Module Code: UJUUH4-30-3

Student Number: 11004193

5993 Words

1Module Code: UJUUH4-30-3Student Number: 11004193

Concerning deforestation, critically analyse whether the need

for sustainable development in Sub-Saharan Africa has become

globalised?

Globalisation:

Forest resources are a prevalent concern attracting unprecedented attention on a global scale.1 The concern extends to both their value as a resource and their contribution to environmental sustainability.2 Global deforestation may have short term economic benefits for various stakeholders, but the irreplaceable loss of biomass, biodiversity and the unquantifiable Carbon Dioxide emissions ensure deforestation is purported as a globalised issue.3 In combatting current deforestation in Africa, it is imperative that sustainable forest management is initiated. Due to weak governance of the forests in Sub-Saharan Africa these elements are neglected or inadequately enforced.4 From globalisation, multinationals are pressured to be transparent in conjunction with emerging market pressures of social responsibility initiating the increase of sustainable development.5 Governments across Sub-Saharan Africa comprehend the requirement for affirmative action to minimalise the detriment of environmental, economic and social risks.

A billion people survive in absolute poverty on less than a dollar a day.6 It is also projected 1.1 billion are without potable water and 2.4 billion do not have proper sanitation.7 It is conclusive that Africa holds countries with the poorest GDP worldwide. It would be fallacious to augment deforestation as the prominent issue in Sub-Saharan Africa itself. These facts prove the government’s focus, if any, is too facilitate the basic socio-economic needs of the people with disregard to the environment. Thus, there is a requirement from the developed world for vast contributions both economically and socially to aid Africa. Has deforestation become a globalised issue to the extent of which it has become sustainable? The project will attempt to answer this question by engaging the rectification of the issues surrounding the substantive deforestation in Sub-Saharan Africa.

Sustainable Development

For Africa’s deforestation rates to decrease, the governments will have to implement policies and legislation improving sustainable development.8 At the current rate of deforestation Africa would have no forests by 2100, enforcing the requisite for sustainable development; the environmental and social trepidations were the fundamental areas of emphasis in the Brundtland Commission.9 The definition provided by the Commission acutely defines sustainable development:

1 Mather, ‘Global Forest Resources’ (1st ed, Belhaven Press, 1992) 1, para. 12 Code, Ecological Responsibilities: Which trees? Where? Why? [2012] 3 JHRandE, 84-99, 843 Jepma ‘Tropical Deforestation: A Socio-Economic Approach’ (1st, Earthscan Publications Ltd, 1995) 4, para 2.4 Poore, ‘Changing Landscapes: The development of the International Tropical Timber…’ (1st ed, Earthscan Publishing Ltd, 2003) 115 Higman, Bass, Judd, Mayers, NussBaum, ‘The Sustainable Forestry Handbook’ (1st, Earthscan Publications Ltd, 1999) 66 UNDP, Human Development Report [2005] Economica, 3, 4.7 Kempf, How The Rich Are Destroying the Earth (1st, Green Books, 2008) 338 Higman, Bass, Judd, Mayers, NussBaum, ‘The Sustainable Forestry Handbook’ (1st, Earthscan Publications Ltd, 1999) 189 General Assembly 42/187, Report of the World Commission on Economic Development (1987) para. 1.

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‘Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs’.10

Decreasing deforestation in Africa can be achieved through several elements, namely, legal frameworks, sustained and optimal production of forest products, environmental protection measures and considerations given to the well-being of the people and the plantations.11 Due to globalisation corporations are feeling pressured to be transparent in their dealings and with emergent market pressures the need to initiate sustainable development has rose.12 The concept has become globalised; an examination through the agencies promoting sustainable development will enable an opinion on whether it is currently achievable.

Alongside a vast assortment of international agencies combatting deforestation, there have been several international initiatives aimed at sustainable forest management.13 The African Forest Forum is a platform for individuals that aim to support sustainable management and utilisation of forests in Africa.14 It expects to deliver an environment for objective and independent analysis of technical and policy related issues.15 It also publishes work related to sustainable forest management in Africa. The International Tropic Timber Organisation were heralded for their Year 2000 objective of all international timber sales being sourced from sustainably managed forests by 2000.16 The 1990 guidelines contained 41 principles for sustainable forest management, with 36 possible actions to achieve these principles.17 Similarly to many objectives surrounding deforestation the principles fell short of expectations, but established an implicit precedent for future targets.18 Their extensive set of guidelines are relevant to national policy, monitoring and reporting but was criticised by NGO’s19 for its disregard towards socio-environmental issues and leniency on enforcement.20 However the ITTO guidelines are utilised as the basis of the African Timber Organisation’s ‘Green Label’ principles, criteria and indicator for sustainable management of African tropical forests. 21 This infers recognition of the ITTO guidelines has been profound. Poore, an influential figure in formulating the ITTO guidelines, notes the guidelines has attributed a

10 WCED, Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development: Our Common Future (1987) ch. 211 Higman, Bass, Judd, Mayers, NussBaum, ‘The Sustainable Forestry Handbook’ (1st, Earthscan Publications Ltd, 1999) 512 Higman, Bass, Judd, Mayers, NussBaum, ‘The Sustainable Forestry Handbook’ (1st, Earthscan Publications Ltd, 1999) 613 Park, Tropical Rainforests (1st ed, Routledge, 1992) 14014 Spratt, Researching forest taxation and REDD+ in sub-Saharan Africa: a concept note and call for research partners (2013) ICTD Report15 Babin, Beyond Tropical Deforestation: From Tropical Deforestation to Forest Cover Dynamics and Forest Development (1st ed, UNESCO/CIRAD, 2004) 1516 International Tropic Timber Agreement (1990)17 Vogler, Imber, ‘The Environment & International Relations’ (1st ed, Routledge, 1996) 22418 International Timber Council, ‘Achieving the ITTO Objective 2000 and sustainable forest management in Papua New Guinea: Report of the Diagnostic Mission’ [2007] 42nd session, page 519 Non-Governmental Organisation20 Higman, Bass, Judd, Mayers, NussBaum, ‘The Sustainable Forestry Handbook’ (1st, Earthscan Publications Ltd, 1999) 821 Poore, Changing Landscapes: The development of the International Tropical Timber… (1st ed, Earthscan Publishing Ltd, 2003) 11

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rise to political considerations of the forest but practical issues still remain with selective logging practices remaining unsustainable.22 A common trend throughout researching this project has been the repeated lack of cohesion amongst the international agencies in combatting the weak governance to prevent forest exploitation. Whether the Target 2000 can actually be attained is widely doubted. Currently only 1 to 10 million ha/70 million of forest is sustainably managed in Africa, with ill equipped, underfunded and understaffed forestry departments in most Sub-Saharan countries.23 This explicitly shows the affirmative action required by the international agencies to aid African countries in the management of their forests, to prevent exploitation and the negligible effects resulting from deforestation.

