,050

337,980

366,589 1,239

365,350

474,740

Buffaloes herds Total - State - Non State

25,431 -

25,431

18,642 7

18,685

15,394 -

15,394

13,847 -

13,847

12,737 -

12,737

5,660

Castles herds Total - State - Non State

38,783 410

38,373

35,848 262

35,586

36,629 399

36,230

39,142 420

38,722

41,734 521

41,213

59,800

Milk Cow 984 1,266 1,442 1650 2,437 Poultry (1000 herds) 2,355 2,938 3,155 3,299 5,247

Source: Hanoi Statistical Yearbook 1993-2002 and Hanoi Agriculture Planning to 2010, 2003.

FIGURE 2.8

0

100,000

200,000

300,000

400,000

500,000

Hea

d

1993 1995 2000 2001 2002 2010

Year

Status of Animal Husbandry (head)

Pig herdsBuffaloes herdsCastles herdsMilk Cow



3 VEGETABLE MARKET STRUCTURE IN HANOI 3.1 Historical Background

Hanoi vegetable market development is associated with the changing agricultural policies of Vietnam’s government. The process of development can be divided into following periods:

Period 1976-1980

This is the period right after the country was reunited to the advent of the Directive No. 100CT/TW issued by the Central Committee Vietnam Communist Party in 1981. The economy of Vietnam in this period was characterized by a planned and centralised economy. Vegetable products and markets were based on the top-down planning approach. The marketing system is characterised by a state monopoly system. The actors in the marketing system were Cooperatives, State Purchase Stations, State Vegetable Shops, Export Processing Company. The two channels were as follows:

i. Cooperatives Purchase stations Vegetables shops Consumers.

ii. Cooperatives Processors and exporters Imported countries

The vegetable production was based on command according to Hanoi’s plan in terms of kinds, area and quantity. The cooperative sold vegetables to the purchase stations based on the so-called “reciprocal or mutual contract”. From there, vegetables were distributed to the retail shops in the city. We called “reciprocal or mutual contract” because the cooperative sold vegetable to and obtain from the state of fertilizer, seed, pesticide and rice. The cooperative also sold vegetables to the processing company for export but the amount was very small.

The vegetable sale based on the contracts between producer and state trading units had led to development of specialized vegetable cooperatives to ensure regular vegetable supply to the city and to help the government in capture and distribution of vegetables according to the plans. However, in the practice, the government was not able to supply inputs timely to the cooperatives. Consequently, the cooperatives and farmers faced with difficulty in production and living, and did not like to specialize in vegetable production.

Period 1981-1988

The period is characterized by a transition reform of Vietnamese agriculture. The beginning of period is marked by issue and adoption of the Directive No. 100CT/TW since January 1988 by the Central Committee of the Vietnamese Communist Party. The farm households produced vegetables based on contract with the cooperative. If the farm household production exceeds the contract, farmers were allowed to sell their products on free markets. With this policy, the agricultural production in general and vegetable production specifically had been motivated. Vietnam was from a rice shortage country became a rice exporter. The vegetable market began to liberalize, the marketing system involved more actors. There were three marketing channels as follows:

i. Cooperatives Purchase stations Vegetables shops Consumers.

ii. Cooperatives Processors and exporters Imported countries.

iii. Farm households Consumers.



Period 1988-1996

A supplemental to the Directive No. 100CT/ TW the so-called Resolution 10NQ by the Politburo was issued on 5th April 1988. The farm households were recognized as an economical independent/self–employed unit in agriculture; they had the right in making decision themselves on production and marketing; they can sell their products every where. In addition, the multiple sectors development policy, liberalization of market/trade and the opening policy had made the input and output markets more exciting.

