a study on geology, geomorphology, hydrology, groundwater, and physical resources of the desertified...

Environmental Geology (1996) 27:198 209 �9 Springer-Verlag 1996

A. S. A I - H o m o u d �9 R . J . Al l i son �9 B. F. Sunna ~ K. W h i t e

A study on geology, geomorphology, hydrology, groundwater, and physical resources of the desertified Badia environment in Jordan towards sustainable development

Received: 31 March 1995 / Accepted: 6 June 1995

Abstrac t This paper summarizes information on geomorphology and physical resources as a part of the Jordan Badia Research and Development Program. The research focused on the issue of the environment in arid lands as an aid to providing practical options for sustainable development, for the benefit not only of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan but of other arid regions of the world. The research is significant in that there is a need to identify usable natural resources and establish a framework for their effective exploitation and management in a marginal, frag- ile environment, which is sensitive to change. Pressure for development of the Badia stems from the fact that the great majority of the population in Jordan is compressed into less than 10% of the country by environmental constraints. It is hoped that the Jordan Badia Research and Development Program will provide the required framework to ease current environmental pressures, encourage migration to the Badia, a sparsely populated region, and establish economically and ecologically self-supporting communities. This paper discusses the following areas that are related to the sustainable development of the Jordan Badia with special emphasis on the Safawi area in the northern Jordan Badia; geomorphology, including land- form, processes, and hazards; geology and physical resources; hydrology; surface water and water engineering; and groundwater.

A. S. A1-Homoud ([~1) Civil Engineering Department, Jordan University of Science and Technology, P.O. Box 3030, Irbid, Jordan

R. J. Allison Department of Geography, Science Laboratories, University of Durham, Durham, DH1 3LE, UK

B. F. Sunna Natural Resources Authority, Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources, P.O, Box 7, Amman, Jordan

K. White School of Geography, University of Oxford, Mansfield Road, Oxford, OX1 3TB, UK

Key words Geomorphology �9 Geology. Hydrology. Groundwater. Physical resources. Badia �9 Arid lands" Sustainable development �9 Natural resources

Introduction

The Jordan Badia region covers a wide and significant part of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan. It extends from north to south in the eastern part of Jordan covering an area of 72.660 sq kin, which constitutes 81.3% of the total area (89,400 km 2) of Jordan (Fig. 1). It has good potential for development and represents a viable and strategic area for the country. The region is subdivided into three geographical areas as follows: the Northern Badia, which comprises 35.7% (25,930 km2); the middle Badia, which comprises 13.3% (9634 km2); and the southern Badia, which comprises 51.0% (37,096 km 2) of the total Badia area.

The Badia region is within an arid climatological zone. Rainfall is erratic with a maximum of 200 mm annually. Air temperature fluctuates widely from a minimum average of 10~ to 24.5~ with an average temperature of 17.5~ Occasionally absolute minimum and maximum temperatures are -5~ and 46~ respectively.

The total population of the Badia represents 5~ of the whole population of the country. Only 5% of the Badia population are still nomadic; the rest are now settled. This low population density suggests a great potential for an increase in populations in contrast to the concentrated urbanization of other parts of the country. Any future development of this region should provide all the elements needed for viable human settlement, notably water, to make the desert productive.

The people in the Badia are involved in agriculture, livestock production, civil service, commerce, the armed forces, and mining and prospecting industries. Jordan's Badia is rich in natural resources in quantities adequate for overall developmental requirements. In addition to the vast area available for development, resources include

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mineral deposits, surface., and groundwater, touristic sites, infrastructure, renewable natural range and cultivable land suitable for improved agriculture and livestock production. The area also has the potential for development of nonpolluting renewable energy sources, namely solar and wind. The Badia extends into the borders of neigh- boring countries, which affords the additional benefit of being a junction for export-import activities at the regional level.

The Badia is rich in mineral ores, which are mainly exported as raw materials. The utilization of these ores in developing local industries has great potential. Mineral deposits include: phosphate, white cement, pure limestone, dolomite limestone, glass sand (quartz), clay, marble, feldspar, tripoli, silica and rock salts, barite and tuff, raw building materials, natural gas, noncommercial oil, oil shale, and others.

Range land is the largest renewable resources. Potential pastureland covers almost the entire Bad\a, although the vegetation cover is not dense and it could sustain higher production levels.

Barley is the main field crop in dry farming, while for- age, vegetables, fruit (orchards), and wheat are irrigated. Most farm animals in the country (61%) are located in the Badia. Livestock production includes sheep (74% of the country stock), goats, cattle, and camels, in addition to poultry production, which includes broiler and egg- laying hen farms. About 70% of the country's animal prod- ucts are produced in the Badia. Veterinary centers are dis- tributed throughout the Bad\a, providing all necessary services.

More than 85% of the Badia population is accommo- dated within a very well-established basic infrastructure provided with roads, water, electricity, and means of corn-

199

munications. Roads serve more than 88% of the Badia communities, while more than 72% are served by post offices equipped with telecommunications systems.

The general objective of the Jordan Badia Research and Development Program, which involves collaboration between the Higher Council for Science and Technology (HCST) of Jordan and the Royal Geographical Society (RGS) of the United Kingdom, is the sustainable development of the desertified Badia environment and the im- provement of the standard of living of the inhabitants. It is anticipated that the general objective will be achieved through enhancing teamwork and self-reliance between the inhabitants of the region and through the introduction of appropriate technologies to improve productivity and income from livestock and agriculture. Management systems will also be emphasized that will conserve the natural resources so that production levels can be main- tained in the long term. Within the context of the general objective of the program, the Geomorphology and Physi- cal Resources group will cover the topics of geology, mineral resources, geomorphology, water, and soil.