The Forest Stewardship Council,24 an NGO whose members are concerned about sustainable forest management, developed their principles for the specific purpose of improving standards of forest management.25 Their extensive acknowledgement can be perceived in everyday domestic products, with the majority comprising an ‘FSC’ certificate which delivers recognition of the product’s legal source. The FSC focus on abating negative environmental impacts of all forestry operations; maximise social benefits whilst maintaining areas emulating the original ecosystem.26 The FSC had issued 20,000 certificates in 2011, proving they are vigorously striving to combat illegal logging and attain sustainability through operation of their effective certification scheme.27 There have been consultations to inaugurate a connection between the FSC and the environmental management standards of ISO 14001, which places emphasis on development of policy, management systems, monitoring, feedback and sustainability. The performance levels are defined for sustainable management by initiatives such as the FSC and the ITTO.28 These agencies have assisted recognition in the developed world, but need to become more dominant in their approach to collaborating with stakeholders in the African forest regions. It is pivotal these agencies offer guidance and support enabling the stakeholders to build a mutual understanding for effective management of the forest, removing exploitation and establishing sustainability.

Sub-Saharan Africa – Deforestation:

Africa hosts 16% of the world’s forests, covering 635 million hectares scattered across the continent.29 According to the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organisation,30 Central

22 Poore, Changing Landscapes: The development of the International Tropical Timber… (1st ed, Earthscan Publishing Ltd, 2003) 1223 Jepma ‘Tropical Deforestation: A Socio-Economic Approach’ (1st, Earthscan Publications Ltd, 1995) 6824 Henceforth referred to as FSC25 Higman, Bass, Judd, Mayers, NussBaum, ‘The Sustainable Forestry Handbook’ (1st, Earthscan Publications Ltd, 1999) 1126 Juang, Putzel, ‘Supply Market Analysis for Certification of Forest Ecosystem Services. Forest Certification, Bodies’ Preferences and Audit Capacity’[2013] International Market Assessment , CIFOR, Part 1, 927 Forest Stewardship Council, http://www.fsc-uk.org/our-history.26.htm (2014) Accessed 20th Feb 1428 Hortensius, The possible use of ISO 14001 in the forestry sector to support sustainable forest management, [1997] 17(1) BOS NiEuWSletter 3829 FAO ‘Progress towards sustainable forest management’ (2005) Global Forest Resources Assessment 2005, Forestry Paper 14730 Henceforth referred to as FAO

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Africa lost approximately 91,000 km2 between 1990 and 2000.31 The size of the Congo Basin was estimated at 2,403,000 km2 in 2000, representing a 3.78% loss of total forest between 1990 and 2000. In a global context, the deforestation rates of the Congo Basin and surrounding regions are relatively low in comparison to other tropical forests in Southeast Asia and South America along the equator.32 The Basin holds a hot, moist climate that receives more solar radiation throughout the year than any other ecosystem stimulating the rich variety of vegetation.33 However, given the extent and rate of deforestation from roadside farming and logging practices, relatively vast blocks of undisturbed African forest will cease to exist in 50 years.34 Projections in many African countries show 80% of the timber is utilised for fuel wood.35 There are no alternatives for the majority of the African population which is causal to unsustainable rates of deforestation, reiterating the need for deforestation to become a globalised issue. The developed countries will have to become proactive in legislating against deforestation to ensure the forests of Africa remain standing and not felled.

The graph36 exemplifies the deforestation rates in Sub-Saharan Africa between 1990-2000. Burundi, who utilise timber as their primary resource, were deforesting at 9% of their forest a year. The destruction of Burundi’s Kibira Forest, the country’s primary natural ecosystem has led to extinction of species exclusive to the forest with negative losses incurred for such a

31 UNEP, ‘Forests: Africa’ [2002] Global Environmental Outlook 332 CARPE, ‘Deforestation in Central Africa: Significance and Scale of the Deforestation’ [2001] Issue Brief 6, Congo River Basin Information Series, 1

33 Page, From the Ground Up: Rethinking Industrial Agriculture (1st ed, Zed Books, 2001) 6

34 CARPE, ‘If the forest Disappeared What Would We Lose and What might We gain? [2001] Issue Brief 8, Congo River Basin Information Series, 335 Toulmin, ‘Climate Change in Africa’ (1st ed, Zed Books Ltd, 2009) 78, 336 Butler, 'AFROTROPICAL REALM' (Monga bay) <http://www.mongabay.com/rates_africa.htm> accessed 20/02/14

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%

short term pecuniary gain on the revenue generated from timber.37 On the contrary, Fatajo, the acting director of the Department of Forestry in Gambia mentions how reforestation programmes has started in 1978, which promoted the plantation of 6000 different species of trees and the importance of forest protection.38 This shows reforestation is plausible in Sub-Saharan Africa as forests expanded around 1.1% through the 10 year period. If other African countries were to enforce such measures, with the government empowering local communities, reforestation would prosper. Although the model is somewhat outdated, it has been useful in establishing the Sub-Saharan countries who have severely exploited their forest resources. There are various causes but these must be addressed in order to facilitate reforestation in Africa.

Economic Matters:

Africa hosts a rich diversity of forests and the widespread variety of forests provide incomes and produce for many people, with the majority of Sub-Saharan countries holding a low Gross Domestic Product.39 A low GDP manifests scarcity in government expenditure to improve employment and public sector services displaying the necessity of employment provided by the forest sector.40 In Uganda the forest sector has created around 1 million jobs, a substantial percentage of the population, driving charcoal production, plantation management and forest industrialisation.41 With the development of globalisation in the timber market, jobs are provided to African people from foreign companies. In Zambia, Chinese companies are buying up other foreign investments in the country such as the Luanshya Copper Mine at bargain prices.42 This economic liberalisation has had disadvantageous effects to the natives, who are abused by wage cuts and thus poverty and power are intimately related.43 Income needs to be sustainable in order to promote the conservation of a product which is utilised for every-day living, with poor corporate governance likely to be a contributing factor into the hindrance of reforestation.