Many actors in different sectors, including private sector participated in output market as well as in marketing system of vegetables. The state vegetable shops gradually lose their dominant role in the distribution system but the vegetable market was under a loose control (floating). What and how the farmers produced, where and how much they sell depended on themselves, the government can not control. The state vegetable shops got difficulties in business. The retail markets in the rural areas developed rapidly and became the place for exchange goods between farmers and consumers. Activities of processors and exporters decreased due to the shrinkage of the traditional markets by collapse of the Soviet Union. Participating in the vegetable market was a new actor, the collector (or the middleman) and marketing channels in this period were:

i. Producers Consumers.

ii. Producers Retailers Consumers.

iii. Producers Collectors Retailers Consumers.

At the beginning of the period the channel (ii) was the most important. The difference from previous period was the appearance of the collectors. They were producers, apart from selling their own vegetables they participated in marketing for increased family earning. Now the collector becomes an important middleman in marketing system. Some of them completely became specialized and earned more from collecting and trading vegetables (for example in Le Chi commune, Gia Lam district).

Period from 1996 to the Present

The period had been marked by the issue the Cooperative Law (March 1996). Under this regulation, many new cooperatives have established including marketing cooperatives. The marketing cooperatives took part in marketing system and became the new actor and the actor types increased. But at present the marketing cooperatives take part only in safe vegetable marketing. The marketing channels are as follows:

i. Producers Consumers.

ii. Producers Retailers Consumers.

iii. Producers Collectors Retailers Consumers.

iv. Producers Cooperatives Retailers (super markets, safe vegetable shops, stores) Consumers.

Among marketing channels, channel (iii) is an important channel for common vegetables and the channel (iv), with the participation of cooperatives, is the only for safe vegetables. For better understanding we divide vegetable markets in to safe and common vegetable markets that are described separately.



3.2 Current Situation of Hanoi Vegetable Market

Currently in Hanoi safe and common vegetable markets exist in parallel. The actors and marketing channels for each market are different. The safe vegetable market now has drawn more attention from the society therefore we will at first describe the safe vegetable market and than common vegetable market. 3.2.1 Safe Vegetable Market

Safe Vegetable Market Structure

The safe vegetable market were established in 1996 when safe vegetable production technology and regulation on products and distribution of safe vegetable by Hanoi’s Department of Science, Technology and Environment have put into effect in 1996. This is the first legal document of the state on managing safe vegetable production and distribution in Hanoi, representing a legal framework for establishment of the safe vegetable production and marketing system in Hanoi. According to this regulation, every institutions or persons, who have interest in producing or business of safe vegetables have to register through Hanoi’s Department of Science, Technology and Environment. After receiving the registration document, the Department of Science Technology and Environment controls the condition for production and business of retail shops. If they meet the requirement on production and marketing of safe vegetables, the Department of Science Technology and Environment will grant them a certificate on products or safe vegetable shop.

As of year 2000, Hanoi has 35 units involved in the sale of safe vegetables: they are outlets, shops, and super market (Loc, 2002). The safe vegetable shops belong to Food Companies, Fruit and Vegetable Companies, Seed Company and Private Companies. Some Supermarkets belong to Food Company in the form of Joint Venture with foreigners, and some are Private Super Market (Dini, 2002).

Along with the safe vegetable production and distribution system there is also organic vegetable production and distribution system. The organic vegetable production began with a project between the National University and a non-government organisation, SIDCE. It started in 1999 with two farm households in Yen Noi commune, Tu Liem district. Now there are 6 farm households growing organic vegetables with 4,000m2. The organic vegetables have been marketed through Hanoi Organics (HO), a company taking over the responsibility in organization and marketing organic vegetable (Dini, 2002).

The safe vegetable market includes following actors: the producers, safe vegetable cooperatives, safe vegetable shops/stores, and super markets. We will discuss in detail about each actor.