Nowhere are the constraints to development caused by a lack of information and understanding about the physical environment more apparent than in the Badia region of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan (Fig. 1). The precari- ous environmental and economic situations that exist in areas away from the prosperous Jordan valley have long been recognized. There is now an increasing urgency to examine the potential for development in the desert areas of Jordan. Successful development of the Badia can only be achieved by obtaining a comprehensive knowledge and understanding of the physical environment, including processes and landforms, natural resources, human effects/ impacts on natural systems, and the past and potential future influence of climate change.

The study area, as defined for the purposes of the Jordan Badia Research and Development Program, comprises some 11,210 km 2 (Fig. 2). The area is bounded by Syria to the north and Saudi Arabia in the south. The eastern and western margins approximately follow the pe- rimeter of extensive basalt outcrops, which cover a large part of the ground surface between the towns of Azraq and AI-Ruwashid. The region comprises around 14% of the total land area of Jordan and is predominantly rolling, desert plain, covered with dark basalt rocks. The study area is centered around the town of Safawi, 156 km north east of Amman. Safawi, the largest concentration of local population, grew in the 1930s around one of the pumping stations (H5) on the Baghdad to Haifa oil pipeline. It is one of the main towns on the AmnSan-Baghdad highway. The Badia includes 17 other recognized villages. The current estimate of the population is about 15,000.

Most of the project area is governed locally from the Governate of Mafraq, although a small sector in the southwest is under the Governate of Zarqa. Extensive tracts of land have no current use or recognized value, although parts of the Bad\a, particularly in the north to- ward the Syrian border, are utilized on an ad hoc basis as natural pasture. Uncontrolled grazing frequently causes

200

Fig. 2 Location of the Badia Research and Development Program study area

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deterioration to the quality of the land and its ultimate abandonment because of the absence of management practices or strategies for maintaining soil quality.

Much is already known about the physical characteristics of the Badia. However, new research is necessary and some new work is already in progress. Comprehensive geological surveys have been undertaken in the past and a follow-up project is being performed to update previous studies. The collection of data and reports that are already available for the project area will be an important first task in any new research planned as part of the program.

Geology

Geological setting

Sedimentary rocks cover almost the whole of Jordan. Some Precambrian plutonic and metamorphic rocks are exposed in the southwest of the country (Fig. 3). The thickness of the sediments increases to the northeast, where progressively younger sediments are exposed (Bender 1974). Unmetamorphosed Cambrian to Silurian sedimentary rocks unconformably overlie the Precambrian. These Palaeozoic rocks consist mainly of elastics, with some thin carbonates and dip gently north and northeast beneath the Cenozoic sequences.

Following peneplanation, Triassic rocks were depos- ited. This pattern of northwest to southeast transgressions was repeated several times during the Mesozoic. Jurassic to Lower Cretaceous sequences are predominantly elastics

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Lower Cretaceous

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Fine,medium and coarse sandstone conglomerate Dolomite

[ ] Mar[ [ ] Slate, greywacke,

epimetamorphic conglomerate Ptutonite, dyke rocks Chert

Upper Proterozoic

Eruptive Rocks

Fig. 3 Stratigraphic column of northeast Jordan (after Bender 1968)

Fig. 4 Major geological divisions of the Badia (after Burdon 1959)

SEDIMENTS

Recent alluvial deposits, sands~ gravels etc. N~ Quaternary pelitic sediments: mud flats [ ~ Tertiary sedimentsjmainly marls and limestones

_ ......

201

,/

and marine carbonates. These, together with the Palaeo- zoic sediments, form an important lower aquifer complex in Jordan. Areal extensive deposition of carbonates oc- curred during the Upper Cretaceous, comprising a variety of marls, limestones, and doiomitic limestones. Carbonate deposition continued into the Tertiary and the sequence forms a major upper aquifer complex.

Quaternary basaltic rocks occur in the northeast of Jordan (Fig. 4). They cover about one seventh of the country. Minor basaltic intrusions also occur along the east escarpment of the Jordan Rift Valley, usually associated with faults.

Stratigraphy of the program area

Tertiary-Quaternary continental basalt flows and tufts cover approximately 11,000 km z, the majority of the Safawi area (Fig. 4). The resulting basalt plateau is 50- 170 km wide from east to west and extends 180 km from the Syrian border, east and south of the Azraq basin, into Saudi Arabia. The basalts are part of the major North Arabian Volcanic Province, which extends from the southern rim of the Damascus Basin in Syria, across Jordan and into Saudi Arabia, and al[ong the eastern margins of the Azraq and Sirhan basins. Results of detailed studies indi- cate that the basalt outcrops are alkali-olivine in character. Age determination using K-Ar techniques has identified a number of different basalt lava flows, with ages ranging from 13.7 Ma to less than 0.5 Ma for the exposed rocks. Some of the unexposed flows date at 23 Ma. The younger flows are centered on Jabal al Arab.

Recent studies by the Jordan Natural Resources Au- thority (Ibrahim 1992) have classified the exposed basalts

as one supergroup, named the Harrat Ash Shaam basaltic supergroup. The Harrat Ash Shaam can be further subdivided into five major groups known as the Bishriyya, Rimah, Asfar, Safawi, and Wisad. The basalts comprise lava flows, major dike systems that usually trend northwest to southeast, pyroclastic sediments, and volcanic centers of different types, including shield volcanoes and stratovolcanoes. Considerable amounts of material have erupted from numerous fissures, with basalt and some tuff being extruded from clusters of isolated cones.