Africa’s dry Sahel region is inhabited by 250 million of the poorest people in the world, with reliance on the trees for their livelihoods as the forests provide a vital source of vitamins and minerals, contributing to a somewhat balanced diet.44 In Mali, households rely on the butter oil processed from the shea nut tree, Butyrosperimum paradoxum, for cooking; is the second-most important source of fat in African diets.45 The tree is revered in Benin as the ‘tree of

37Burundi: Shrinking Lakes and Denuded Forests (IRIN news) <http://www.irinnews.org/fr/report/72543/burundi-shrinking-lakes-and-denuded-forests> Accessed 5th March 201438 Gambia: Reforestation Will Help To Curb Desertification Says Forestry Director (All Africa 2012) http://allafrica.com/stories/201208210644.html accessed 11 January 1439 Capistrano, ‘Storehouses and safety nets’ [2005] OP, 16(2): 30-31, 3040 Broch-Due, Schroeder, ‘Producing Nature and Poverty in Africa’ (1st ed, Elanders Gotab, 2000) 19941 Toulmin, ‘Climate Change in Africa’ (1st ed, Zed Books Ltd, 2009) 78, 342 Rundell ‘China’s long game in Africa’ [2009] AB 356: 30-2, 3043 Carmody, ‘The new scramble for Africa’ (1st ed, Polity Press, 2011) 3044 Petheram, Campbell, Marunda, Tiveau, Shackleton, ‘The wealth of the dry forests: can sound forest management contribute to the Millennium Development Goals in Subsharan Africa’ [2006] 5 CIFOR 45 Chege, ‘Africa’s non-timber forest economy’ [2001] Dec JoF 12

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life’ inferring the spiritual connection between natives and the trees.46 Some countries such as South Africa even recognise this spiritual connection and the need for sustainable development through legislation.47 Constitutional provisions of Malawi, South Africa and Uganda recognise the right to environmental protection and sustainable development of natural resources for future generations. This is a potential area of reform for other Sub-Saharan African Countries, as it offers an opportunity to promote these environmental concerns at the most visible level of legal order.48 These constitutions recognise that trees provide consistent sources of food, fuel and timber which in times of volatile turbulence in prices, reduces vulnerability of rural communities.49 Other income generated from the forest is the sale of bush-meat, firewood, medicines, rattan and bamboo, craft materials and food.50 Africans reliant on the forest who sell these products have little participation in the forest’s management.51 The introduction of their contribution will have positive effects to combat deforestation.

With current revenues of $2 million a year, the production of honey and beeswax in Tanzania has become a nominal source of income for rural people, with the potential production value more than fifty times this.52 The exploitation of profits and revenue from African manufacturers is rife in all industries; contributed through sacrificing profits for revenue from Foreign Direct Investment schemes and bi-lateral treaties.53 African states are becoming increasingly susceptible to abuse.54 Furthermore, sale of these products can provide vital relief to the income of rural communities. However, many states have little interference with the development of their citizens’ lives.55 Reconsideration on the profit margins given to the rural communities would provide an incentive to preserve their surrounding forest areas, aiding sustainable development; improving success and revocation of deforestation in Sub-Saharan Africa.

Agriculture:

Weak democratic structures have perverted the allocation of resources. African governments provide inadequate agricultural investment; disregard infrastructure, fabricating a hindrance

46 AFP, ‘Benin tree-planting scheme brings hope in anti-AIDS fight’ <http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5h8HEVp7DwxHZH3Gd_a8vOnStzKoA> Accessed 5th March 201447 South Africa: National Forests Act, 199848 Blanco & Razzaque, ‘Globalisation and Natural Resources Law: Challenges, key issues and perspectives’ (1st, Edward Elgar Publishing Ltd, 2011) 14949 Toulmin, ‘Climate Change in Africa’ (1st ed, Zed Books Ltd, 2009) 78, 250 Toulmin, ‘Climate Change in Africa’ (1st ed, Zed Books Ltd, 2009) 78, 251 Jepma ‘Tropical Deforestation: A Socio-Economic Approach’ (1st, Earthscan Publications Ltd, 1995) 12752 FAO, ‘Livestock Impacts on the environment: Spotlight 2006’ <http://www.fao.org/ag/magazine/0612sp1.htm> Accessed 11 March 201453 Babin, Beyond Tropical Deforestation: From Tropical Deforestation to Forest Cover Dynamics and Forest Development (1st ed, UNESCO/CIRAD, 2004) 11954 Babin, Beyond Tropical Deforestation: From Tropical Deforestation to Forest Cover Dynamics and Forest Development (1st ed, UNESCO/CIRAD, 2004) 45855 Blanco & Razzaque, ‘Globalisation and Natural Resources Law: Challenges, key issues and perspectives’ (1st, Edward Elgar Publishing Ltd, 2011) 42

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upon delivery of private investment and aid programmes.56 In countries with weak governance, pressures from growing populations and commercial demands have resulted in accelerated deforestation.57 Agriculture has been the economic spine of most African countries, employing a large share of populations and generating incomes, tax revenues and exports.58 70% of Africans live in rural areas and depend on agriculture for a significant part of their income, implying why it is the largest contributing driver for deforestation in the region.59 In Sub-Saharan Africa, agriculture accounts for 17% of GDP, and 11% of export earnings of the region.60 The figures demonstrate the economic diversity across the continent, as agriculture in oil-producing Nigeria only accounts for 0.3% of their export earnings in comparison to agricultural heavy countries such as Benin, Burkina Faso, Ethiopia, Malawi and Sierra Leone.61 It is striking these are the countries with the lowest GDP’s whose citizens receive the least income. In conjunction with rising populations, African countries need to develop competition amongst sectors to ensure sustainability, for example, only three companies own 45% of the cocoa roasting and grinding industry.62 With volatility in food prices there was social unrest from citizens of Egypt, Ivory Coast, Mauritania, Mozambique, Senegal and Cameroon about the increase.63 Social development is the primary agenda for African governments; after years of neo-colonialism, independence has proven to be hindering development in many African states.64 Agriculture needs to become sustainable as a rise in general prices will not only manifest social unrest, but initiate further land degradation, decreasing the chances of reforestation in the area.