Safe Vegetable Producers

The producers stand at the first position in the marketing channel. They supply safe vegetables to market. There are 20 communes of Hanoi participating in safe vegetable program (Dini, 2002). In the marketing channel of safe vegetables, the producers are farm households who have to be the cooperative member such as in Van Noi commune, Dong Anh district. Beside the production task, the producers have also taken over some post harvest activities such as sorting, cleaning, packing with fruit and root vegetable (radish, bean) and transport them to retail points (super market, vegetable shops and stores). Means of transport are mainly motorcycles. Some families that involve in collection



activities have small truck for transport. Some other households have to rent motorcycles if the quantity of their produce exceeds their transport capacity.

Collectors

In the marketing system of safe vegetables, the collectors have close relationship with the producers. They are vegetable growers in the village and members of Safe Vegetable Marketing Cooperative, capable of transacting with counterparts. They are assigned by the cooperative to buy up the member’s produce. They also collect vegetables from other cooperative and supply to the clients: shops, retail outlet, canteens of nursery and kindergarten, canteens of factories and supermarkets. Means of transport are basically motorcycles, and in a few cases trucks (Van Noi). Every day each person could buy and transport 200-250kg of 3-5 vegetables by motorbike and supply to 4-10 retail outlets (Son and others, 2003).

Retailers

The safe vegetable retailers include supermarkets, shops and retail counters in the markets. These may be public units, private companies, individuals and producers as cooperative members. Among retailers, supermarkets have closest linkage with the cooperative collectors. There exist a contract on quantity, quality and price for each vegetable in each growing season. However, the contract is subject to flexible change based on negotiation and agreement through telephone. Apart from retail, some supermarkets and shops also store, each unit could sell out 170kg per day (Son and others, 2003).

Safe Vegetable Marketing Channels

The safe vegetable marketing system is operated in three major channels:

i. Producers Marketing cooperatives Retailers (supermarkets, shops, outlets) Consumers.

ii. Producers Consumers (canteens).

iii. Producers Retail outlets run by producers Consumers.

In the above channels, channel (i) is predominant/most important that a bulk of vegetables are marketed through this channel, while small quantity is marketed through the channel (iii), which is newly established. However, the outlets run by the producers have advantages in recommending their produce to consumers since they are most aware of production and quality of the produce and increasingly gain consumers’ confidence.

Safe Vegetable Buying and Selling Activities of Actors and Price Changing in Different Marketing Chains

On vegetable market, the actors realize the merchandising activities. The producers sell 90% of the produce to the collectors at the farm (in the field or at home). 90% of the supply to supermarkets, shops, outlets and canteens are derived from collectors, the rest of 10 percent from producers (Son and others, 2003).



Each producer supplies, on average, 14.3 tons/year to the market, while each collector and retailer could buy 80 tons/year (or 230 kg/day) and 59 tons/year (or 170 kg/day) respectively.

Vegetable price fluctuates considerably, being extremely high at the beginning of the season or in shortage months and quite low at the peak season, thus, affecting the absolute difference in the marketing chain. Fluctuation of market price also affects the income of the actors. In general, price difference between the collectors and retailers is 25 percent, while that between retailer and consumers is 92% (Son and others, 2003).

Income and Cost of Actors

As a result, the income of retailers is highest, followed by collectors and lastly the producers. Income of the producers, collectors and retailers is 32,000 VND/day, 43,000 VND/day and 98,000 VND/day, respectively.

The marketing cost varies with the actors involved. Total cost of the collectors is VND 125,600,000 per annum, of which purchase accounts for 88% and transport 6.7%. Total cost for retailers amounts to VND 121,158,000 per annum, of which 85% for the purchase and 15% for the other costs (tax, space rental, transport, communication, and others).

Problems/Constraints in Production and Marketing of Safe Vegetables

- Problems encountered by producers

The constraint encountered by producers is how to gain confidence of consumers. As a result, not all safe vegetables produced could be sold with premium price. Premium price can be obtained only in the supermarkets, shops, outlets and canteens but not in the open markets. Therefore, the producers should take into account the post-harvest handlings such as cleaning, grading and packaging. There is a big market potential with daily demand by the city of Hanoi of more than 300 tons (Appraisal of the current state, 1996). However, each retail outlet is able to sell only 170kg per day and at present there are 35 retail outlets in Hanoi with an approximate total sale of 6 tons per day.