Bordering the basalt in the southwest of the Badia is a region of dissected Upper Cretaceous and Eocene sediments. Photogeologic evidence suggests that the area is a broad structural high, northeast of the Azarq depression. Several geomagnetic positive anomalies can be recognized.

Structure of the program area

The dominant structural feature in Jordan is the north- south trending Dead Sea Rift. Left-lateral strike-slip dis- placement across this boundary is estimated at slightly more than 100 kin. Several east-west faults are traceable from the border faults of the rift. Among these is the Wadi Zerqa Ma'in Fault, traceable for approximately 50 km. The east-west faults and several northwest striking frac- ture zones have served locally as conduits for Neogene- Pleistocene basalt dikes and flows. The volcanism is espe- cially pronounced north of and along the eastern side of the Azraq basin. Here, extensive fissure flows have formed 45,000 km 2 of plateau basalt that extends north into Syria (Bender 1975).

The entire eastern Badia has major faulting systems, many of which can be identified from Landsat TM images

202

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Fig. 5 Main structural lineaments in the northern sector of the Badia

(Fig. 5). Block faulting over the central and northeast parts of Jordan contributed to the formation of broad swells and basins including the A1-Azraq-Wadi Sirhan Basin. There are numerous ground surface lineaments, and the basalt dikes all lie along distinct linear zones. Three dominant fault trends can be recognized: east to west, northwest to southeast, and east-northeast to west-southwest The northwest striking fault systems, caused by deep tensional forces, are long, with vertical displacements that are frequently small. The most important is the Ramtha- Wadi Sirhan graben fault system, which passes through the Azraq area and into Saudi Arabia. The Fuluq fault system is responsible for an increase in thickness of the Mesozoic and Tertiary deposits of the Azraq basin.

Mineral resources

The Safawi region has the most significant mineral resources in Jordan. Exploration, exploitation, and utilization of the resources is increasingly important and will be integral to the development of the Badia.

The following mineral deposits are important to the region: zeolite, tuff, basalt, scoria, clay, porcellanite. In addition, recently discovered minerals in the Azraq basin will be important in future development plans. They include diatomite, palygorskite, bentonite, and a number of other

clay minerals. Finally, although limited in extent and volume, small gas and oil fields have been identified in the Risha and Azraq regions respectively, along the southwest border of the Badia area. Production rates are presently low but exploration is continuing in the hope of locating more extensive reserves.

Geomorphology

The Badia has an overall altitudinal variation of approximately 800m. The highest land surface, 1100-1200m, occurs in the northwest, towards the Jabal ad Druz and the lowest, about 400 m, occurs along the border with Saudi Arabia. Throughout much of the region and around Safawi in particular, the mean altitude is approximately 800 m. The topography is dominated by extensive tracts of gently undulating, low hills, with elevations that range from 25 to 30 m. Gradients are seldom steep, and there are few sudden breaks of slope. Almost everywhere the topography is characterized by gentle concavoconvex slopes. There is some topographic variation within the basalt area, depending on the age and physical characteristics of specific basalt flows. In general, the landscape is more rounded on the older flows, with well-developed drainage patterns and a fine colluvial rill network. Highly irregular topography with many silt filled depressions is typical for the more recent flows.

Most of the ground surface is covered by typical desert pavement. The size of individual clasts varies and the size distribution appears to be controlled by the geology. In some of the basalt fields, large boulders are predominant, while towards the southeast small, angular, chert fragments are more common. Towards the northwest, basalt stones and boulders become increasingly covered by lichen, an indication of greater moisture availability, with higher precipitation totals and more abundant ground surface moisture. Where the ground surface has been dis- turbed, fine-grained, dark brown to orange sediments are present. An excellent exposure resulting from recent engineering works occurs along the east-to-west trending road from Azraq to the Jordan-Iraq border. The orange sedimentary deposit is unlithified, laterally extensive, and its depth varies. Exposures in basalt quarries suggest that the sediment is a product of weathering. There is a decrease in the volume of orange-brown sediment down-section, but the transition is gradual, rather than forming a distinct boundary. Furthermore, at depths in excess of 3-4 m from the ground surface, the distribution of the fine material and the surface of the in situ basalt suggests that the former may well represent a weathering product of the latter, rather than a separate deposit.

The other noticeable geomorphological feature that occurs through much of the Badia is fine-grained, water- lain sediment deposits that vary in size and character. Four main morphological types can be identified, based on their size, shape, and drainage characteristics.

1. Extensive deposits that are fed by wadis but do not have any outlet drainage. They are usually saline and display many of the characteristics of playa deposits.

2. Extensive deposits that are both fed by and drained by wadis. They are seldom saline or are of low salinity.

3. Small, linear features, which follow the line wadis. They occur in areas where the ground surface covered during wadi flow allows for the precipitation of slack-water deposits.

4. Small features that occur in depressions. Some receive and deliver water. Others act as sediment traps due to an absence of drainage.

The local name given to the fine sediment deposits is Qaa. Important distinctions are drawn by the local population between Qaa that are drained and those that form closed basins. In some locations, suitable deposits are used in an unplanned manner to grow crops, mainly barley.

The wadi systems that drain the Badia are extensive. The general direction of flow is from north to south and southwest, with much of the water entering the Azraq basin. Some of the wadi systems extend for many kilo- meters. Wadi Rajil, for example, stretches from north of the border with Syria, into Saudi Arabia. Peak flows during wet seasons can be considerable. Indeed, information from the local population suggests that during parts of the year, lack of water is not a problem. However, the surface water resource is poorly managed; much rapidly runs off and is not retained or utilized.