The tropics provide a unique environment for agriculture with enormous variability: high potential for photosynthesis, climates, soils and altitudes differ widely manifesting a variety of physical conditions over short distances.65 Shifting cultivation is the most widespread farming system in the humid tropics, especially in the precipitated farming areas of low population density such as the Congo Basin.66 Since shifting cultivators are held responsible for over half of deforestation, refining the socio-economic and environmental sustainability aspects of this farming system seem imperative for virtually any attempt to contribute to reducing deforestation.67 This is exemplified by 97% of all tropical forests modified by human activity being reduced to fallow forests which are abandoned or left to regenerate naturally.68 As the forests were cleared for agriculture in the Southeast of the United States

56 Blanco & Razzaque, ‘Globalisation and Natural Resources Law: Challenges, key issues and perspectives’ (1st, Edward Elgar Publishing Ltd, 2011) 4357 Carmody, ‘The new scramble for Africa’ (1st ed, Polity Press, 2011) 658Toulmin, ‘Climate Change in Africa’ (1st ed, Zed Books Ltd, 2009) 6959 Gibbs, Coalition for Rainforest Nations, FAOSTAT [2008] 60 Director-General FAO, www.fao.org/newsroom/en/news/2008/1000868/index/htm [2008] Accesed 24th March 201461 World Bank, World Development Report 2008: Agriculture for Development (2008) 62 Toulmin, ‘Climate Change in Africa’ (1st ed, Zed Books Ltd, 2009) 5463 Toulmin, ‘Climate Change in Africa’ (1st ed, Zed Books Ltd, 2009) 5164 Broch-Due, Schroeder, ‘Producing Nature and Poverty in Africa’ (1st ed, Elanders Gotab, 2000) 6165 Jepma ‘Tropical Deforestation: A Socio-Economic Approach’ (1st, Earthscan Publications Ltd, 1995) 8566 Myers, ‘Tropical forests: Present status and future outlook’ [1991] 19 CC 3-32, 2467 Park, Tropical Rainforests (1st ed, Routledge, 1992) 4768 Park, Tropical Rainforests (1st ed, Routledge, 1992) 3

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carbon emissions grew, but due to effective reforestation programmes, since 1950 it has become a sink for carbon.69 This implies that if African governments actively manage the zones in which they section off for agriculture, then reforestation can prosper.

Furthermore, rising temperatures, shifts in rainfall, extreme events and sea level rises will all impact productivity.70 Farmers will need to build resilient systems for future agriculture, but with lack of support from governments it will be problematic for incomes and revenue generated from crop sales to increase.71 The Alliance for Green Revolution in Africa has invested millions in agricultural research to identify and spread new varieties of Africa’s main staple crop. This investment is critical to generating a more diverse and resistant set of seed which can withstand pests and diseases, such as stem rust in wheat in Kenya and Ethiopia.72 The Gates funded organisation also implemented targets to double the incomes of the African people by 2020.73 AGRA has been heavily criticised for ignoring stakeholder’s interests but is a beginning of an era in recognition of developing the Agricultural sector in Sub-Saharan Africa. Fundamentally, if socio-economic development occurs, the environment will benefit greatly.

Biodiversity:

In a continent abundant with exceptional wildlife, the existences of these species are solely reliant on the forest. The Congo Basin is the second largest rainforest in the world, after the Amazon Basin, encompassing the Democratic Republic of Congo,74 Gabon, Equitoreal Guinea, Central African Republic and the Republic of Congo.75 These forests contain wide varieties of plant and animal species; 80% of the species exclusively live in the Congo Basin, highlighting the irreplaceable value of these ecosystems in terms of biodiversity.76 The DRC holds around 480 species of mammal, 1090 species of bird, 220 species of amphibian, 350 species of reptile, 10,000 species of angiosperm which are partially protected and managed in a system of protected areas comprising 8 national parks, 57 hunting reserves and 117 forest production reserves.77 As many as 8 million African parrots have been removed from the forests over the last two decades with South Africa emerging as a centre for the wild-caught bird trade; this is mostly attributed to traders and importers taking advantage of weak

69 Delcourt, Harris, Carbon budget of the Southeast U.S biota: Analysis of historical change in trend from source to sink [1980] 210 Science 321-370 Tewari ‘Sustainability of Commercial Forestry in a Changing Socio-economic and Legal Environment: A case study of South Africa’ [2001] 48 Africa Today 1, 52-71, 7071 Tewari ‘Sustainability of Commercial Forestry in a Changing Socio-economic and Legal Environment: A case study of South Africa’ [2001] 48 Africa Today 1, 52-71, 6872 Toulmin, ‘Climate Change in Africa’ (1st ed, Zed Books Ltd, 2009) 5573 Alliance for Green Revolution, Our story, http://www.agra.org/who-we-are/our-story/#.UzsB_fldWSo Accessed 20th Feb 1474 Henceforth referred to as DRC75 Toulmin, ‘Climate Change in Africa’ (1st ed, Zed Books Ltd, 2009) Page 7176 FAO, <http://www.fao.org/forestry/country/57478/en/cod/2002> (2002) Accessed January 14th 201477 N. 22

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enforcement of existing laws and policies.78 This highlights the profound investment required to sustainably manage the current rainforest to preserve biodiversity.

In establishing reform to conserving biodiversity, the ‘ecosystem approach’ consists of a strategy for managing land resources with integration of humans being recognised as a component of these ecosystems in the management of other live processes within them.79 However, implementation of this approach has fallen short to susceptible and fragile governments affecting conservation of biodiversity in Sub-Saharan Africa.80 There was an element of cynicism between developed and developing countries during negotiations at the Climate Change Convention and Biodiversity Convention in 1992.81 Blanco and Razzaque have noted this distrust amongst the developing countries has remained largely unaltered.82 However, the necessity to conserve biodiversity has become a priority on a planetary scale for socio-economic development and commitments to provide the next generations with the miraculous nature on Earth.

The 2000 Biosafety Protocol to the Biodiversity Convention is heavily reliant on having transparency83 and public participation84 for effective implementation. The main complexities surrounding transparency has been the pervasive corruption and stagnant economic development, superficial in many resource rich developing countries.85 This becomes perceptible when inspecting economic progression of Asian countries with limited resources in comparison to resource rich countries such as Nigeria, the DRC and Sierra Leone.86 It is apparent biodiversity has been given little credibility in Sub-Saharan Africa. With recent influxes of Conventions and NGO action schemes, it will be an interesting observation concerning the conservation of biodiversity over the next decade. The species contained in Sub-Saharan Africa hold irreplaceable value; curbing deforestation will provide wildlife in the forest with tranquillity and without threat of inhabitancy.