- Problems encountered by the collectors

The problems encountered by the collectors are the limited transport capacity. By motorcycle 250 kg could be transported each time. The small quantity accepted by each outlet also represents a constraint, increasing transportation cost. The collectors have no means of checking the quality, but rely on the trust in the producers, thus not completely ensuring the quality of vegetables supplied to market. This problem should be solved to gain confidence by consumers.

- Problems encountered by retailers

Hanoi’s citizens are accustomed of buying vegetables in the public markets, thus a small quantity of safe vegetables in the shops is compensated by higher price, distracting consumers. On the other hand, consumers do not completely trust in safe vegetables while retailers are unable to prove except the name of the shop (Dini, 2002). Safe vegetables are still small in number, thus consumers have little daily access to safe vegetables.



3.2.2 Common Vegetable Market in Hanoi

Common vegetable market structure in Hanoi

- Producers

Safe vegetable and conventional vegetable market markets exist concurrently. They have different features. The actors involved in safe vegetables are those having license for production and marketing. They are members of safe vegetable cooperative, shop keepers, supermarkets. The safe vegetable marketing system is well organized. By contrast, all producers of conventional vegetables can participate in the following marketing channel:

i. Producers Retailers Consumers.

ii. Producers Collectors Retailers Consumers.

iii. Producers Consumers.

iv. Producers Collectors Domestic export.

Farmers participate more directly in conventional vegetable market. Producers are individual households, and they are not necessary members of cooperative. They produce and supply to market more diverse vegetable species. There are about 70 species of vegetables available on market. The main vegetables in summer include morning glory, cabbage, amaranth, jute, pumpkin, sponge gourd, mustards, and beans and in winter cabbage, cauliflower, kohlrabi, tomato, carrots and mustards. Some vegetable species are available all year round.

- Collectors

Collectors are local people. They are producers, collectors and traders as well. Each day the collectors buy and transport 120-250kg and supply to 7-10 retailers or canteens. They usually buy produce from 10-15 producers with a main product. There exists no close relationship between collectors and producers and no written contract in terms of quantity, quality, kinds, price and payment procedure. The price is relied on that of the previous day. The collectors will pay to the producers at the day of purchase or few days after. In Van Duc and Le Chi of Gia Lam district vegetables are collected for transport to other provinces like Nghe An, Hue (in central Vietnam). In Dong Du of Gia Lam district, spices are collected for export to foreign countries by air ways. However, the export quantity is small.

- Retailers

The retailers are small traders in the market place. The inner-city retailers purchase vegetables from two sources: from the mid-night early morning wholesale market and from the producers at their counters. The retailers in the suburb purchase vegetables directly from farmers’ field and sometimes at the market place. Each day the retailers buy and sell 80-150kg with 25-30 vegetable species.

Involved in retail of vegetables are also street vendors. The street vendors may come from the suburb or from other provinces who come to the city to seek an earning job. They buy vegetables from the midnight market and carry to all streets in the city. Every day each vendor buys and sells 20-25kg.

Highest income is earned by the collector, followed by retailer and lowest by producers.



Problems in the Conventional Vegetable Market

• For producers: High fluctuation of price; underdeveloped wholesale market, lack of large-scale distributor, lack of good varieties, lack of capital to adopt technology and lack of knowledge on marketing.

• For collectors: fragmented/scattered and small scale production makes it difficult to collect the produce; lack of transport facilities, instable price.