The other key geomorphological zone is characterised by wind-blown sediment .deposits, which are encroaching on the southern boundary of the Badia. The aeolian

203

deposits represent the margin of an extensive sand sea in Saudi Arabia. Landsat MSS image analysis suggests that the cover is thin and that the dunes are not extensive.

Landsat TM satellite imagery is not yet available for the area under consideration but one MSS scene (El Azraq), flown on 28 June 1975, has been studied. Twelve major geomorphological subdivisions or zones can be identified (Fig. 6). The main characteristics of each of the zones is as follows.

Zone 1: Limestone bedrock (Fuluq area), densely covered with angular chert fragments on the ground surface. Numerous wadi systems, some of which are incised but with few Qaa deposits. Much of the drainage appears to be radial, draining to and terminating in a large Qaa. The area includes some small basalt inliers. A gypsum crust exists in much of the zone, becoming thick in places and building up in fan deposits towards the Azraq basin. Porcellanite outcrops are present locally, and there is a thin aeolian sediment cover towards the south and southwest.

Zone 2: An area of basalt outcrop to the south of zone

Zone 3: Versicolor, basalt lava flows, termed Fahda, containing many Qaa, some large and many small. Zone 3 forms slightly higher ground than its surroundings and divides wadi drainage to east and west. Topography is subdued and many places it is difficult to recognize either the presence or flow of wadis.

Zone 4: Basalt outcrop but of lighter color and with a smaller number of Qaa deposits than other basalt areas, suggesting more porous lava flows resulting from a separate eruptive phase. The zone divides drainage to east and

Fig. 6 Major geomorphological divisions of part of the Badia

204

west, indicating that the most recent lava flow now forms slightly higher topography than the surrounding area.

Zone 5: The main area of basalt outcrop, with numerous wadi systems and Qaa deposits. The wadis are highly interdigitated and frequently incised, particularly as individual channels that merge towards the south. Many of the wadis flow to the east and south, with one or two larger wadis flowing directly towards the Azraq basin in the southwest.

Zone 6: Land rising to the Jabal ad Druz, comprising basalt outcrops with distinct volcanic centers in places.

Zone 7: A basalt zone with a high density of wadis and numerous small Qaa deposits. The Qaa become more predominant to the south. The wadi systems radiate out from the higher ground of the Jabal ad Druz (zone 6) in the north. Lichen growths on ground surface basalt boulders and the presence of vegetation both increase from south to north, as precipitation totals rise towards the highlands across the border in Syria. Some small ground areas in the north have had the basalt boulders removed and are used for growing crops. The number of fields increases from south to north. Significant erosion and sediment movement occurs by both wind and water.

Zone 8: Towards the far northeast corner of the study area, characterized by predominantly parallel, northwest to southeast trending wadi systems and Qaa deposits. Many of the fine, water-lain sediment deposits form thin linear strips, following the line of major wadis.

Zone 9: A region with a thin cover of aeolian sediments, forming small, linear dunes in some places and with frequent rock outcrops due to the lack of wind blown sediment. The sediment is orange-brown in color and increases in thickness across the border in Saudi Arabia. There are some major Qaa deposits in the north, fed by wadi systems draining from zone 5. The Qaa are absent in the south.

Zone 10: Characterized by aeolian sediment cover with signs of east-to-west wind streaking. Numerous small basalt outcrops are available.

Zone 11: A low-lying area of limestone and chert, forming an alluvial depression that receives sediment from many of the major wadi systems draining from the north. Zone 11 forms a major part of the Azraq basin, with highly gypsiferous soils and a well-developed gypsum crust on the extensive alluvial outwash plain. The northeast sector is characterised by low, rolling plains, with chert being by far the most predominant material at the ground surface.

Zone 12: Aeolian, brown-orange sediment deposits but with a slightly higher elevation. The thickness of the aeolian cover is reduced over much of the area. A small number of Qaa are present in the northeast.

The above zones represent the main landscape units as defined to date from Landsat MSS hard copy. Further work is still required on adjacent images when they are available to complete the classification. Some corrobo- ration and elucidation of zonal descriptions have been undertaken in the field. Large areas still require further investigation, particularly towards the south and southeast.

Climate

Jordan can be divided into four climatically different units.

1. Jordan valley and southern G h o r - - a narrow, 660-km strip of land, about 400 m below sea level, stretching from the Lake of Tarabia in the north to the Gulf of Aqaba in the south.

2. Highlands--a mountainous area adjacent to the Jor- dan valley, known for its mountains, which range from 600 m to 1500 m above sea level.

3. Eastern hi l ls--an area to the east of the highlands, known for its relatively plain lands, with a gradual slope towards the east.

4. Bad ia - -an area that extends to the east of the Jordan, known for its vastness and dry climate.

Climatically, the Badia is widely recognized to be a transition zone between the Mediterranean environment of the Jordan valley and the fully arid environment that characterizes the interior desert areas of far eastern Jor- dan, beyond the interior town of AI-Ruwashid. A gener- ally arid desert climate exists in the Badia, dominated by low precipitation (Table 1) and high potential evaporation (Table 2) between 1500 mm yr -1 and 2000 mm yr -~, resulting in scarce water resources.

There are noticeable seasonal temperature variations, with summers tending to be hot and dry and winters cool and wet. Mean annual maximum temperatures reach 35- 38~ in August but absolute maximum values can exceed 46~ Temperatures can decline below 0~ in winter. An- nual mean minimum temperatures decline to as low as 2-9~ When cold, continental air penetrates into the area, the temperature can decline to as low as 1.6~ The highest and lowest recorded temperatures are 46.4~ and - 12.0~ respectively.