Carbon Emissions:

Deforestation not only represents significant decreases in biodiversity, income and environmental services, but it also increases Africa’s global share of Co2 emissions.87 From burning fossil fuels, Africa’s contribution to global emissions is extremely low, (3%) manifesting obligations upon emerging countries to procure reimbursement for the

78 Africa news, South Africa; Wildlife Trade, Deforestation Threaten Africa's Parrots Africa News, [2011] Biz-Community (Cape Town) 179 Blanco & Razzaque, ‘Globalisation and Natural Resources Law: Challenges, key issues and perspectives’ (1st, Edward Elgar Publishing Ltd, 2011) 11680 Page, From the Ground Up: Rethinking Industrial Agriculture (1st ed, Zed Books, 2001) 8281 Drumbl, ‘Poverty, Wealth and Obligation in International Environmental Law’ [2002] 76 TLR 84382 Blanco & Razzaque, ‘Globalisation and Natural Resources Law: Challenges, key issues and perspectives’ (1st, Edward Elgar Publishing Ltd, 2011) 183 Art 20, 23(1) and (3), Protocol on Biosafety (Cartagena) [2000] 39 ILM 102784 Articles 23(2) and 29(8), Protocol on Biosafety (Cartagena) [2000] 39 ILM 102785 Barton, Barrera-Hernandez, Lucas, Ronne, ‘Regulating Energy and Natural Resources’ (1st, OUP, 2006) 3986 Barton, Barrera-Hernandez, Lucas, Ronne, ‘Regulating Energy and Natural Resources’ (1st, OUP, 2006) 3987 Page, From the Ground Up: Rethinking Industrial Agriculture (1st ed, Zed Books, 2001) 94

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environmental defects caused by the developed world.88 Due to deforestation, forest fires and land use change, Africa’s contribution to loss of carbon from deforestation is around 25-30%.89 However, accuracies in calculating this figure are fraught with methodological complexities due to feeble technological advancements in the continent. Alongside small-scale and unregulated activities, the scale of harvesting is never quantified, inferring a possible underestimation of total Co2 emission levels.90 The carbon emissions are extensive and with population and industrialisation increases, they are likely to grow substantially over this century. This infers strategic planning will need to strike a balance between building carbon stock levels in the forest and facilitating socio-economic development in African countries.91 The Congo Basin with its tropical rainforest holds the densest trees in the world, leading to the highest amount of carbon intake.92 Policy making needs to factor global warming as the balance between growth and decomposition will shift further, disabling the forest’s ability to act as a sink for carbon in the future.93 Destroying environmental stability will promote soil erosion; river flooding, silting and hydrological changes ensuring vast areas downstream from deforestation become infertile.94 Affirmative action from all stakeholders is required to ensure prevailing irreplaceable effects to the climate are tackled expeditiously.

Deforestation has represented a significant source of atmospheric carbon, around 20%, yet emissions from deforestation were scarcely encompassed in the Kyoto Protocol.95 This was based on the premise that quantifying Greenhouse Gas emissions96 were fraught with procedural complications, weakening the overall strength of the Protocol itself.97 Under the Bush administration, the U.S refused to commit to the Kyoto Protocol’s obligation to reduce emissions.98 For the Protocol to be deemed successful, it would require participation from the world super powers to promote globalisation of the concept of improving climate change. To engage the uncertainties of developing countries being penalised for exploiting forest resources, the Clean Development Mechanism ensured developed countries earn carbon credits from paying for reforestation projects in the developing world.99 The CDM has provided opportunities for developing countries to undertake accountability and appropriate emission reduction projects, with financial and technological assistance from developed countries.100 However, this scheme has proven to be negligible in improving investment into 88 Toulmin, ‘Climate Change in Africa’ (1st ed, Zed Books Ltd, 2009) 7789 UNDP, Human Development Report 2007/2008, [2008] New York: UN Development Programme90 Williams, Neff, Scholes, Berry, Denning, Baker.’ Africa and the global carbon cycle review’ [2007] Carbon Balance and Management, 2(3) www.cbmjournal.com/content/2/1/3 91 N. 7992 FAO, <http://www.fao.org/forestry/country/57478/en/cod/2002> (2002) Accessed January 14th 201493 Global Carbon Project (2008)94 Page, From the Ground Up: Rethinking Industrial Agriculture (1st ed, Zed Books, 2001) 10395 Kunzig, Broecker Fixing Climate: The story of climate science – and how to stop global warming (1st ed, GreenProfile, 2008) 22296 Henceforth referred to as GHG97 Burns et al, International Environmental Law [2006] 40 IL 197, 19998 Thorson, Adjudicating Climate Change: State, National and International Approaches (1st ed, CUP, 2009) 257 para 1.99 Santilli et al. Tropical Deforestation and the Kyoto Protocol, an editorial essay’ [2005] 71 CC 267-76, 278100 Blanco & Razzaque, ‘Globalisation and Natural Resources Law: Challenges, key issues and perspectives’ (1st, Edward Elgar Publishing Ltd, 2011) 20

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reforestation programmes and with an increase in GHG emissions, formulating a financial mechanism penalising countries has gained recognition.101 With negotiations in process for a post-Kyoto agreement to commence after 2012, there is growing interest in compensatory schemes to prevent deforestation. This could globalise promotion of achieving the overriding objective of eradicating climate change.

Land ownership:

Although millions of people living in Sub-Saharan Africa benefit from access to forest resources, they have little participation in their management. Governments usually assert state ownership of forests, by declaring the forests of national importance.102 The Joint Forest Management Scheme in India actively involves local stakeholders in forest management with research showing the participatory approach to resource management has had success in contradiction to top-down approaches.103 Owing to inabilities of forest agencies to effectively manage the forests, the risk of corruption associated with issuing timber permits in conjunction with lack of incentives to local people to protect the forest has manifested practical difficulties to African governments.104 Locating methods to strengthen local rights to govern forests is fundamental to inaugurating long-term management and consolidating the mitigation of climate change. Despite lobbying from various stakeholders, the International Tropical Timber Council has made no affirmative decision recognising land rights for the indigenous.105 NGO’s challenge to sovereignty comes from claims that indigenous peoples should be granted title to their customary lands; local communities should participate in decision making to prevent industrial exploitation.106 Nevertheless, governments have retained control over high-value tropical forests from considerable revenues generated by selling timber permits. Limited progress is being made but only outside of the dense tropical forests. With the influx of regional agencies with a single agenda, Southern Africa has collaborated stakeholder’s interests to preserve wildlife and woodlands, with a share given to local villages. This emulates a Payment for Ecosystem Services system whereby beneficiaries are given revenue to ensure the forest remains standing rather than felled.107 Studies have shown PES schemes have had limited success only working for carbon storage, with undesirability amongst the world in paying for ecosystem services in Africa.108 There is