• For retailers: high cost of space rental, which accounts for 14 percent of total. 3.3 Vegetable Origins

Vegetables sold in Hanoi have different origins, the majority from the suburban districts: Dong Anh, Gia Lam, Tu Liem, and Thanh Tri. Part of vegetables comes from neighbouring provinces: Bac Ninh, Hai Duong, Hung Yen, Ha Tay and some others from China and Da Lat. As well, every day some 100 tons of vegetables from China enter through Lao Cai national port (in Lao Cai province) to Bac Qua-Long Bien market, of which 60% are sold in Hanoi market, 40% transported to other provinces (Son and others, 2003). Some years ago, cabbage, tomato, potato, and carrot from Da Lat--a vegetable and flower-well-known place in Southern Central of Vietnam--were sold in Hanoi market, but the quantity is now reduced due to competition by Chinese products. 3.4 Vegetable Market Organisation

There are over 300 markets in Hanoi (An and others, 2003), of these 150 are official and vegetables sold in 146 markets (Hanoi Department of Trade, 2003). Wholesale Market

The present wholesale market system in Hanoi in fact is the collecting places of vegetables. They operated in the early morning at 2-5:00 am. The trader can come in and out freely, without any regulation applied to market participants.

Apart from peri-urban markets, there are 4 wholesale markets in the city: Long Bien-Bac Qua, Cau Giay, Nga Tu So and Mo markets. There is a newly setup market Cho Phia Nam and Dich Vong market in 2002. A specific characteristic of the whole sale markets is the night operation and temporary without necessary facility infrastructure. Each night in each market there are 150-500 sellers, 1,000-2,000 buyers (Hoi and others, 2002). The majority of sellers are producers (80%), the rest are collectors. Buyers are retail traders and street vendors.

Sellers bring their products to market by motorcycle, bicycle and truck. Buyers transport vegetables by bicycle or tricycle.

The percentage of leafy and stem vegetables account for 45-60% (cabbage, kohlrabi, cauliflower, onion, water cabbage and mustards), root and tuber and fruit vegetables account for 35-40%, beans, tomato, cucumber, papaya, potato, waxy gourd, squash, spronge gourd, egg plant fruit, spices make up of 5-10% of the total. Depending on particular production area, the quantity and kinds of vegetables may vary with the markets. For example, the percentage of spices in Cau Giay market is usually higher than other places.



Retail Market

Retail market system in Hanoi can be divided into official and temporary ones. Official markets are those under the city’s planning. Many commodities are sold here. In each market there are 800-1500 traders of all kinds. On average, there are 40 small trading counters with vegetables without large trader. Each counter buys 80-120kg vegetables and sells 50kg per day. The percentages of vegetables traded are: 35-40% leafy and stem vegetables, 55-60% root, tuber and fruit vegetables and 2-5% spices.

Temporary markets are gathered at roadside permitted by the local authority to sell vegetables, fruit and foodstuff for daily need. In the city there are 45 temporary markets with an average of 20 vegetable traders, each sells 30kg vegetables a day. There is a temporary market in each village in the suburb (Appraisal of the current state, 1996). 3.5 Processing and Export

Vegetable processing and export of Hanoi is underdeveloped. There is a foodstuff processing plant in Hanoi which processes 35% vegetable products. In addition, there are processing units in Dong Xuan commune of Soc Son and Dong Du commune of Gia Lam and others. The processing unit of Dong Du produces 10 tons of baby cucumber and corn (Gia, 2001).

Vegetables of Hanoi are exported to the central provinces from Thanh Hoa to Hue. The communes of Van Duc and Le Chi of Gia Lam often sell radish, cabbage, egg fruit to Nghe An and Hue. In the early 1980’s Phu Dong commune of Gia Lam district used to export 2000-3000 tons of cabbage yearly to the former Soviet Union (Appraisal of the current state, 1996).



4 OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES OF HANOI AGRICULTURE 4.1 Opportunities

- Thanks to the reform the structure of the agricultural, rural development, the farmers having new motivation in order make up their mind to decide their production actives independently so it can encourage all knowledge of the people to their production with higher effective.

- With high population density, the consumption demands of agricultural products are very large not only of quantity but also its quality. This is a big advantage for Hanoi agriculture that the other places do not have. In addition, Hanoi is also the place where the products can be distributed to other places faster and exported abroad.