Table 1 Rainfall distribution Jordan

Rainfall (mm yr -1) Area (1000 m 2) ~o Total area in Jordan

< 50 55,700,370 63.2 50-100 13,851,000 15.0

100-200 11,390,500 12.4 200-300 3,948,000 4.3 300 400 1,788,000 1.9 400 500 1,253,000 1.3 < 50 979,000 1.0

Table 2 Location of class A-pan evaporation stations in the Azraq basin

Station name Station code Elevation (m) Length of record

Azraq F0009 533 1961-1988 Safawi F0002 712 1963-1988 Bayir J0001 900 1968-1988 A1-Ruwayshid H001 686 1963-1988

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-150mm

~ '~ 150 - 200 m m

' 200-250mm

250-500mrn

>500mm

Fig. 7 Precipitation distribution in Jordan (source: A1-Fataftah 1991)

Rainfall is subject to drastic fluctuations in place and season. The mean annual rainfall in Jordan ranges from less than 50 mm yr -1 in the Badia to more than 600 mm yr -1 over the Ajlun Heights (Fig. 7). Rainfall occurs mostly between November and May, with 80% of the annual input occurring between December and March. The overall mean annual rainfall for the Jordan is approximately 65 mm yr -~ (Tables 1 and 3). Individual storms frequently result in wadi flow. Many storms are of high intensity and short duration, resulting in significant runoff and the loss of a major potential water resource due to lack of management and control. The estimated potential evapotranspi- ration can be in excess of 50 times mean annual rainfall, and head energy supported to the earth surface is far above that required to vaporize all the water at or close to the ground (Burdon 1082). In short, precipitation is an important source of water and should be considered as one of the rarest and most valuable natural resources in Jordan.

There are two dominant wind directions for most of Jordan, including the Badia. In the summer, northwest winds predominate, due to frequent seasonal troughs to the north of the country, which represent an extension of the Indian Monsoon. Wind speeds average 8-15 knots, with velocity increases in mid-afternoon sometimes reaching 20-25 knots. In the winter, the dominant wind changes to a west/southwest direction, due to depressions

205

Table 3 Location of rainfall stations in the Azraq Basin

New Elevation Record code Station name (m) Type a (from-to)

F0001 Umm el-Quttein 986 D/R 1947 1988 F0002 H5 Evap. Station 715 D/R 1968 1988 F0003 Azraq Police Post 533 D 1934-1970 F0004 Deir el Kahf 1025 D 1963-1988 F0006 A1-Qaryatain 800 D 1963-1988 F0007 Al-Wisad 700 D 1963 1988 F0009 Azraq Evap. Station 533 D 1963-1988 F0010 Esh-Shaumari 525 D/R 1962-1988 F0011 E1-Umari 525 D 1962-1988 F0012 Qasr Tuba 750 T 1968-1988 F0013 Wadi Salahb 700 T 1967-1988 F0014 Tullul el-Kureisha 550 T 1968-1988 F0015 Tullul el-Ghar 750 T 1968-1988 F0016 Qa'samiqa 760 T 1968-1988 F0017 Gadir el-Mallah 630 T 1968-1988 F0018 Jabel Aseikhim 640 T 1968-1988 F0019 Jebel Mudysisat 900 T 1968-1988 F0020 Qasr el-Kharrana 650 T 1968-1988 H0004 Tullul el-Ashqaf 650 T 1967-1988

a Daily readings. R = recorder; T = totalizer

that move along the eastern Mediterranean. Wind speeds average 10-15 knots, and there are occasional gales.

Hydrology and surface water

Water is one of the most important natural resources in semiarid parts of the world and is critical to sustainable development in the Badia. In 1991, the total national water consumption in Jordan approached 730 million m 3. It is anticipated that demand will rise to 2105 million m a by the year 2020. Figure 8 shows the future projection of Jordan's water demand. Approximately 8500 million m 3

2500-

2000

1500 O o O O O O

1000

rn

[ ~ Manufacturing and industry

[ ] Agricutture

[ ] Safe yield

[ ] T0ta[

500

1990 2000 2010 2020 Years

Fig. 8 The projected water demand for Jordan

206

Table 4 Characterization of water resources problems in terms of social and economic significance

Economic and social Physical manifestation Consequences significance

1. Semiarid climate, low Fluctuating water supply, limited Planning problems, precipitation, high resource base, periodic drought development target evaporation uncertainty High population growth Reduction in living standards, rates health problems

2.

3. Conflicting demands

4. Riparian conflicts

5. No effective conservation program

6. Financial constraints

7. Lack integral water policy

Water demand and competition increasing, groundwater depletion, pollution

Inequitable allocations, regional price structuring

Critical supply augmentation not undertaken

Environmental impacts, inefficiency losses, water logging problems

Demand exceeds supply

Numerous as listed above

Emergence of water lobbyists

Economy destabilization

Productivity decline

Productivity decline, increasing health problems

Low social and economic development potential

of precipitation falls in Jordan each year, of which about 85-92% is lost to evaporation, 5 11% disappears through infiltration, and 2 -4% in surface runoff. A plan of action to address the increase in water resources demand and shortage of resources should be based on a comprehensive resources survey, effective management, and regional cooperation.

A plan of action to address the increase in water resources demand and shortage of resources should be based on a comprehensive management strategy and regional cooperation. The water resources problems in terms of their scocioeconomic significance are outlined in Table 4.