101 Kunzig, Broecker Fixing Climate: The story of climate science – and how to stop global warming (1st ed, GreenProfile, 2008) 116102 Van de Walle, African Economies and the Politics of Permanent Crisis (1st ed, 2010, CUP) 1103 Durst, ‘Brown in Search of Excellence: Exemplary Forest Management in Asia and the Pacific, Bangkok: FAO104 European Council, European Union Legislation [2011] Official Journal L92,127 – 238, 128105 Vogler, Imber, ‘The Environment & International Relations’ (1st ed, Routledge, 1996) 225106 Page, From the Ground Up: Rethinking Industrial Agriculture (1st ed, Zed Books, 2001) 106107 Blanco & Razzaque, ‘Globalisation and Natural Resources Law: Challenges, key issues and perspectives’ (1st, Edward Elgar Publishing Ltd, 2011) 121108 Finlayson, ‘Africa’s ecosystem-service schemes face many challenges’ (World Agroforestry Centre 2013) <http://blog.worldagroforestry.org/index.php/2013/10/03/africas-ecosystem-services-face-many-challenges/> Accessed 20/02/2014

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currently no market confidence among carbon buyers that African countries can demonstrate good governance that would satisfy large scale investment.109

Illegal Logging

It is difficult to quantify losses resulting from illegal logging on a global scale but the World Bank have estimated around $5-10 billion dollars.110 Governments of African countries have become increasingly aware of sustainable management of their forests; although they have committed to sustainable forms of exploiting the forests, there is an inevitable lack of enforcement of existing laws and policies.111 The funds collected from Timber Permits and taxes from logging have been utilised ineffectively in accordance with reforestation programmes; offenders against legislation have been insufficiently penalised.112 This has attributed to a rise in illegal logging, for example, in the DRC, 90% of the production of logging in the DRC was conducted illegally in 2007.113 A rise in illegal logging infers a detriment in revenue collection for African governments, which can be reinvested into public services and reforestation schemes.114 In conjunction with rising populations, this is an invaluable source of income for sustainable development of their countries’ natural resources.115

Export taxes and log restrictions can have negative consequences for sustainable forest management.116 Some countries that have used export taxes in this way, such as Ghana and Cameroon, have improved the capacity of domestic processing to such an extent that domestic harvesting was unable to continue supply in a sustainable manner.117 Combined with weak enforcement and governance, this promoted illegal logging, corruption and over harvesting are significant contributive factors to deforestation.118 Irrespective of these problems, export taxes remain a key part of most forest tax systems in developing countries.119 The non-payment of logging taxes in Gabon was estimated to cost the government $12 million with exports of illegal origin at around 70%.120 It is conclusive that efforts to improve tax collection would reap rewards for all stakeholders of the forest.

The 2008 amendments of the Lacey Act introduced a requirement for importers to declare information on country of harvest, species, value and quantity of timber.121 The Act prohibits

109 Toulmin, ‘Climate Change in Africa’ (1st ed, Zed Books Ltd, 2009) 130110 World Bank Strengthening Forest Law Enforcement and Governance [2004] Washington DC: World Bank111 Jepma ‘Tropical Deforestation: A Socio-Economic Approach’ (1st, Earthscan Publications Ltd, 1995) 51112 Henry et al, Implementation of REDD+ in sub-Saharan Africa: state of knowledge, challenges and opportunities, Environment and Development Economics (Cambridge University Press, 2011) 1-24, 16113 Contreras-Hermosilla, Doornbosch, Lodge, The economics of illegal logging and associated trade (2007) OECD.114 N. 103.115 Jepma ‘Tropical Deforestation: A Socio-Economic Approach’ (1st, Earthscan Publications Ltd, 1995) 138116 Putz, Pinard, ‘Reduced Impact, Increased costs?’ [1996] 6 ITTO Tropical Forest Update, 3117 Jepma ‘Tropical Deforestation: A Socio-Economic Approach’ (1st, Earthscan Publications Ltd, 1995) 136118 Bruijnzeel, Critchley Environmetal Impacts of Logging Moist Tropical Forests [1994] UNESCO119 Mather, ‘Global Forest Resources’ (1st ed, Belhaven Press, 1992) 289120 Toulmin, ‘Climate Change in Africa’ (1st ed, Zed Books Ltd, 2009) 76121 The U.S Lacey Act 2008

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international and intra-US trade in illegally sourced products; sale, reception, acquisition, purchase and transport of timber within the US or beyond its borders.122 The Lacey Act also includes a series of penalties, including prison sentences, for any company or individual who knowingly trades in illegal products.123 There are further penalties for companies who unknowingly trade illegal products but where they have not exercised due care in mitigating the risk of illegal products being present in their supply chains.124 The Australian Illegal Logging Prohibition Act prohibits both import of illegally logged timber and the processing of illegally logged raw logs.125 Under the Act, Australian importers and processors of raw logs are required to carry out due diligence to minimise risk of illegally logged timber being present in their supply chains. In proving due diligence has been undertaken, the importer must submit a declaration to the Customs Minister at the time of import.126 The implementation of due diligence confirms innovative legislation has positive effects to sustainable management of timber products. The recent improvement in developed countries’ legislation is likely to promote awareness of the issue; with effective enforcement and sanctioning, it is likely to form a deterrent in producing and exporting illegal timber from African countries.