- Processing industrial has developed with high rate is advantageous condition for food processing. That is why it can encourage the farmers having peace of mind in their agricultural production without worry of spared products.

- The value of agricultural products gradually increase day by day and beginning of the animal husbandry production development is the motivation to push up the development of the cultivation. The forestry to be recover, this is big potential for the forestry.

- Many people are concerned regarding aquaculture and finding out the place for exporting their products.

- Manpower is plenty with high knowledge. This is good capability to access the new science technology achievements applied in their production. This is also good opportunity for production with high economical effective and good quality.

- The high marketing crops areas are widening such as food stuff crop, industrial crops, flower of all kind.

- Milk cow raising is developing with high speed. This is the market that no one can get up. 4.2 Challenges

Besides the opportunities which Hanoi agricultural production is having, there are some challenges that the farmers have to face. The challenges are as follows:

- Hanoi agricultural land is reducing strongly by the process of urbanisation and industrial development. Agricultural population do not attract strongly to non-agriculture production sector.

- The agricultural land is in split, small-piece situation that is why it is difficult to apply new techniques to agriculture production.

- The farmers lack of capital for investing high techniques and for extension production scale.

- Water resources supplied to agriculture is polluted heavily, it cannot guarantee to producing safe agricultural products.

- Lack of marketing information to help farmer sell their products at good-price time, there are no stable markets created for agricultural products.



- Quality and form of Hanoi agricultural products produced are weak.

- In milk cow raising, this is new to the farmer, they have a little experiences in their production, in addition lacking of capital is normally to the farmers so it is difficult for the farmer to develop their production.

In order to meet enough food and food stuff demands for Hanoi people and to be able to reach a sustainable agriculture, it is necessary to solve the challenges. This is also the way for Hanoi agricultural products to compete with that of other countries in the Southeast-Asia region at least.



5 CONCLUSIONS

After analysing some documents collected from institutions we have some conclusions as follows:

- Since 1993 up to now, the proper value of Hanoi agricultural gross output increase by the time but its contribution portion to Hanoi economy decreasing gradually. This is because other economical components having the speed increase quicker than that of agriculture.

- The increasing gross output of agriculture mainly is cultivation and animal husbandry in ten last years. But gross output of cultivation reduces in 2002 as losing the land occurred in some recent years by urbanisation.

- Losing the land occurred mainly in Thanh Tri and Tu Liem districts, it leads to reduce agricultural land, reduce sown area of annual crops and the agricultural population reduces too.

- The yield of the crops still increasing by years and some new fields of production appeared and developed such as milk cow, fishery, flower and fruit that why it can keep the gross output of the agriculture stable and develop in the recent years.

- In order to replace for losing agricultural land we have intend to increase the crop yield, extend area of the crops that have high economical benefit like some kinds of flower, valuable fruit trees. To expand milk cow raising, fishery: by the common rule of a development agriculture, when cultivation products increase strong, it provides enough food stuff to local people and to exportation, its price will be decreasing and people's demands of cultivation products will not be high. At this time farmers normally transfer the cultivation production to husbandry and fishery one because the fishery products will reach at higher price. That is true that in the future fishery production of Hanoi urban agriculture will be increased rapidly, it will increases stronger when the farmers having perfect production technique.

- Pig production is traditional one in Vietnam, it can use cultivation by products, provide an essential and traditional foodstuff source to the Vietnamese people during undeveloped cattle production. That is why we cannot refuse pig raising although it is causing environmental pollution. We need both to improve the pig production way with higher technique, larger scales in order to get higher quality products and to treat environmental issue.

- Increasing value of the agricultural products by guarantying its quality and good, beautiful form.

Obtaining the good results in agricultural production in the future, it should find out and apply new, high techniques to urban agricultural production especially to new, traditional production fields with high economical effectiveness such as fruit, milk cow, fishery, and safe vegetable.



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