The drainage systems in Jordan are subdivided into 15 major regions (Table 5, Fig. 9). Other than basin delinea- tion, little is known about the characteristics of each region. Information is required, for example, on parameters that influence runoff and flood events, including drainage area and shape; wadi channel patterns; the width, depth,

Table 5 Flow characteristics for drainage systems in Jordan and the distribution of surface water

Flow/million m 3 yr -1

Basin Base Flood Spring Total

Yarmouk at Adasiya 130.00 155.00 21.40 285.00 Ghor-Jordan Valley 0.00 2.40 19.30 21.70 N. Jordan River (side wadis) 36.07 13.91 48.63 49.98 S. Jordan River (side wadis) 24.76 5.58 2 8 . 9 0 30.34 Zarqa River 33.51 25.67 38.91 59.18 Dead Sea 53.95 7.20 57 .60 61.15 Mujib 38.10 45.54 16.00 83.64 Hasa 27.40 9.04 3.90 36.44 N. Wadi Araba 8.99 2.57 15.63 18.20 S. Wadi Araba 0.00 3.16 2.44 5.60 Southern Desert 0.00 2.15 0.05 2.20 Azraq 0.00 26.80 0.60 27.40 Sarhan 0.00 10.00 0.00 10.00 Hammad 0.00 13.00 0.00 13.00 Jafer 0.00 10.00 1.92 11.92

Total 352.78 332.02 255.28 684.80

and slope of channels; and the nature of sediments within the wadis.

The hydrological situation in the Badia is poorly understood, and there is a dearth of information on all aspects of the water balance. The collection of basic hydrological data, particularly on runoff, infiltration, and groundwater recharge, is essential. Runoff-producing events are seasonally concentrated and occur every year. Daily rainfall events can be several times the size of the monthly average. However, it is far from clear how frequently rains of sufficient magnitude to cause runoff occur. The amount of precipitation required to generate runoff will also depend on other prevailing conditions such as antecedent soil moisture and the nature of surface materials and vegetation.

/ 1 Jordan Valley ' ' / " " / # / 2 North Jordan Valley Basin / / '~"

) (~, 3 Yarmouk Basin / " \ ( ~ / 4 Wadi Serhan Basin \. 33

of Galilee', A5 Wadi Araba North Basin \ I Sea I "-~ ~ ^ 3 L. /7-,, Hammad .\

/ / ~ - - . t Basin / \ 1~ Zerqa / / ~ /

3 2 ~ /< ~ _,~Basin //4~\ j j . l . J / f'J ; ) \ / / . . . - ~ J

/ / /~IDead] Azraq . ~ . i - - / l ~Sea 1 Basin /X / Dead Sea (~ / "\

, )~J Basin I I ' \ �9 3, I~ / \ \ I // '\.

"\ ,/ / I ) / Wadi X, '\ / 5 ~ - - I - - ~ Serhon \~ '~ ) ] \ \ Basin / . /

~ Jafer \~ / - 30~ N\\ JRed\ ~ Basin ~--~- '~-~ '

\ JSea L / 0 100kin R , '~./z~ Basin / ' t

e a f t ~ . ' . / 37 ~ 380 390 Se ~ -36 ~

I I I

Fig. 9 The main surface water drainage basins in Jordan

A major dam is currently under construction across a downstream section of Wadi Rajil, close to the northeast margin of the Azraq Basin. Its main purpose is groundwater recharge. The drainage area for the dam is 3243 km 2. Topography in the area is flat, and the waterbody will have a large surface area. Construction is using materials available locally. When complete, the reservoir capacity will be 2.6 million m 3. Some useful data may well be available from this site and should be consulted as a starting point to any new reservoir study.

Since the current data base is very poor, the opportu- nity exists to develop a water balance for the Badia and, as part of this, to test other predictive hydrological models for semiarid environments. One of the main research aims is runoff coefficient determination for the Badia. However, a wide range of questions need to be addressed such as:

�9 Where does surface water occur? �9 What are the input rates, times and frequencies? �9 What is the effect of precipitation on soil moisture? �9 What are the variations in magnitude of supply through

time and what return intervals are associated with specific supply volumes?

�9 What are the runoff patterns in relation to topography and soils?

Interrelationships among overland flow, surface erosion, and sediment transport need to be examined. No data exist as a basis for quantifying land degradation during seasons when runoff is significant or for developing effective land erosion mitigation and management strategies.

Hydrological questions, such as those outlined above, will initially require the collection of data at a general level but with subsequent detailed site instrumentation and site monitoring.

Groundwater

An important research element will be studies focused on groundwater. Blake (1928, 1930, 1937) undertook the first serious hydrogeological studies in Jordan, with later work being performed by Ionides and Blake (1939), Goldschmidt (1947), and Bender (1968).

The distribution of groundwater in Jordan is now fairly well known. There are 12 different basins (Fig. 10). Ground- water flow directions are shown in Fig. 11. The main problem is to optimize the utilization of groundwater resources and protect against depletion and contamination. The estimated safe yield for each basin is shown in Table 6.

A number of major aquifer systems can be identified in Jordan. Those which are important in the Badia are as follows:

Upper aquifer complex: (i) Neogene-Quaternary alluvial sediments (ii) Neogene-Quaternary basalts (iii) Lower Tertiary marly and chalky limestones with

cherts (the Rijam aquifer or B4)

207

\ J 7 " -~ . J / / A / 8 /

Red / ~ . / / ' . . . . .