Under the European Union Timber Regulation, EU operators are prohibited from placing illegally harvested timber and timber products on the EU market for the first time.127 Operators must also exercise due diligence to reduce risks of illegal products being present in their supply chains.128 The EUTR also requires that traders who buy or sell timber and timber products already on the market maintain records relating to their suppliers and customers. The EUTR forms one of two key elements of the EU’s Forest Law Enforcement, Governance and Trade (FLEGT) Action Plan, the other being Voluntary Partnership Agreements which are negotiated with producer countries.129 VPA’s are voluntary bilateral agreements between EU and timber producing countries which ensure only legally harvested timber and timber products are imported.130 Much of the demand for African timber is now coming from China, so it can be processed and exported globally.131 China needs to comply with transparency policies to ensure they are importing legally sourced wood. Alongside the western world, they have fundamental obligations to substantively prevent illegal logging in Africa.132

Regional Efforts:

122 U.S Lacey Act (Environmental Investigation Agency, 2014) <http://www.Eia-global.org/lacey/> Accessed 20th Feb 14123 The Lacey Act Chapter 53 of Title 16, U.S Code, s. 3375 (1)124 The Lacey Act Chapter 53 of Title 16, U.S Code, s. 3373 (1)125 Illegal Logging Prohibition Act, No 166, 2012 126 Illegal Logging Prohibition Act 2012, Part 2, s. 8127 The European Union Timber Regulation, No. 995/2010128 EC, European Union Legislation [2011] L92 Official Journal 127129 N.119130 EC, European Union Legislation [2011] L92 Official Journal 127, 52131 Carmody, ‘The new scramble for Africa’ (1st ed, Polity Press, 2011) 7132 Carmody, ‘The new scramble for Africa’ (1st ed, Polity Press, 2011) 70

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There is a multiplicity of conventions and organisations in Sub-Saharan Africa which requires developing structural coherency and collaboration to initiate future progress.133 The Central African Regional Programme for the Environment is a USAID134 initiative aimed at promoting sustainable natural resource management in the Congo Basin.135 CARPE has provided the Congo Basin with technological development enabling the governments to effectively clarify structural inconsistencies. Their main strategic objective is reducing deforestation by increasing local, national and regional natural resource management capacity; once this has been initiated, to conserve biodiversity and protect the environment.136 The intergovernmental body COMIFAC has overseen regional activities relating to sustainable management and conservation of forests in the Congo Basin since 1999.137 The Congo Basin Forest Partnership is a voluntary agreement amongst governments, the private sector, civil society and development organisations that pursue preserving biodiversity. Working in unison with COMIFAC they promote good forest governance and improve living standards of forest populations. The CBFP has been used ineffectively due to lack of affirmative action, but has contributed vast support to COMIFAC.138 The Congo Basin Forest Fund is a multi-donor fund with the aim of protecting forests in the Congo Basin and alleviating poverty.139 The dispersal of this fund around the Basin has been critical to enhancing development. It supports activities of COMIFAC and encourages collaboration between governments, NGOs, civil society and the private sector. This is significant as stakeholders can initiate discussion to advance coherency on social, environmental and economic issues, with participation from the local people who are reliant on the forest.140 This develops Africa’s contribution to International Environmental Law, which has largely been dominated by Western scholars.141 Other sub-initiatives include the RAPAC, OFFAC and RIFFEAC which are developing awareness of the importance of deforestation in the Congo Basin. However, although these organisations have promoted awareness and recognised the issues of deforestation, there has been a lack of structure between the organisations, which is likely to hinder future progress.

REDD+

133 K. Gray, ‘Multilateral Environmental Agreements in Africa: Efforts and Problems in Implementation’[2003] 3(2) International Environmental Agreements Politics, Law and Economics, 97-135. 101134 U.S Agency for International Development135 CARPE, ‘Deforestation in Central Africa: Significance and Scale of the Deforestation’ [2001] Issue Brief 6, Congo River Basin Information Series,136 CARPE, strategic objective <http://carpe.umd.edu/about/index.php/?tab=0> [2012] accessed 21st January 2014137 Summit of Central African Heads of State on The Conservation and Sustainable Management of Tropical Forests: The Yaounde Declaration [1999] 38 I.L.M 783138 Congo Basin Forest Partnership <http://pfbc-cbfp.org/comifac_en2.html> [2014] Accessed 20th Feb 2014139 Admin_cbff, 'History and Mission' (Congo Basin Forest Fund 2011) <http://www.cbf-fund.org/en/node/64> accessed 20/02/14140 Erinosho, The revised African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources: Prospects for a comprehensive treaty for the management of Africa’s natural resources [2013] 21(3) AJICL 378-397, 381141 Thakur, Lagenhove, ‘Enhancing Global Governance through Regional Integration’, in CooperHughes, Lombaerde (eds), Regionalisation and Global Governance: The Taming of Globalisation?, (1st ed, Routledge, 2008) 17

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Furthermore, the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (2007) agreed to develop a mechanism to see money channelled to tropical forested countries to incentivise them to adopt practices that reduces deforestation and land degradation.142 It is estimated that cutting global deforestation by half could cost between $17-33 billion a year, which compares favourably with more expensive ways to cut greenhouse gas emissions.143 There is inevitably the necessity to ensure developing countries are compensated from loss of incomes they would receive. The basic assumption driving a REDD+ scheme is that forests need to be more valuable standing than felled.144 Standing forest may well be more valuable to forest inhabitants, but these stakeholders have little influence on decision making.145 Conversely, standing forest may be worth much less to forestry officials than when it is felled, since they can gain from the issue of timber permits.146 Given the weak institutions and associated poor governance, there are many adversities in developing a strong and equitable REDD+ policy. International assessments such as the Global Environmental Outlook,147 the Millennium Development Goals148 and the 4th Assessment Report on the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change indicate economic growth has to detach from negligible environmental practices primarily caused through forestry exploitation.149

When fully operational the REDD+ programme should see innovative, large-scale and long-term financial flows transferred to developing countries to prevent deforestation.150 The REDD+ scheme operates in 17 African countries, mostly around the Congo Basin, in attempting to combat deforestation.151 The Forest Carbon Partnership Facility (FCPF) supplements the UNFCCC by supporting the implementation of REDD+ activities in participating countries. The World Bank acts as a trustee and oversees two distinct funds: The Readiness Fund, created to support development of necessary policies and systems needed to implement REDD+ activities and the Carbon Fund, established to provide payments for verified emission reductions in countries making considerable progress in achieving REDD+ readiness.152 Serious apprehensions have arisen over fallacious distribution of funding from REDD+; the share to be gained by national and local government as opposed