1 Yarm;uk ' ' 5 Dead Sea Rift Side " / 7 - I 2North Rift Side Wadis 6 WadiArabaNorth L33o 3 Jordan Valley 7 Wadi Araba South & Wadi Yutum / 4 South Rift Side Wadis 8 Disi & Southern Desert

' r-i j [ Sea of Galileelw--.. ̀ / ~\ | ~4_ ~ t-. / ' ' "

/ /'~-~-~1;21 1 "-k . / " \ Hammad '\

/ /\ J' Zar k~ / ') J ~ 3 .~ ) . > , / 4 - - w \ / " -32~ I q l 4 -~ Azraq ( Sarhan , , j - f

f I ~ ) \ \ / . ~ -

/ S _ l I /~ ~ , Dead Sea Mujib/. _ / - 'X X _31o ; '\.

i '\ ~ ~ \ Sarhan \" '6 if \HaSa'/> \ \

r / ) \ \ \ / <- ( ~ , ' Jafer

N\ /' / I ,, .,

0 100km I I

37 o 38 o 39 ~ I P __

Fig. 10 Groundwater basins in Jordan

Fig. 11 Main groundwater flow directions in Jordan

2. Middle aquifer complex (i) Upper Cretaceous limestones, sand limestones (the

Amman-Wadi Sir aquifer or B2, A7) (ii) Middle Cretaceous crystalline to chalky limestones

(the Hummar aquifer or A4) 3. Lower aquifer complex

(i) Lower Cretaceous sandstones (the Kurnub aquifer) (ii) Lower Mesozoic-Palaeozoic (the Disi aquifer)

208

Table 6 Estimated safe yield from groundwater basins in Jordan

Location Safe yield (million m 3 yr -1)

A. Renewable resources Amman-Zarka 87.5 Azraq 24.0 Yarmouk 40.0 Jordan River (side wadis) 15.0 Jordan River (valley) 21.0 Dead Sea 57.0 North Wadi Araba 3.5 South Wadi Araba 5.5 Jafer 9.0 Sarhan 5.0 Hammad 8.0

Total 275.5

B. Nonrenewable resources Jafer 18.0 Mudawwara & southern desert 125.0

Total 143.0

418.5 Total A + B

The upper and middle systems are separated by an aquitard of the Maestrictian. The middle and lower aquifers are separated by marls and marly limestones of low permeability. A Silurian shale may separate the Lower Cretaceous, Kurnub aquifer, from the deeper Palaeozoic, Disi sandstone aquifer.

The upper aquifer complex covers the whole of the Badia. Groundwater occurrence is complex due to the variety of lithologies. Recharge is from the north, via flows between and below the basalt sheets arising from the Jabal al Arab. Some recharge via runoff occurs from Wadi Ruwayshid in the northeast. Discharge is by evapotran- spiration and lateral outflow. Groundwater storage is likely to be moderate, since the saturated formations are not thick and porosities are low. Depth to water table varies

with topography, being up to 250 m deep on the basalt plateau and less than 100 m deep in the wadi bottoms.

The Neogene and Quaternary component of the upper aquifer sequence includes sandstones and sandy marls comprising fluviatile sandstones, gravels, conglomerates, wadi fans, and talus deposits. All are highly permeable, usually unconfined, and highly variable in their physical characteristics. They are often saline. The Lower Tertiary chert limestone rocks form the Rijam aquifer. In the Azraq basin, the Rijam aquifer is hydraulically connected to overlying Neogene sandstones and an extensive upper basalt aquifer (Fig. 12).

Groundwater salinities for the upper aquifer complex range from a few hundred to 4000 ppm (Wright 1988). Where rainfall and flow rates are high, the chemical composition of the aquifer matrix has little effect on water and the quality is high. However, when rainfall and/or flow rates are low, the chemical composition of the rock increasingly influences water chemistry as distance increases from the recharge zone. In general, the basalt waters are of good quality and can be readily distinguished from water derived from the marly sequences. There have been recent indications of water deterioration in some areas due to overextraction.

The deeper, middle and lower aquifers, are poorly defined. They are mainly confined, fossil resources. Storage is high but water quality is variable, in some areas being highly saline and unusable. Depth to the top of the aquifer systems depends largely on structural position and is often fault controlled. In contrast to the shallow aquifer systems, groundwater flow in the middle and lower systems is from the south. Horizontal hydraulic gradients are shallow, and flow frequently occurs in structural fissures, sometimes introducing a westerly trend to flow movements.

Fig. 12 Cross-section showing the main aquifers of the Badia

1000

500 6

~

-500

A Harrat er RujeiLa B m C

~ First aquifer system ~ East

' " Third aquifer system (Vertical exaggeration X 50 )

[ ~ Quaternary sediments

Basalts (Quat.-Tertiary)

Tertiary

Chalky or marly limestone

Chert, mar[, limestone MarL,limestone

[ I Soft mar[,[imestone intercalated with chert & phosphate Marl, limestone

500

0

-500

1000

Cretaceous

Cha[ky ti mestone, dolomite, chert

Limestone,marl, sand intercalation Sandstone

Jurassic

Calcareous deposits, clays g evaporites

Paleozoic

Sandy limestone, marl, dolomite

209

Structure is a major control on regional groundwater flow patterns in the eastern Badia, either directly by frac- tures facilitating infiltration or indirectly by the formation of areas of relative uplift and subsidence, which control the aerial distribution and thickness of permeable strata and their regional dip (Khouri 1982). The dominant structural depression controlling groundwater residence and flow movement in the Badia is the Azraq-Wadi Sirhan Basin, bounded on the west by the Jordan Uplift, to the north by the Halab Uplift in Syria, and to the east by the Rutbah- Ha'il Arch in Iraq.

To date, no detailed study has been undertaken to eval- uate important groundwater characteristics of the Badia, which include: recharge rates, flow paths, discharge/extraction rates, and quality. The three-dimensional location of water-bearing strata will be important, for which much information is already available and will be collected during the first phase of the project. All key hydrogeological parameters need to be quantified for the Badia.

Important sources of recharge include infiltration from wadi flood events, regional flow from the Jabal Ad-Druz, and up-flow from deep aquifers. Flowpath determination will be important to any future plan to increase groundwater extraction, proposing new locations for pumping from aquifers, and identifying locations suitable for de- v e l o p m e n t - a l l necessary to calculate throughflow. Com- puter modeling techniques will be used to define flowpaths and flownets.

At present, approximately 940 million m 3 of groundwater is extracted within Jordan per annum, of which 139 million m 3 is used for municipal/domestic supply purposes and 26 million m 3 by industry. The remainder is used for irrigation. The potential for the future development of agriculture in the Badia hinges on the availability of usable water supplies. A key component of development will be the effective exploitation and careful management of the groundwater reserve.

Precise assessment is needed of current groundwater extraction rates and the extent to which extraction from finite reserves is exceeding recharge. Extraction assessment will necessitate the development of a groundwater balance model for the Badia. Recharge zones must be identified both within Jordan and across international boundaries, in Syria for the upper aquifers, and Saudi Ara- bia for the lower aquifer sequences. Remotely sensed data will be important here.

Water quality needs to be assessed in three contexts.

1. Variations in groundwater quality through time at specific locations and wells.

2. Variations in groundwater quality along flowpaths. 3. Variations in groundwater quality for each of the

aquifers identified in the Badia.

To some extent the water quality study will be his- torical, identifying past changes in groundwater chemistry and associated fluctuations in groundwater levels. Hydro- chemical trends and groundwater ages, determined by 14 C and 3H analysis, will be compared with hydraulic interpre- tations.

There will be important links between the groundwater study and those engaged in the agriculture program, since comments from the local population suggest that the last six to ten years have seen a deterioration in groundwater quality in the Safawi area, increasing soil salinity, and declines crop yields. Close cooperation will also be necessary with those involved in the geological survey, since there are overlapping interests within Jordan between the Natural Resources Authority, the Ministry of Agriculture, and the Ministry of Water and Irrigation.

Acknowledgments This study is part of the combined efforts of the members of the Jordan Badia Research and Development Program, which involves collaboration between the Higher Council for Sci- ence and Technology (HCST) in Jordan and the Royal Geographical Society (RGS) of the UK.

The advice and assistance of the following people in developing this study is warmly appreciated: Dr. A.R. A1-Fataftah, Agriculture and Water Sector, The Higher Council for Science and Technology, Amman, Jordan; Professor D. Brunsden, Department of Geography, King's College London, Strand, London; Dr. W.G. Burgess, Depart- ment of Geological Sciences University College London, Gower Street, London; Professor R.U. Cooke, Department of Geography, University College London, Gower Street, London; Mrs. J. Dottridge, Department of Geological Sciences, University College London; Dr. R.W. Dutton, Center for Overseas Research and Development, Uni- versity of Durham, Mountjoy Research Center, Durham; Professor A.S. Goudie, School of Geography, University of Oxford, Oxford; and Dr. D.U Higgitt, Department of Geography, University of Lancaster.

References

A1-Fataftah AA (1991) Towards Science and Technology Straregies and Policies in the Agriculture and Water Sector. A Sectorial Report, The Higher Council for Science and Technology, Amman, Jordan, July, p 67

Bender F (1968) Geologic yon Jordanien. Beitr. Regionalen Geologic Erde, Vol. 7. Berlin: Gebruder Borntraeger. 230 pp

Bender F (1974) Geology of Jordan. Berlin: Gebrider Borntraeger. 196 pp

Bender F (1975) Geology of the Arabian Peninsula: Jordan. United States Geological Survey Professional Paper 560-I, 30 pp

Blake GS (1928) Geology and water resources of Palestine. Jerusa- lem, Publ. No. 1. Geologic Advisor in Palestine

Blake GS (1930) The mineral resources of Palestine and Trans- jordan. Publication No. 2. Palestine: Geological Advisor

Blake GS (1937) Old shore lines of Palestine. Geol Mag 74:68-78 Burdon DJ (1959) Handbook of the geology of Jordan. Amman:

Government of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan. 82 pp Burdon DJ (1982) Hydrogeological considerations in Middle East.

Q J Eng Geol 15:71-82 Goldschmidt MJ (1947) Geology and water resources of Palaestine.

Jerusalem Department of Land Settlement and Water Commis- sioner, Government of Palestine. 280 pp

Ibrahim KM (1992) The geological framework for the Harrat Ash- Shaam basaltic supergroup and its volcantectonic evolution. Amman: Natural Resources Authority. 120 pp

Ionides MG and Blake GS (1939) Report on the water resources of Transjordan and their development: Incorporating a report on geology, soils and minerals and hydrogeological correlations. London: Crown Agents for the Colonies. 372 pp

Khouri J (1982) Hydrogeology of the Syrian steppe and adjoining arid areas. Q J Eng Geol 15:135-154

Wright EP (1988) Appraisal of water resources studies in the Disi and Hammad basins of Jordan. Technical report. Amman: Water Resources Authority. 260 pp

a study on geology, geomorphology, hydrology, groundwater, and physical resources of the desertified...

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