142 Olawuyi, Achieving sustainable development in Africa through the clean development mechanism:legal and institutional issues considered [2009] 17(2) AJICL 270-301, 271143 Sajwaj, Todd. Eliasch Review: Forest Management Impacts on Ecosystem Services. (UNT Digital Library) <http://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc13685/> Accessed February 10, 2014.144 Toulmin, ‘Climate Change in Africa’ (1st ed, Zed Books Ltd, 2009) 83145 Erinosho, The revised African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources: Prospects for a comprehensive treaty for the management of Africa’s natural resources [2013] 21(3) AJICL 378-397, 381146 Toulmin, ‘Climate Change in Africa’ (1st ed, Zed Books Ltd, 2009) 83147 UNEP, Global Environmental Outlook 4: Environment for development [2007] Malta: Progress Press148 Millienium Ecosystem Assessment, Ecosystems and Human Well Being: Synthesis [2005] Washington D.C: Island Press 95-97149 Reisinger, Climate Change 2007: Synthesis Report Contribution on Working Groups I, II and III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel On Climate Change [2007] 150 Liu, The Cancun Agreements [2011] 13(1) EnvLR, 43-49, 46151 International Institute for Sustainable Development, REDD+ in Africa, <http://www.iisd.org/climate/land_use/redd/africa.aspx> Accessed 20 Feb 14152 Spratt, Researching forest taxation and REDD+ in sub-Saharan Africa: a concept note and call for research partners (2013) ICTD Report

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to local people.153 African governments are less likely to invest revenues on reforestation programmes, with the need to provide for rising populations.154 The functioning of any REDD+ scheme requires cohesion between stakeholders to address practical difficulties. The carbon stock in a given forest system needs to be estimated, but accurately assessing forest biomass is not straightforward.155 The rate of biomass production and therefore carbon sequestration are related to the speed of tree growth and density of trees, and these in turn are dependent on factors such as the tree species, local climatic conditions and how the trees are managed.156 There will be uneven benefits from REDD+ schemes across Africa, because tree growth, and therefore biomass production in relatively humid areas is much greater than arid areas.157 Recent research suggests that carbon sequestration element accounts for less than 30% of the total environmental gains associated with reduced deforestation. Hence, if the price of these other environmental services were to be factored into a payments mechanism, the value of standing forests would be considerably greater.

Conclusion

The project has established that deforestation amongst Sub-Saharan countries has become a globalised issue. Whether as providers for carbon services for addressing climate change, or for their raw materials, the forests of Africa have been recognised as rich areas for investment and preservation. However, the countries with the highest REDD+ potential in Africa have extremely weak governance, a massive factor into the unsustainable deforestation rates. A REDD+ payments mechanism has the potential to manifest sustainability by ensuring forests remain untouched. This can only be done through the collaboration of efforts from various stakeholders to the African forests. Reforestation can be promoted by clarifying and enforcing rights of access and use of the forests and finding the best methods to distribute the REDD+ payments amongst the stakeholders, avoiding corruption from government officials. Until this is combatted, deforestation will remain prevalent amongst African states and carbon financing will not generate sustainable forest management.

The African forests are pivotal to many livelihoods, yet indigenous people rarely have rights recognised by law to manage their own forest resources.158 With civil war outbreaks in some African states and the volatility in turbulent food prices, the citizens have held a reliance on the forest itself. The ‘plunder economy’ is evident today as an estimated 3-5 million people

153 Warren, The Convention on Biological Diversity: will the decisions made at COP10 inNagoya make it easier to conserve biodiversity?[2010] EnvLR. 12(4), 245-255, 255154 UNDP International Poverty Centre, How costly is it to achieve the Millenium Development Goal of halving Poverty between 1990 and 2015? [2006] Working Paper 19, page 17155 Williams, Neff, Scholes, Berry, Denning, Baker.’ Africa and the global carbon cycle review’ [2007] Carbon Balance and Management, 2(3) www.cbmjournal.com/content/2/1/3 156 Toulmin, ‘Climate Change in Africa’ (1st ed, Zed Books Ltd, 2009) 83157 Toulmin, ‘Climate Change in Africa’ (1st ed, Zed Books Ltd, 2009) 84158 Kempf, ‘How The Rich Are Destroying the Earth’ (1st, Green Books, 2008) 42

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were killed in the war in the DRC between 1998-2003.159 The exploitation of the forest to facilitate the civil war was substantial; led to rates of unsustainability. Furthermore, even when the protection of the country’s natural resources is embedded in the constitution, the lack of enforcement has led to abuse of these resources. A clear, coherent framework is required to unify the large amount of regional and international organisations currently operating in Sub-Saharan Africa. Although regional efforts are profound, their achievements are not comparable. International conventions have promoted the issue on a global scale, but the UNFCCC’s Kyoto Protocol and the International Tropical Timber Agreements have fallen short of expectations. They have failed to establish affirmative action; although they have significantly promoted curbing deforestation, they have not made substantial steps towards its prevention. It is conclusive the collaboration and culmination into a unified agency would have substantial long-term effects for reforestation in Sub-Saharan Africa.

80% of the wildlife contained in the Congo Basin is exclusive to the Basin, inferring the need for conservation of the forests. The irreplaceable value of these species implies that CARPE, AFF, COMIFAC and the CFB need to collaborate to effectively protect and preserve the existence of these species. Biodiversity is essential for sustainability in all forest regions and the economic benefits it can bring are vast. Deforestation rates are the highest ever recorded, but reforestation rates are also on the rise. Developing countries are implementing legislation and conventions, such as the ITTO, to prevent unsustainability and to ensure timber products are sourced legally. The EU, U.S and Australia’s recent legislation show the developed world requires transparency, penalising perpetrators attempting to import wood products.

There are still many technological issues in Africa concerning the ownership of the forests, but CARPE have attempted to establish satellite imaging to aid analysis of deforestation in a specific region. However, this requires involvement of all stakeholders to ensure the forests are effectively managed. It is difficult to quantify the extent of deforestation and the environmental detriment it is incurring, at the current rate there will be no trees in Africa by 2100.160 With rising population demands and climate change affecting agriculture, there is a necessity for affirmative action from all stakeholders to prevent and conserve the forests. It remains to be seen whether this currently global issue will be combatted effectively in the near future. Once deforestation rates become sustainable, African governments can invest in socio-economic policies to enhance livelihoods of the citizens. An era now follows whereby reforestation must become a primary agenda in Sub-Saharan Africa. Through agencies, conventions, legislation and stakeholder participation, reforms can be made to current forest exploitation. There forests have irreplaceable value, where the trees are relied on more than anywhere else on the planet, showing sustainability of Africa’s deforestation has become a globalised issue.

159 Carmody, ‘The new scramble for Africa’ (1st ed, Polity Press, 2011) 3160 Park, Tropical Rainforests (1st ed, Routledge, 1992) 5

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